bn to vwoJtal
Cncpclopaeuta 3Srttanntta
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
i
fHiwtcateD ixiitl) neartg sir ljunDceD Cngratoings.
VOL. XIX.
INDOCTI DISCANTJ AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.
EDINBURGH:
Printed at the Encyclopedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH:
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK.
1815.
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Scripture continued from laft Volume.
ss
Taremiah.
Scripture. TEREMIAH was called to the prophetic office in the
» ^ 13th year of the reign of Jofiah the fon of Amon,
A. M. 3376, A. C. 628, and continued to prophecy
upwards of 40 years, during the reigns of the degene¬
rate princes of Judah, to whom he boldly threatened
thofe marks of the divine vengeance which their rebelli¬
ous conduft drew on themfelves and their country. Af¬
ter the deftru&ion of Jerufalem by the Chaldeans, he
was fuffered by Nebuchadnezzar to remain in the defo¬
late land of Judea to lament the calamities of his infatu¬
ated countrymen. He was afterwards, as he himfelf in¬
forms us, carried with his difciple Baruch into Egypt,
by Johanan the fon of Kareah.
It appears from feveral paflages that Jeremiah com¬
mitted his prophecies to writing. In the 36th chapter
we are informed, that the prophet was commanded to
write upon a roll all the prophecies which he had ut¬
tered ; and when the roll was deftroyed by Jehoiakim
the king, Jeremiah di&ated the fame prophecies to Ba¬
ruch, who wrote them together with many additional
circumftances. The works of Jeremiah extend to the
laft verfe of the 51ft chapter ; in which we have thefe
words, “ Thus far the Words of Jeremiah.” The 52ft
chapter was therefore added by fome other writer. It
is, however, a very important fupplement, as it illuftrates
the accompliftiment of Jeremiah’s prophecies refpe£ling
the fate of Zedekiah.
The prophecies of Jeremiah are not arranged in the
chronological order in which they were delivered.
onus'wr'T ^^iat ^ias occa^oned this tranfpofition cannot now be
determined. It is generally maintained, that if we con-
fult their dates, they ought to be thus placed :
In the reign of Jofiah the firft t 2 chapters.
In the reign of Jehoiakim, chapters xiii. xx. xxi. v.
li, 14. ; xxft. xxiii. xxv. Xxvi. xxxv. xxxvi. xlv.—-xlix.
1—33-
In the reign of Zedekiah, chap. xxi. T—10. xxiv.
'Xxvii. xxxiv. xxxvii. xxxix. xlix. 34—39. 1. and li.
Under the government of Gedaliah, chapters xl. xliv.
The oropheeies which related to the Gentiles were con-
Vol. XIX. Part I.
Chronolo-
gi*al ar-
tings.
tained in the 46th and five following chapters, being Scripture,
placed at the end, as in fome meafure unconnefted with —~v——
the reft. But in fome copies of the Septuagint thefe fix
chanters follow immediately after the 13th verfe of the
25th chapter.
Jeremiah, though deficient neither in elegance nor
fublimity, muft give place in both to Ifaiah. Jerome
feems to objeft againft him a fort of rufticity of lan¬
guage, no veftige of which Dr Lowth was able to dif-
cover. His fentiments, it is true, are not always the
moft elevated, nor are his periods always neat and com-
pa& y but thefe are faults common to thofe writers whofe
principal aim is to excite the gentler affeftions, and to
call forth the tear of fympathy or forrow. This obfer-
vation is very ftrongly exemplified in the Lamentations!,
where thefe are the prevailing paffions j it is, however,
frequently inftanced in the prophecies of this author,
and moft of all in the beginning of the book (l), which
is chiefly poetical. The middle of it is almoft entirely
hiftorical. The latter part, again, confifting of the laft
fix chapters, is altogether poetical (m) ; it contains fe¬
veral different predictions, which are diftinCtly marked ,
and in thefe the prophet approaches very near the fubli¬
mity of Ifaiah. On the whole, however, not above half
the book of Jeremiah is poetical. 57
The book of Lamentations, as we are informed in The book
the title, was compofed by Jeremiah. We fhall prefent f,arnen'
to our reader an account of this elegiac poem from the
elegant pen of Dr Lowth.
TheC amentations of Jeremiah (for the title is pro¬
perly and fignificantly plural) confift of a number of
plaintive effufions, compofed on the plan of the funeral
dirges, all on the fame fubjeft, and uttered without
connection as they rofe in the mind, in a long courfe
of feparate ftanzas. Thefe have afterwards been put
together, and formed into a collection or correfpondent
whole. If any reader, however, fllould expeCt to find
in them an artificial and methodical arrangement of the
general fubjeCt, a regular difpofition of the parts, a per-
feCt connection and orderly fucceffion in the matter,
A and
(l.) See the whole of chap. ix. chap. xiv. 17, &c. xx. 14—18.
(m^i Chap. xlvi.—li. to ver. 59. Chap. Hi. properly belongs to the Lamentations, to which it ferves as an
exordium.
58.
How di¬
vided.
SCR [2
Scripture, and with all this an uninterrupted feries of elegance
 v anc{ correftnefs, he will really expeft what was foreign
to the prophet’s defign. In the charafter of a mourn¬
er, he celebrates in plaintive drains the obfequies of his
ruined country : whatever prefented itfelf to his mind
in the midft of defolation and mifery, whatever ftruck
him as particularly Avretched and calamitous, whatever
the inftant fentiment of forrow di&ated, he pours forth
in a kind of fpontaneous effufion. He frequently paufes,
and, as it were, ruminates upon the fame objeft j fre¬
quently varies and illuftrates the fame thought with
different imagery, and a different choice of language j
fo that the whole bears rather the appearance of an ac¬
cumulation of correfponding fentiments, than an accu¬
rate and connefted feries of different ideas, arranged in
the form of a regular treatife. There is, however, no
wild incoherency in the poem j the tranfitions are eafy
and elegant.
The work is divided into five parts : in the firfl, fe-
cond, and fourth chapters, the prophet addreffes the
people in his own' perfon, or introduces Jerufalem as
fpeaking. In the third chapter a chorus of the Jews
is reprefented. In the fifth the whole captive Jews
pour forth their united complaints to Almighty God.
Each of thefe five parts is diftributed into 22 ftanzas,
according to the number of the letters of the alphabet.
In the firft three chapters thefe flanzas confifl of three
lines. In the firft four chapters the initial letter of
each period follows the order of the alphabet *, and
in the third chapter each verfe of the fame ftanza be¬
gins with the fame letter. In the fourth chapter all
the ftanzas are evidently diftichs, as alfo in the fifth,
which is not acroftic. The intention of the acroftic
was to affift the memory to retain fentences not much
conne&ed. It deferves to be remarked, that the verfes
of the firft four chapters are longer by almoft one half
than Hebrew verfes generally are : The length of them
feems to be on an average about 12 fyllables. The
prophet appears to have chofen this meafure as being
folemn and melancholy.
“ That the fubjeft of the Lamentations is the deftruc-
tion of the holy city and temple, the overthrow of the
ftate, the extermination of the people •, and that thefe
events are deferibed as actually accomplilhed, and not
in the ftyle of prediction merely, muft be evident to
every reader •, though fome authors of confiderable re-
* amputation * have imagined this poem to have been com-
jferome, p0fed on the death of King Jofiah. The prophet, in¬
deed, has fo copioufiy, fo tenderly, and poetically,’ be¬
wailed the misfortunes of his country, that he feems
completely to have fulfilled the office and duty of a
mourner. In my opinion, there is not extant any poem
which difplays fueh a happy and fplendid feleCtion of
imagery in fo concentrated a ftate. What can be more
elegant and poetical, than the defeription of that once
fiourilhing city, lately chief among the nations, fitting
in the charafter of a female, folitary, afflifted, in a ftate
of widowhood, deferted by her friends, betrayed by her
deareft connexions, imploring relief, and feeking con-
folation in vain ? What a beautiful perfonification is that
of “ the ways of Sion mourning becaufe none are come
to her folemn feafts ?” How tender and pathetic are the
following complaints ?
Is this nothing to all you who pafs along the way ? be¬
hold and fee,
3
Lowth.
59
The fub-
jedt and
beauty of
it,
Ujjerius,
&c.
Chap, i,
it, 16,
] SCR
If there be any fon*ow, like unto my forrow, which is Scripture.
infliXed on me •, *[
Which Jehovah infliXed on me in the day of the vio¬
lence of his Avrath.
For thefe things I w'eep, my eyes ftream with water;
Becaufe the comforter is far away, that fhould tranqui-
lize my foul:
My children are defolate, becaufe the enemy Avas ftrong.
But to detail its beauties Avould be to tranferibe the en¬
tire poem.” tfo
Ezekiel was carried to Babylon as a captive, and re-Ezekiel,
celved the firft revelations from heaven, in the fifth year
of Jehoiakim’s captivity, A. C. 595. The book of
Ezekiel is fometimes diftributed under different heads.
In the three firft chapters the commiffion of the prophet
is deferibed. From the fourth to the thirty-fecond
chapter inclufive, the calamities that befel the enemies of
the Jew s are prediXed, viz. the Ammonites, the Moab¬
ites, and Philiftines. The ruin of Tyre and of Sidon,
and the fall of Egypt, are particularly foretold ; prophe¬
cies Avhich have been fulfilled in the moft literal and
aftoniftung manner, as aat have been often affured by
the relation of hiftorians and travellers. From the 32ft
chapter to the 40th he inveighs againft the hypocrify
and murmuring fpirit of his countrymen, admoniftiing
them to refignation by promifes of deliverance. In
the 38th and 39th chapters he undoubtedly pfediXs the
final return of the Joavs from their difperfion in the lat¬
ter days, but in a language fo obfciire that it cannot be
underftood till the event take place. The nine laft
chapters of this book furniffi the defeription of a very
remarkable vifion of a neAV temple and city, of a new
religion and polity. <jr
“ Ezekiel is much inferior to Jeremiah in elegance ; CharaXer
in fublimity he is not even excelled by Ifaiah : but hisas a writer,
fublimity is of a totally different kind. He is deep,
vehement, tragical j the only fenfation he affeXs to ex¬
cite is the terrible j his fentiments are elevated, fervid,
full of fire, indignant 5 his imagery is croAvded, magni¬
ficent, terrific, fometimes almoft to difguft : his lan¬
guage is pompous, folemn, auftere, rough, and at times
unpolithed : he employs frequent repetitions, not for
the fake of grace or elegance, but from the vehemence
of paffion and indignation. Whatever fubjeX he treats Lowlfc
of, that he feduloufly purfues, from that he rarely de¬
parts, but cleaves as it Avere to it •, whence the connec¬
tion is in general evident and Avell preferved. In many
refpeXs he is perhaps excelled by the other prophets ;
but in that fpecies of compofition to Avhich he feems
by nature adapted, the forcible, the impetuous, the
great and folemn, not one of the facred writers is fupe-
rior to him. His diXion is fufficiently perfpicuous 5 all
his obfeurity confifts in the nature of the fubjeX. Vi-
fions (as for inftanee, among others, thofe of Hofea,
Amos, and Jeremiah) are neceffarily dark and confufed.
The greater part of Ezekiel, toAvards the middle of the
book efpecially, is poetical, whether avc regard the mat¬
ter or the diXion. His periods, hoAvever, are frequent¬
ly fo rude and incompaX, that I am often at a lofs
how to pronounce concerning his performance in this-
refpeX.
“ Ifaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, as far as relates to
ftyle, may be faid to hold the fame rank among the He-
breAvs, as Homer, Simonides, and iEfchylus among the
Greeks.”
So
SCR [5
Scripture. So full an account of Daniel and Ida writings has
m~\i been already given under the article Daniel, that little
,6t remains to be faid on that fubjea. Daniel flourifhed
Darnel. during the fucceffive reigns of feveral Babylonilh and
Median kings to the conqueft of Babylon by Cyrus.
The events recorded in the 6th chapter were contempo¬
rary with Darius the Mede 5 but in the 7th and 8th
chapters Daniel returns to an earlier period, to relate the
vifions which he beheld in the three fir(t_ years of Bel-
fliazzar’s reign j and thofe which follow in the foui latt
chapters were revealed to him in the reign of Darius.
The laft fix chapters are compofed of prophecies delivered
at different times ; all of which are in fome degree con-
ne&ed as parts of one great fcheme. They extend
through many ages, and furnifh the moll linking deferip-
tion of the fall of fuccellive kingdoms, which were to be
introduftory to the eftablilhment of the Mefliah’s reign.
They chara&erize in deferiptive terms the four great
monarchies of the world, to be fucceeded by “ that king-
dom which Ihould not be deftroyed.”
Charadter The whole book of Daniel being no more than a
of his pro- piain relation of fadls, partly pall and partly future,
phecies. muf|. ^ excluded the elafs of poetical prophecy. _ Much
indeed of the parabolic imagery is introduced in that
book 5 but the author introduces it as a prophet only }
as vifionary and allegorical fymbols of objects and events,
totally untintlured with the true poetical colouring.
The Jews, indeed, would refufe to Daniel even the cha-
ra&er of a prophet: but the arguments under which
they Ihelter this opinion are very futile *, for thofe
points which they maintain concerning the conditions
on which the gift of prophecy is imparted, the differ¬
ent gradations, and the diferiminations between the true
prophecy and mere infpiration, are all trifling and ab-
furd, without any foundation in the nature of things,
and totally deftitute of fcriptural authority. They add,
that Daniel was neither originally educated in the pro¬
phetic difeipline and precepts, nor afterwards lived con¬
formably to the manner of the prophets. It is not,
however, eafy to comprehend how this can diminilh his
claim to a divine miflion and infpiration •, it may poflibly
enable us, indeed, to aflign a reafon for the diflimilarity
between the ftyle of Daniel and that of the other pro¬
phets, and for its poffefling fo little of the di£lion and
charafter of poetry, which the reft feem to have imbibed
in common from the fchools and difeipline in which they
64 were educated.
Their au- 'fhe prophecies of Daniel appear fo plain and intel-
\henticity. aft;er the;r accomplifhment, that Porphyry, who
wrote in the 3d century, affirms, that they were written
after the 'events to which they refer took place. A
little refledlion will ftiow the abfurdity of tins fuppo-
fition. Some of the prophecies of Daniel clearly refer to
Antiochus Epiphanes, with whofe oppreflions the Jews
were too well acquainted. Had the book of Daniel
not made its appearance till after the death of Epiphanes,
every Jew who read it mull have difeovered the forgery.
And what motive could induce them to receive it among
their facred books ? It is impoflible to conceive one.
Their character was quite the reverfe : their refpeft for
the Scripture had degenerated into fuperftition. But
we are not left to determine this important point from
the chara£ter of the Jew's •, we have accefs to more de-
eiftve evidence ; we are fure that the book of Daniel
contains prophecies, for fome of them have been accom-
] SCR
plifhed fince the time of Porphyry ; particularly thofe Scripture.,
refpe&ing Antichrift : now, if it contains any prophe- ' v
cies, who will take upon him to aftirm that the divine
Spirit, which di&ated thefe many centuries before they
were fulfilled, could not alfo have delivered prophecies
concerning Antiochus Epiphanes ?
The language in which the book of Daniel is com¬
pofed proves that it was written about the time of the
Babylonilh captivity. Part of it is pure Hebrew : a lan¬
guage in which none of the Jewilh books were compofed
after the age of Epiphanes. Thefe are arguments to a
deift. To a Chriftian the internal marks of the book
itfelf will ftiow the time in which it was written, and*Ezek xiv^
the teftimony of Ezekiel will prove Daniel to be at leaft I4 3‘
his contemporary *. . 65
The twelve minor prophets w ere fo called, not from Twelve
any fuppofed inferiority in their writings, but on ac-™™1^10*
count of the fmall fize of their works. Perhaps it wa/sp
for this reafon that the Jews joined them together, and
confidered them as one volume. Thefe 12 prophets
prefented in fcattered hints a lively fketch of many par¬
ticulars relative to the hiltory of Judah and of Ifrael, as Gray's Key
well as of other kingdoms •, they prophecy with hiftori-t0 the 0lli
cal exa&nefs the fate of Babylon, of Nineveh, of Tyre, eJ amiV '
of Sidon, and of Damafcus. The three laft prophets
efpecially illuftrate many circumftances at a period.when
the hiftorical pages of Scripture are clofed, and when pro¬
fane writers are entirely wanting. At firft the Jewifh
prophets appeared only as Angle lights, and followed
each other in individual fucceflion •, but they became
more numerous about the time of the captivity. J he
light of infpiration was collefted into one blaze, previous
to its fufpenfion •, and it ferved to keep alive the expec¬
tations of the Jews during the awful interval which pre¬
vailed between the expiration of prophecy and its grand
completion on the advent of Chrift.
Hofea has been fuppofed the moft ancient of the 12 ProPhec!es
mltfor prophets. He flouriftied in the reign of Jero-of Holea*
boam II. king of Ifrael, and during the fucceflive reigns
of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Ju¬
dah. He was therefore nearly contemporary with I-
faiah, Amos, and Jonah. The prophecies of Hofea be¬
ing fcattered through the book without date or con¬
nexion, cannot with any certainty be chronologically
arranged. 67
Hofea is the firft in order of the minor prophets, andCharader
is perhaps, Jonah excepted, the moft ancient of themc’f |heir
all. His ftyle exhibits the appearance of very remote •' ' '
antiquity ; it is pointed, energetic, and concife. It
bears a diftinguiftied mark of poetical compofition, in
that priiline brevity and condenfation which is obfer-
vable in the fentences, and which later writers have in
fome meafure negleXed. This peculiarity has not efca-
ped the obfervation of Jerome : “ He is altogether (fays
he, fpeaking of this prophet) laconic and fententious.’*
But this very circumftance, which anciently was fup¬
pofed no doubt to impart uncommon force and elegance,
in the prefect ruinous ftate of the Hebrew literature is
produXive of fo much obfeurity, that although the ge¬
neral fubjeX of this writer be fufficiently obvious, he is
the moft difficult and perplexed of all the prophets.
There is, however, another reafon for the obfeurity of
his ftyle : Hofea prophefied during the reigns of the
four kings of Judah, Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze¬
kiah. The duration of his miniftry, therefore, in what-
A 2 ever
/
Scripture.
53
Prophecies
of Joel,
Character
©f their
ftyle.
Lowth on
Hebrew
Poetry,
Se£t. ax.
SCR
ever manner we calculate, muft include a very confider-
able fpace of time. We have now only a fmall volume
of his remaining, which feems to contain his principal
prophecies 5 and thefe are extant in a continued feries,
with no marks of diftinftion as to the times in which
they were publilhed, or the fubjedls of which they treat.
There is, therefore, no caufe to wonder if, in perufing
the prophecies of Hofea, we fometimes find ourfelves in
a fimilar predicament with thofe who confulted the fcat-
tered leaves of the Sibyl.
As a fpecimen of Hofea’s ftyle, we feleft the follow¬
ing beautiful pathetic paffage :
How (hall I refign thee, O Ephraim !
How (hall I deliver thee up, O Ifrael !
.How (hall I refign thee as Admah !
How ihall I make thee as Zeboim !
My heart is changed within me j
I am warmed alfo with repentance towards thee.
I will not do according to the fervour of my wrath j
I will not return to deftroy Ephraim :
For I am God, and not man •,
Holy inthemidilof thee, though I inhabitnot thy cities.
Concerning the date of the prophecy of Joel there
are various conjectures. The book itfelf affords nothing
by which we can difcover when the author lived, or
upon what occafion it was written. Joel fpeaks of a
great famine, and of mifchiefs that happened in confe-
quence of an inundation of locufts ; but nothing can be
gathered from fuch general obfervations to enable us to
fix the period of his prophecy. St Jerome thinks (and
it is the general opinion) that Joel was contemporary
with Hofea. This is poffibly true j but the founda¬
tion on which the opinion refts is very precarious, viz.
That when there is no proof of the time in which a
prophet lived, we are to be guided in our conjeftures
refpefting it by that of the preceding prophet whofe
epoch is better known. As this rule is not infallible, it
therefore ought not to hinder us from adopting any
other opinion that comes recommended by good rea-
fons. Father Calmet places him under the reign of
Jofiah, at the fame time with Jeremiah, and thinks it
probable that the famine to which Joel alludes, is the
fame with that which Jeremiah predicted, ch. viii. 13.
The ftyle of Joel is effentially different from that of
Hofea; but the general charafter of his diflion, though
of a different kind, is not lefs poetical. He is elegant,
perfpicuous, copious, and fluent; he is alfo fublime, ani¬
mated, and energetic. In the firft and fecond chapters
he difplays the full force of the prophetic poetry, and
{hows how naturally it inclines to the ufe of metaphors
allegories, and comparifons. Nor is the connexion of
the matter lefs clear and evident than the complexion
of the ftyle : this is exemplified in the difplay of the
impending evils which gave rife to the prophecy ; the
exhortation to repentance ; the promifes of happinefs
and fuccels both terreftrial and eternal to thofe' w’ho be¬
come truly penitent; the reftoration of the Ifraelites ;
and the vengeance to be taken of their adverfaries. But
while we allow this juft commendation to his perfpi-
cuity both in language and arrangement, we muft not
deny that there is fometimes great obfcurity obfervable
in his fubjeft, and particularly in the latter part of the
prophecy.
a
SCR
The following prophecy of a plague of locufts is
fcribed with great fublimity of expreffion :
For a nation hath gone up on my land,
Who are ftrong, and without number :
They have deftroyed my vine, and have made my
tree a broken branch.
They have made it quite bare, and caft it away :
branches thereof are made white.
The field is laid wafte ; the ground mourneth *.
Amos was contemporary with Hofea. They both Prophecies
began to prophecy during the reigns of Uzziah over of Amos.
Judah, and of Jeroboam II. over Ifrael. Amos faw
his firft vifion two years before the earthquake, which
Zechariah informs us happened in the days of Uzziah.
See Amos.
Amos was a herdfman of Tekoa, a fmall town in the
territory of Judah, and a Igatherer of fycamore fruit.
In the fimplicity of former times, and in the happy cli.
mates of the Eaft, thefe were not confidered as diiho-
nourable occupations. He was no prophet (as he in¬
formed Amaziah-f), neither was he a prophet’s fon, } Amos viiV
that is, he had no regular education in the fchools of 14.
the prophets.
The prophecies of Amos confift of feveral diftinfl
difcourfes, which chiefly refpedt the kingdom of Ifrael ;
yet fometimes the prophet inveighs againft Judah, and
threatens the adjacent nations, the Syrians, Philiftines,
Tyrians, Edomites, Ammonites, and Moabites.
Jerome calls Amos “ rude in fpeech, but not in Their ftyle.
knowledge J applying to him what St Paul modeftly { Proem.
profeffes of himfelf §. “ Many (favs Dr LowTlh) have CommenU
followed the authority of Jerome in fpeaking of this
prophet, as if he were indeed quite rude, ineloquent, ^
and deftitute of all the cmbellifliments of compofition.
The matter is, however, far otherwife. Let any perfon
who has candour and perfpicacitv enough to judge, not
from the man but from his writings, open the volume
of his predi&ions, and he will, I think, agree with me,
that our (hepherd ‘ is not a whit behind the very chief
of the prophets ||.’ He will agree, that as in fublimity |, a ^ ^
and magnificence he is almoft equal to the greateft, fo
in fplendour of di&ion and elegance of expreflion he is
fcarcely inferior to any. The fame celeftial Spirit in¬
deed actuated Ifaiah and Daniel in the court and Amos
in the iheep-folds; conftantly fele&ing fuch interpreters
of the divine will as wrere beft adapted to the occafion,.
and fometimes ‘ from the mouth of babes and fucklings
perfefting praifeoccafionally employing the natural
eloquence of feme, and occafionally making others elo¬
quent.”
Mr Locke has obferved, that the comparifons of this
prophet are chiefly drawn from lions and other animals
with which he was moft accuftomed ; but the fineft
images and allufions are drawn from feenes of nature.
There are many beautiful paffages in the writings of A-*-
mos, of which we {hall prefent one fpecimen :
Wo to them that are at eafe in Zion,
And truft in the mountains of Samaria ;
Who are named chief of the nations,
To whom the houfe of Ifrael came :
Pafs ye unto Calneh and fee,
And from thence go to Hamath the Great;
C 4 1
fte- Sckpture.
fig-
the
* Joel i. 6,
7, 10, &.C.
Then.
SCR
Scripture. Then go down to Gath of the Philiftmes j
•' Are they better than thefe kingdoms ?
Or their borders greater than their borders ?
Ye that put far away the evil day,
And caufe the feat of violence to come near j
That lie upon beds of ivory,
And ftretch yourfelves upon couches j
That eat the lambs out of the flock,
And the calves out of the midft of the Hall j
That chant to the found of the viol,
And like David devife inftruments of mufic ;
That drink wine in bowls,
And anoint yourfelves with chief ointments ;
But are not grieved for the affliBion of Jofeph ||.
[ 5 1 SCR
Shall I give my firft-born for my tranfgreflion ?
The fruit of my body for the fin of my foul ?
He hath (bowed thee, O man, what is good :
And what doth Jehovah require of thee,
Eut to do juftice, and to love mercy,
And to be humble in walking with thy God ?
Scripture.
1| Ch. vi. i.
—6.
OfObadxah,
73
Of Jonah.
# i Kings
xiv. 25.
Matth. xii.
39. 41. xvi.
4-
Luke xi. *9.
74
Of Micah.
f Jer. xxv.
1=8—24.
t Jof- Ant.
lib. x. c. 7.
Micah iii.
12.
|| Matt. ii.
5. John vii.
42.
. 75
His ftyle.
The writings of Obadiah, which confift of one chap¬
ter are compofed with much beauty, and unfold a very
interefting fcene of prophecy. Of this prophet little
can be faid, as the fpecimen of his genius is fo (hort,
and the greater part of it included in one of the pro¬
phecies of Jeremiah. Compare Ob. I—9. with Jer.
xlix. 14, 15, 16. See Obadiah.
Though Jonah be placed the fixth in the order of
the minor prophets both in the Hebrew and Septua-
gint, he is generally confidered as the mod ancient of
all the prophets, not excepting Hofea. He lived in the
kingdom of Ifrael, and prophefied to the ten tribes un¬
der the reign of Joalh and Jeroboam. The book of
Jonah is chiefly hiftorical, and contains nothing of poe¬
try but the prayer of the prophet. The facred writers,
and our Lord himfelf, fpeak of Jonah as a prophet of
confiderable eminence *. See Jonah.
Micah began to prophefy foon after Ifaiah, Hofea,
Joel, and Amos j and he prophefied between A. M.
3246, when Jotham began to reign, and A. M. 3305,
when Hezekiah died, One of his predictions is laid f
to have faved the life of Jeremiah, who under the reign
of Jehoiakim would have been put to death for prophe-
fying the deftruCtion of the temple, had it not appeared
that Micah had foretold, the fame thing under Heze¬
kiah abov« 100 years before J. Micah is mentioned
as a prophet in the book of Jeremiah and in the New
Teftament ||. He is imitated by fucceeding prophets
(n), as he himfelf had borrowed expreflions from his
predeceflors (o). Our Saviour himfelf fpoke in the
language of this prophet (p).
The Ityle of Micah is for the moil part clofe, for¬
cible, pointed, and concife •, fometimes approaching the
obfcurity of Hofea 5 in many parts animated and fub-
lime ; and in general truly poetical. In his prophecies
there is an elegant poem, which Dr Lowth thinks is a
citation from the anfwer of Balaam to the king of the
Moabites :
Wherewith (hall I come before Jehovah ?
Wherewith (hall I bow myfelf unto the High God ?
Shall I come before him with burnt-offerings,
With calves of a year old ?
Will Jehovah be pleafed with thoufands of rams ?
With ten thoufands of rivers of oil ?
7*
Jofephus afferts, that Nahum lived in the time of Jo- Nahum,
tham king of Judah •, in which cafe he may be fuppofed
to have prophefied againfl: Nineveh when Tiglath-Pilefer
king of Ailyria carried captive the natives of Galilee
and other parts about A. M. 3264. It is, however,
probable, that his prophefies were delivered in the reign
of Hezekiah } for he appears to fpeak of the taking of
No-Ammon a city of Egypt, and of the infolent mef-
fengers of Sennacherib, as of things pad 5 and he like-
wife defcribes the people of Judah as Hill in their
own country, and defirous of celebrating their fefti-
vals.
While -Jerufalem was threatened by Sennacherib,
Nahum promiied deliverance to Hezekiah, and predict¬
ed that Judah would foon celebrate her folemn feails
fecure from invafion, as her enemy would no more di-
(lurb her peace. In the fecond and third chapters Na¬
hum foretels the downfal of the Afiyrian empire and the
final deftru£tion of Nineveh, which was probably ac-
compliflred by the Medes and Babylonians, whofe com¬
bined forces overpowered the Affyrians by furprife
“ while they were folden together as thorns, and while
they were drunken as drunkards,” when the gates of
the river were opened, the palace demolifhed, and an
“ over-running flood” aflifted the conquerors in their
devaftation j w ho took an endlefs (lore of fpoil of gold
and lilver, making an utter end of the place of Nineveh,
of that vail and populous city, whofe walls were 100
feet high, and fo broad that three chariots could pafs
abreaft. Yet fo completely was this celebrated city de-
(troyed, that even in the 2d century the fpot on which
it flood could not be afcertained, every veflige of it be-
ing gone.
It is impoflible to read of the exa6t accomplifhment
of the prophetic denunciations againfl: the enemies of
the Jews, without reflecting on the aftonifhing proofs
which that nation enjoyed of the divine origin of their
religion. From the Babylonifh captivity to the time
of Chrift they had numberlefs inllances of the fulfil¬
ment of their prophecies.
The character of Nahum as a writer is thus defcribed
by Dr Lowth : “ None of the minor prophets feem to
equal Nahum in boldnefs, ardour, and fublimity. His
prophecy, too, forms a regular and perfect poem ; the
exordium is not merely magnificent, it is truly majeftic j
the preparation for the deftruftion of Nineveh, and the
defcription of its downfal and defolation, are expreffed
in the mod vivid colours, and are bold and luminous in
the higheft degree.” ^
As the prophet Habakkuk makes no mention of the Of Habak»
Affyrians, and fpeaks of the Chaldean invafions as nearkuk.
at hand, he probably lived after the deftruilion of the
A (Tyrian
(n) Compare Zephan. iii. 19. with Micah iv. y. and Ezek. xxii. 27. with Micah iii. 11.
(o) Compare Micah iv. 1—3. and Ifaiah ii. 2—4. Micah iv. 13. with Ifaiah xli. 15.
(?) Compare Micah viii. 6. with Matt. x. 35, 36,
Scripture,
j| Heb. x.
J7- 38-
Kom. i. 17
Gal. iii. a.
Adis xiii.
41. com¬
pare witli
Hab. i. 5.
7s .
Prophecies
of Zepha-
niah.
SCR [
J AlTyrian empire in the fall of Nineveh, A. M. 3392,
and not long before the devaftation of Judea by Nebu¬
chadnezzar. Habakkuk was then nearly contempora¬
ry with Jeremiah, and predicted the fame events. A
general account of Habakkuk’s prophecies has already
been given under the word Habakkuk, which may be
confulted. We Qrould, however, farther obferve, that
the prayer in the third chapter is a moft beautiful and
perfedf ode, poflfefling all the fire of poetry and the pro¬
found reverence of religion.
God came from Teman,
And the Holy One from Mount Paran :
His glory covered the heavens,
And the earth was full of his praife.
His brightnefs was as the light;
Beams of glory iffued from his fide ;
And there was the hiding of his power.
Before him went the peftilence ;
And burning coals went forth at his feet.
Pie flood and meafured the earth j
He beheld and drove afijnder the nations j
I he everlafting mountains were fcattered j
The perpetual hills did bow.
The prophet illuftrates this fubjedfl throughout with
equal fublimity j fele&ing from fuch an aflemblage of
miraculous incidents the moft noble and important, dif-
playing them in the moft fplendid colours, and embel-
liftiing them with the fublimeft imagery, figures, and
didlion 5 the dignity of which is fo heightened and re¬
commended by the fuperior elegance of the conclufion,
that were it not for a few (hades which the hand of
time has apparently caft over it in two or three paflages,
no compofition of the kind would appear more elegant
or more perfeft than this poem.
Habakkuk is imitated by fucceeding prophets, and
his words are borrowed by the evangelical writers ||.
Zephaniah, who was contemporary with Jeremiah,
prophefied in the reign of Jofiah king of Judah 5 and
from the idolatry which he deferibes as prevailing at
that time, it is probable that his prophecies were deli¬
vered before the laft reformation made by that pious
prince A. M. 3381.
The account which Zephaniah and Jeremiah give of
the idolatries of their age is fo fimilar, that St Ifiodoce
aflerts, that Zephaniah abridged the deferiptions of Je¬
remiah. But it is more probable that the prophecies
of Zephaniah were written feme years before thofe of
his contemporary 5 for Jeremiah feems to.reprefent the
abufes as partly removed which Zephaniah deferibes as
flagrant and exceflive (q_).
In the firft chapter Zephaniah denounces the wrath
of God againft the idolaters who worfhipped Baal and
the hoft of heaven, and againft the violent and deceit¬
ful. In the fecond chapter the prophet threatens deftruc-
tion to the Philiftines, the Moabites, the Ammonites,
and Ethiopians ; and deferibes the fate of Nineveh in
emphatic terms : “ Flocks (hall lie down in the midft
of her 5 all the beads of the nations, both the cormo¬
rant and bittern, (hall lodge in her j their voice ftiall
fing in the windows ; defolation fliall be in the threfh-
6 ] SCR
olds.” In the third chapter the prophet inveighs Scripture,
againft the pollutions and oppreflions of the Jews j andv——*
concludes with the promife, “ That a remnant would
be faved, and that multiplied bleflings would be beftow-
ed upon the penitent.” The ftyle of Zephaniah is poe¬
tical, but is not diftinguifhed by any peculiar ele¬
gance or beauty, though generally animated-and im-
preflive.
J. m H Q
Plaggax, the tenth of the minor ’prophets, was the Of Haggai.
firft who flourifhed among the Jews after the Babylo-
nifh captivity. Fie began to prophefy in the fecond
year of Darius Hyftafpes, about 520 years before
Chrift.
The intention of the prophecy of Haggai was to en¬
courage the difpirited Jews to proceed with the build¬
ing of the temple. The only prediftion mentioned re¬
fers to the Meffiah, whom the prophet affures his coun¬
trymen would fill the new temple with glory. So well
was this prediction underftood by the Jews, that they
looked with earneft expectation for the Mefliah’s ap¬
pearing in this temple till it was deftroyed by the Ro¬
mans. But as the victorious Meffiah, whom they ex-
peCted, did not then appear, they have fince applied the
prophecy to a third temple, which they hope to fee
reardd in fome future period.
The ftyle of Haggai, in the opinion of Dr Lowth,
is profaic. Dr Newcome, on the contrary, thinks that a
great part of it is poetical. g0
Zechariah was undoubtedly a contemporary of Hag- Of Zeeha-
gai, and began to prophefy two months after him, inriah‘
the eighth month of the fecond year of Darius Hyf¬
tafpes, A. M. 3484, being commiffioned as well as
Haggai to exhort the Jews to proceed in the building
of the temple after the interruption which the work
had fuffered. We are informed by Ezra (vi. 14.), that
the Jews profpered through the prophefying of Zecha¬
riah and Haggai.
Zechariah begins with general exhortations to his
countrymen, exciting them to repent from the evil
ways of their fathers, whom the prophets had admo-
niffied in vain. He deferibes angels of the Lord inter¬
ceding for mercy on Jerufalem and the defolate cities of
Judah, which had experienced the indignation of the
Moft High for 70 years, while the neighbouring nations
were at peace. He declares, that the houfe of the
Lord fhould be built in Jerufalem, and that Zion fhould
be comforted. The prophet then reprefents the in-
creafe and profperity of the Jews under feveral typical
figures. He deferibes the eftabliftiment of the Jewifh
government and the coming of the Meffiah. He ad-
moniffies thofe who obferved folemn falls without due
contrition, to execute juftice, mercy, and compaffion,
every man to his brother ; not to opprefs the widow
nor the fatherlefs, the ftranger nor the poor. He pro-
mifes, that God would again ffiow favour to Jerufalem ;
that their mournful falls Ihould be turned into cheerful
feafts •, and that the church of the Lord ffiould be en¬
larged by the acceffion of many nations.
The 12th verfe of the nth chapter of this book,
which exhibits a prophetic defeription of fome circum-
ftances afterwards fulfilled in our Saviour, appears to
be
(Q.) Compare Zephaniah i. 4, 5, 9. with Jeremiah ii. 5, 20, 32.
. SCR [7
Scripture, be cited by St Matthew (xxvii. 9, 10.) as fpoken by
u”“v Jeremiah j and as the nth, 12th, and 13th chapters
have been thought to contain fome particulars more
fuitable to the age of Jeremiah than to chat of Zecha-
riah, fome learned writers are of opinion that they were
written by the former prophet, and have been from
limilarity of fubjeft joined by miftake to thofe of Zeeha-
riah. But others are of opinion that St Matthew might
allude to fome traditional prophecy of Jeremiah, or,
what is more probable, that the name of Jeremiah was
fubllituted by miftake in place of Zechariah.
The 12th, 13th, and 14th chapters contain prophe¬
cies which refer entirely to the Chriftian difpenfation j
the circumftances attending which he defcribes with a
clearnefs which indicated their near approach.
The ftyle of Zeehariah is fo fimilar to that of Jere¬
miah, that the Jews were accuftomed to remark that
the fpirit of Jeremiah had palfed into him. He is ge¬
nerally profaic till towards the conclufion of his work,
when he becomes more elevated and poetical. The
whole is beautifully connected by eafy tranfitions, and
prefent and future fcenes are blended with the greateft
81 delicacy.
Of Malachi. Malachi was the laft prophet that flourithed under the
Jewith difpenfation •, but neither the time in which he
lived, nor any particulars of his hiftory, can now be af-
certained. It is even uncertain whether the word Ma¬
lachi be a proper name, or denote, as the Septuagint
have rendered it, his angel (r), that is, “ the angel of
the Lord.” Origen fuppofed, that Malachi was an an¬
gel incarnate, and not a man. The ancient Hebrews,
the Chaldee paraphraft, and St Jerome, are of opinion
he was the fame perfon with Ezra : but if this was the
cafe, they ought to have affigned fome reafon for giving
two different names to the fame perfon.
As it appears from the concurring teflimony of all
the ancient Jewifh and Chriftian writers, that the light
of prophecy expired in Malachi, wTe may fuppofe that
the termination of bis minillry coincided with the ac-
complifliment of the firft feven. weeks of Daniel’s pro¬
phecy, which was the period appointed for fealing the
vifion and prophecy. This, according to Prideaux’s
account, took place in A. M. 3595 ", but, according to
the calculations of Bifhop Lloyd, to A. M. 3607, twelve
years later. Whatever reckoning we prefer, it muff
be allowed that Malachi completed the canon of the
Old Teftament about 400 years before the birth of
Chrift.
It appears certain that Malachi prophefied under
Nehemiah, and after Haggai and Zechariah, at a time
when great diforders reigned among the priefts and
people of Judah, which are reproved by Malachi. He
inveighs againft the prielts (i 6, &c. ii. I, 2, &c.) ;
he reproaches the people with having taken ftrange wrives
(ii. 11.) ; he reproves them for their inhumanity to¬
wards their brethren (ii. 10. iii. 5.) •, their too frequent¬
ly divorcing their wives ; their negleft of paying their
tithes and firft-fruits (Mai. iii. 13.). He feems to al¬
lude to the covenant that Nehemiah renewed with the
Lord (iii. 10. and ii. 4, 5, &c.), affifted by the priefts
and the chief of the nation. He fpeaks of the facrifice
] SCR
of the new law, and of the abolition of thofe of the old, Scripture. ^
in thefe words (i. 10, II, 12, 13.) : “ I have no plea-!
fure in you, faith the Lord of hofts, neither will I ac¬
cept an offering at your hand. For from the rifing of
the fun, even unto the going down of the fame, my
name ftiall be great among the Gentiles, and in every
place incenfe fhall be offered unto my name, and a pure
offering: for my name ftiall be great among the Hea¬
then, faith the Lord of hofts.” He declares that the
Lord was weary with the impiety of Ifrael; and affures
them, that the Lord whom tlqey fought fliould fuddenly
come to his temple preceded by the meffenger of the
covenant, who was to prepare his way ; that the Lord
when he appeared ftiould purify the fons of Levi from
their unrighteoufnefs, and refine them as metal from the
drofs; and that then the offering of Judah, the fpiritual
facrifice of the heart, Ihould be pleafant to the Lord.
The prophet, like one who was delivering a laft mef-
fage, denounces deftruftion againft the impenitent in
emphatic and alarming words. He encourages thofe
wTho feared the name of the Lord with the animating
promife, that the “ Sun of righteoufnefs ftiould arife
with falvation in his rays,” and render them triumphant
over the wicked. And now that prophecy was to ceafe,
and miracles were no more to be performed till the com¬
ing of the Meflxah •, now that the Jews were to be left
to the guidance of their own reafon, and the written in-
ftruftions of their prophets—Malachi exhorts them to
remember the law of Mofes, which the Lord had re¬
vealed from Horeb for the fake of all Ifrael. At length
he feals up the prophecies of the Old Teftament, by
predicting the commencement of the new difpenfation,
which ftiould be uftiered in by John the Baptift with the
power and fpirit of Elijah 5 who ftiould turn the hearts
of fathers and children to repentance 5 but if his admo¬
nitions ftiould be rejefted, that the Lord would fmite
the land with a curfe.
82
The collection of writings compofed after the afcen-Nsw Tes-
fion of Chrift, and acknowledged by his followers to be tament.
divine, is known in general by the name of xcttvy 83
This title, though neither given by divine command, Title,
nor applied to thefe -writings by the apoftles, was adopt¬
ed in a very early age, though the precife time of its in¬
troduction is uncertain, it being juftified by feveral paf-
fages in Scripture *, and warranted by the authority of * Matth.
St Paul in particular, who calls the facred books before xxvi-.?s-
the time of Chrift TretXcux dixfyxy-f-. Even long- beforeHa,*'
• • ^ TiCu. Vlll.
that period, either the whole of the Old Teftament, or s }x ‘
the five books of Mofes, were entitled /3i£a<«v duiOttxyis, 2o.
or book of the covenant J. fa Cor. iii.
As the word titxOqxYi admits of a two-fold interpreta- ^1 ^Iac‘1*
tion, we may tranllate this title either the New Cove-
nant or New Tejlament. The former tranfiation muft
be adopted, if refpeCt be had to the texts of Scripture,
from which the name is borrowed, fince thofe paffages
evidently convey the idea of a covenant \ and, befides
a being incapable of death can neither have made an
old nor make a new teftament. It is likewife probable,
that the earlieft Greek difciples, who made ufe of this
expreflion, had no other notion in view than that of co¬
venant..
(r) 'SKbo Malachi fignifies properly mij angel.
I
Scripture.
84
Importance
of the argu¬
ment from
the authen¬
ticity of the
books.
Michaclis's
Introduc¬
tion to the
New Tejla-
ment.
SCR f 8
venant. We, on the contrary, are accuftomed to give
this facred collection the name of Te/lament; and fince
it would be not only improper, but even abfurd,to fpeak
of the Teftament of God, we commonly underftand the
Teftament of Chrift j an explanation which removes but
half the difficulty, fince the new only, and not the old,
had Chrift for its teftator.
In ftating the evidence for the truth of Chriftianity,
there is nothing more worthy of confideration than the
authenticity of the books of the New Teftament. This
is^the foundation on which all other arguments reft j
and if it is folid, the Chriftian religion is fully eftablilh-
ed. The proofs for the authenticity of the New Tefta¬
ment have this peculiar advantage, that they are plain
and ftmple, and involve no metaphyfical fubtllties.—
Every man who can diftinguiffi truth from falfehood
muft fee their force ; and if there are any fo blinded by
prejudice, or corrupted by licentioufnefs, as to attempt
by fophiftry to elude them, their fophiftry will be eafily
deteCled by every man of common underftanding, who
has read the hiftorical evidence with candour and atten¬
tion. Inftead, therefore, of declaiming againft the in¬
fidel, we folicit his attention to this fubjeCt, convinced,
that where truth refides, it will ftiine with fo conftant
and clear a light, that the combined ingenuity of all the
deifts fince the beginning of the world will never be
able to extinguifti or to obfcure it. If the books of the
New Teftament are really genuine, oppofition will in¬
cite the Chriftian to bring forward the evidence j and
thus by the united efforts of the deift and the Chriftian,
the arguments will be ftated with all the clearnefs and
accuracy of which they are fufceptible in fo remarkable
a degree.
It is furprifing that the adverfaries of Chriftianity
have not always made their firft attacks in this quar¬
ter *, for if they admit that the writings of the New
Teftament are as ancient as we affirm, and compofed
by the perfons to whom they are afcribed, they muft
allow, if they reafon fairly, that the Chriftian religion
is true.
The apoftles frequently allude in their epiftles to the
gift of miracles, which they had communicated to the
Chriftian converts by the impofition of hands, in con¬
firmation of the dodlrine delivered in their fpeeches and
writings, and fometimes to miracles which they them-
felves had performed. Now if thefe epiftles are really
genuine, it is hardly poflible to deny thofe miracles to
be true. The cafe is here entirely different from that
of an hiftorian, who relates extraordinary events in the
courfe of his narrative, fince either credulity or an ac¬
tual intention to deceive may induce him to defcribe as
true a feries of falfehoods refpedting a foreign land or
diftant period. Even to the Evangelifts might an ad-
verfary of the Chriftian religion make this objeftion :
but to write to perfons with whom we ftand in the
neareft connection, “ I have not only performed mira¬
cles in your prefence, but have likewife communicated
to you the fame extraordinary endowments,” to write
in this manner, if nothing of the kind had ever hap¬
pened, would require fuch an incredible degree of
effrontery, that he who poffeffed it would not only
expofe himfelf to the utmoft ridicule, but by giving his
adverfaries the faireft opportunity to deteCt his impof-
ture, would ruin the caufe which he attempted to fup-
port.
] S € It
St Paul’s Firft Epiftle to the Theffalonians is addref- Scripture,
fed to a community o which he had preached the gof- '■“““V-
pel only three Sabbath days, when he was forced to
quit it by the perfecution of the populace. In this
epiftle he appeals to the miracles which he had per¬
formed, and to the gifts of the Holy Spirit which he
had communicated. Now, is it poflible, without for¬
feiting all pretenfions to common fenfe, that, in writing
to a community which he had lately eftablilhed, he could
fpeak of miracles performed, and gifts of the Holy
Ghoft communicated, if no member of the fociety had
feen the one, or received the other ?
To fuppofe that an impoftor could write to the con¬
verts or adverfaries of the new religion fuch epiftles as
thefe, with a degree of triumph over his opponents,
and yet maintain his authority, implies ignorance and
ftupidity hardly to be believed. Credulous as the Chri-
ftians have been in later ages, and even fo early as the
third century, no lefs fevere were they in their inqui¬
ries, and guarded againft deception, at the introdudlion
of Chriftianity. This charafter is given them even by
Lucian, a writer of the fecond century, who vented
his fatire not only -againfl; certain Chriftians *, who * m6rte
had fupplied Peregrinus with the means of fubfift- Peregrini,
ence, but alfo againft heathen oracles and pretended 5 I2>I3»I(’»
wonders. He relates of his impoftor (Pfeudomantis),^^^.^*'
that he attempted nothing fupernatural in the prefence p
of the Chriftians and Epicureans. This Pfeudomant^jS. 341.
qxclaims before the whole affembly, “ Away with the
Chriftians, away with the Epicureans, and let thofe on¬
ly remain who believe in the Deity !” (irirtvovns r«
©s») on which the populace took up ftones to drive
away the fufpicious; while the other philofophers, Py¬
thagoreans, Platonifls, and Stoics, as credulous friends
and protedtors of the caufe, were permitted to re¬
main f. | AIexan~
It is readily acknowledged, that the arguments*/ feu
drawn from the authenticity of the New Teftament
only eftablilh the truth of the miracles performed by
the apoftles, and are not applicable to the miracles of^-^ig
our Saviour; yet, if we admit the firtt three gofpels top. 232, 2330
be genuine, the truth of the Chriftian religion will be 244» *45’
proved from the prophecies of Jefus. For if thefe go¬
fpels were compoftd by Matthew, Mark, and Luke,
at the time in which all the primitive Chriftians affirm,
that is, previous to the deftrudlion of Jerufalem, they
muft be infpired ; for they contain a circumftantial pro¬
phecy of the deftrudlion of .Terufalem, and determine
the period at which it was accomplilhed. Now it was
impoffible that human fagacity could forefee that event;
for when it was predicted nothing was more impro¬
bable. The Jews were refolved to avoid an open re¬
bellion, Avell knowing the greatnefs of their danger, and
fubmitted to the oppreffions of their governors in the
hope of obtaining redrefs from the court of Rome.—-
The circumftance which gave birth to thefe misfortunes
is fo trifling in itfelf, that independent of its confe-
quences, it would not deferve to be recorded. In the
narrow entrance to a fynagogue in Caefarea, fume per-
fon had made an offering of birds merely with a view
to irritate the Jews. The infult excited their indig¬
nation, and oceafioned the fhedding of blood. With¬
out this trifl’ng accident, which no human wifdom
could foreff e even the day before it happened, it is pof-
fible that the prophecy of Jefus would never have been
r fulfilled.
.85
Their au¬
thenticity
proved.
SCR [9
'Scripture, fulfilled. But florus, tv ho was then procurator of Ju-
dea, converted this private quarrel into public hoftili-
ties, and compelled the Jewiih nation to rebel contrary
to its with and refolution, in order to avoid what the
.Tews had threatened, an impeachment before the Ro¬
man emperor for his exceffive cruelties. But even af¬
ter this rebellion had broken out, the deftruction of
the temple was a very improbable event. It was not
the pradice of the Romans to deftroy the magnificent
edifices of the nations which they fubdued •, and of all
the Roman generals, none was more unlikely to de-
molilh fo ancient and augult a building as Titus Vef-
pafian.
So important then is the queftion, Whether the books
of the New Teftament be genuine ? that the arguments
which prove their authenticity, prove alfo the truth of
the Chriftian religion. Let us now confider the evi¬
dence which proves the authenticity of the New Te¬
ftament.
We receive the books of the New Teftament as the
genuine works of Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and
Paul, for the fame reafon that we receive the writings
of Xenophon, of Polybius, of Plutarch, of Ctefar, and
of Livy. We have the uninterrupted teftimony of all
ages, and we have no reafon to fufpedt impolition.
This argument is much ftronger when applied to the
books of the New Teftament than when applied to any
other writings *, for they were addrefled to large focie-
ties, were often read in their prefence, and acknowr-
ledged by them to be the writings of the apoftles.—
Whereas, the moft eminent profane writings which ftill
remain were addrelfed only to individuals, or to no per-
fons at all : and we have no authority to affirm that
they were read in public 5 on the contrary, we know
that a liberal education was uncommon 5 books were
fcarce, and the knowledge of them was confined to a
few individuals in every nation.
The New Teftament was read over three quarters of
the world, Avhile profane writers were limited to one
nation or to one country. An uninterrupted fuccef-
ifion of writers from the apoftolic ages to the prefent time
quote the facred writings, or make allufions to them :
and thefe quotations and allufions are made not only by
friends but by enemies. This cannot be aflerted of even
the beft elaffic authors. And it is highly probable, that
the tranflations of the New Teftament were made fo
early as the fecond century •, and in a century or two
after, they became very numerous. After this period,
it was impoffible to forge new writings, or to corrupt
the facfed text, unlefs we can fuppofe that men of dif¬
ferent nations, of different fentiments and different lan¬
guages, and often exceedingly hoftile to one another,
fhould all agree in one forgery. This argument is fo
ftrong, that if we deny the authenticity of the New
Teftament, we may with a thoufand times more pro¬
priety rejeft all the other writings in the world : we
may even throw afide human teftimony itfelf. But as
this fubject is of great importance, we (hall confider it
at more length 5 and to enable our readers to judge with
the greater accuracy, we ftiall ftate, from the valuable
work of Michaelis, as tranflated by the judicious and
learned Mr Marffi, the reafons which may induce a cri¬
tic to fufpeft a work to be fpurious.
1. When doubts have been made from its fifft appear¬
ance in the world, whether it proceeded from the au-
Vol. XIX. Part I.
86
Negatively.
] . SCR
thor to whom it is afcribed. 2. When the immediate Scripturf
friends of the pretended author, who were abh to de- *"v
cide upon the fubjedt, have denied it to be his produc-re f< U'
tion. 3. When a long feries of years has elapfed af-that would
ter his death, in which the book was unknown, and in prove a
which it mult unavoidably have been mentioned and000^10'36
quoted, had it really exifted. 4. When the ftyle is dif-^Pu™us"
ferent from that of his other writings, or, in cafe no
other remain, different from that which might reafon-
ably be expedted. 5. When events are recorded which
happened later than the time of the pretended author.
6. When opinions are advanced which contradidf thofe
he is known to maintain in his other Writings Though
this latter argument alone leads to no pofitive con-
clufion, fince every man is liable to change his opi¬
nion, or through forgetfulnels to vary in the circum-
ftances of the fame relation, < f which Jolephus, in his
Antiquities and War of the Jews, affords a linking ex-
ample. _ gs
I. But it cannot be ftiown that any one doubted ofjyonot ap-
its authenticity in the period in which it firft appeared, ply to the
2. No ancient accounts are on record whence we may New Telti-
conclude it to be fpurious. 3. No confiderable periodmcnt'
elapfed after the death of the apoftles, in which die
New Teftament was unknown ; but, on the contrary, it
is mentioned by their very contemporaries, and the ac¬
counts of it in the fecond century are ftill more nume¬
rous. 4. No argument can be brought in its disfavour
from the nature of the ftyle, it being exadtly fuch as
might be expected from the apoftles, not Attic but
Jewifh Greek. 5. No fadls are recorded which hap¬
pened after their death. 6. No doctrines are main¬
tained which contradict the known tenets of the au¬
thors, fince, befide the New Teftament, no Writings of
the apoftles exift. But, to the honour of the New Te¬
ftament be it fpoken, it contains numerous contradic¬
tions to the tenets and doCtrines of the fathers in the fe-
cond and third century, whofe morality wasdifferent from
that of the gofpel, which recommends fortitude and
fubmiffion to unavoidable evils, but not that enthufiaftic
ardour for martyrdom for which thofe centuries are di-
ftinguiflied ; it alludes to ceremonies which in the fol¬
lowing ages were either in difufe or totally unknown :
all which circumftances infallibly demonftrate that the
New Teftament is not a produftion of either of thofe
centuries.
We {hall now confider the pofitive evidence for the p0{itively.
authenticity of the New Teftament. Thefe may be ar¬
ranged under the three following heads :
I. The impoffibility of a forgery, arifing from the
nature of the thing itfelf. 2. The ancient Chriftian,
Jewifh, and Heathen teftimony in its favour. 3. Its
own internal evidence. 90
1. The impoffibility of a forgery arifing from the na-Impoffibili-
ture of the thing itfelf is evident. It is impoffible to1}' a for"
eftabliffi forged writings as authentic in any place where 1
there are perfons ftrongly inclined and well qualified tonat|ire 0f
deteCl the fraud. Now the Jews were the moft violent the thing,
enemies of Chriftianity. 'They put the founder of it to
death j they' perfecuted his difeiples with implacable
fury 5 and they were anxious to ftifle the new religion
in its birth. If the writings of the New Teftament
had been forged, would not the Jews have detefted the
impofture ? Is there a fingle inftance on record where
a few ihdividuals have impofed a hiftory upon the world
B againft
91 .
From tefti-
mony.
SCR [ i.
Scripture, again ft the teftlmonv of a whole nation ? Would the
inhabitants of Paleiline have received the gofpels, if
they had not bad fufficient evidence that Jefus Chrift
really appeared among them, and performed the mira¬
cles afcribed to him ? Or would the churches of Rome
or of Corinth have acknowledged the epiftles addreffed
to them as the genuine works of Paul, if Paul had never
preached among them ? We might as well think to
prove, that the hiftory of the Reformation is the inven¬
tion of hiftorians j and that no revolution happened in
Great Britain during the laft century.
2. The fecond kind of evidence which we produce
to prove the authenticity of the New Teftament, is the
teftimony of ancient writers, Chriftians, Jews, and Hea¬
thens,
In reviewing the evidence of teftimony, it will not
be expected that we ftiould begin at the prefent age,
and trace backwards the authors who have written on
this fubjeft to the firft ages of Chriftianity. This in¬
deed, though a laborious talk, could be performed in
the moft complete manner 5 the whole feries of authors,
numerous in every age, who have quoted from the books
of the New Teftamentr written commentaries upon
them, tranllated them into different languages, or who
have drawn up a lift of them, could be exhibited fo as
to form fuch a perfeft body of evidence, that we imagine
even a jury of deifts would find it impoflible, upon a de¬
liberate and candid examination, to reject or dilbelieve
it. We do not, however, fuppofe that fcepticifm has
yet arrived at fo great a height as to render fuch a tedi¬
ous and circumftantial evidence neceffary. Palling over
the intermediate fpace, therefore, Ave lhall afcend at once
to the fourth century, when the evidence for the authen¬
ticity of the New Teftament was fully eftablilhed, and
trace it back from that period to the age of the apoftles.
We hope that this method of ftating the evidence will
]
SCR
appear more natural, and will afford more fatisfa£lion, Scripture,
than that which has been ufually adopted. ' "—v “
It is furely more natural, when we inveftigate the
truth of any fad which depends on a feries of teftimo¬
ny, to begin with thofe witneffes who lived neareft the
prefent age, and whofe charaders are beft eftablilhed.
In this Avay we lhall learn from themfelves the founda¬
tion of their belief, and the charaders of thofe from
whom they derived it; and thus we afcend till we ar¬
rive at its origin. This mode of inveftigation will
give more fatisfadion to the deift than the ufual way ;
and we believe no Chriftian, who is confident of the
goodnefs of his caufe, will be unwilling to grant any
proper conceflions. The deift will thus have an oppor¬
tunity of examining, feparately, what he will confider
as the weakeft parts of the evidence, thofe which are
exhibited by the earlieft Chriftian writers, confifting of
expreflions, and not quotations, taken from the New
Teftament. The Chriftian, on the other hand, ought
to wilh, that thefe apparently weak parts of the evi¬
dence were diftindly examined, for they will afford an
irrefragable proof that the New Teftament was not for¬
ged : and ftiould the deift rejed the evidence of thofe
early writers, it will be incumbent on him to account
for the origin of the Chriftian religion, which he will
find more difficult than to admit the common hypo-
thefis.
In the fourth century we could produce the teftimo-
nies of numerous witneffes to prove that the books of
the New Teftament exifted at that time ; but it will be
fufficient to mention their names, the time in which
they wrote, and the fubftance of their evidence. This
we ftiall prefent in a concife form in the following table,
which is taken from Jones’s New and Full Method of
eftabliffiing the canon of the New Teftament.
The names of the
Writers.
Times in
which they
lived.
The variation or agreement of their
catalogues with ours now received.
The books in which thefe catalogues
are.
I.
Athanafius biffiop of A-
lexandria.
II.
Cyril biffiop of Jerufa-
lem.
III.
The biffiops affembled
in the council of Lao-
dicea.
IV.
Epiphanius biffiop of Sa-
lamis in Cyprus.
V.
Gregory Nazianzen bi¬
ffiop of Conftantino-
ple.
A. C.
S'S-
34°-
364*
370.
37J-
The fame perfedly with ours now
received.
The fame with ours, only the Re¬
velation is omitted.
The Revelation is omitted.
The fame with ours now received.
Omits the Rev.elation.
Fragment. Fpijl. Tefal, tom. ii. in
Synopf. tom. i.
Catech. IV. § ult. p. 101.
Canon LIX.
N. B. The Canons of this council
were not long afterwards recei¬
ved into the body of the canons
of the univerfal church.
Hceref. 76. cont. Anom. p. 399.
Curm. de veris et genttin. Scriptur.
sen
SCR
[ n ]
Scripture.
The Names of the
Writers.
VI.
Philaftriusbifhop of Brix-
ia in Venice.
VII.
Jerome.
VIII.
Ruffin prefbyter of Aqui-
legium.
IX.
Auftin bifhop of Hippo
in Africa.
X.
The XLIV biffiops af-
fembled in the third
council of Carthage.
Times in
which they
lived.
380.
382.
39°-
394-
St Auftin
was pre-
fent at it.
The variation or agreement of their
catalogues with ours now received.
The fame with ours now received ;
except that he mentions only 13
of St Paul’s epiltles (omitting
very probably the Epitlle to the
Hebrews), and leaves out the
Revelation.
The fame with ours $ except that
he fpeaks dubioufly of the E-
piftle to the Hebrews; though
in other parts of his writings he
receives it as canonical.
It perfectly agrees with ours.
It perfe&ly agrees with ours.
It perfectly agrees with ours.
The books in which thefe catalogues
are.
Lib. de Hceref. Numb. 87.
Ep. ad Paulin. TraB. 6. p. 2. Alfo
commonly prefixed to the Latin
vulgar.
Expof. in Symb. Apojlol. § 36. int.
Ep. Hieron. Par. 1. TraB. 3.
p. no. et inter Op. Cypr. p. 575.
De DoBrin. Chrifl. lib. ii. c. 8. Tom.
Op. 3. p. 25.
Vid. Canon XLVII. et cap. ult. \
Scripture
Teftimo- We now go back to Eufebius, who wrote about the
nies of the year 315, and whofe catalogue of the books of the New
ancient Teftament we (hall mention at more length. “ Let us
n lans. 0^perve ^fayS |ie) the writings of the apoftle John,
which are uncontradiBed; and, firft of all, muft be men¬
tioned, as acknowledged of all, the gofpel, according
to him, well known to all the churches under heaven.”
Paley's E- The author then proceeds to relate the occafions of
evidences of writjng the gofpels, and the reafons for placing St John’s
y*- the laft, manifeftly fpeaking of all the four as equal in
y' their authority, and in the certainty of their original.
The fecond paffage is taken from a chapter, the title of
which is, “ Of the Scriptures univerfally acknowledged,
OfEufe- and of thofe that are not fuch.” Eufebius begins his
bias. enumeration in the following manner : “ In the firft
place, are to be ranked the facred four Gofpels, then the
book of the A&s of the Apoftles ; after that are to be
reckoned the epiftles of Paul: in the next place, that
called the firft Epiftle of John and the Epiftle of Peter
are to be efteemed authentic : after this is to be placed,
if it be thought fit, the Revelation of John j about which
we (hall obferve the different opinions at proper feafons.
Of the controverted, but yet well known or approved
by the moft, are that called the Epiftle of James and
that of Jude, the fecond of Peter, and the fecond and
third of John, whether they were written by the evan-
gelift or by another of the fame name.” He then pro¬
ceeds to reckon up five others, not in our canon, which
he calls in one place fpurious, in another controvert¬
ed; evidently meaning the fame thing by thefe two
words (s). 94
A. D. 290, Vi&orin bilhop of Pettaw in Germany, Of Vido-
in a commentary upon this text of the Revelation, r‘n*
“ The firft was like a lion, the fecond was like a calf,
the third like a man, and the fourth like a flying eagle,”
makes out, that by the four creatures are intended the
four gofpels j and to fhow the propriety of the fymbols,
he recites the fubjeft with which each evangelift opens
his hiftory. The explication is fanciful, but the tefti-
mony pofitive. He alfo exprefsly cites the A£ts of the
Apoftlts. p 95 .
A. D. 230, Cyprian bilhop of Carthage gives the Of Cypri-
following teftimony : “ The church (fays this father) an
is watered like Paradife by four rivers, that is, by four
gofpels.” The A£ls of the Apoftles are alfo frequently
quoted by Cyprian under that name, and under the
name of the Divine Scriptures.''' In his various wri¬
tings are fuch frequent and copious citations of Scrip¬
ture, as to place this part of the teftimony beyond.con-
troverfy. Nor is there, in the works of this eminent
African biftiop, one quotation of a fpurious or apocry¬
phal Chriftian writing.” p<f
A. D. 210, Origen is a moft important evidence. Of Origen.
Nothing can be more peremptory upon the fubjeft now
B 2 under
(s) That Eufebius could not intend, by the word renderedwhat we at prefent mean by it, is evident
from a claufe in this very chapter, where, fpeaking of the Gofpels of Peter and I homas, and Matthias and lome
others, he fays, “ They are not fo much as to be reckoned among Pas, fpurious^ but are to bo rejected as altogether
abfurd and impious,” Lard. Cred. vol. viii. p. 98.
Scripture.
97
Of Tertul-
lian.
SCR [i
under confideration, and, from a writer of his learning
and information, nothing more fatnfaelory, than the de¬
claration of Origen, preserved in an extract of his works
by Eufebius: “ 1 hat the four gofpels alone are received
without difpute by the vrhole church of God under
heaven : " to which declaration is immediately fubjoined
a brief hiltory of the refpeftive authors, to whom they
were then, as they are now, aferibed. The fentiments
exprelfed concerning the gofpels in all the works of
Origen which remain, entirely correfpond with the tefti-
mony here cited. His alteration to the Acfs of the
A pottles is no lefs pofitive : “ And Luke alfo once
more founds the trumpet relating the A£ts of the A-
pofiles.” I hat the feriptures'were then univerfally
read, is plainly affirmed by this writer in a paffage in
which he is repelling the objections of Celfus, “ That
it is not in private books, or fuch as are read by few
only, and thole ftudious ptrfons, but in books read by
every body, that it is written, The invifible things of
God from the creation of the world are clearly feen,
being underitood by things that are made.” It is to
no purpofe to fingle out quotations of Scripture from
fuch a writer as this. We might as well make a felec-
tion of the quotations of Scripture in Dr Clarke’s fer-
mons. .1 hey are fo thickly fown in the works of Origen,
that Dr Mill fays, “ if we had all his works remaining,
we lliould have before us almoft the whole text of the
Bible.”
A. D. 194, lertullian exhibits the number of the
gofpels then received, the names of the evangelifts, and
their proper defignations, in one ffiort fentence.—
“ Among the apoftles, John and Matthew teach us the
faith ; among apoftolical men, Luke and Mark refrefh
it.” The next paffage to be taken from Tertullian af¬
fords as complete an atteftation to the authenticity of the
gofpels as can be well imagined. After enumerating the
churches which had been founded by Paul at Corinth,
in Galatia, at Philippi, Pheffalonica, and Ephefus, the
church of Rome eftabliffied by Peter and Paul, and other
churches derived from John, he proceeds thus : “ Tfay
then, that with them, but not with them only which are
apoftolical, but with all who have fellowlhip with them
in the fame faith, is that gofpel of Luke received from
its fir ft publication, which we fo zealoufly maintain 4”
and prefently afterwards adds, “ The fame authority of
the apoftolical churches will lupport the other gofpels,
which we have, from them, and according to them, I
mean John’s and Matthew’s, although that likewife
which Mark published may be laid to be Peter’s, whofe
interpreter Mark was.” In another place Tertullian
affirms, that the three other gofpels, as well as St Luke’s,
were in the hands of the churches from the beginning.
Phis noble teftimony proves inconteftably the antiquity
ct the gofpels, and that they were univerfally received ;
that they were in the hands of all, and had been fo
from the firft. And this evidence appears not more
than 150 years after the publication of the books. Dr
Lardner obferves, “ that there are more and larger quo¬
tations of the fmall volume of the New Teftament in
this one Chnftian author, than there are of all the works
of Cicero, in writers of all chara&ers, for feveral ages.”
Ofirenseus. A. D. 178, Irenaeus was bilhop of Lyons, and is
mentioned by Tertullian, Eufebius, Jerome, and Pho-
tius. In his youth he had been a difciple of Polycarp,
98
2 ] SCR
n ho was a uilciple of John. He afferts of himfelf and Scripture,
his contemporaries, that they were able to reckon up in —v~—'
all the principal churches the fucceffion of billions to
their firft inftitution. His teftimony to the four gofpels
and Afts of the Apoftles is exprefs and pofitive. “ We
have not received,” fays Iremeus, “ the knowledge of
the way of our falvation by any others than thofe by
whom the gofpel has been brought to us. Which gof¬
pel they firft preached, and afterwards by the will of
God, committed to writing, that it might be for time
to come the foundation and pillar of our faith. For
after that our Lord rofe from the dead, and they (the
apoftles) were endowed from above with the power of
the Holy Ghoft coming down upon them, they received
a perfect knowledge of all things. They then went
forth to all the ends of the earth, declaring to men the
bleffing of heavenly peace, having all of them, and
every one alike, the gofpel of God. Matthew then,
among the Jews, wrote a gofpel in their own language,
while Peter and Paul were preaching the gofpel at
Rome, and founding a church there. And after their
exit, Mark alfo, the difciple and interpreter of Peter,
delivered to us in writing the things that had been
preached by Peter. And Luke, the companion of
Paul, put down in a book the gofpel preached by him
(Paul). Afterwards John, the difciple of the Lord,
who alfo leaned upon his breaft, likewife publifhed a
gofpel while he dwelt at Ephefus in Afia.” Irenseus
then relates how Matthew begins his gofpel, how Mark
begins and ends his, and gives the fuppofed reafons for
doing fo. . He enumerates at length all the paffages of
Chrift’s hiftory in Luke, which are not found in any of
the other evangelifts. He ftates the particular defign
Avith Avhich St John compofed his gofpel, and accounts
for the do&rinal declarations which precede the narra¬
tive. If any modern divine ftiould write a book upon
the genuinenefs of the gofpels, he could not affert it more
exprefsly, or ftate their original more diftimftly, than
Irenaeus hath done within little more than 100 years
after they Avere publiftied.
Refpefting the book of the Afts of the Apoftles, and
its author, the teftimony of Irenaeus is no lefs explicit.
Referring to the account of St Paul’s converfion and
vocation, in the ninth chapter of that book, “ Nor
can they (fays he, meaning the parties with Avhom he
argues) ftioAV that he is not to be credited, Avho has re¬
lated to us the truth Avith the greateft exaflnefs.” In
another place, he has afrually collefted the fevreral texts,
in Avhich the writer of the hiftory is reprefented as ac¬
companying St Paul, Avhich led him to exhibit a fum-
mary of almoft the whole of the laft twelve chapters of
the book.
According to Lardner, Irenaeus quotes tAvelve of
Paul’s epiftles, naming their author 5 alfo the firft
epiftle of Peter, the two firft epiftles of John, and the
Revelation. The epiftles of Paul Avhich he omits are
thofe addreffed to Philemon and the Hebrews. Eufe- '
bius fays, that he quotes the epiftle to the HebreAvs,
though he does not aferibe it to Paul. The Avork, Iioav-
ever, is loft.
A. D. 172, Tatian, Avho is fpoken of by Clemens0 99.
Alexandrinus, Origen, Eufebius, and Jerome, compofed U i3Ua!X
a harmony of the four gofpels, which he called Diate/Ja-
ron of the four. This title, as well as the Avork, is re¬
markable,
\
S C 11
[ 13 ]
SCR
# John
xvi. a.
TOO
Of Juitin
Martyr.
Scripture, markable, beeaufe it (hows that then as well as now
there were four, and only four, gofpels in general ule
among Chriftians.
A. D. 170, the churches of Lyons and Vienne in
France fent an account of the fufferings of their martyrs
to the churches of Aha and Phrygia, which has. been
preferved entire by Eufebius. And what carries ,in
ibme meafure the teftimony of thefe churches to a
higher age is, that they had now for their biihop Po-
thinus, who was 90 years old, and whofe early life con-
fequently muft have immediately followed the times of
the a pottles. In this epiftle are exa£t references to the
gofpels of Luke and John, and to the Aots of the
A potties. The form of reference is the fame as in all
the preceding articles. That from St John is in thefe
words : “ Then was fulfilled that which was fpoken by
the Lord, that ivhofoever killeth you, will think that
he doth God fervice
Diftindt references are alfo made to other books, viz.
Atts, Romans, Ephetians, Philippians, 1 Timothy,
1 Peter, 1 John, Revelation.
A. D. 140, Juttin Martyr compofed feveral. books,
which are mentioned by his difciple Tatian, by Tertul-
lian, Methodius, Eufebius, Jerome, Epiphanius, and
Photius. In his writings between 20 and 30 quota¬
tions from the gofpels and A£ls of the ApoltleS are rec¬
koned up, which are clear, diftimR;, and copious 5 if each
verfe be counted feparately, a much greater number ; if
each expreflion, Hill more. Jones, in his book on the
Canon of the New Teftament, ventures to affirm that
he cites the books of which it confifts, particularly the
four gofpels, above 200 times.
We meet with quotations of three of the gofpels
within the compafs of half a page ; “ and in other
words, he fays, Depart from me into outer darknefs,
which the Father hath prepared for Satan and his An¬
gels,” (which is from Matthew xxv. 41.). “ And again
he faid in other words, I give unto you power to tread,
upon ferpents and fcorpions, and venomous beads, and
upon all the power of the enemy.” (This from Luke
x. tg.). “ And, before he was crucified, he faid, The
-fon of man muft fuffer many things, and be reje&ed.of
the Scribes and Pharifees, and be crucified, and rife
again the third day.” (This from Mark viii. 31.).
All the references in Juftin are made without men¬
tioning the author 5 -which proves that thefe books were
perfedtly well known, and that there were no other ac¬
counts of Chrift then extant, or, at lead, no others fo
received and credited as to make it neceflary to add any
marks of diftindlion. But although Juftin mentions not
the authors names, he calls the books Memoirs compofed
bi/ the Apofles: Memoirs compofed bp the ApofJes and
their Companions ; which defcriptions, the latter efpe-
eially, exaftly fuit the titles which the Gofpels and
A&s of the Apoftles now bear.
He informs us, in his firft apology, that the Memoirs
of the Apofles ^ or the writings of the prophets, are read
according as the time allows *, and, when the reader has
ended, the prefident makes a difcourfe, exhorting to the
imitation of fuch excellent things.
A few ftiort obfervations will ffiow the value of this
teftimony. 1. The Memoirs-of the Apoftles, Juftin in
another place exprefsly tells us are what are called gof¬
pels. And that they were the gofpels which we now
5
ufe is made certain by Juft in’s numerous quotations of Scripture^
them, and his iilence about any others. 2. He de- v
fcribes the general ufage of the Chriftian church. 3,
He does not fpeak of it as recent or newly inftituted,
but in the terms in which men fpeak of eftabliffied
cuftoms.
Juftin alfo makes fuch allufions to the following books
as {hews that he had read them : Romans, 1 Corinthians,
Galatians, Ephefians, Philippians, Coloflians, 2 I heffa-
lonians, Hebrews, 2 Peter j and he afcribes the Revela¬
tion to John the Apoftle of Chrift. . r>fp0t'
A. D. 1x6, Papias, a hearer of John, and companion ot
of Polycarp, as Irenmus attefts, and of the apoftolical
age as all agree, in a paflage quoted by Eufebius, from
a w'ork now loft, exprefsly afcribes the two firft gofpels
to Matthew and Mark ; and in a manner which proves
that thefe gofpels muft have publicly borne the names
of thefe authors at that time, and probably long before \
for Papias does not fay, that one gofpel was written by
Matthew, and another by Mark ; but, affuming this as
perfectly well known, he tells us from what materials
Mark collected his account, viz. from Peter’s preaching,
and in what language Matthew wrote, viz. in Hebrew.
Whether Papias was well informed in this ftatement or
not, to the point for which this teftimony is produced,
namely, that thefe books bore thefe names at this time,
his authority is complete.
Papias hknfelf declares that he received his accounts
of Chriftianity from thofe -who were acquainted with the
apoftles, and that thofe accounts which he thus received
from the older Chriftians, and had committed to memory, * Pr/efat*
he inferted in his books. He farther adds, that he was Op. ~
very felicitous to obtain every poflible information, efpe-
cially to learn what the apoftles faid and preached, v^* 2?^/. lib.iiL
luing fuch information more than what was written inc. 35.
books*". nfp°i?
A. D. 108, Polycarp was the biihop of Smyrna, and
difciple of John the Apoftle. This teftimony concern- ^
ing Polycarp is given by Irenseus, who in his youth had
feen him. “ I can tell the place,” faith Irenaeus,.“ in
which the bleffed Polycarp fat and taught, and his go¬
ing out and coming in, and the manner of his life, and
the form of his perfon, and the difeourfes he made to
the people, and how he related bis converfation with
John and others who had feen the Lord, and how he
related their fayings, and what he had heard concern¬
ing the Lord, both concerning his miracles and his doc¬
trine, as he had received them from the eye-witneffes pf
the word of life ; all which Polycarp related agreeable
to the feriptures.”
Of Polycarp, whofe proximity to the age, and country
and perfons of the apoftles is thus attefted, we have one
undoubted epiftle remaining ; which, though a fiiort
performance, contains nearly 40 clear allufions to the
books of the New Teftament. This is ftrong evidence
of the refpeft which was paid to them by Chriftians of
that age. Amongft thefe, although the writings of St
Paul are more frequently ufed by Polycarp than other
parts of feripture, there are copious allufions to the gof¬
pel of St Matthew, fome to paflages found in the gofpels
both of Matthew and Luke, and fome which more
nearly referable the words in Luke.
He thus fixes the authority of the Lord’s Prayer, and
the ufe of it among Chriftians, If, therefore, we pray
th<j
Scripture.
* Mat-
viii. i. i. 2.
v.7.
103
Of Igna¬
tius.
104
Of Her-
SCR [1
the Lord io forgive us, we ought alfo to forgive. And
again, With Application befeeching the all-feeing God
not to lead us into temptation.
In another place, he quotes the words of our Lord:
“ But remembering what the Lord faid, teaching,
Judge not, that ye be not judged. Forgive, and ye
lhall be forgiven ; be yc merciful, that ye may obtain
mercy j with what meafure ye mete, it {hall be meafured
to you again Suppofing Polycarp to have had thefe
words from the books in which we now find them, it
is manifeft that thefe books were confidered by him,
and by his readers, as he thought, as authentic accounts
of Chrift’sdifcourfes j and that this point was inconteft-
able.
He quotes alfo the following books, the firft of which
lie aferibes to St Paul: 1 Corinthians, Ephefians, Phi-
lippians, 1 and 2 Theffalonians j and makes evident re¬
ferences to others, particularly to A6ls, Romans, 2 Co¬
rinthians, Galatians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, 1 Peter,
I John.
Ignatius, as it is teftified by ancient Chriftian -writers,
became bifliop of Antioch about 37 years after Chrift’s
afeenfion j and therefore, from his time, and place, and
Ration, it is probable that he had known and converfed
■with many of the apoftles. Epiftles of Ignatius are re¬
ferred to by Polycarp his contemporary. Paflages,
found in the epiitles now extant under his name, are
quoted by Irenaeus, A. D. 178, by Origen, A. D.
230 ; and the occafion of writing them is fully ex¬
plained by Eufebius and Jerome. What are called the
fmaller epiftles of Ignatius are generally reckoned the
fame which were read by Irenaeus, Origen, and Eufe¬
bius.
They are admitted as genuine by Voflius, and have
been proved to be fo by Biftiop Pearfon with a force of
argument which feems to admit of no reply. Jn thefe
epiftles are undoubted allufions to Matt. iii. 15. xi. 16.
to John iii. 8 ; and their venerable author, who often
fpeaks of St Paul in terms of the higheft refpedl, once
quotes his epiftle to the Ephefians by name.
Near the conclufion of the epiftle to the Romans,
St Paul, amongft others, fends the following falutation:
—“ Salute Afyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobus,
Hermes, and the brethren which are with them.” Of
Hermas, who appears in this catalogue of Roman Chri-
ftians as contemporary with St Paul, there is a book
Hill remaining, the authenticity of which cannot be
difputed. It is called the Shepherd, or Pafor of Her*
mas. Its antiquity is inconteftable, from the quotations
of it in Ireneeus, A. D. 178, Clement of Alexandria,
A. D. 194, Tertullian, A. D. 200, Origen, A. H.
230. The notes of time extant in the epiftle itfelf agree
with its title, and with the teftimonies concerning it,
which intimate that it was written during the lifetime
of Clement. In this piece are tacit allufions to St
Matthew’s, St Luke’s, and St John’s gofpels j that is
to fay, there are applications of thoughts and expref-
4 ] SCR
lions found in thefe gofpels, without citing the place or Scripture,
writer irom which they were taken. In this form ap-v——'
pear in Hermas the confeffing and denying of Chrilif ; f Matt. x.
the parable of the feed fown J ; the comparifion of32>33> ?r
Chrift’s difciples to little children j the faying, “ he Lllke xih
that putteth away his wife, and marrieth another, com- t’Matt
mitteth adultery § j” the Angular expreflion, “ having xui. 3, or
received all power from his Father,” is probably an allu- Luke viii.
fion to Matt, xxviii. 18. and Chrift being the “ gate,”5-
or only way of coming “ to God,” is a plain allufion to ^Luke xvir
John xiv. 6. x. 7. 9. There is alfo a probable allufion
to A<fts v. 32.
The Shepherd of Hermas has been confidered as a
fanciful performance. This, however, is of no import¬
ance in the prefent cafe. We only adduce it as evidence
that the books to which it frequently alludes exifted in
the firft century 5 and for this purpofe it is fatisfaftory,
as its authenticity has never been queftioned. However
abfurd opinions a man may entertain, while he retains
his underftanding his teftimony to a matter of fa£t will
ftill be received in any court of juftice.
A. D. 96, we are in poffefiion of an epiftle written Of Clemenj
by Clement biftiop of Rome, whom ancient writers, with- Komanus.
out any fcruple, affert to have been the Clement whom
St Paul mentions Philippians iv. 3. “ with Clement al¬
fo, and other my fellow labourers, whofe names are in
the book of life.” This epiftle is fpoken of by the an¬
cients as an epiftle acknowledged by all ; and, as Ire¬
naeus well reprefents its value, “written by Clement, who
had feen the bleffed apoftles and converfed with them,
who had the preaching of the apoftles ftill founding in
his ears, and their traditions before his eyes.” It is ad-
drelfed to the church of Corinth $ and what alone may
feem a decifive proof of its authenticity, Dionylius bi¬
ftiop of Corinth, about the year 170, i. e. about 80 or
90 years after the epiftle was written, bears witnefs,
“ that it had been ufually read in that church from an¬
cient times.” This epiftle affords, amongft others, the
following valuable paffages : “ Efpecially remembering
the words of the Lord Jefus, which he fpake, teaching
gentlenefs and long fuffering j for thus he faid (t), Be
ye merciful, that ye may obtain mercy j forgive, that it
may be forgiven unto you j as you do, fo (hall it be done
unto you j as you give, fo (hall it be given unto you }
as ye judge, fo ftiall ye be judged $ as ye (hew kindnefs,
fo (hall kindnefs be {hewn unto you j with what meafure
ye mete, with the fame it ftiallbe meafured to you. By
this command, and by thefe rules, let us eftablifti our- -
felves, that we may always walk obediently to his holy
words.”
Again, “ Remember the words of the Lord Jefus, for
he faid, Wo to that man by whom offences come 5 it
were better for him that he had not been born, than
that he fliould offend one of my ele£t 5 it were better
for him that a millftone ftiould be tied about his neck,
and that he ftiould be drowned in the fea, than that he
ftiould offend one of my little ones (u).”
He
(t) “ Bleffed are the merciful, for they ftiall obtain mercy,” Matt. v. 7* 44 Forgive, and ye ftiall be forgiven £
give, and it ftiall be given unto you,” Luke vi. 37, 38. “ Judge not, that ye be not judged; for with what judge¬
ment ye judge, ye (hall be judged, and with what meafure ye mete, it (hall be meafured to you again,” Matt. vii. 2.
(u) Matt, xviii. 6. “ But whofo ftiall offend one of thefe little ones which believe in me, it were better for him
that a millftone were hanged about his neck, and that he were caft into the fea.” The latter part of the paffage
1 in
8?.
sen [i
Scripture. He aferibes tbe firft epiftle to the Corinthians to Paul,
*—' and makes fuch allufions to the following books as are
fufficient to Ihew that he had feen and read them: A&s,
Romans, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephefians, Philip-
pians, Coloflians, i Theffalonians, I Timothy, 2 Timo¬
thy, Titus, i Peter, 2 Peter.
It may be faid, as Clement has not mentioned the
books by name from which we affert thefe allufions or
references are made, it is uncertain whether he refers to
any books, or whether he received thefe expreffions from
the difeourfes and converfation of the apoftles. Mr
Paley has given a very fatisfaclory anfwer to this objec¬
tion: ift, That Clement, in the very fame manner,
namely, without any mark of reference, ufes a paffage
* Chap. i. now f°uncl in epiftle to the Romans * ; which paf¬
fage, from the peculiarity of the words that compofe it,
and from their order, it is manifeft that he muft have
taken from the epiftle. The fame remark may be ap¬
plied to fome very Angular fentiments in the epiftle to
the Hebrews. Secondly, That there are many fentences
of St Paul’s firft epiftle to the Corinthians, to be found
in Clement’s epiftle, without any fign of quotation, which
yet certainly are quotations; becaufe it appears that
Clement had St Paul’s epiftle before him j for in one
place he mentions it in terms too exprefs to leave us in
any doubt. “ Take into your hands the epiftle of the
bleffed apoftle Paul.” Thirdly, That this method of
adopting words of feripture, without reference or ac¬
knowledgement, was a method in general ufe amongft
the moft ancient Chriftian writers. Thefe analogies
not only repel the ob]eftion, but caft the prefumption
on the other fide ; and afford a confiderable degree of
pofitive proof, that the words in queftion have been
borrowed from the places of feripture in which we now
find them. But take it, if you will, the other way, that
Clement had heard thefe words from the apoftles or firft
teachers of Chriftianity, with refpeft to the precife
point of our argument, viz. that the feriptures contain
what the apoftles taught, this fuppofition may ferve al-
moft as well.
We have now traced the evidence to the times of the
apoftles j but we have not been anxious to draw it out
to a great length, by introducing every thing. On the
contrary, we have been careful to render it as concife
as poflible, that its force might be difeerned at a glance.
The evidence which has been ftated is of two kinds.
Till the time of Juftin Martyr and Irenaeus it confifts
chiefly of allufions, references, and expreflions, borrow¬
ed from the books of the New Teftament, without men¬
tioning them by name. After the time of Irenaeus it
became ufual to cite the facred books, and mention the
authors from whom the citations were taken.
The firft fpecies of evidence will perhaps appear to
fome exceptionable ; but it muft be remembered that
it was ufual among the ancient Chriftians as well as
t NeW Jews to adopt the expreflions of Scripture without nam-
bythefatf ing the authors. Why they did fo it is not neceffary
Chriftian to inquire. The only point of importance to be deter-
writers mined is, whether thofe references are a fufficient proof
prove that
it exifted
in their
time. ——    1  
lo6
The allu-
iions and
references
5 ] SCR
of the exiftence of the books to which they allude ? Scripture.
This, we prefume, will not be denied } efpecially in the *
prefent age, when it is fo common to charge an author
with plagiarifm if he happen to fall upon the fame train
of ideas, or exprefs himfelf in a fimilar manner with au¬
thors who have written before him. We may farther
affirm, that thefe tacit references afford a complete proof
that thofe ancient writers had no intention of impofing
a forgery upon the world. They prove the exiftence
of the Chriftian religion and of the apoftolical writings,
without (howing any fufpicious earneftnefs that men
ftiould believe them. Had thefe books been forged,
thofe who wiftied to pafs them upon the world would
have been at more pains than the firft Chriftians were
to prove their authenticity. They a£led the part of
honeft men; they believed them themfelves, and they
never imagined that others would fufpedt their truth.
It is a confideration of great importance, in review¬
ing the evidence which has been now ftated, that the
witneffes lived in different countries; Clemens flourifh-
ed at Rome, Polycarp at Smyrna, Juftin Martyr in Sy¬
ria, Ireraeus in France, Tertullian at Carthage, Origen
at Alexandria, and Eufebius at Csefarea. This proves
that the books of the New Teftament were equally well
known in diftant countries by men who had no inter-
courfe with one another. io^
The fame thing is proved by teftimonies if poflible Teftimo-
lefs exceptionable. The ancient heretics, whofe opi-nies of He-
nions were fometimes groffer and more impious thanretics* ^
thofe which any modern fectary has ventured to broach,
and whofe zeal in the propagation of them equalled that
of the moft flaming enthufiaft of the laft century, never
called in queftion the authenticity of the books of the
New Teftament. When they met with any paffage in
the gofpels or epiftles which they could not reconcile
to their own heretical notions, they either erafed it, or
denied that the author was infpired but they nowhere
contend that the book in which it flood was not writ¬
ten by the apoftle or evangelift whofe name it bore.
Eufebius relates, that the Ebionites reje&ed all the
epiftles of Paul, and called him an apoftate, becaufe he
departed from the Levitical law ; and they adopted as
their rule of faith the gofpel of St Matthew, though in¬
deed they greatly corrupted it. This proves therefore
that the gofpel according to Matthew was then publifti-
ed, and that St Paul’s epiftles were then known.
Of the heretics who erafed or altered paffages to
make the Scriptures agree with their doftrines, we may
produce Marcion as an inftance, who lived in the be¬
ginning of the fecond century. He lived in an age
when he could have eafily difeovered if the writings of
the New Teftament had been forged ; and as he was
much incenfed againft the orthodox party, if fuch a for¬
gery had been committed, unqueftionably he would not
have failed to make the difeovery, as it would have af¬
forded the moft ample means of revenge and triumph,
and enabled him to eftablilh his own opinions with lefs
difficulty. But his whole conduft {hows clearly, that
he believed the writings of the New Teftament to be
authentic.,
in Clement agrees more exa&ly with Luke xvii. 2. “ It were better for him that a millftone were hanged about-
his neck, and he caft into the fea, than that he fhould offend one of thefe little ones.”
SCR [ i
,Scripture, authenllc. He faid, that the gofpel according to St
^ Matthew, the epiitle to the Hebrews, with thofe of St
Peter and St James, as well as the Old Teflament in ge¬
neral, were writings not for Chriilians but for Jews.
He publilhed a-new edition of the gofpel according to
Luke, and the firft ten epiitles of Paul; in which it has
been affirmed by Epiphanius, that he altered every paf-
fage that contradicted his own opinions: but as many
ot thefe alterations are what modern critics call various
readings, though we receive the teftimony of Epipha¬
nius, we mult not rely upon his opinion (x). Hence it
is evident that the books ot the New Teftament above
mentioned did then exiil, and were acknowledged to be
the works of the authors whofe names they bear.
Hr Lardner in his General Review, fums up this
head of evidence in the following words : “ Noetus,
Paul of Samofata, Sabellius, Mareellus, Photinus, the
Novatians, Donatilts, Manicheans (y), Prifoillaniits,
befide Artemon, the Audians, the Arians, and divers
others, all received moft or all the fame books of the
New Teftament which the Catholics received ; and
agreed in a like refpedt for them as writ by apoftles or
10g their difciples and companions.”
Teftimo- Celfus and Porphyry, both enemies of the Chriftian
mes of religion, are powerful witneffes for the antiquity of the
catiens, j'eftament. Celfus, who lived towards the end of
the fecond century, not only mentions by name, but
quotes paffages from the books of the New Teftament :
and that the books to which he refers were no other
109 than our prefent gofpels, is evident from the allufions to
Of Celfus. various pailages flill found in them. Celfus takes notice
of the genealogies, which fixes two of thefe gofpels ; of
the precepts, Refift not him that injures you, and, If a
man ftrike thee on the one cheek, offer to him the other
alfo; of the woes denounced by Chrift ; of his predic¬
tions •, of his faying, that it is impoffible to ferve two
mafters ; of the purple robe, the crown of thorns, and
the reed which was put into the hand of Jefus ; of the
blood that flowed from his body upon the crofs, a cir-
oumftance which is recorded only by John •, and (what
is injiar omnium for the purpofe for which we produce it)
of the difference in the accounts given of the refurreflion
by the evangelifts, fome mentioning two angels at the
fepulchre, others only one.
- 'It is extremely material to remark, that Celfus not
only perpetually referred to the accounts of Chrift con¬
tained in the four gofpels, but that he referred to no
other accounts; that he founded none of his objedtions
to Chriftianity on any thing delivered in fpurious gof-
110 Pels*
Of Porphy- The teftimony of Porphyry is ftill more important
*7- than that of Celfus. He was born in the year 2x3, of
Tyrian origin. Unfortunately for the prefent age,
fays Michaelis, the miftaken zeal of the Chriftian em¬
perors has baniffied his writings from the world ; and
every real friend of our religion -would gladN give the
works of one of the pious fathers to refeue thofe of Por¬
phyry from the flames. But Mr Marffi, the learned
and judicious tranflator of Michaelis, relates, that, ac¬
cording to the accounts of Ifaac Voffius, a manufeript
6 ] SCR
of the works of Porphyry is preferved in the Medicean Scripture,
library at Florence, but kept fo fecret that no one is 1 1
permitted to fee it. It is univerfally allowed, that Por¬
phyry is the moft fenfible, as well as the moft fevere,
adverfary ot the Chriftian religion that antiquity can
produce. He was verfed not only in hiftory, but alfo
in philofophy and politics. His acquaintance with the
Chriftians was not confined to a tingle country ; for he
had converfed with them in Tyre, in Sicily, and in
Rome. Enabled by his birth to ftudy the Syriac as
w'ell as the Greek authors, he was of all the adveffaries
to the Chriftian religion the belt qualified to inquire in¬
to the authenticity of the facred writings. Fie pofieffed
therefore every advantage which natural abilities or a
fcientific education could afford to difeover w hethcr the
New Teftament was a genuine work of the apoftles and
evangelifts, or whether it was impofed upon the world
after the deceafe of its pretended authors. But no trace
of this fufpicion is anywhere to be found in his writings.
In the fragments which ftill remain, mention is made of
the gofpels of St Matthew, St Mark, and St John, the
A&s of the Apoftles, and the epiftle to the Galatians ;
and it clearly appears from the very obje&ions of Por¬
phyry, that the books to which he alludes were the fame
which we poffefs at prefent. Thus he objtfts to the
repetition of a generation in St Matthew’s genealogy ;
to Matthew’s call 5 to the quotation of a text from
Ifaiah, which is found in a pfalm aferibed to Afaph ; to
the calling of the lake of Tiberias a fea ; to the expref-
fion in St Matthew, “ the abomination of defolation j”
to the variation in Matthew and Mark upon the text
“ the voice of one crying in the wildernefs,” Matthew
citing it from Ifaias, Mark from the prophets j to John’s
application of the term Word; to Chrift’s change of in¬
tention about going up to the feaft of tabernacles (John
vii. 8.) ; to the judgment denounced by St Peter upon
Ananias and Sapphira, which he calls an imprecation of
death.
The inftances here alleged ferve in fome meafure to
fhow the nature of Porphyry’s objeftions, and prove
that Porphyry had read the gofpels with that fort of
attention which a writer would employ who regarded
them as the depofitaries of the religion which lie at¬
tacked. Befide thefe fpecifications, there exifts in the
writings of ancient Chriftians general evidence, that the
places of Scripture, upon which Porphyry had made re¬
marks, were very numerous. t
The internal evidence to prove the authenticity of Authenti-
the New Teftament'confifts of two parts : The nature city of the
of the ftyle, and the coincidence of the New Teftament ^ew le*
with the hiftory of the times.
1 he ftyle of the New Teftament is Angular, and fto°m inter-
differs very widely from the ftyle of claffical authors. It nal evi¬
ls lull of Hebraifms and Syriafms; a eircumftance which ^^ce-
pious ignorance has confidered as a fault, and which, F
even fo late as the prefent century, it has attempted *
to remove; not knowing that thefe very deviations
from Grecian purity afford the ftrongeft prefumption in
its favour : for they prove that the Neiv Tejlament was
written by men of Hebrew origin, and is therefore a pro-
dutlion
(x) Dr Loeffer has written a learned differtation to prove that Marcion did not corrupt the facred writings.
(y) This mull be with an exception, however, of Fauftus, who lived-fo late as the year 384.
SCR
Scripture. duSlion of the firjl century. After the death of the firft
-y—J Jgwilh converts, few of the Jews turned preachers of
the gofpel; the Chriftians were generally ignorant of
Hebrew, and confequently could not write in the ftyle
of the New Teftament. After the deftruflion of Je-
rufalem and the difperfion of the Jews, their language
muft have been blended with that of other nations, and
their vernacular phrafeology almoll entirely loft. The
language of the early fathers, though not ahvays the
pureft claftic Greek, has no refemblance to that of the
New Teftaraent, not even excepting the works of the
few who had a knowledge of the Hebrew •, as Origen,
Epiphanius, and Juftin Martyr, the laft of whom being
a native of Paleftine, might have written in a ftyle
fimilar to that of the New Teftament, had fuch a ftyle
then prevailed. He that fufpects the New Teftament
to be the forgery of a more recent period, ought to pro¬
duce fome perfon who has employed a fimilar diftion ;
but thofe who are converfant with eaftern writings
know well that a foreigner, who has not been accuftom-
ed to eaftern manners and modes of thinking from his
infancy, can never imitate with fuccefs the oriental ftyle,
much lefs forge a biftory or an epiftle which contains a
thoufand incidental allufions, which nothing but truth
could fuggeft. To imitate clofely the ftyle of the New
Teftament is even more difficult than to imitate that of
any other oriental book *, for there is not a Angle author,
even among the Jews themfelves, fince the deftru&ion
of Jerufalem, that has compofed in a ftyle in the leaft
degree like it (z).
But though the books of the New Teftament bear fo
clofe a refemblance in idiom, there is a diverfity of flyle
which (hows them to be the work of different perfons.
Whoever reads with attention the epiftlesof Paul, muft
be convinced that they were all written by the fame
author. An equal degree of fimilarity is to be found
between the gofpel and ift epiftle of John. The wri¬
tings of St John and St Paul exhibit marks of an ori¬
ginal genius which no imitation can ever attain. The
character of Paul as a writer is drawn with great judge¬
ment by Michaelis: “ His mind overflows with fenti-
ment, yet he never lofes fight of his principal objeft,
but hurried on by the rapidity of thought, difelofes fre¬
quently in the middle a conclufion to be made only at
the end. To a profound knowledge of the Old Tefta¬
ment he joins the acutenefs of philofophical wifdom,
which he difplays in applying and expounding the fa-
cred writings 5 and his explanations are therefore fome-
times fo new and unexpe£led, that fuperficial obfervers
might be tempted to fuppofe them erroneous. The fire
of his genius, and his inattention to ftyle, occafion fre¬
quently a twofold obfcurity, he being often too concife
to be underftood except by thofe to whom he immedi¬
ately wrote, and not feldom on the other hand fo full
of his fubjeft, as to produce long and difficult parenthe-
fes, and a repetition of the fame word even in different
fenfes. With a talent for irony and fatire, he unites
the moft refined fenfibility, and tempers the feverity of
his cenfures by expreffions of tendernefs and affection $
VOL. XIX. Part I.
SCR
nor does he ever forget in the vehemence of his zeal Scripture,
the rules of modefty and decorum. He is a writer, in ^
ffiort, of fo Angular and wonderful a compofition, that
it would be difficult to find a rival. That truly fenfi-
ble and fagacious philofopher Locke was of the fame
opinion, and contended that St Paul was without an
equal.”
Poems have been forged and afcribed to former ages
with fome fuccefs. Philofophical treatifes might be in¬
vented which it "would be difficult to detedl: 5 but there
is not a Angle inftance on record where an attempt has
been made to forge a hiftory or a long epiftle, where
the fraud has noi been either fully proved, or rendered
fo fufpicious that few are weak enough to believe it.
Whoever attempts to forge a hiftory or an epiftle in the
name of an ancient author, will be in great danger of
contradidling the hiftory or the manners of that age,
efpecially if he relate events which are not mentioned
in general hiftory, but fuch as refer to a Angle city, fe£t,
religion, or fchool.
The difficulty of forging fuch hiftories as the gofpels,
and fuch epiftles as thofe of Paul, cannot be overcome
by all the genius, learning, and induftry, of any in¬
dividual or fociety of men that ever lived. They con¬
tain a purer fyftem of ethics than all the ancient philo-
fophers could invent : They difcover a candour and mo¬
defty unexampled : They exhibit an originality in the
character of Jefus, and yet fuch a confiftency as the
imagination of our beft poets has never reached. Now
it is a very remarkable circumftance, that hiftories writ¬
ten by four different men ffiould preferve fuch dignity
and confiftency, though frequently relating different ac¬
tions of Jefus, and defcending to the moft minute cir-
cumftances in his life. The fcerie of aftion is too ex-
tenfive, and the agreement of facls with the ftate of the
times as reprefented by other hiftorians is too clofe, to
admit the poffibility of forgery.
The fcene of aftion is not confined to one country,
it is fucceffively laid in the greateft cities of the Roman
empire *, in Rome, in Antioch, in Corinth, in Athens,
as well as in Jerufalem and the land of Paleftine. In¬
numerable allufions are made to the manners and opi¬
nions of the Greeks, the Romans, and the Jews ; and
refpedling the Jews, they extend even to the trifles and
follies of their fchools. Yet after the ftricleft examina¬
tion, the New Teftament will be found to have a won¬
derful coincidence and harmony with Jofephus, the
principal hiftorian of thefe times, and an enemy of Chri-
ftianity. _ > tI
It has been a queftion who the foldiers were who are ^n(j fronl
faid in the gofpel of Luke to have addreffed John the remarkable
Baptift in thefe words, What Jhall we do ? An anfwer inftances of
to this queftion maybe found in Jofephus*. Herod ™'nc“^encw
the tetrarch of Galilee was engaged in a war with his j(;i'ep}lus
father-in-law Aretas, a petty king in Arabia Petrma, at and the
the very time that John was preaching in the wilder-r®f-
nefs: and the road from Galilee to Arabia running-tjirnient"
through that wildernefs, the foldiers on their march had ^
this interview with the Baptift. A coincidence like this, cap. 5.
C which fed. x, s.
[ 17 1
(z) The ftyle of Clemens Romanus may perhaps be an exception. By many eminent critics it has been
thought fo like to that of the epiftle to the Hebrews, as to give room for the opinion that Clement either was the
author of that epiftle, or was the perfon who tranflated it from the Syro-Chaldaic language, in which it was origi¬
nally compofed.
Chap. ii.
I ii.
* Arts
xxiii. a.
SCR [ i
Scripture, which has been overlooked by all the commentators,
would not probably be attended to in a forgery.
Another inftanee of an agreement no lefs remarkable
we (hall quote from the valuable work of Michaelis.
It has been a queftion of feme difficulty among the
learned, who was the iknanias who commanded St Paul
to be fmitten on the mouth when he was making his
defence before the council in Jerufalem *. Krebs, in
his remarks taken from Jofephus, has ffiown him to have
been the fun of Nebedeni. But if fo, how can it be
reconciled with chronology, that Ananias was, at that
time, called high prieft, when it is certain from Jofe-
phrts that the time of his holding that office was much
earlier ? And how comes it to pafs that St Paul fays,
“ I wift not, brethren, that he was the high prieft ?”
The facerdotal garb muft have difeovered w ho he was :
a jeft would have ill-fuited the gravity of a tribunal 5
and a falfehood is inconftftent with the charaTer of St
Paul.
All thefe difficulties vanifh as foon as we examine the
fpecial hiftory of that period : “ Ananias the fon of Ne¬
bedeni was high prieft at the time that Helena queen
of Adiabene fupplied the Jews with corn from Egypt
during the famine which took place in the fourth year
of Claudius, mentioned in the eleventh chapter of the
Arts. St Paul therefore, who took a journey to Jeru¬
falem at that period, could not have been ignorant of
the elevation of Ananias to that dignity. Soon after
the holding of the lirft council, as it is called, at Jeru-
falcm, Ananias wTas difpoffeffed of his office, in confe-
quence of certain adls of violence between the Samari¬
tans and the Jews, and fent prifoner to Rome-, but being
afterwards releafed, he returned to Jerufalem. Now from
that period he could not be called high-priejl in the pro¬
per fenfe of the word, though Jofephus has fometimes
given him the title of taken in the more exten-
ilve meaning of a prieft who had a feat and voice in
the Sanhedrim ; and Jonathan, though w-e are not ac¬
quainted with the circumftances of his elevation, had
been raifed in the mean time to the fupreme dignity in
the Jewiffi church. Between the death of Jonathan,
who was murdered by order of Felix, and the high-
priefthood of Ifmael, who was invefted with that dignity
by Agrippa, elapfed an interval during which the fa¬
cerdotal office was vacant. Now it happened precifely
in this interval that St Paul was apprehended in Jerufa¬
lem : and, the Sanhedrim being deftitute of a prefident,
he undertook of his own authority the difeharge of that
office, which he executed with the greateft tyranny.
It is poffible therefore that St Paul, who had been on¬
ly a few days in Jerufalem, might be ignorant that A-
nanias, who had been difpoffeffed of the priefthood, had
taken upon himftlf a truft to which he was not entitled ;
he might therefore very naturally exclaim, ‘ I wift not,
brethren, that he was the high-prieft !’ Admitting him
on the other hand to have been acquainted with the
fa<5t, the expreffion muft be- eonfidered as an indirefl
reproof, and a tacit refufal to recognize ufurped au¬
thority.^
Could fuck a correfpondenee as this fubfift between
truth and falfehood, between a forgery and an authen¬
tic hiftory ? or is it credible that thefe events could be
related by any perfon but a contemporary ?
Impreffed with the love of truth, and feeling con¬
tempt as well as deteftation at pious frauds, we hefitate
8 1
SCR
not to acknowledge, that in fume particular fatfs there Scripture,
is a difference either real or apparent between Jofephus -v—*
and the writers of the New Teftament. The objec-Ti 114
tions arifing from thefe differences are of two kinds : alfoappa?
I. Such as would prove a book not to have been Avrit- rent incon-
ten by the author to whom it is aferibed. 2. Such as fiftencies,
would prove that the author w'as miftaken, and there- but. tlie:fc
fore not divinely infpired. To the firft clafs belongsarTfeftonr
the folloAving objedlion : St Paul fays (2 Cor. xi. 32.) overfight
that the governor of Damafcus was under Aretas thein Jofe-
king : but if aatc are to judge from the 18th book of^bus»
the Jewiffi Antiquities, Avhich correfponds Avith the pe¬
riod of St Paul’s journey to Damafcus, that city muft
have belonged at that time to the Romans ; and Avhat
authority could Aretas, a petty king in Arabia Petrma,
have in fuch a city ? In anfAver to this queftion, J. G.
Hyne, in a differtation publiflied in 1755, has ffiown it
to be highly probable that Aretas, againft Avhom the
Romans, not long before the death of Tiberius, made
a declaration of Avar, which they negle&ed to put in
execution, took the opportunity of feizing Damafcus,
Avhich had once belonged to his anceftors ; an event
omitted by Jofephus, as forming no part of the JeAvilh
hiftory, and by the Roman hiftorians as being a matter
not flattering in itfelf, and belonging only to a diftant
province. Secondly, That Aretas Avas by religion a Jcav j
a circumftanee the more credible, when Ave refleft that
Judaifm had been Avidely propagated in that country,
and that even kings in Arabia Felix had recognized the
law of Mofes. The difficulty then is fo far reimwed,
that it ceafes to create fufpicion againft an epiftle
Avhich has fo many evident marks of authenticity ; and
it is only to be regretted that, in order to place the.
fubjedft in the cleareft point of vieAV, avc are not fuf-
ficiently acquainted Avith the particular hiftory of Da¬
mafcus.
Examples of the fccond kind are fuch as, if alloAved
their full force, might indeed prove a writer not divine¬
ly infpired, but could afford no reafon to conclude that
he was not the author of the Avritings Avhich bear his
name, fince miftakes may be committed by the moft ac- JT „
curate hiftorian. The chief difficulties of this nature or to his
are found in the gofpel according to St Luke, and do want of au~
not apply to the writings of MattheAv, John, Paul, and identic in-
Peter. Laying afide the idea of infpiration altogether, ^orm<lt'on^
let us inquire whether Luke or Jofephus be moft in- the^events
titled to credit in thofe paffages Avhere they differ ; that hap-
Avhich of them is moft accurate, and Avhich of them had Pfned near
the beft opportunities of exploring the truth of theb‘sbbtb“
fafls Avhich they relate. Now Jofephus relates the fame
ftory differently in different parts of his w'orks, and is
fometimes equally miftaken in them all. We do not
recollett to have feen fuch inconfiftencies in the Avrr-
tings of St Luke. Luke knew the charadlers, and
witneffed many of the fa<fts, of Avhich hefpeaks; and he
could receive the beft infoimation refpefting thofe fa<5ts
which Avere tranfailed in his abfence. Jofephus was-
born A. D. 37, fome years after our Saviour’s afeenfiorr.
Now it is a very important obferA^ation of Michaelis,
that the period of hiftory Avith which mankind are leaft
acquainted is that Avhich includes the time of thek
childhood and youth, together with the tAventy or thir¬
ty years immediately preceding their birth. Concern¬
ing the affairs tranfafted during that period, avc are
much more liable to fall into miftakes than concerning
thiftsu.
S Cfo [ I
Scripture, thofe of a remoter age. The reafon is, that authentic
luftory never comes down to the period of our birth j
our knowledge of the period immediately preceding de¬
pends on hearfay ; and the events, which pafs within
the firft eighteen or twenty years of our lives, we are
too young andheedlefs to obferve with attention. Xhis^
mutt have been more remarkably the cafe in the time of
Jofephus than at prefent, when there were neither daily
papers, nor periodical journals to fupply the want of re¬
gular annals. There was no ludorian from whom Jo¬
fephus could derive any knowledge of the times that
immediately preceded his birth. There is a period then
of forty or fifty years, in which, even with the molt di¬
ligent inquiry, he was expofed to error.
When we find therefore the relations of Luke and
Jofephus fo different as not to be reconciled, it would
be very unfair to determine without any further inquiry
in favour of jolephus. Let their character, and works,
and fituation, be ftridlly examined •, let their teftimony
be duly weighed and compared j and then let the pre¬
ference be given to that author who, according to the
ftridteft rules of equity and juftice, feems intitled to the
higheft degree of credit. The decifion of a jury, we
ftiall venture to fay, would in every inftance turn out in
T16 favour of Luke.
tnfpiration Having thus afeertained the authenticity of the books
•of the New0f t[ie New Teftament, the next thing to be confidered
'Aeftament, tj1(qr ;nfpirati0n. It is certainly of feme importance
to know how far the apoftles and evangelifts were gui¬
ded in their writings, by the. immediate influence of the
fpirit of God ; though this knowledge, if attainable, is
not equally important with that of the authenticity of
thefe waitings. IVIichaelis indeed afferts, that the divi¬
nity of the New Teftament may be proved whether we
can evince it to be written by immediate infpiration or
'*■ Chap. iii. not *. “ The queftion (fays he), whether the books of
§ i- the New Teftament are infpired ? is not fo important as
the queftion, whether they are genuine ? The truth of
our religion depends upon the latter, not abfolutely on
the former. Had the Deity infpired not a fingle book
of the New Teftament, but left the apoftles and evan¬
gelifts without any other aid than that of natural abili¬
ties to commit what they knew7 to wwiting, admitting
their works to be authentic, and poffeffed of a fufficient
1T7 degree of credibility, the Chriftian religion w7ould ftill
»ot necef- be well founded. The miracles by which it is con-
fury to the £rmeci would equally demonftrate its truth, even if the
Christianity Per^ns who attefted them were not infpired, but Amply
according > human witneffes ; and their divine authority is never
to the opi- prefuppofed, when wre difeufs the queftion of miracles,
nton ot guj. mereiy their credibility as human evidence. If the
Michaelis. m;racqes are true which the evangelifts relate, the doc¬
trines of Chrift recorded in the gofpels are proved to
be the infallible oracles of God ; and, even if w7e admit
the apoftles to be miflaken in certain not effential cir-
cumfiances, yet as the main points of the religion which
Chrift commiflioned them to preach are fo frequently
repeated, their epiftles would inftrudft us as well in the
tenets of the Chriftian fyftem, as the works of Maclau-
rin in the philofophy of Newton. It is poffible there¬
fore to doubt, and even deny, the infpiration of the New
Teftament, and yet be fully perfuaded of the truth of
the Chriftian religion : and many really entertain thefe
fen time Tits either publicly or in private, to whom we
9 1 ' s C tl
fhould render great injuftice, if we ranked them in the Scnptur^
clafs of unbelievers. ' v
“ Yet the Chriftian religion w7ould be attended with
difficulty, if our principium cognofccndixa^A not on firm¬
er ground ; and it might be objected, that fufficient
care had not been taken for thofe whofe confeiences
were tender, and who were anxioufly fgarful of mi fla¬
king the fmalleft of the divine commands. The chief
articles indeed of Chriftianity are fo frequently'repeat¬
ed, both by Chrift and his apoftles, that even were the
New Teftament not infpired, we could entertain no
doubt of the folloAving do&rines : ‘ Jefus was the Mef-
fias of the Jews, and an infallible meffenger of God : he
died for our iniquity •, and by the fatisfaclion made by
his death w7e obtain remiffion of fins, if on our part be
faith and amendment of life': the Levitical law is abo-
liftied, and moral precepts, with the ceremonies of Bap-
tifm and the Supper of the Lord, are appointed in its
ftead ; after the prefent follows an everlafting life, in
which the virtuous (hall be rewarded and the nicked
puniffied, and wffiere Chrift hitnfelf {hall be the Judge.’
“ To the epiftles indeed (fays Michaelis), infpiration
is of real confequence ; but with refpefl to the hiftori-
cal books, viz. the Gofpels and the A61s of the A-
poftks, we fhould really be no lofers if we abandoned the
fyftem of infpiration, and in feme refpefts have a real
advantage. We fhould be no lofers, if we confidered
the apoftles in hiftorical fafts as merely human witneffe?,
as Chrift himfelf has done in faying, ‘ Ye alfe {hall bear
witnefs, becaufe ye have been with me from the begin¬
ning And no one that attempts to convince an un- * John xv.
believer of the truth of Chriftianity, would begin his 27-
demonftration by prefuppofing a doftrine which his ad-
verfary denies, but would ground his arguments on the
credibility of the evangelifts as human biftorians, for the
truth of the miracles, the death, and the refurreftion of
Chrift. Even thofe who examine the grounds of their
faith for their ow'n private conviftion, muft treat the
evangelifts as human evidence *, fince it would be argu¬
ing in a circle to conclude that the fa&s recorded in the
gofpels are Jrue, becaufe they are infpired, when we
conclude the Scriptures to be infpired in confequence of
their contents. In thefe cafes, then, we are obliged to
confider the evangelifts as human evidence j and it would
be no detriment to the Chriftian caufe to confider them
at all times as fuch in matters of hiftorical fadft. We
find it nowhere exprefsly recorded that the public tranf-
aftions which the apoftles knew by their own experi¬
ence, and of which St Luke informed himfelf by dili¬
gent inquiry, fhould be particular objects of divine in-
fpiration. We fhould even be confiderable gainers, in
adjufting the harmony of the gofpels, if we were permit¬
ted to fuppofe that feme one of the evangelifts had com¬
mitted an immaterial error, and that St John has recti¬
fied feme trifling miftakes in the preceuing gofpels.
The moft dangerous objections which can be made to
the truth of our religion, and fuch as are molt difficult
to anfwer, are thofe drawn from tho different relations
of the four evtmgelifts.'’ x .S
Before any inquiry is made refpeCting the Infpiration Mkrort
of the books of the New Teftament, it is neceffary to™^)1™11^01
determine the meaning of the term ; for theologians
have given to it a variety of fignificatiens. Moft of the
German divines make it to confift in an infufion of
C 2 words
SCR [ 20 ] SCR
, Scripture, words as well as ideas. Luther, Beza, and Salmafius,
v reftridl it to ideas alone. Doddridge underftands by it
an intervention of the Deity, by which the natural fa¬
culties of the mind were direfted to the difcovery of
truth. Warburton and Law think it was a negative
intervention to preferve the facred writers from elfential
errors. Some believe every circumilance was diftated
by the Holy Ghoft} others fuppofe that no fupernatural
affiilance was granted except in the epiftolary writings.
See INSPIRATION.
As ihere is an evident diftinftion between infpiration
and revelation, and as the origin of the Chriftian reli¬
gion may be {till proved divine, even though it were de¬
nied that thofe who record its fafts and do61rines were
infpired in the a£t of writing, it will be moft judicious
and fafe to employ the word infpiration in that fenfe
which can be molt eafily defended and fupported. By
doing this, much may be gained and nothing loft. It
is difficult to prove to a deift that the words of Scrip¬
ture are divine, becaufe he fees that every writer has
words and phrafes peculiar to himfelf. It is difficult
alfo to prove that the ideas were infufed into the mind
of the authors while they were engaged in the aft of
writing j becaufe concerning fafts they appeal not to
divine infpiration, but declare what they have feeti and
heard. In reafoning they add their own fentiments to
what they had received from the Lord, and fubjoin, ef-
pecially in their epiftles, things not connefted with reli¬
gion. .1 he definition which Doddridge gives, feems
applicable to ordinary gifts or the ufual endowments of
rational creatures, rather than to the extraordinary gifts
of the Holy Spirit, which were beftowed on the apoftles.
Thofe who maintain that every faft or circumftance was
fuggefted by divine infpiration, will find it no eafy mat¬
ter to prove their pofition. The opinion of Warburton
and Law, with proper explanations, feems moft probable.
The opinion of Grotius, that only the epiftles were in¬
fpired, may be eafily refuted.
The proof of the authenticity of the New Teftament
depends on human teftimony : The proof of its infpi¬
ration is derived from the declaration of infpired per-
119 fons-
The proof In proving that the New Teftaroent is infpired, we
of it tie- prefuppofed its authenticity, that the facred books were
the decla wr^en ^7 apoftles whofe names they bear, and
rations of ^iey have been conveyed to us pure and uncor-
Chritt and rupted. This we have already attempted to prove, and
his apoftles. we hope with fuccefs. The evidence of infpiration is
the teftimony of Chrift and his apoftles, which we re¬
ceive as credible, becaufe they confirmed their doftrines
by miracles. From the important miffion of Chrift and
his apoftles, we infer that every power was beftowed
which divine wifdom thought expedient j and from their
conduft we conclude, that it is morally impoffible that
they could lay claim to any powers which they did not
poflcfs. It is proper therefore to inquire into the de¬
clarations of Chrift and his apoftles concerning the na¬
ture, degree, and extent, of the infpiration beftowed on
130 the writers of the facred books.
The decla- If we confider Chrift’s more immediate promifes of
Chrift5 infpirat*on to the apoftles, we ffiall find tha* he has
given them, in the moft proper fenfe of the word, at
ffiree feveral periods, ift, When he fent the apoftles to
* Matt. x. preach the gofpel * j 2dly, In holding a public difcourfe
l9> relating to the gofpel, at which were prefent a confi-
derable multitude; gdly, In his prophecy of the de- Scripture.
ftrudion of Jerufalem f. When he fent the apoftles to ' '
preach the gofpel, he thus addreffed them : “ When* Mark xii’*
they deliver you up, take no thought how or what ye *2
ftiall fpeak, for it ffiall be given you in that fame hour ' ' 4’
what ye ffiall fpeak ; for it is not you that fpeak, but
the fpirit of your Father that fpeaketh in you.” The
fame promne was made almoft in the fame words in the
prefence of an immenfe multitude (Luke xii. 11, 12.).
Irom thefe paffages it has been urged, that if the a-
poftles were to be infpired in the prefence of magiftrates
in delivering fpeeches, which were foon to be forgotten,
it is furely reafonable to conclude that they wTould be
infpired when they were to compofe a ftandard of faith
for the ufe of all future generations of Chriftians. If
this conclufion be fairly deduced, it would follow that
the writings of the New Teftament are the di&ates of
infpiration, not only in the doftrines and precepts, but
in the very words. But it is a conclufion to which
fincere Chriftians have made objeftions; for, fay they,
though Chrift promifes to affift his apoftles in cafes of
great emergency, where their own prudence and forti¬
tude could not be fufficient, it does not follow that he
would diftate to them thofe fafts which they know al¬
ready, or thofe reafonings which their own calm reflec¬
tion might fupply. Befides, fay they, if the New Tef¬
tament was diftated by the Holy Spirit, and only pen¬
ned by the apoftles, what reafon can be given for the
care with which Chrift inftrufted them, both during his
miniftry and after his crucifixion, in thofe things per¬
taining to the kingdom of God ? I2I
In anfwer to this we may obferve, that though it beProperideas
difficult to prove that the identical words of the Newof infpira-
Teftament were diftated by the Holy Spirit, or the traintl0n’
of ideas infufed into the minds of the facred writers,
there is one fpecies of infpiration to which the New
Teftament has an undoubted claim. It is this, that the
memories of the apoftles were ftrengthened and their
underftandingsprefervedfrom falling into effentialerrors.
This we prove from thefe words of our Saviour, “ and
I will pray the Father, and he will give you another
comforter, that he may abide with you for ever. He
ffiall teach you all things, and bring all things to your
remembrance whatfoever I have faid unto you * Jokn xi-1"*
This promife wras furely not reftrained to the day of16’ x6'
Pentecoft: it muft have been a permanent gift, enabling
the apoftles at all times to remember with accuracy the
difeourfes of our Saviour. When the apoftles there¬
fore (Matthew and John) relate thofe precepts of Chrift
which they themfelves had heard, they write indeed
from memory, but under the proteftion of the fpirit
who fecures them from the danger of miftake : and we
muft of courfe conclude that their gofpels are infpired.
Were we called upon more particularly to declare
what parts of the New Teftament we believe to be in¬
fpired, we would anfwer, The doftrines, the precepts,
and the prophecies, every thing eflential to the Chriftian
religion. From thefe the idea of infpiration is infepa-
rable. As to the events, the memory of the apoftles-
was fufficient to retain them. If this opinion be juft,
it would enable us to account for the difcrepancies be¬
tween the facred writers, which are chiefly confined to
the relation of fafts and events.
All the books of the New Teftament were originally
written in Greek, except the Gofpel according to Mat¬
thew
Scripture.
12a
Language
in which
the New
Teftament
was com-
pofed.
123
Why the
greateft
part of it
is written
tn Greek.
Michaelis,
vol. i. chap
iv. fedt. x.
p. xoi.
SCR [ 2
thew and the epiiile to the Hebrews, which there is
reafon to believe were compofed in the Syro-Chaldaic
language, which in the New Teftament is called He¬
brew.
Various reafons have been afligned why the greateft
part of the New Teftament was written in Greek •, but
the true reafon is this, It was the language beft under-
ftood both by writers and readers. Had St Paul writ¬
ten to a community in the Roman province of Africa,
he might have written perhaps in Latin j but epiftles
to the inhabitants of Corinth, Galatia, Ephefus, Philip¬
pi, and Theffalonica, to Timothy, Titus, and Philemon,
from a native of Tarfus, could hardly be expe&ed in
any other language than Greek. The fame may be
faid of the epiftles of St Peter, which are addreffed to
the Chriftians of different countries, who had no other
language in common than the Greek j and likewife of
the epiftles of St James, who wrote to Jews, that lived
at a diftance from Paleftine, and were ignorant of He¬
brew. The native language of St Luke, as well as of
Theophilus, to whom he addrefled his gofpel, and Afts
of the apoftles, appears to have been Greek; and that
St John wrote his gofpel in that language, and not in
Hebrew, is by no means a matter of furprife, fince he
wrote at Ephefus.
With refpeft to the epiftle to the Romans, it may
be afked indeed why St Paul did not write in Latin ?
Now, whoever propofes this queftion, muft prefuppofe
that St Paul was mafter of the Latin language in fuch
a degree as to find no difficulty in writing it j a matter
which remains to be proved. It is very probable that
St Paul was acquainted with the Latin •, but between
underftanding a language, and being able to write it,
there is a very material difference. As St Paul was a
native of Tarfus, his native language was Greek j he
had travelled during feveral years through countries in
which no other language was fpoken, and when he ad¬
dreffed the Roman centurion at Jerufalem, he fpoke
not Latin, but Greek. Is it extraordinary, then, that
in writing to the inhabitants of Rome he fliould have
ufed a language which was there fo generally under-
ftood ? It has been long remarked, that Greek was at
that time as well known in Rome as French in any
court of modern Europe j that according to Juvenal
even the female fex made ufe of Greek as the language
of familiarity and paffion j and that in letters of friend-
Ihip Greek words and phrafes were introduced with
greater freedom than French expreffions in German
letters, as appears from CicenPs epiftles to Atticus, and
from thofe of Auguftus preferved in the works of
Suetonius. To this muft be added a material circum-
ftance, that a great part of the Roman Chriftians con-
fifted of native Jews, who were better acquainted with
Greek than with Latin, as either they themfelves or
their anceftors had come from Greece, Afia Minor, or
Egypt, in which Greek was the language of the coun¬
try. At leaft they read the Bible in that language, as
no Latin tranflation of the Old Teftament at that time
exifted j and the Chriftian church at that period con-
lifting chiefly of Jews, the heathen converts in Rome
were of courfe under the neceffity of accuftoming them¬
felves to the Greek language. In ffiort, St Paul in his
epiftle to the Romans made ufe of a language in which
alone thofe who were ignorant of Hebrew could read
the Bible. What has been here advanced refpe&ing the
3
1 ] SCR
epiftle to the Romans is equally applicable to the Greek Scripture,
of St Mark, on the fuppofition that it was written atv—'
Rome.
To the above arguments may be added the example
of Jofephus, who, as well as the apoftles, was by birth
a Jew\ He even lived in Rome, which is more than
can be faid of St Paul and St Mark, who refided there
only a certain time : he was likewife younger than
either j he came to Italy at an age which is highly
fuitable to the learning of a language, and previous to
that period had fpent feveral years in the Roman camp.
The Jewifh antiquities, the hiftory of the Jewiffi war,
and the account of his own life, he wrote undoubtedly
with a view of their being read by the Romans ; and
yet he compofed all thefe writings in Greek. He ex-
preffes his motive for writing his Greek account of the
Jewifh war in the following terms : “ That having writ¬
ten in his native language (i. e. the Hebrew dialeft at
that time fpoken) a hiftory of the war, in order that
Parthians, Babylonians, Arabians, Adiabenes, and the
Jews beyond the Euphrates, might be informed of thofe
events, he was now refolved to write for the Greeks
and Romans, who had not been engaged in the cam¬
paigns, a more certain account than had hitherto been
given.” The motives which induced Jofephus to
write in Greek are fully as applicable to St Paul and St
Mark.
Michaelis has thus chara<5lerized the ftyle of the New , ..
Teftament. “ The New Teftament (fays he) was writ-voi ‘S>‘
ten in a language at that time common among the Jews, chap. iv.
which may be named Hebraic Greek ; the firft traces 3*
of which we find in the tranflation of the LXX. P 1I1*
“ Every man acquainted with the Greek language, js fuu2Qt*
who had never heard of the New Teftament, muft im-Hebrait'ms,
mediately perceive, on reading only a few lines, that
the ftyle is widely different from that of the claffic au¬
thors. We find this charafler in all the books of the
New Teftament in a greater or lefs degree, but we
muft not therefore conclude that they poffefs an uni¬
formity of ftyle. The harfheft Hebraifms, which ex¬
tended even to grammatical errors in the government of
cafes, are the diftinguiffiing marks of the book of Re¬
velation j but they are accompanied with tokens of ge¬
nius and poetical enthufiafm of which every reader muft:
be fenfible who has tafte and feeling. There is no tranf¬
lation of it which is not read with pleafure even in the
days of childhood y and the very faults of grammar are
fo happily placed as to produce an agreeable effeft. The
gofpels of St Matthew and St Mark have ftrong marks
of this Hebraic ftyle $ the former has harfher Hebraifms
than the latter, the fault of which may be afcribed to
the Greek tranflator, who has made too literal a ver-
fion, and yet the gofpel of St Mark is written in worfe
language, and in a manner that is lefs agreeable. The
epiftles of St James and St Jude are fomewhat better y
but even thefe are full of Hebraifms, and betray in other
refpe£!s a certain Hebrew tone. St Luke has in feveral
paffages rvritten pure and claffic Greek, of which the
firft four verfesof his gofpel may be given as an inftance :
in the fequel, where he defcribes the aflions of Chrift,
he has very harfti Hebraifms, yet the ftyle is more
agreeable than that of St Matthew or St Mark. In the
A<fts of the apoftles he is not free from Hebraifms, which
he feems to have never ftudiouffy avoided ; but his pe¬
riods are more claffically turned, and fometimes poffefs
beauty
Scripture.
125
and fo¬
reign idi¬
oms.
126
Peculiari¬
ties in the
cCinpofi-
tion.
Dr Camp¬
bell's Preli¬
minary
Dijferta-
tions to the
IPranJla-
tions of his
■ CoJpcU.
S C R [ 2
beauty devoid of art. St John lias numerous, though
not uncouth, Hebraifms both in his gofpe] and epiftles •,
but he lias written in a fmooth and flowing language,
and furpafles all the Jewifli writers in the excellence of
narrative. St Paul again is entirely*different from them
all i his ftyle is indeed neglefted and full of Hebraifnvu
but he has avoided the concife and verfe-like conftruc-
tion of the Hebrew language, and has upon the whole a
confiderable (hare of the roundnefs of Grecian compofi-
tion. It is evident that he was as perfectly acquainted
with the Greek manner of expreflion as with the He¬
brew, and he has introduced them alternately, as either
the one or the other fuggefled itfelf the firlt, or was the
belt approved.”
Michaelis has fhown that the New Teitament not
only contains Hebraifms but Rabbinifms, Syriafms,
Chaldaifms, Arabifms, Latinilms, and Perfian words,
of which he has exhibited many fpecimeus. To theolo¬
gians, whofe duty it certainly is tt> Itudy the language of
the New Teflament with attention, we would ftrenuouf-
ly recommend the perufal of this work, which in the
Englifh tranllation is one of the molt valuable aeceflions
to fcriptural criticifm that has yet appeared. We fpeak
of the Englilh tranflation, which the large and judicious
notes of Mr Marfli has rendered infinitely fuperior to the
original.
To the obfervations which have been made refpefling
the language of the New Teltament, a few remarks may
be added concerning the peculiarities of the Itylr and
manner of the facred writers, particularly the hiftofians.
Thefe remarks extend to the Old Teftament as well as
to the New.—The firft quality for which the facred
hi (lory is remarkable is fimplicity in the ftrufture of
the fentences. The firft five verfes of Genefis furnifh
an example, which confift of eleven fentences. The
fubftantives are not attended by adjeftives, nor the verbs
by adverbs, no fynonymas, no fuperlatives, no effort at
exprefting things in a bold, emphatical, or uncommon
manner.
2. The fecond quality is fimplicity of fentiment, par¬
ticularly in the Pentateuch, arifing from the very na¬
ture of the early and uncultivated ftate of fociety about
which that book is converfant.
3. Simplicity of defign. The fubjeft of the narra¬
tive fo engroffes the attention of the writer, that he
himfeif is as nobody/ He introduces nothing as from
himfelf, no remarks, doubts, conjeftures, or reafonings.
Our Lord’s biographers particularly excel in this qua¬
lity. This quality of ftyle we meet with in Xenophon
and Csefar.
The Evangelifts may be ranked next to Genefis for
fimplicity of compofition in the fentences. John and
Matthew are diftinguifhed for it more than Mark and
Luke. But the fentiment is not fo remarkable for
fimplicity in the Evangelift as the Pentateuch. The
reafons of this difference are, I. The ftate of the Jews was
totally changed j their manners, cuftoms, &c. fplit into
factions both in religion and politics. 2. The objedt of
our Lord’s miniftry, which is the great fubjedt of the
gofpels, was to inculcate a doBrine and morality with
which none of their fyftems perfectly coincided : befides,
Being conftantly oppofed by all the great men, the
greater part of his hiftory confifts of inftrudtions and dif-
putes. 3. As it is occupied with what our Saviour faid
and what he did, this makes two diftindtions of ftyle
4
1
SCR
and manner ; that of our Saviour, and the facred pen¬
man’s. In their own ebaradter, they neither explain
nor command, promife nor threaten, praife nor blame.
They generally omit the names of our Lord’s enemies j
thus diredting our hatred at the vices they committed,
not at the perfons. They never mention fuch perfons
wfithout neceftity ; which is the cafe with the high prieft,
Pilate, Herod, and Judas : the three firft for the chro¬
nology, the fourth to do juftice to the eleven.
Herodias is, indeed, mentioned with difhonour ; but
her crime was a public one. On the other hand, all
perfons diftinguifhed for any thing virtuous are careful¬
ly mentioned, Jofeph of Arimathea, Nicodemus, Zac-
cheus, Bartimeus, Jairus, Lazarus, Mary, and Martha.
They record their own faults (Peter’s, Thomas’s), nor
do they make any merit of their confeffion. In one
uniform ftrain they relate the molt fignal miracles and
molt ordinary fadts.
From the narrative is excluded that quality of ftyle
which is called animation. Nothing that difeovers paf-
fion in the writer, or is calculated to excite the paflions
of the reader. Every thing is directed to mend the
heart.
But m the difeourfes and dialogues of our Saviour,
the expreffion, without lofing any thing of its fimplicity,
is often remarkable for fpirit and energy. Refpedting
harmony and fmoothnefs, qualities which only add an
external polifti to language, they had not the leaft foli-
citude.
As to elegance, there is an elegance which refults
from the ufe of fuch words as are molt in ufe with
thofe who are accounted fine writers, and from fuch
arrangements in the words and claufes as have generally
obtained their approbation. This is difclaimed by the
facred authors.
But there is an elegance of a fuperior order more
nearly connected with the fentiment •, and in this fort
of elegance they are not deficient. In all the oriental
languages great ufe is made of tropes, efpecially meta¬
phors. When the metaphors employed bear a ftrong
refemblance, they confer vivacity : if they be borrowed
from objects which are naturally agreeable, beautiful,
or attractive, they add alfo elegance. The Evangelifts
furnifh us with many examples of this kind of vivacity
and elegance. Our Lord borrows tropes from corn¬
fields, vineyards, gardens, &c.
As a valuable appendage to this part of our fubject,
we (hail fubjoin Dr Campbell’s method of ftudying the
books of the New Teftament. This we offer to our
readers as a beautiful inftanee of the judicious applica¬
tion of philofophy to facred ftudies. It is the fame
method of difeovering truth by analyfis and induction,
which was purfued by Sir Ifaac Newton with fuch afto-
nilhing fuccefs, which fince his time has been uniformly
praftifed in natural philofophy, and has been alfo ap¬
plied to chemiftry, to medicine, to natural hiltory, and
to the philofophy of mind, by the ingenious Dr Reid.
This is the path of found philofophy, which can alone
lead to the difeovery of truth. In following it, our
progrefs may be flow, but it Avill be lure. It all theolo¬
gians would fteadily adhere to it, we might then enter¬
tain the-pleafing hope of difearding for ever thofe abfurd
fyftems of religion which are founded on tingle paffages
and detached fragments of feripture, and of eftablithing
opinions and doftrines on a folid foundation. .
“ t. T»
Script u re*
127
Proper me¬
thod of
ftudying
the Nrew
Teftamert
by analyfis
and induo
t on.
SCR [2
Scripture. t: i. To get acquainted with each writer’s ftyle j to
—' obferve his manner of compofition, both in fentences and
C'am paragraphs; to remark the words and phrafes peculiar
Ltll’/me- to him, and the peculiar application that he may fomc-
thod. Prel.times make of ordinary words; for there are few of thofe
Dif. to the writers who have not their peculiarities in all the re-
Gofpels. fpe£ts now mentioned. This acquaintance with each
can be attained only by the frequent and attentive
reading of his works in his own language.
“ 2. To inquire into the charafter, the fituation, and
the office of the writer, the time, the place, and the
occafion of his writing, and the people for whore imme¬
diate ufe he originally intended his work. Every one
of thefe particulars will fometimes ferve to elucidate ex-
preffions otherwife obfcure or doubtful. This knowledge
may in part be learned from a diligent and reiterated
perufal of the book itfelf, and in part be gathered from
what authentic, or at leaf! probable, accounts have been
tranfmitted to us concerning the compilement of the
canon.
44 3. The laft general direction is, to confider the
principal fcope of the book, and the particulars chiefly"
obfervable in the method, by which the writer has pur-
pofed to execute his defign. This diredtion is particu¬
larly applicable to the epirtolary writings, efpecially
thofe of Paul.
“4. If a particular word or phrafe occur, which ap¬
pears obfcure, perhaps unintelligible, the firlf thing we
ought to do, if fatisfled that the reading is genuine, is
to confult the context, to attend to the manner where¬
in the term is introduced, w'hether in a chain ofreafon-
ing or in a hiftorical narration, in a defcription, or in¬
cluded in an exhortation or command. As the conclu-
fion is inferred from the premiffes, or as from two or
more known truths a third unknown or unobferved be¬
fore may fairly be deduced ; fo from fuch attention to
the fentence in cor.neftion, the import of an exprefiion,
in itfelf obfcure or ambiguous, will fometimes with mo¬
ral certainty be difcovered. This, however, will not
always anfwer.
“ 5. If it do not, let the fecond confideration be, whe¬
ther the term or phrafe be one of the writer’s peculia¬
rities. If fo, it comes naturally to be inquired, what
is the acceptation in which he employs it in other places ?
If the fenfe cannot be precifely the fame in the paflage
under review, perhaps, by an eafy and natural metaphor
or other trope, the common acceptation may give rife
to one which perfedlly fuits the paflage in queflion.—
llecourfe to the other places wherein the word or phrafe
occurs in the fame author is of confiderable ufe, though
the term ftiould not be peculiar to him.
44 6. But thirdly, if there fnould be nothing in the
fame writer that can enlighten the place, let recourfe be
had to the parallel paffages, if there beany fuch, in the
other facred writers. By parallel paffages, I mean
thofe places, if the difficulty occur in hillory, wherein
the fame or a fimilar flory, miracle, or event, is related }
if in teaching or reafoning, thofe parts wherein the
fame argument or doflrine is treated, or the fame pa¬
rable propounded 5 and in moral leffons, thofe wherein
the fame clafs of duties is recommended : or, if the dif¬
ficulty be found in a quotation from the Old Teftament,
let the parallel paffage in the book referred to, both in
the original Hebrew, and in the Greek verfion, be con-
fulted.
3 ] SCR
“ <7. Blit if in thefe there be found nothing that can Scripture,
throw light on the expreflion of which we are in doubt, ~ i*
the fourth recourfe is to all the places wherein the word
or phrafe occurs in the New Teilament, and in the Sep-
tuagint verfion of the Old, adding to thefe the confidera¬
tion of the import of the Hebrew or Chaldaic word,
whofe place it occupies, and the extent of fignification,
of which in different occurrences fuch Hebrew or Chal-
daic term is fufceptible.
“ 8. Perhaps the term in queflion is one of thofe
which very rarely occur in the New Teflament, or thofe
called Asyo^svss, only once read in Scripture, and
not found at all in the tranflation of the Seventy. Se¬
veral fuch words there are. There is then a neceffity,
in the fifth place, for recurring to the ordinary accep¬
tation of the term in claffical authors. This is one of
thofe cafes wherein the interpretation given by the ear-
lieft Greek fathers deferves particular notice. In this,
however, I limit myfelf to thofe comments wherein they
give a literal expofition of the facred text, and do not
run into vifion and allegory.” 129
The manuferipts of the New Teftament are the na-Manu-
tural fource from which the genuine readings of the^PP^^
Greek Teftament are to be drawn. The printed ecfi-xeftamen
tions are either copies of more ancient editions, or of
manuferipts 5 and they have no further authority than as
they correfpond to the manuferipts from which they
were originally taken. By manuferipts of the New Te¬
ftament, we mean thofe only which were written before
the invention of printing. The moft ancient of thefe
are loft, and there is no manufeript now extant older
than the fixth century. Few' contain the whole New
Teftament ; fome contain the four gofpels ; fome the
Afts • f the Apoftles and Epiftles •, and others the book
of Revelation. The greateft number are thofe which con¬
tain the firft part 5 thofe which have the fecond, or the
firft and fucond together, are likewife numerous ; but
thofe of the third are extremely fewr. It muft be added
alfo, that in many manuferipts thofe epiftles are omitted
whofe divine authority was formerly doubted.
There are many manuferipts which have been exa¬
mined only for a fingle text, fuch as I John v. 7. or at
lead for a very fmall number. Others have been exa¬
mined from the beginning to the end, but not com¬
pletely and in refpeft of all the readings. A third elafs
confilts of fuch as either have been, or are faid to have
been, completely and accurately collated. But this re¬
quires fuel) phlegmatic patience, that we can hardly ex¬
pert to find in critical catalogues all the various read¬
ings which have been only once collated. Wetftein, in
collating many manuferipts anew, made difeoveries
which had entirely efcaped the notice of his predectffors.
The fourth clafs confifts of fuch as have been com¬
pletely and accurately collated more than, once \ but
here alfo we are in danger of being led into error.—
When various readings are transferred from one critical
edition to another, as from that of Gregory to Mill’s
edition, and from the latter to thofe of Bengel and
Wetftein, the manuferipts muft fometimes be falfely
named, and various readings muft frequently be omit¬
ted. And as Wetftein has marked by ciphers manu¬
feripts that in former editions had been denoted by their
initial letters, he could fcareely avoid fubflituting, in fome
cafes, one figure inflead of another. The fifth clafs,
which is by far the moft valuable, confifts of fuch as
have
SCR
[ H ]
SCR
Scripture, have been printed word for word, and therefore form an
1 '' original edition of the Greek Teilament. We can boall:
but of a very few manufcripts of this kind. Hearne
printed at Oxford, in 1715, the A6ls of the Apoftlesin
Greek and Latin from the Codex Laudianus 3.5 Knit-
tel has annexed to his edition of Ulphilas, p. 53—1x8,
a copy of two very ancient fragments preferved in the
library of Wolfenbuttle ; the one of the four Gofpels
in general, the other of St Luke and St John. Woide
printed in 1786 the Codex Alexandrinus, a manufcript
of great antiquity, which fhall afterwards be more
fully defcribed ^ and the univerlity of Cambridge has
refolved to publilh, in a limilar manner, the Cod.
Cant. I. or, as it is fometimes called, the Codex Bezae,
the care of which is intrufted to Dr Kipling, a publica¬
tion which will be thankfully received by every friend
to facred criticifm. It was the intention of the Abbe
Spoletti, a few years ago, to publilh the whole of the
celebrated Codex Vaticanus j which would likewife have
been a moft valuable acceflion, fince a more important
manufcript is hardly to be found in all Europe. He
delivered for this purpofe a memorial to the pope ; but
the defign was not put into execution, either becaufe
the pope refufed his affent or the abbe abandoned it
himfelf. See the Oriental Bible, vol. xxii. N°333. and
vol. xxiii. N° 348.
“ A very valuable library,” fays Michaelis, “ might
be compofed of the impreflions of ancient manufcripts,
of taking an though too expenfive for a private perfon, fhould
be admitted into every univerlity colleddion, efpecially
the Alexandrian and Cambridge manufcripts, to which
I would add, if it were now poflible to procure it,
Hearne’s edition of the Codex Laudianus 3. A plan
of this fort could be executed only in England, by a
private fubfcription, where a zeal is frequently difplay-
ed in literary undertakings that is unknown in other
countries j and it were to be wilhed that the project
were begun before length of time has rendered the ma¬
nufcripts illegible, and the attempt therefore fruitlefs.
Ten thoufand pounds would go a great way towards
the fulfilling of this requelt, if the learned themfelves
did not augment the difficulty of the undertaking, by
adding their own critical remarks, and endeavouring
thereby to recommend their publications, rather than by
prefenting to the public a faithful copy of the original.
Should pollerity be put in poffeffion of faithful impreffions
of important manufcripts, an acquifition which would
render the higheft fervice to facred criticifm, all thefe
editions of the New Teftament ffiould be regulated on
the fame plan as Hearne’s edition of the A£ts of the
Apoftles.” It muft be highly flattering to the patrio¬
tic fpirit of an Engliffiman to hear the encomiums which
learned foreigners have fo profufely bellowed on our li¬
berality in fupporting works of genius and learning
and public utility. The plan which Michaelis propofes
130
Michaelis’s
propofal
impreffion
of ancient
manu¬
fcripts,
•vol. ii.
p. 182.
to us, in preference to all the other nations in Europe, Scripture,
is noble and magnificent, and would certainly confer 1"" "V ■
immortality on thofe men who would give it their pa¬
tronage and affiltance.
There are many ancient manufcripts, efpecially in
Italy, which have never been collated, but lie Hill unex¬
plored. Here is a field where much remains to be done.
See Marlh’s Notes to Michaelis, vol. ii. p. 643.
Michaelis has given a catalogue of ancient manufcripts,
amounting in number to 292, to which he has added a
ffiort account of each. In this place we fhall confine
our obfervations to the moft celebrated, the Alexan¬
drian and Vatican manufcripts, which we have chiefly
extracted from Michaelis.
The Alexandrian manufcript confifts of four volumes j Acc^t of
the firft three of which contain the Old Teftament, the the Adexan-
fourth the New Teftament, together with the firft Epi-drian ma-
ftle of Clement to the Corinthians, and a fragment of the nulcr*Pt-
fecond. In the New Teftament, which alone is the ob¬
ject of our prefent inquiry, is wanting the beginning as
far as Matthew xxv. 6. a j likewife from
John vi. 50. to viii. 52. and from 2 Cor. iv. 13. to xii. 7.
It muft likewife be obferved, that the Pfalms are pre¬
ceded by the epiftle of Athanafius to Marcellinus, and
followed by a catalogue, containing thofe which are to
be ufed in prayer for each hour, both of the day and of
the night; alfo by 14 hymns, partly apocryphal, partly
biblical, the nth of which is an hymn in praife of the
Virgin Mary, entitled tjjj S-utoxx : fur¬
ther, the Hypothefes Eufebii are annexed to the Pfalms,
and his Canones to the Gofpels. It is true, that this
has no immediate reference to the New Teftament, but
may have influence in determining the antiquity of the
manufcript itfelf.
It has neither accents nor marks of afpiration ; it is
written with capital, or, as they are called, uncial let¬
ters, and has very few abbreviations. There are no in¬
tervals between the words ; byt the fenfe of a paflage is
fometimes terminated by a point, and fometimes by a
vacant fpace. Here arifes a fufpicion that the copyift
did not underftand Greek, becaufe thefe marks are
fometimes found even in the middle of a word, for in-
ftance Levit. v. 4. ttvcpos y for ecu opoa-y, and Numb. xiii.
29. pu Yiryf.
This manufcript was prefented to Charles I. in 1628,
by Cyrillus Lucaris patriarch of Conftantinople. Cy-
rillus himfelf has given the following account: “ We
know fo much of this manufcript of the holy writings of
the Old and New Teftament, thatThecla an Egyptian
lady of diftinftion (nobillsfcemina JEgyptia') wrote it
with her own hand 1300 years ago (a).” She lived foon
after the council of Nice. Her name was formerly at
the end of the book ; but when Chriftianity was fubvert-
ed in Egypt by the errors of Mahomet, the books of
the Chriftians fuffered the fame fate, and the name of
Thecla
(a) He wrote this in the year 1628. According to this account, then, the manufcript muft have been written
in 328 ; a date to which fo many weighty objefb’ons may be made, that its moft ftrenuous advocates will hardly
undertake to defend it. But this error has furniffied Oudin with an opportunity of producing many arguments
againft the antiquity of the Codex Alexandrinus, which feem to imply, that Grabe and others, who have referred
it to the fourth century, fuppofe it to have been written in the above-mentioned year. Now it is probable, that
the inference which has been deduced from the account of Cyrillus is more than he himfelf intended to exprefs, as
be relates that Thecla lived after the council of Nice.
SCR t
Scripture. Thecla was expunged. But oral tradition of no very
“ '' ancient date {mamria et tradhio recens') has preferved
the remembrance of it.
But the reader will fee that this account is merely
traditional. Dr Semler very properly obferves, that
there is no more reafon to rely on a tradition refpeding
the tranfcriber of an ancient manufcript, than on a tra¬
dition which relates to an ancient relic. The argu¬
ments which have been urged by Wetftein, Semler,
Oudin, and Woide, to fix the date of this manufcript,
are fo many, that it would be tedious to repeat them.
But, after all, its antiquity cannot be determined with
certainty, though it appears from the formation of the
letteVs, which referable thofe of the fourth and fifth cen-
25 1
then follow the Epiftles of St Paul,
SCR
but not in the Scripture.
ufual order j for the Epiftle to the Hebrews is pla-
ced immediately after thofe to the 1 heffalonians: and
it is not improbable, that in the more ancient manu-
fcript, from which the Codex Vaticanus was copied, this
Epiftle was even placed before that to the Ephefians,
and immediately after the Epiitle to the Galatians (b)j
for the Epiftles of St Paul are divided into 93 fec-
tions by figures written in the margin with red ink j
but the Epiftle to the Galatians ends with 39, and that
to the Ephefians begins with 70 *, the Epiftle to the
Hebrews, on the contrary, begins with 60, and ends
with 69. With the words ccpapav tcw ©sw, Heb. ix. 14.
the manufcript ceafes, the remaining leaves being loft.
turies, and the want of accents, that it was not written * There is wanting, therefore, not only the latter part oi
13a
Account
of the Va-
dean ma¬
nufcript.
fo late as the tenth century. In this century it
placed by Oudin, while Grabe and Schulze have refer¬
red it to the fourth, which is the very utmoft period
that can be allowed, becaufe it contains the epiftles of
Athanafius. Wetftein, with more probability, has cho-
fen a mean between thefe two extremes, and referred it
to the fifth century: but we are not juftified in drawing
this inference from the information of the letters alone,
for it is well known that the fame mode of forming
the letters was retained longer in fome countries and in
fome monafteries than in others.
We are now in poffeflion of a perfect impreflion of
this manufcript, which is accompanied with fo complete
and fo critical a colleftion of various readings, as is
hardly to be expected from the edition of any other
manufeript. Dr Woide publifhed it in 1786, with types
call for that purpofe, line for line, without intervals be¬
tween the words, as in the manufcript itfelf: the copy
is fo perfeft a refemblance of the original, that it may
fupply its place. Its title is Novum Tejiamentum Gra--
cum e codice MS. Alexandrino qui Londini in Bibliotheca
Mufei Britannici ajjervatur deferiptum. It is a very
fplendid folio *, and the preface of the learned editor con¬
tains an accurate defeription of the manufcript, with
an exa£I lift of all its various readings, that takes up no
lefs than 89 pages j and each reading is accompanied
with a remark, in which is given an account of what his
predecelfors Juninus, Walton, Fell, Mill, Grabe, and
Wetftein, had performed or neglefted.
The Vatican manufcript contained originally the
whole Greek Bible, including both the Old and New
Teftament j and in this refpedt, as well as in regard to
its antiquity, it refembles none fo much as the Codex
Alexandrinus, but no two manuferipts are more diffi-
milar in their readings, in the New Teftament as well
as in the Old. After the Gofpels, which are placed in
the ufual order, come the Afts of the Apoftles, which
are immediately followed by the feven catholic epiftles.
This muft be particularly noted, becaufe fome have con¬
tended that the fecond Epiftle of St Peter, with the
fecond and third of St John, were wanting. Profeffor
Hwiid, in a letter dated Rome, April 12. 1781, affu-
red Michaelis that he had feen them with his own eyes,
that the fecond Epiftle of St Peter is placed folio 1434,
the fecond of St John fol. 1442, the third fol. 1443 :
Vol. XIX. Part I.
this Epiftle, but the Epiftles to Timothy, Titus, and
Philemon, with the Revelation of St John : but this
laft book, as well as the latter part of the Epiftle to thei
Hebrews, has been fupplied by a modern hand in the
15th century. In many places the faded letters have
been alfo retouched by a modern, but careful hand}
and when the perfon who made thefe amendments, who
appears to have been a man of learning, found a read¬
ing in his own manufcript which differed from that of
the Codex Vaticanus, he has noted it in the margin,
and has generally left the text itfelf untouched, though
in fome few examples he has ventured to erafe it.
It is certain, that this manufcript is of very high an¬
tiquity, though it has been difputed which of the two
in this refpeft is entitled to the preference, the Vatica¬
nus or Alexandrians. The editors of the Roman edi¬
tion of the Septuagint, in 1587, referred the date of
the Vatican manufcript to the fourth century, the pe¬
riod to which the advocates for its great rival refer the
Code% Alexandrinus. More moderate, and perhaps more
accurate, are the fentiments of that great judge of an¬
tiquity Montfaucon, Avho, in his Bibliotheca Bibhothe-
carum, p. 3. refers it to the fifth or fixth century j and
adds, that though he had feen other manuferipts of
equal antiquity, he had found none at the fame time fo
complete.
The Codex Vaticanus has a great refemblance to the
manuferipts noted by Wetftein, C. D. L. 1. 13. 33.
69. 102. and to the Latin, Coptic, and Ethiopic ver-
fions } but it is preferable to moft of them, in being al-
moft entirely free from thofe undeniable interpolations
and arbitrary corrections which are very frequently
found in the above-mentioned manuferipts, efpecially in
D. 1. and 69. It may be applied, therefore, as a mean
not only of confirming their genuine readings, but of
detecting and correcting thofe that are fpurious. It is
written with great accuracy, and is evidently a faithful
copy of the more ancient manufcript from which it
was tranferibed. Peculiar readings, or fuch as are
found neither in other manuferipts nor ancient verfions,
are feldom difeovered in the Codex Vaticanus', and of
the few which have been aCtually found, the greateft
part are of little importance. But in proportion as the
number of fuch readings is fmall, the number of thofe
is great j in fupport of which few only, though ancient
D authorities,
(b) Probably becaufe the Epiftle to the Hebrew's, as well as the Epiftle to the Galatians, relates to the aboli¬
tion of the Mofaic law.
SCR [2
Saiphut.. authorities, have been hitherto produced : But this
manuicript has not throughout the whole New Tefta-
ment the lame uniform text.
As we have now a beautiful printed edition of the
Alexandrian manufcript by Dr Woide, it is much to
He wifhed that we had alfo an exadt impreffion of the
\ atican manufcript. From the fuperilitious fears and
intolerant ipirit of the inquifition at Rome, all accefs
to this manufcript was refufed to the Abbe Spoletti,
who pi-efented a memorial for that purpofe. Unlefs the
pope interpofe his authority, rve mull therefore defpair of
having our withes gratified 5 but from the liberality of
fentiment which the head of the Catholic church has
fhown on feveral occafions, rve hope that the period is
not tar ddlant when the Vatican library will be open to
the learned, and when the pope will think it his great-
eft honour to encourage their refearches.
1 he molt valuable editions of the Greek New' Tefta-
ment are thofe of Mill, Bengel, and Wetftein.
The edition of Mill, which was only finiftied 14 days
I33
The belt
editions of
the Greek
New Tefta-
ment are
thofe of
Mill,
before his death, occupied the attention of the author
for 30 years.
The collections of various readings which had been
made before the time of Mill, the Velefian, the Barbe-
rini, thofe of Stephens, the London Polyglot, and Fell’s
edition, with thofe which the bifhop had left in manu¬
fcript, and whatever he was able to procure elfewhere,
he brought together into one large colledtion. He made
likewife very coniiderable additions to it. Fie collated
feveral original editions more accurately than had been
done before : he procured extracts from Greek manu-
fcripts which had never been collated ; and of fuch as
had been before collated, but not with fuffieient atten¬
tion, he obtained more complete extra&s. It is faid
that he has colle&ed from manuferipts, fathers, and ver-
ftons, not fewer than 30,000 various readings. This col-
leftion, notwithftanding its many imperfedlions, and
the fuperxority of that of Wetftein, is ftill abfolutely ne-
ceflary to every critic : for Wetftein has omitted a great
number of readings which are to be found in Mill, ef-
pecially thofe which are either taken from the Vulgate,
or confirm its readings. Mill was indeed too much at¬
tached to this verfton j yet he cannot be accufed of par¬
tiality in producing its evidence, becaufe it is the duty
of a critic to examine the witnefles on both Tides of
the queftion : and Wetftein, by too frequently negledl-
ing the evidence in favour of the Vulgate, has rendered
his colledtion lefs perfedt than it would otherwife have
been. He likewife added, as far as he was able, read¬
ings from the ancient verfions •, and is much to be com¬
mended for the great attention which he paid to the
quotations of the fathers ; the importance of which he
had fagacity enough to difeern.
It cannot, however, be denied, that Mill’s Greek Te-
ftament has many imperfedtions, and fome of real im¬
portance. His extradts from manuferipts often are not
only incomplete, but erroneous ; and it is frequently ne-
eeflary to corredf his miftakes from the edition of Wet¬
ftein. Flis extradls from the oriental verfions are alfo
imperfedi, becaufe he wTas unacquainted with thefe lan¬
guages •, and in feledting readings from the Syriac, the
Arabic, and Ethiopic, he was obliged to have recourfe
to the Latin tranflations, which are annexed to thofe
verfions in the London Polyglot.
] S C R
_ The great diligence which Mill had ftiown in collec- Scripture,
ting fo many various readings, alarmed the clergy as if""V—
the Chriftian religion had been in danger of fubverfion.
It gave occafion tor a time to the triumphs of the deift,
and expofed the author to many attacks. But it is
now univerfally known, that not a fingle article of the
Chriftian religion would be altered though a deift were
allowed to feledt out of Mill’s 30,000 readings what¬
ever he ftiould think moft inimical to tlxe Chriftian
caufe.
I734> Bengel abbot of Alpirfpach, in the duchy penc^f
of Wurtemburg, publiftied a new edition of the Greek
Teftament. The fears which Mill had excited began
to fubfide on this new publication j for Bengel was
univerfally efteemed a man of piety. Bengel was not
only diligent in the examination of various readings,
but in the ftridteft fenfe of the word confeientious 5 for
he conftdered it as an offence againft the Deity, if,
through his own fault, that is, through levity or care-
leffnefs, he introduced a falfe reading into the facred
text. His objedt was not merely to make a collection
of readings, and leave the choice of them to the judge¬
ment of the reader, but to examine the evidence on both
fides, and draw7 the inference } yet he has not given his
own opinion fo frequently as Mill, whom he refemblcd
in his reverence for the Latin vtrfion, and in the pre¬
ference which he gave to harfft and difficult readings,
before thofe which were fmooth and flowing. It may
be obferved in general, that he was a man of profound
learning, and had a cool and lound judgment, though
it did not prevent him from thinking too highly of the
Latin readings, and of the Codex Alexandrinus, with
other Latinizing manuferipts.
The imperfedtions of Bengel’s edition arife chiefly
from his diffidence and caution. He did not venture
to infert into the text any reading which had not al¬
ready appeared in fome printed edition, even though
he believed it to be the genuine reading. In the book
of Revelation indeed he took the liberty to infert read¬
ings which had never been printed; becaufe few manu¬
feripts had been ufed in the p inting of that book.
The celebrated edition of John James Wetftein, ^(jofyget
which is the moft important of all, and the moft necef-fteiic C *
fary to thofe engaged in facred criticifm, was publiftied
at Amfterdain in 1751 and 1752, in tw'o volumes folio.
No man will-deny that Wetfteih’s Prolegomena difeover
profound erudition, critical penetration, and an intimate
acquaintance with the Greek manuferipts. It is a work
which in many refpe&s has given a new turn to facred
criticifm, and no man engaged in that ftudy can dif-
penfe with it. Wherever Wetftein has delivered his
fentiments refpedting a Greek manufcript, which he
has done lefs frequently than Mill, and indeed lefs
frequently than w'e could have wiffied, he ftiows himfelf
an experienced and fagacious critic. He is likewife
more concife than Mill in delivering his opinion, and
does not fupport it by producing fo great a number
of readings from tbe manufcript in queftion. This
concifenefs is the confequence of that warmth and halte
which were peculiar to Wetftein’s charadler, and which
have fometimes given birth to miftakes. The fire of
his difpofition was likewife the caufe of his advancing
conjedtures, in regard to the hiftory of his manuferipts,
which exceed the bounds of probability. But the cri-
tiesd,
SCR [ 27 ] SCR
Sc-rlptoe. tical rules which he has delivered are perfe&ly juft ; and
in this refpeft there is a remarkable agreement between
him and his eminent predeceflors Mill and Bengel.
In regard to the Latin verfion alone they appear to
differ : in Mill and Bengel it has powerful, and per¬
haps partial, advocates j but in Wetftein a fevere and
fagacious judge, who fometimes condemns it without a
caufe. The Greek manufcripts which confirm the read¬
ings of the Vulgate, and which he fuppofed had been
corrupted from it, he of courfe condemned with equal
feverity : and fome colle£iions of various readings which
had been made by Catholics, he made no fcruple to
pronounce a forgery, faying, “ Tuneo Danaos et dona
ferentes." But in confequence of his antipathy to the
Vulgate, his colle£lion of various readings is lefs perfect
than it might have been.
It has been alked, 1. Whether he has quoted his
manufcripts either falfely or imperfedlly, in order to
eftablilh his own religious opinions ? or, 2. Whether his
diligence and accuracy have been fuch that we may at
ail times depend upon them ? To the firft of thefe quef-
tions there can be no other anfwer, than that Wetftein,
in his chara&er of a critic, is perfectly honeft. With
refpedl to the fecond, his diligence and accuracy, Mi-
ehaelis thinks there is lefs reafon to pronounce him
faultlefs. But Mr Marfti has examined the examples
on which Michaelis founds his affertion, and declares
that Michaelis is miftaken in every one of them.
The diligence of Wetftein can fcarcely be queftioned
by any who are acquainted with his hiftory. He tra¬
velled into different countries, and examined with his
own eyes a much greater number of manufcripts than
any of his predeceffors. His colleflion of various read¬
ing amounts to above a million; and he has not only
produced a much greater quantity of matter than his
predeceffors, but has likewife corrected their miftakes,
The extracts from manufcripts, verfionfe, and printed
editions of the Greek Teftament, which had been
quoted by Mill, are generally quoted by Wetftein.
Whenever Wetftein had no new extradls from the ma¬
nufcripts quoted by Mill, or had no opportunity of ex¬
amining them himfelf, he copied literally from Mill;
but wherever Mill has quoted from printed editions,
as from the margin of Robert Stephens’s for inftance,
or from the London Polyglot, Wetftein did not copy
from Mill, but went to the original fource, as appears
from his having correfted many miftakes in Mill’s quo¬
tations.
In the opinion of Michaelis, there are many defedls
in the edition of Wetftein, which require to be fupplied,
and many errors to be qorreded. Yet ftill it mull be
allowed to be a work of immenfe labour, and moft valu¬
able to thofe engaged in facred criticifm 5 and it is fur-
prifing, when we confider the difficulties and labour
which Wetftein had to encounter, that his errors and
impefiedlions are fo few.
The propofal of Michaelis, however, of a new col¬
lation of manufcripts, in order to form a complete col¬
lection of various readings, is worthy the attention of
the learned. In mentioning this propofal, Michaelis
turns a wifhfal eye towards Britain, the only country,
he fays, which poffeffes the will and the means to exe¬
cute the talk. Should a refolution, he adds, be formed
in this ifland, fo happily fituated for promoting the
purpofes of general knowledge, to make the under- Scripture,
taking a public concern, to enter into a fubfeription, ~‘
and to employ men of abilities in collating manufcripts
both at home and abroad, they would be able to do more
in ten years than could otherwife be done in a century.
And could tiff s nation direCl its attention to any objeCl
more glorious or more ufeful than in afeertaining the
text of the facred Scriptures, and giving to pofterity an
accurate edition ? jj#
As the fenfe of Scripture, as well as all other books, PunClua-
is affeCled by the punCtuation, it is of importance to de-t,on •h*
• 1.1 /u o • » 1 • u c j • NewTefta-
termine whether the ftops or points which we find mlcent
the facred books were ufed by the facred writers, or
have been inferted by modern tranferibers.
We are told by Montfaucon, in his Faheagraphia
Greeca, p. 31. that the perfon who firft diftinguilhed
the feveral parts of a period in Greek writing, by the
introduction of a point, was Ariftophanes of Byzantium,
who lived under Ptolemseus Epiphanes, in the 145th
Olympiad. But though points ivere not ufed in books
before this period, they were employed in inferiptions
above 400 years before the birth of Chrift. See Mont.
Pal. Grcec. p. 1 q 5.
Under the article Punctuation we mentioned, on
authority which we reckoned unqueftionable, that the
ancient manufcripts were written without any points.
We have now, however, drfeovered, from Woide’s edi¬
tion of the Codex Alexandrians, that points are ufed in
that manufeript, though omitted in the facJimile given
by Montfaucon. That they are found too in the Codex
Vaticanus, though not frequently, is related by Birch in
his Prolegomena, p. 14.
As the fad has not been generally known, that the
ancients pointed their marrtiferipts, and as it is an im¬
portant and interefting faCt, we fliall prefent our readers
with the firft fix lines of St John’s Gofpel, as they are
pointed in the Alexandrian manufeript:
ENAPXHHNOAOrOSKAIOAOrOSHN
nPOSTONQN KAI0SHNOAOFO2’
OTTOEHNENAFXHriPOSTONeN
ITANTAAlAYTOYErENETO KAIXft
PEISAYTOYErENETOOYAEEN-
OrEFONENENAYTnznHHN-
Whether any points for marking the fenfe were ufed
by the apoftles, cannot be determined j but the points
now in ufe have been invented fince.
In the fourth century, Jerome began to add the com¬
ma and colon to the Latin verfion ; and they were then
inferted in many more ancient manufcripts. In the
fifth century, Euthalius a deacon of Alexandria divided
the New Teftament into lines. This divifion was re¬
gulated by the fenfe, fo that each line ended where feme
paufe was to be- made in fpeaking. And w'hen a co-
pyift was difpofed to contract his fpace, and therefore
crowded the lines into each other, he then placed a
point where Euthalius had terminated the line. In
the eighth century, the ftroke was invented which we
call a comma. In the Latin manufcripts, Jerome’s
points were introduced by Paul Warnfried and Alcuin,
at the command of Charlemagne. In the ninth cen¬
tury, the Greek note of interrogation (•,) was firft .ufed.
At the invention of printing the editors placed the
U 2 points
137
Divifion
into chap
ters.
SCR [28
Scripture.^ points arbitrarily, probably without bellowing the ne-
^ ceffary attention •, and Stephens, in particular, varied
his points in every edition (d).
The meaning of many paflages in the Scripture has
been altered by falfe pointing. We lhall produce one
inllance of this: Mat. v. 34. is commonly pointed in
this manner, iy*» ?£ Myu vfuv, ^ opoa-ea oA»s’ sv ru
ugxico, and confequently tranllated, “ But I fay unto
you, fwear not at all.” But if, inlfead of the colon
placed after oXvs, we fublfitute a comma, the tranllation
will be, “ But I fay to you that you ought by no means
to fwear, either by heaven, for it is his throne, or by
earth, for it is his footftool.” The command of Chrift
therefore applies particularly to the abufe of oaths
among the Pharifees, who on every trivial occafion
fwore by the heaven, the earth, the temple, the head,
&c. but it implies no prohibition to take an oath in
the name of the Deity on folemn and important occa-
fions.
The ancients divided the New Tellament into two
kinds of chapters, fome longer and fome {hotter. This
method appears to be more ancient than St Jerome, for
he expunged a palfage from the New Teftament, which
makes an entire chapter. The longer kind of chapters
were called breves, the fhorter capitula. St Matthew
contained, according to Jerome, 68 breves $ Mark con¬
tained 48 ; Luke 83 •, and John 18. All the evange-
lills together conlifted of 2x7 breves and 1126 capitula.
The inventor of our modern divilion into chapters was
Hugo de S. Caro, a French Dominican friar, who
lived in the 13th century.
The ancients had two kinds of verfes, one of which
they called and the other ^n/xxTx. The remata
were lines which contained a certain number of letters,
like our printed books, and therefore often broke off in
the middle of a word. Jofephus’s 20 books of Antiqui¬
ties contained 60,000 of them, though in Ittiquis’s edi¬
tion there are only 40^000 broken lines.
Stichi were lines meafured by the fenfe : according to
an ancient written lift mentioned by Father Simin, there
were in the New Teftament 18,612 of thefe.
The verfes into which the New Teftament is now
divided are more modern, and an imitation of the di¬
vifion of the Old Teftament. Robert Stephens, the
firft inventor, introduced them in his edition in the year
]
SCR
. .'S8
Divifion
m to veifes,
I55I\ made this divifion on a journey from Lyons Scripture,
to Paris ; and, as his fon Henry tells us in the preface *■■■—y—
to the Concordance of the New Teftament, he made it
inter eqmtandum. This phrafe probably means, that
when he was weary of riding, he amufed himfelf with
this work at his inn. ^
i his invention of the learned printer was foon intro- Its difad-
duced into all the editions of the New Teftament; and vantages*
it muft be confefled, that in confulting and quoting the
Scriptures, and in framing concordances for them, a fub-
divilion into minute parts is of the greateft utility. But
all the purpofes of utility could furely have been gain¬
ed, without adopting the hafty and indigefted divifion
of Stephens, which often breaks the fenfe in pieces,
renders plain paflages obfcure, and difficult pafiages un¬
intelligible. To the injudicious divifion of Stephens
we may afcribe a great part of the difficulties which
attend the interpretation of the New Teftament, and a
great many of thofe abfurd opinions which have dif-
graced the ages of the Reformation. For as feparate
verfes appear to the eyes of the learned, and to the
minds of the unlearned, as fo many detached fentences,
they have been fuppofed to contain complete fenfe, and
they have accordingly been explained without any re¬
gard to the context, and often in direift oppofition to
it; _ Were any modern hiftory or continued difcourfe
divided into fragments with as little regard to the fenfe,
we ftiould foon find, that as many oppofite meanings
could be forced upon them as have been forced upon
the books of the New Teftament. The divifion into
verfes has been ftill more injurious to the Epiftles than
to the Gofpels, for there is a clofe connexion between
the different parts of the Epiftles, which the verfes en¬
tirely diflolve. It is therefore to be wiffied that this
divifion into verfes were laid afide. The Scriptures
ought to be divided into paragraphs, according to the
fenfe ; and the figures ought to be thrown into the mar¬
gin. In this way, the figures will retain their utility
without their difadvantages. Dr Campbell, in his
beautiful tranllation of the Gofpels, has adopted this
method with great judgment and fuccefs ; and he who
will read that tranllation, will perceive that this fingle
alteration renders the Gofpels much more intelligible,
and, we may add, more entertaining (e).
The word EYAITEAION fignifies any joyful tidings, Me^°g of
and the word
GofpeU
(d) The reader will perceive that the account of the origin of points is different from that given under PuNC-
iHJATiON. But the beft authors differ upon this fubjett. We lhall perhaps reconcile the difference, byfuppofing
t hat points were invented at the time here mentioned, but were not in general ufe till the time mentioned under
the article Punctuation.
(e) We lhall here fubjoin, as a curiofity, what the anonymous author terms the Old and New Tejlament diffeB-
ed. It contains an enumeration of all the books, chapters, verfes, words, and letters, which occur in the Englilh
Bible and Apocrypha. It is faid to have occupied three years of the author’s life, and is a Angular inftance of the
trilling employments to which fuperftition has led mankind.
Books in the Old
Chapters
Verfes
Words
Letters
The Old and New Testament differed.
39 in the New - 27 Total
929 - - - 260
23,214 - - - 7959
59M39 - - - 181,253
' 2,728,100 - - - 838,380 - '
66
1189
3M73
773,692
3,566,480
Apocryph.
Chapters 183
Verfes 6081
Words 152,185
I
The
SCR [ 29 ] SCR
Scripture
141
Gofpel ac¬
cording to
St Mat¬
thew.
142
It# authen¬
ticity.
* Hift. lib.
vi. cap. 35.
and exactly correfponds to our Englifh tvord Gospel.
In the New Teftament this term is confined to “ The
glad tidings of the coming of the IV[effiah.,1 Thus, in
Mat. xi. 5. our Lord fays, “ The poor have the Gofpel
preached that is, The coming of the Mefliah is
preached to the poor. Hence the name of Gofpel was
given to the hiftories of Chrift, in which the good news
of the coming of the Meffiah, with all its joyful circum-
ftances, are recorded.
That the Gofpel according to Matthew -was compo-
fed, fays Dr Campbell, by one born a Jew, familiarly
acquainted with the opinions, ceremonies, and cuftoms
of his countrymen •, that it was compofed by one con-
verfant in the facred writings, and habituated to their
idiom 5 a man of plain fenfe, but of little or no learning,
except what he derived from the Scriptures of the Old
Teftament} and finally, that it was the production ef
a man who -wrote from conviction, and had attended
clofely to the faCts and fpeeches which he related, but
who in writing entertained not the moft diftant view
of fetting off himfelf—we have as ftrong internal evi¬
dence as the nature of the thing will admit, and much
ftronger than that wherein the mind ninety-nine cafes
out of a hundred acquiefces.
That the author of this hiftory of our bleffed Savi¬
our was Matthew, appears from the teftimony of the
early Chriftians. It is attefted by Jerome, Auguftin,
Epiphanius, and Chryfoftom, and in fuch a manner‘as
fhews that they knew the faCl to be uncontroverted,
and judged it to be uncontrovertible. Origen, who
flouriftied in the former part of the 3d century, is alfo
refpeftable authority. He is quoted by Eufebius in a
chapter * wherein he fpecially treats of Origen’s account
of the facred canon. “ As I have learned (fays Ori¬
gen) by tradition concerning the four gofpels, which
alone are received without difpute by the whole church
of God under heaven ; the firft was written by Mat¬
thew, once a publican, afterwards an apoftle of Jefus
Chrift, ijoho delivered it to theJewifh believers, compofed
in the Hebrew language^ In another place he fays,
“ Matthew Avriting for the Hebrews Avho expefted him
who Avas to defcend from Abraham and David, fays
the lineage of Jefus Chrift, fon-of David, fon of Abra- Scripture,
ham.” It muft be obferved, that the Greek Avord' ^
7rct%xtb><ris does not exaClly correfpond to the Englifti
Avord tradition, Avhich fignifies any thing delivered orally
from age to age. ntcgxdorig properly implies any thing
tranfmitted from former ages, whether by oral or Avrit-
ten teftimony. In this acceptation avc find it ufed in
Scripture-f : “ Hold the traditions (rag )<Avhich f ThelT. if
ye have been taught, whether by word or our epijlle.'1'1 IS-
The next authority to Avhich Ave ftiall have recourfe
is that of Irenaeus bilhop of Lyons, Avho had been a
difciple of Polycarp. He fays in the only book of his
extant, that “ MattheAV, among the Hebrews, wrote a Eufel. Hijl.
gofpel in their oA^n language, Avhilft Peter and Paul Eccl. lib. v,
were preaching the gofpel at Rome and founding the caP- 8*
church there.”
To the teftimony of thefe writers it may beobje£led,
that, except Irenaeus, they all lived in the third and
fourth centuries, and confequently their evidence is of
little importance. But there is fuch unanimity in the
teftimony, that it muft have been derived from fome
authentic fource. And is it fair to queftion the veraci¬
ty of refpe&able men merely becaufe Ave kneAV not
from Avhat Avritings they received their information ?
Many books Avhich Avere then extant are noAv loft ; and
how do Ave knoAV but thefe might have contained fuf-
ficient evidence i1 Irenteus at leaft had the beft opportu¬
nities of information, having been Avell acquainted in
his youth Avith Polycarp, the difciple of John ; no objec¬
tion can therefore be made to his evidence. But Ave
can quote an authority ftill nearer the times of the
apoftles. Papias bifhop of Hierapolis, in Ceefarea, Avho
flouriftied about A. D. 116, affirms that MattheAV Avrote
his gofpel in the HebreAv tongue, Avhich every one in¬
terpreted as he Avas able §. Papias Avas the companion j Eufeb.
of Polycarp, and befides muft have been acquainted with
many perfons Avho lived in the time of the apoftles.11 ' In‘ca^'
The fa£t therefore is fully eftabliflied, that MattheAV,39
the apoftle of our Saviour, Avas the author of that gof¬
pel Avhich is placed firft in our editions of the Ncav
Teftament.
The next fubjeft of inquiry refpefts the language in
Avhich
The middle Chapter and the leaft in the Bible is Pfalm 117.
The middle Verfe is the 8th of the 118th Pfalm.
The middle time is the 2d of Chronicles, 4th Chap. 16th Verfe.
The word And occurs in the Old Teftament 35,543 times.
The fame in the Ncav Teftament occurs 10,684 times.
The Avord Jehovah occurs 6855 times.
Old Testament.
The middle Book is Proverbs.
The middle Chapter is Job 29th;
The middle Verfe is 2d Chron. 20th Chap. betAveen 17th and 18th Verfes,
The leaft Verfe is 1 Chron. ill Chap, and ift Verfe.
New Testament.
The middle Book is Theflalonians 2d.
The middle Chapter is betAveen the 13th and 14th Romans.
The middle Verfe is 17th Chap. A£ls, 17th Verfe.
The leaft Verfe is nth Chap. John, Verfe 35.
The 2lft Verfe of the 7th Chapter of Ezra has all the letters of the alphabet.
The 19th Chapter of 2d Kings and 37th of Ifaiah are alike.
SCR
Se-dptuf-e.
*43
Language
in which
it was writ¬
ten.
*44
Date,
Lardner’s
Hijl. of the
Apojlles.
*45
and defign
of it.
.Dr Camp¬
bell's Pre¬
face to
Matthew's
Gofpel.
which it was written. This we are aflured by Papias,
by Irenaeus, and Origen, was the Hebrew j but the
truth of this fatt has been difputed by Erafmus, Whit¬
by, and others. Whitby urges the improbability that
Providence would have fuffered the original of this
goipel to be loft, and nothing to remain but a tranila-
tion. This is an argument of no force againft written
teftimony *, indeed we are always in danger of drawing
falfe conclufions when we argue from our own opinions
of the condudl of Providence: For His ways are not
as our ways, nor His thoughts as our thoughts. But
though we are forced to acknowledge that the gofpel
according to Matthew which we pofl'efs is a tranflation,
it is evidently a clofe one j and the very circumftance
that it has fuperfeded the original, is a clear proof that
it was thought equally valuable by the ancient Chrifti-
ans. It is neceflary to remark, that the language in
which the gofpel according to Matthew was original¬
ly compofed, and which is called Hebrew by Papias,
Irenaeus, and Origen, is not the fame with the Hebrew
of the Old Teftament: it was what Jerome very pro¬
perly terms Syro-Chaldaic, having an affinity to both
languages, but much more to the Chaldean than to the
Syrian.
The time when this gofpel was compofed has not
been precifely afcertained by the learned. Irenaeus fays
that “ Matthew publiffied his gofpel -when Peter and
Paul were preaching at Rome.” Now Paul arrived at
Rome A. H. 6o or 6i, and it is very probable fuffered
martyrdom in A. D. 65. This may be juftly concluded
from comparing the relation of Tacitus writh that of O-
rofius, a writer of the fifth century. Orofius having
given an account of Nero’s perfecution of the Chriftians,
and of the death of the two apoftles in it, adds, that it
wTas followed by a peftilence in the city, and other dif-
afters. And Tacitus relates that a peftilence prevailed
in the city, and violent ftorms took place in Italy, in the
year of Chrift 65. Matthew’s gofpel was therefore writ¬
ten between the'year 60 and 65.
That this hiftory was primarily intended for the ufe
of the Jews, we have, befides hiftorical evidence, very
ftrong prefumptions from the book itfelf. Every cir-
cuinftance is carefully pointed out which might concili¬
ate the faith of that nation •, every unneceflfary expref-
fion is avoided, which might in any way ferve to ob-
ftruft it. To come to particulars, there wTas no fenti-
ment relating to the Meffiah with which the Jews were
more ftrongly poffeffed, than that he muft be of the race
of Abraham, and of the family of David. Matthew,
therefore, with great propriety, begins his narrative with
the genealogy of Jefus. That he fliould be born at
Bethlehem in Judea, is another circumftance in which
the learned among the Jews were univerfally agreed.
His birth in that city, with feme very memorable cir-
cumftances that attended it, this hiftorian has alfo taken
the firft opportunity to mention. Thofe paffages in the
prophets, or other iacred books, which either foretel any
thing that ftiould happen to him, or admit an allufive
appellation, or were in that age generally underftood to
be applicable to events which refpefl the Meffiah, are
never paffed over in filence by this Evangelift. The
fulfilment of prophecy was always to the Jews, who
were convinced of the infpiration of their facred writ¬
ings, ftrong evidence. Accordingly none of the Evan-
2
[ 3° ]
SCR
gelifts has been more careful than Matthew, that no- Scripture,
thing of this kind Ihould be overlooked. ^ 1 ‘
That which chiefly diftinguiihes M atthew’s writings yj^guift
from thofe of the other Evangelifts, is the minute and,rig charac-
ditlindf manner in which he has related many of our ter.
Lord’s difeourfes and moral inftructions. Ot thefe his
fermon on the mount, his charge to the apoftles, his
illuftrations of the nature of his kingdom, and his pro¬
phecy on Mount Olivet, are examples. He has alfo
wonderfully united ftmpiicity and energy in relating the
replies of his mafter to the cavils of his adverfaries. Be¬
ing early called to the apoftleihip, he was an eye and ear
witnefs of moft of the things which he relates. And
thefe are circumftances which incline Dr Campbell to
think that Matthew has approached as near the precife
order of time in which the events happened as any of the
Evangelifts.
Concerning the life of the apoftle Matthew vee have
nothing to add, as the principal circumftances in his life
have already been mentioned. See Matthew.
The Gofpel according to Matthew is cited ftven times
in the epiftle of Barnabas, twice in the firft epiftle of
Clemens Romanus to the Corinthians, eight times in the
Shepherd of Hermas, fix times in Polycarp’s fmall epiftle
to the Philippians, and feven times in the fmaller epiftles
of Ignatius. Thefe citations may be feen at full length
in Jones's New and Full Method of fettling the Canon,
with the parallel paffages in the gofpel according to
Matthew.
That Mark was the author of the gofpel which bears Gofpel ae-
his name, and that it was the fecond in the order of cording to
time, is proved by the unanimous teftimony of the an- MarL
cient Chriftians. Many authorities are therefore un* its authen-
neceffary ; we {hall only mention thofe of Papias andticity,
Irenaeus. Eufebius has preferved the following paffage
of Papias : “ This is what Avas related by the elder
that is, John, not the apoftle, but a difciple of Jefus) ; ,1^- m' cax’'
Mark being Peter’s interpreter wrote exactly Avhatever
he remembered, not indeed in the order 'wherein things
were fpoken and done by the Lord 5 forhe Avasnot him-
felf a hearer or follower of our Lord *, but he afterAvards,
as I faid, followed Peter Avho ga\re inftruflions as fuited
the occafions, but not as a regular hiftory of our Lord’s
teaching. Mark, however, committed no miftake in
Avriting fuch things as occurred to his memory : for of
this one thing he Avas careful, to omit nothing which he
had heard, and to infert no falfehood into his narrative.”
Such is the teftimony of Papias, w hich is the more to be
regarded as he affigns his authority. He fpake not from
hearfay, but from the information which he had recei¬
ved from a moft credible Avitnefs, John the elder, or
prefbyter, a difciple of Jefus, and a companion of the
apoftles.
Irenseus, after telling us that Mattherv publiftied his and date,
gofpel whilft Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome,
adds: “ After their departure Mark alfo, the
difciple and interpreter of Peter, delivered to us int<
Avriting the things y. hich had been preached by Pe ter.”
The Greek like the Englifh word departure,
may either denote death, Avhich is a departure out of
the world, or mean a departure out of the city. It is
probably in the former of thefe fenfes it is here ufed.
Yet by the accounts given by feme ethers, Mark’s
gofpel Avas publiftied in Peter’s lifetime, and had his
approbation.
was writ¬
ten.
SCR [3
Scripture, approbation. The gofpel of Mark is fuppofed to be
4 *' 1 but two years pofterior in date to that of Matthew.
The precife year, however, cannot be determined with
certainty ; and it is a matter of no importance, fince we
have afcertained the author and the time in which he
lived.
Mark has generally been fuppofed to be the fame
perfon who is mentioned in the adds and fome of Paul’s
epiftles, who is called John, and was the nephew of Bar¬
nabas. But as this perfon was the attendant of Paul
and Barnabas, and is nowhere in fcripture faid to have
accompanied Peter in his apoftolical million, which
ancient writers inform us the author of the gofpel did,
Dr Campbell has juftly concluded that thefe were dif-
Preface to ferent perfons. The author of the gofpel is certainly
Mark. meant by Peter when he fays Marcus my fan faluteth
* i Pet. v. you *.
13- That Mark wrote his gofpel in Greek, is as evidently
‘5° conformable to the teftimony of antiquity, as that Mat-
inTvhich it t^ew wrote his in Hebrew or Syro-Chaldaic. The car¬
dinals Baronius and Bellarmine, anxious to exalt the lan¬
guage in which the vulgate was written, have maintained
that this Evangelifl publifhed his work in Latin. The
only appearance of teftimony which has been produced
in fupport of this opinion is the infcription fubjoined to
this gofpel in Syriac, and in fome other oriental verfions.
But thefe poftfcripts are not the teftimonies of the tranf-
lators : they proceed from the conjecture of fome tran-
fcriber; but when written, or by whom, is equally un¬
known. Againft politive teftimony, therefore, they are
entitled to no credit.
From the Hebraifms in the flyle, we fhould readily
conclude that the author was by birth and education a
Jew. There are alfo expreflions which ftiow that he
had lived for fome time among the Latins, as ku/tv^iuh,
“ centurion,” and e-jrsxaAafTwg, “ fentinelwords which
do not occur in the other gofpels. There are other
internal evidences that this gofpel was written be-
Dr Camp- yond the confines of Judea. The firft time the Jor-
belfs Pre- dan is mentioned, 7roTxy.os, “ river,” is added to the
Mark's rrame f°r explanation ; for though no perfon in Judea
Cofpel. needed to be informed that Jordan was a river, the cafe
Was different in diftant countries. The word Gehenna,
which is tranllated Hell in the New Teftament, origi¬
nally fignified the Valley of Hinnom, rvhere infants had
been facrificed by fire to Moloch, and where a conti¬
nual fire was afterwards kept up to confume the filth of
Jerufalem. As this word could not have been under-
ftood by a foreigner, the Evangelift adds, by way of
explanation, xyg to osT/Ssrov, “ the unquenchable fire.”
Inftead of the word Mammon, he ufes the common
term “ riches.” When he employs the oriental
word Carbon, he fubjoins the interpretation o er< ^goy,
that is, “ a gift.” Thefe peculiarities will corroborate
the hiftorical evidence that has been already mentioned,
that Mark intended his gofpel for the ufe of the Gen¬
tiles.
It has been affirmed that this evangelift is the abridger
of Matthew. It is true that Mark fometimes copies
swr of Mat-the expreffions ufed by Matthew ; but he is not to be
tnew, confidered as a mere abridger, for he omits altogether
feveral things related by Matthew, viz. our Lord’s pe¬
digree,. his birth, the vifit of the Magians, Jofeph’s
flight into Egypt, and the cruelty of Herod. Dr
Lardner has given a lift of thirty-three paffages, where*
1SI
Defign of
it.
*5*
Mark not
the abrid-
i ] SCR
in circumftances are related which are omitted by the Scripture,
other evangelifts. There is one parable, and an account'   1
of two miracles peculiar to Mark. The parable or fi-
militude is mentioned in chap. iv. 26. One of thefe mi¬
racles was the curing of a deaf and dumb man, chap,
vii. 31, 37. The other was the giving fight to a blind
man at Bethfaida, chap. viii. 22, 26. The ftyle of
Mark, inftead of being more concife than that of Mat¬
thew, is more diffufe. That he had read Matthew’s
gofpel cannot be doubted, but that he abridged it, is a
miftake. ‘ 1
According to the teftimony which has been already but derived
produced, Mark derived his information from the apoftle h‘s informa-
Peter. It would be improper, therefore, not to remark, ^ [rom
that this evangelift has omitted many things tending to oter’
Peter’s honour, which are related in the other gofpels,
and has given the moft particular account of Peter’s fall.
This gofpel h {even times cited by Irenteus, and nine
times by Tertullian.
That the author of the gofpel which is the third in Gofpel ac-
order was Luke, the companion of the apoftle Paul, is cording to
evident from the teftimonies of Irenmus, Clemens ofSt Lui‘e'
Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, and many fucceedino-
writers. But it has been dilputed whether he was a
Jew or a Gentile. That Luke was a Jew by birth, or
at leaft by religion, may be argued from his being a
conftant companion of Paul. If he had been an un-
circumcifed Gentile, exceptions would have been made
to him, efpecially at Jerufalem ; but nothing of that
kind appears. It is alfo rendered highly probable, from
his mode of computing time by the Jewifti feftivals, and
from his frequent ufe of the Hebrew idiom. It has been
fuppofed that Luke was one of the 70 difciples; but he
does not pretend to have been a witnefs of our Lord’s
miracles and leaching ; 6n the contrary, he tells us in
his introdu&ion, that he received his information from
others. ^
The defign of Luke in writing his gofpel w-as to fu- Defign of
perfede fome imperfed and inaccurate hiftories of ourh-
Saviour, which had then been publilhed. What thefe
were, it is impoflible now to determine, as they are
not mentioned by any contemporary writer, and pro¬
bably did not furvive the age in which they were com-
pofed. ^ I55
It has been fuppofed that Luke chiefly derived his From what
information from the apoftle Paul, whom he faithfully fource of
attended in his travels j but, from Luke’s own words, n.'forma‘
we are.led to conclude, that the principal fource of his jerived?^
intelligence, as to the fads related in the gofpel, was
from thofe who had been eye and ear witneffes of what
our Lord both did and taught. Now Paul evidently
was not of this number. It was from converfing with
fome of the twelve apoftles or difciples of our Lord, who
heard his difcourfes and few his miracles, that he obtain¬
ed his information.
As to the time when this gofpel was written, we- have
hardly any thing but conjedure to guide us. But as O-
rigen, Eufebius, and Jerome, have ranged it after thofe
of Matthew and Mark, we have no reafon to doubt but
they were written in the fame order.
The gofpel by Luke has fupplied us with many inter Has (up-
refting particulars which had been omitted both by plied many
Matthew’ and Mark. It has given a diftind narration0111*®0115 °f
of the circumftances attending the birth of John thethe tvv^ fo.r~
Baptift and the nativity of our.Saviour. It has given merg° ^
SCR [ 32 ] SCR
Scripture, an aecouftt of feveral memorable incidents and cures
' which had beeh overlooked by the reft ^ the conver-
t)r Camp ^on ^acc^eus ^ie publican $ the cure of the woman
bell's Pre- w^° had been bowed down for 18 years •, the cure of
the dropfical man *, the cleanfing of the ten lepers 5 the
inhofpitable treatment of our Saviour by the Samari-
face to
Luke's
Cofpel.
tans, and the inftruftive rebuke which he gave on that
I$S
Style and
occafion to two of his difciples for their intemperate
zeal; alfo the affecting interview which he had after his
refurreftion with two of his difciples. Luke has alfo
added many edifying parables to thofe which the other
evangelifts had recorded. Moft of thefe are fpecified
by Irenaeus as particularly belonging to this gofpel,
and has thereby fhown to us, without intending it, that
the gofpel of Luke was the fame in his time that it is at
prefent.
The ftyle of this evangelift abounds as much with
compofition Hebraifms as any of the facred writings, but it contains
lt- more of the Grecian idiom than any of them. It is
alfo diftinguilhed by greater variety and copioufnefs j
qualities which may be juftly afcribed to the fuperior
learning of the author. His occupation as a phyfician
would naturally induce him to employ fome time in
reading, and give him eafier accefs to the company of
the great than any of the other evangelifts. As an
inftance of Luke’s copioufnefs, Dr Campbell has re¬
marked that each of the evangelifts has a number of
words which are ufed by none of the reft ^ but in Luke’s
gofpel the number of fuch peculiarities or words, ufed
in none of the other gofpels, is greater than that of the
peculiar words found in all the three other gofpels put
together $ and that the terms peculiar to Luke are for1
the moft part long and compound words. The fame
judicious writer has alfo obferved, that there is mote of
compofition in Luke’s fentences than is found in the
other three, and confequently lefs fimplicity. Of this
the very firft fentence is an example, which occupies
no lefs than four verfes. Luke, too, has a greater re-
femblance to other hiftorians, in giving what may be
called his own verdift in the narrative part of this work ;
a freedom which the other evangelifts have feldom or
never ventured to ufe. He calls the Pharifees /overs
of money ; in diftinguiftiing Judas Ifcariot from the
other Judas, he ufes the phrafe, he who proved a traitor^
(of nett lyiviTo 5rge2«T»jj). Matthew and Mark exprefs the
fame fentiment in milder language, “ he who delivered
him up.” In recording the moral inftru&ions of our
Lord, efpecially his parables, this evangelift has united
an affe&ing fweetnefs of manner with genuine limpli-
city.
This gofpel is frequently cited by Clemens Romanus,
the contemporary of the Apoftles, by Ignatius, and Juf-
tin Martyr. Irenaeus has made above a hundred cita¬
tions from it. In his lib. iii. adv. Hceref. c. 14. he vin¬
dicates the authority and perfection of Luke’s gofpel,
and has produced a collection of thofe faCts which are
only recorded by this evangelift.
That the gofpel -which is placed laft in our editions
of the New Teftament was written by John, one of our
Saviour’s apoftles, is confirmed by the unanimous tefti-
mony of the ancient Chriftians, He was the fon of Ze-
bedee, a fiftierman of Bethfaida in Galilee, by his wife
Salome, and the brother of James, furnamed the elder
or greater. He was the beloved difciple of our Saviour,
and was honoured, along with Peter and James, with
Chap. xvi.
*4.
. *59
Cited by
ancient
Chriftian
authors.
160
Gofpel ac¬
cording to
John.
many marks of diftinCtion which were not conferred on Scripture,
the other difciples. He poffeffed a high degree of intre-
pidity and zeal, a warm and affeClionate heart, and was
ftrongly attached to his mafter. His brother James and
he were honoured with the title of Boanerges, or Sons
of Thunder. He Was anxious to reftrain whatever he
confidered as a mark of difrefpeCt againft his mafter, and
to punifli his enemies with feverity. He was incenfed
againft fome perfons for attempting to caft out demons
in the name of Jefus •, and required them to defift becaufe
they were not his difciples. James and he propofed to
our Saviour to call down fire from heaven to punilh the
inhofpitable Samaritans. Nor was the courage of John
lefs ardent than his zeal. When Peter had difowned his
Lord, and all the other difciples had fled, John conti¬
nued to attend his mafter. He was prefent at his trial,
and followed him to the crofs, where he was a fpeCta-
tor of his fufferings and death. The interview between
Jefus and this difciple at Calvary, though concifely re¬
lated, is an event which will ftrongly affeCt every man
of feeling, while it convinces him of the unalterable
affeftion of Jefus to his beloved difciple, as well as
difeovers his refpe&ful tehdernefs for his mother. See
John-. _ kJj
The ancients inform us, that there were two motives Motives
which induced John to write his gofpel : the one, that for writ¬
he might refute the herefies of Cerinthus and the Nico-inS lU
laitans, who had attempted to corrupt the Chriftian
doftrine ; the other motive was, that he might fupply
thofe important events in the life of our Saviour which
the other evangelifts had omitted. Of the former of
thefe motives Irenaeus gives us the following account :
“ John, defirous to extirpate the errors fown in the
minds of men by Cerinthus, and fome time before by
thofe called Nicolaitans, publifhed his gofpel ; wherein
he acquaints us that there is one God, who made all
things by his word, and not, as they fay, one who is
the Creator of the world, and another who is the father
of the Lord •, one the fon of the Creator, and another
the Chrift, from the fuperceleftial abodes who defeend-
ed upon Jefus, the fon of the Creator, but remained
impaflible, and afterwards fled back into his own ple-
roma or fulnefs.” As Irenaeus is the moft ancient au¬
thor who has written upon this fubjeft, many appeals ^
have been made to his authority. The authority °f jyot t0 CGr,
Irenaeus is certainly refpeftable, and we have often re- fate here-
ferred to his teftimony with confidence ; but we think tics,
it neceflary to make adiftin&ion between receiving his
teftimony to a matter of fa6t, and implicitly adopting
his opinion. He does not tell us, that he derived his
information from any preceding writer, or indeed from
any perfon at all. Nay, he feems to have believed that
John wrote againft thefe herefies by a prophetic fpirit j
for he fays in another place, chap. xx. 30. “ As John
the difciple of our Lord affures us, faying, But thefe
are written, that ye might believe that Jefus is the
Chrift, the Son of God, and that believing ye might
have life^ through his name 5 FORESEEING thefe blaf-
phemous notions that divide the Lord, fo far as it is ill
their power?'
Indeed it feems very improbable that an apoftle
fhould write a hiftory of our Lord on purpofe to con-
J fute the wild opinions of Cerinthus or any other here¬
tic. Had John confidered fuch a confutation necef-
fary, it is more likely that he would have introduced it
into -
Scripture.
163
But to
prove that
Jefus was
the Mei-
liah the
Son of
God.
* John kv.
3i-
164
Is a iupple
ment to
the other
three gof-
pels.
JDr Camp¬
bell's Pre¬
face to
John's
Gofpel.
SCR [3
into an eplftle than blended it with the aclions of his ve¬
nerable Matter. But were the opinion of Irenteus well-
founded, we fhould fur el y difcover fome traces of it in
the gofpel of John •, yet except in the introdu&ian,
there is nothing that can with the leaft thadow of pro¬
bability be applied to the opinions of Cerinthus •, and
few, we prefume, will affirm, that the gofpel of John
was compofed merely for the fake of the firft eighteen
verfes.
The intention of John in writing his gofpel avas far
more extenfive and important than to refute the opi¬
nions of a few men who were to fink into oblivion in the
courfe of a few centuries. It was evidently (according
to the opinion of Clemens of Alexandria) to fupply the
omiffions of the other evangelifts : It was to exhibit the
evidences of the Chriftian religion in a diftindt and per-
fpicuous manner : It was, as he himfelf in the conclu-
fion of his gofpel afl'ures us, to convince his readers,
that Jefus is the Me/Jiah, the Son of God, and that be¬
lieving the!/ might have life through his name *. Now it
will appear to any perfon who reads this gofpel rvith
attention, that he has executed his plan with aftonitti-
ing ability, and has given the moft eircumftantial and
fatisfadlory evidence that Jefus rvas the Meffiah the Son
of God. After declaring the pre-exiftence of Jefus,
he proceeds to deliver the teftimony of John the Bap-
tift, and felects fome of the greateft miracles of Jefus,
to prove his divine miffion. In the fifth chapter he
prefents us with a difcourfe which our Saviour deliver¬
ed in the temple in the prefence of the Jcavs, Avherein
he Hates in a very diftindt manner the proofs of his
miffion from, 1. The teftimony of John •, 2. His oivn mi¬
racles ; 3. The declaration of the Father at his baptifm ;
4. The Jewith Scriptures. Indeed the conclufion that
Jefus was the Meffiah the Son of God, naturally arifes
from almoft every miracle Avhich our Saviour is faid to
have performed, and from every difcourfe that he de¬
livered. This declaration is very often made by our
Saviour himfelf; particularly to the Avoman of Sama¬
ria, to Nicodemus, and to the blind man Avhom he had
cured.
It mutt be evident to every reader, that John ftudi-
oufly paffes over thofe paffages in our Lord’s hiftory
and teaching which had been treated at large by the
other eA'angelifts, or, if he mentions them at all, he men¬
tions them llightly. This confirms the teftimony of
ancient Avriters, that the firft three gofpels Avere Avrit-
ten and publilhed before John compofed his gofpel.
Except the relation of our Saviour’s trial, death, and
refurredlion, almoft every thing which occurs in this
book is neAV. The account of our Saviour’s nativity,
of his baptifm, and of his temptation in the Avildernefs,
is omitted ; nor is any notice taken of the calling of
the tAvelve apoftles, or of their miffion during our Sa¬
viour’s life. It is remarkable, too, that not one pa¬
rable is mentioned, nor any of the predidlions relating
to the deftruftion of Jerufalem. All the miracles re-
Vol. XIX. Part I.
3 ] SCR
corded by the other evangelifts are paffed over, except Scripture,
the miraculous fupply of provifion, by Avhich five thou- "'v
fand Avere fed : and it is probable that this mir&cle was
related for the fake of the difcourfe to Avhieh it gave
birth. The other miracles Avhich are mentioned are
feAV in number, but in general they are minutely de¬
tailed. They confift of thefe : the turning of Avater
into Avine at Cana j the cure of the difeafed man at the
pool of Bethefda ; the cure of the man that had been
blind from his birth ; the reftoring of Lazarus to life j
and the healing of the fervant’s ear Avhich Peter had
cut off. But valuable Avould this gofpel be, though it
had only recorded the confolation of Jefus to his dif-
ciples previous to his departure ; Avhich exhibits a molt
admirable aucav of our Saviour’s charafler, of his care
and tender regard for his difciples. Having opened
every fource of comfort to their defponding minds ,
exhorted them to mutual love, and to the obedience of
his Father’s precepts; having Avarned them of the im¬
pending dangers and forroAVs—our Saviour concludes
Avith a prayer, in the true fpirit of piety and benevo¬
lence ; ardent Avithout enthufiafm, fober and rational
without lukeAvarmnefs.
The time in Avhich this gofpel Avas A\rritten has not Time at
been fixed Avith any precifion. Irenseus informs us, that which it
it Avas written at Ephefus, but leaves us to conje£lurewas wm“
Avhether it Avas Avritten before or after John’s returnten'
from Patmos. He Avas baniffied to Patmos by Domi-
tian, Avho reigned 15 years, and according to the beft
computation died A. D. 96. The perfecution Avhich
occafioned the exile of John commenced in the 14th
year of Domitian’s reign. If John Avrote his gofpel
after his return to Ephefus, Avhich is affirmed by Epi-
phanius to have been the cafe, avc may fix the date of it
about the year 97 (f). i(j^
This gofpel is evidently the production of an illite-style of it.
rate Jcav, and its ftyle is remarkable for fimplicity. It
abounds more with Hebraifms than any of the other
gofpels } and contains fome ftrong oriental figures Avhich
are not readily underftood by an European.
This gofpel is cited once by Clemens Romanus, by Often quo-
Barnabas three times, by Ignatius five times, by Juftinted l>y an-
Martyr fix times, by Irenaeus, and above forty times by chn‘
Clemens AleXandrinus. jgg
The book Avhich Ave intitle the Adis of the Apoftles Ads of the
connedts the gofpels and the epiftles. It is evidently a apoftles.
continuation of Luke’s gofpel, which appeafs both from
the introdudlion and from the atteftations of ancient
Chriftians. Both are dedicated to Theophilus ; and in
the beginning of the Adis a reference is made to his
gofpel, which he calls a former treatife, recording the
adlions and difeourfes of Jefus till his afeenfion to hea¬
ven. Luke is mentioned as the author of the Adis
of the Apoftles by Irenseus, by Tertullian, by Origen,
and Eufebius.
From the frequent ufe of the firft perfon plural, it is
manifeft that Luke the author Avas prefent at many e£
E tire
(f) It has been argued from a paffage in this gofpel, that it muft have been Avritten before the deftrudtion of
Jerufalem. In fpeaking of the pool of Bethefda, John ufes the prefent tenfe : His Avords are, “ Ihere is at Jefu-
falem.” Noav if thefe Avords had been Avritten after the deftrudtion of Jerufalem, it is urged the pad tenfe Avolild
have been ufed, and not the prefent. This argument is more fpecious than forcible. Though Jerufalem Avas dt-
molilhed, does it fttloAV that the pool of BethefdaAvas dried up ?
Scripture.
169
Contents
of that
book.
170
Often cited
by the ear¬
ly Chrifti-
ans.
I7 *
The epif-
tles.
172
General
plan of
them.
*73
Arranged
in chrono¬
logical or¬
der.
SCR [3+
t!ie tranfaftions which he relates. He appears to have
accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi. He attend¬
ed him alfo to Jerufalem, and afterwards to Rome, where
he remained for two years. He is mentioned by Paul
in feveral of thofe epiftles which were written from
Rome, particularly in the 2d epiftle to Timothy, and in
the epiftle to Philemon.
This book contains the hiftory of the Chriftian church
for the fpace of about 28 or 30 years, from the time of
our Saviour’s afeenfion to Paul’s arrival at Rome in the
year 60 or 61. As it informs us that Paul refided two
years in Rome, it mull have been written after the year
63 ; and as the death of Paul is not mentioned, it is
probable it was eompofed before that event, which hap¬
pened A. D. 65.
The Adis of the Apoftles may be divided into feven
parts. 1. The account of our Saviour’s afeenfion, and
of the occurrences which happened on the firft Pente-
coll after that event, contained in chap. i. ii. 2. The
tranfadlions of the Chriifians of the circumcifion at
Jerufalem, in Judea, and Samaria, chap. iii.—ix. xi,
i — 2i. xii. 3. Tranfadtions in Caefarea, and the admif-
fion of the Gentiles, chap. x. 4. The firil circuit of Bar¬
nabas and Paul among the Gentiles', chap. xi. 22. xiii.
xiv. 5. Erabaffy to Jerufalem, and the firft council
held in that city, chap. xv. 6. Paul’s fecond journey,
chap. xvi.—xxi. 7. His arreftment, trial, appeal to
Caefar, and journey to Rome, chap. xxi. to the end of
the book.
The Adis of Apoftles are cited by Clemens Romanus,
by Polycarp, by Jurtin Martyr, thirty times by Irenseus,
and feven times by Clemens Alexandrinus.
All the efiential dodfrines and precepts of the Chrif¬
tian religion were certainly taught by our Saviour him
felf, and are contained in the gofpels. The epiftles may
be confidered as commentaries on the dodfrines of the
gofpel, addreffed to particular focieties, accommodated
to their refpedtive fituations •, intended to refute the
errors and falfe notions which prevailed among them,
and to inculcate thofe virtues in which they were moft
deficient.
The plan on which thefe Letters are written is,
firft, to decide the controverfy, or refute the erroneous
notions which had arifen in the fociety to which the
epiftle was addreffed : And, fecondly, to recommend
thofe duties which their falfe dodlrines might induce
them to negledl ; at the fame time inculcating in ge¬
neral exhortations the moft important precepts of Chrif¬
tian morality.
Of the epiftles fourteen were written by St Paul.
Thefe are not placed according to the order of tihae in
which they were compofed, but according to the fup-
pofed precedence of the focieties or perfons to whom
they were addreffed. It will be proper, therefore, to
exhibit here their chronological order according to Dr
Lardner.
A Table of St Paul's Eptstles, with the Places
where, and times when, written, according to Dr
Lardner.
SCR
Ep> fries
1 Thefialonians
2 Theflalonians
Galatians
{
Places.
Corinth
Corinth
Corinth or
Ephefus
Epiftles.
I Corinthians
1 Timothy
Titus
2 Corinthians
Romans
Ephefians
2 Timothy
Philippians
Coloflians
Philemon
Hebrews
Places.
Ephefus
Macedonia
C Macedonia
\ or near it
Macedonia
Corinth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
C Rome or
£ Italy
A. D. Swiptutc,
the beginning of 53 -y——*
bef. the end of
about October
about February
about April
about May
bef. the end of
bef. the end of
bef. the end of
^j- in Spring of
56
57
58
61
61
62
62
62
63
A Table of the Catholic Epistles, and the Reve¬
lation, according to Dr Lardner.
Epiftle.
J ames
The two epiftles
of Peter
I John
2d and 3d of
John
Jude
Revelation
Place.
Judea
^ Rome
Ephefus
^ Ephefus
Unknown
C Patmos or
\ Ephefus
f
or beg. of
A. D.
61
62
about
y between
i and
}
64
80
80
90
64 or 65
95 or 96
*74
A. D.
52
52
1 near the end of 52
3 or beginning of 53
It is more difficult to underftand the epiftolary wri- Caufes of
tings than the gofpels j the caufe of which is evident, their obfeu-
Many things are omitted in a letter, or (lightly mention- nty-
ed, becaufe fuppofed to be known by the perfon to whom
it is addrefled. To a ftranger this will create much
difficulty. The bufinefs about which St Paul wrote was
certainly well known to his correfpondents •, but at this
diftance of time we can obtain no information concern¬
ing the occafion of his writing, of the chara&er and
circumftances of thofe perfons for whom his letters were
intended, except what can be gleaned from the writings
themfelves. It is no wonder, therefore, though many
allufions ffiould be obfeure. Befides, it is evident from
many paflages that he anfwers letters and queftions
which his correfpondents had fent him. If thefe had
been preferved, they would have thrown more light up¬
on many things than all the notes arid conjedlures of the
commentators.
The caufes of obfeurity which have been now men-Caufes of
tioned are common to all the writers of the epiftles j obfeurity
but there are fome peculiar to St Paul. 1. As he had PecilIiiff;t0
an acute and fertile mind, he feems to have written 3
with great rapidity, and without attending much to the
common rules of method and arrangement. To this
caufe we may aferibe his numerous and long parenthe-
fes. In the heat of argument he fometimes breaks off
abruptly to follow out fome new thought $ and when
he has exhaufted it, he returns from his digreflion with¬
out informing his readers •, fo that it requires great at¬
tention to retain the connexion. 2. His frequent change
of perfon, too, creates ambiguity : by the pronoun I he
fometimes means himfelf j fometimes any Chriftian j
fometimes a Jew, and fometimes any man. In ufing
the pronoun we he fometimes intends himfelf 5 fome¬
times comprehends his companions j fometimes the apof¬
tles :
SCR [ 35 ] SCR
Scripture. t|es • at one time he alludes to the converted Jews, at
another time to the converted Gentiles. 3. 1 here is a
third caufe of obfcurity •, he frequently propofes ob-
jeftions, and anfwers them without giving any formal
intimation. i'liere are other difficulties which anfe
from our uncertainty who are the perfons he is addret-
fing, and what are the particular opinions and practices
to which he refers. Fo thefe we may add two exter¬
nal caufes, which have increafed the difficulty of under-
Handing the epiftles. X. The dividing them into chap¬
ters and verfes, which diffolves the conneftion of the
parts, and breaks them into fragments. It Cicero’s
'epiftles had been fo disjointed, the reading of them
would be attended with lefs pleafure and advantage, and
with a great deal more labour. 2. We are accuftomed
to the phrafeology of the epiftles from our infancy }
but we have either no idea at all when we ufe it, or our
idea of it is derived from the articles or fyftem which
we have efpoufed. But as different lefts have arbitrary
definitions for St Paul’s phrafes, we fhall never by fol¬
lowing them difeover the meaning of St Paul, who cer¬
tainly did not adjuft his phrafeology to any man’s fyf¬
tem.
The beft plan of ftudying the epiftles is that which
was propofed and executed by Mr Locke. This we
fhall prefent to our readers in the words of that acute
j-5 and judicious author.
Mr Locke’s “ After I had found by long experience,^ that the
plan of ftu- reading of the text and comments in the ordinary way
<lying the proved not fo furcefsful as I withed to the end propo-
epiftles. I began to fofpeft that in reading a chapter as was
ufual, and thereupon fometimes confulting expofitors
upon fome hard places of it, which at that time moft
affe&ed me, as relating to points then under confidera-
tion in my own mind, or in debate againft others, was
not a right method to get into the true fenfe of thefe
epiftles, I faw plainly, after I began once to refleft on
it, that if any one fhould write me a letter as long as St
Paul’s to the Romans, concerning fuch a matter as that
is, in a ftyle as foreign, and expreflions as dubious as his
feem to be, if I fhould divide it into fifteen or fixteen
chapters, and read one of them to-day, and another to¬
morrow, &c. it is ten to one I fhould never come to a
full and clear comprehenfion of it. The way to under-
fland the mind of him that writ it, every one would
agree, was to read the whole letter through from one end
to the other all at once, to fee what was the main fub-
je£t and tendency of it : or if it had feveral views and
purpofes in it, not dependent one of another, nor in a
fubordination to one chief aim and end, to difeover what
thofe different matters were, and where the author con¬
cluded one, and began another ; and if there were any
neceffitv of dividing the epiftle into parts, to make the
boundaries of them.
“ In the profecution of this thought, I concluded it
neceflary, for the underftanding of any one of St Paul’s
epiftles, to read it all through at one fitting, and to ob-
ferve as well as I could the drift and defign of his writ¬
ing it. If the firft reading gave me fome light, the fe-
cond gave me more •, and fo I perfifted in reading con-
flantly the whole epiftle over at once till I came to have
a good general view of the apoftle’s main purpofe in writ¬
ing the epiftle, the chief branches of his difeourfe where¬
in he profecuted it, the arguments he ufed, and the dif-
pofition of the whole.
“ This, I confefs, is not to be obtained by one cr
two hafty readings j it mult be repeated again and again
with a clofe attention to the tenor of the difeourfe, and
a perfect neglect of the divifions into chapters and ver¬
fes. On the contrary, the fafeft way is to fuppofe that
the'epiitle has but one bufinefs and one aim, till by a
frequent perufal of it you are forced to fee there are di-
ftindt independent matters in it, which will forwardly
Scripture.
enough Ihow themitlves.
“ It requires lo much more pains, judgment, and ap¬
plication, to find the coherence of obfeure and abftrufe
writings, and makes them fo much the more unfit to
ferve prejudice and preoccupation when found that it
is not to be wondered that St Paul’s epiftles have with
many pafled rather for disjointed, loofe, pious difeourfes,
full of warmth and zeal, and overflows of light, rather
than for calm, Itrong, coherent reafonings, that car¬
ried a thread of argument and confiftency all through
them.”
Mr Locke tells us he continued to read the fame
epiftle over and over again till he difeovered the fcope
of the whole, and the different fteps and arguments by
which the writer accomplilhes his purpofe. For he was
convinced before reading his epiftles, that Paul was a
man of learning, of found fenfe, and knew all the doc¬
trines of the golpel by revelation. The fpeeches record¬
ed- in the A efts of the Apoftles convinced this judicious
critic that Paul was a clofe and accurate reaioner : and - ••
therefore he concluded that his epiftles would not be
written in a loofe, confufed, incoherent ftyle. Mr Locke
accordingly followed the chain of the apoftle s diicourfe,
obferved his inferences, and carefully examined from what
premifes they were drawn, till he obtained a general out¬
line of any particular epiftle. If every divine would
follow this method, he would foon acquire fuch a know¬
ledge of Paul’s ftyle and manner, that he would perufe
his other Epiftles with much greater eafe. I77
That the Epiftle to the Romans was written at Co- Epiftle to
rinth by St Paul, is afeertained by the teftimony of the the Ito-
ancient Chriftians. It was compofed in the year 58, inmans'
the 24th year after Paul’s converfion, and is the feventh i7j
epiftle which he wrote. From the A<fts of the Apoftles its date,
we learn that it muft have been written within the fpace
of three months; for that was the whole period of Paul’s
refidence in Greece, (Atftsxx. 1, 2, 3.).
The following analyfis of this epiftle we have taken
from a valuable little treatife, intitled A Key to the
New Teftament, w'hich was written by Dr Percy bifhop
of Dromore. It exhibits the intention of the apoftle,
and the arguments which he ufes to prove his difhient
propofitions, in the moft concife, diftintft, and connecied
manner, and affords the beft view ol this Epiftle that
we have ever feen. 179
“ The Chriftian church at Rome appears not to have General de-
been planted by any apoftle •, wherefore St Paul, le it fign
fhould be corrupted by the Jews, who then fwarmed in
Rome, and of whom many were converted to Chriftiani-
ty, fends them an abdraft of the principal truths of t ie
gofpel, and endeavours to guard them againft thofe er¬
roneous notions which the Jews had of juftification, and
of the ele&ion of their own nation. _ ■
« Now the Jews affigned three grounds for juftifica¬
tion. Firft, ‘ The extraordinary piety and merits of
their anceftors, and the covenant made by God with thefe
holy men.’ They thought God could not hate the chil-
E 2 drt-n
SCR [ •
.Scripture.^ (Jren 0f meritorious parents j and as lie had made
v a covenant ■with the patriarchs to blefs their pofterity,
he was obliged thereby to pardon their tins.’ Secondly,
‘ A perfect knowledge and diligent ftudy of the law of
Mofes.’ They made this a plea for the remiflion of all
their fins and vices. Thirdly, ‘ The works of the Levi-
tical law7,’ which were to expiate fin, efpecially circum-
cifion and facrifices. Hence they inferred that the Gen¬
tiles muft receive the whole law of Mofes, in order to
be juftified and faved.
“ 1 he dodtrine of the Jews concerning eleftion was,
‘ That as God had promifed to Abraham to blefs his
feed, to give him not only fpiritual bleflings, but al-
fo the land of Canaan, to fuffer him to dwell there in
profperity, and to confider him as his church upon
earth That therefore this bleffing extended to their
whole nation, and that God was bound to fulfil thefe
promifes to them, whether they were righteous or wick¬
ed, faithful or unbelieving. They even believed that a
prophet ought not to pronounce againft their nation the
prophecies with which he was infpired; but was rather
to beg of God to expunge his name out of the book of
the living.
“ Thefe previous remarks will ferve as a key to
unlock this difficult Epifile, of which we {hall now give
a fhort analyfis. See Michaelis's LeBures on the New
i to TeJ} ament.
^ “ T The Epiftle begins with the ufual falutation with
lylisoiit. which the Greeks began their letters, (chap. i. I—7.).
“ II. St Paul profeffes his joy at the flourifhing ftate
of the church at Rome, and his defire to come and
preach the gofpel (ver. 8—19.) : then he infenfibly in¬
troduces the capital point he intended to prove, viz.
“ III. The fubjedl of the gofpel (ver. 16, 17.), that
it reveals a righteoufnefs unknown before, which is de¬
rived folely from faith, and to which Jews and Gentiles
have an equal claim.
“ IV. In order to prove this, he (hows (chap. i. 18—
iii. 20.) that both Jews and Gentiles are ‘ under fin,’
i. e. that God will impute their fins to Jews as well as to
Gentiles.
“ His arguments may be reduced to thefe fyllogifms
(chap. ii. 17—24.). 1. ‘ The wrath of God is reveal¬
ed againft thofe who hold the truth in unrighteouf-
nefs ; i. e. who acknowledge the truth, and yet fin
againft it.r 2. The Gentiles acknowledged truths 5 but,
partly by their idolatry, and partly by their other
deteftable vices, they finned againft the truth they ac¬
knowledged. 3. Therefore the wrath of God is re¬
vealed againft the Gentiles, and punifheth them. 4. The
Jews have acknowledged more truths than the Gen¬
tiles, and yet they fin. 5. Confequently the Jewifli fin-
ners are yet more expofed to the wrath of God (ch. ii.
1—12.). Having thus proved his point, he anfwers
certain objeftions to it. 06/. 1. ‘ The Jews were well
grounded in their knowledge, and ftudied the law.’
He anfwers, If the knowledge of the law, without ob-
ferving it, could juftify them, then God could not have
condemned the Gentiles, who knew the law by nature
(ch. ii. 13—a6.). 06j. 2. 1 The Jews were circumci-
fed.’ An/. That is, ye are admitted by an outward
fign into the covenant with God. This fign will not
avail you when ye violate that covenant (ch. ii. 25. to
the end). Obj. 3. ‘ According to this doftrine of St
Paul, the Jews have no advantage before others.’ Anf.
4
6 ] SCR
Yes, they ftill have advantages j for unto them are com- Script!
mitted the oracles of God. But their privileges do not' ' V
extend to this, that God fhould overlook their fins, which,
on the contrary, Scripture condemns even in the Jews
(ch. iii. 1—19.). Obj. 4. ‘ They had the Leviticallaw
and facrifices.* Anf. From hence is no remiflion, but on¬
ly the knowledge of fin, (ch. iii. 20.).
“ V. From all this St Paul concludes, that Jews and
Gentiles may be juftified by the fame means, namely,
without the Levitical law, through faith in Chrift:
And in oppofition to the imaginary advantages of the
Jews, he ftates the declaration of Zechariah, that God is
the God of the Gentiles as well as of the Jews, (ch. iii.
21. to the end.
“ VI. As the whole blefling was promifed to the faith¬
ful defcendants of Abraham, which both Scripture and
the Jews call his children, he proves his former affer-
tion from the example of Abraham ; who was an idola¬
ter before his call, but was declared juft by God, on ac¬
count of his faith, long before the circumcifion. Hence
he takes occafion to explain the nature and fruits of
faith, (ch. iv. 1. v. 11.).
“ VII. He goes on to prove from God’s juftice, that
the Jews had no advantages over the Gentiles with re-
fpedt to juftification. Both Jews and Gentiles had for¬
feited life and immortality, by the means of one common
father of their race, whom they themfelves had not cho-
fen. Now as God was willing to reftore immortality
by a new fpiritual head of a covenant, viz. Chrift, it was
juft that both Jews and Gentiles fhould fhare in this
new reprefentative of the whole race (ch. v. 12. to the
end).—Chap. v. ver. 15, 16. amounts to this negative
queftion, ‘ Is it not fitted that the free gift fliouldextend
as far as the offence ?’
“ VIII. He fhows that the doflrine of juftification, as
ftated by him, lays us under the ftrongeft obligations of
holinefs, (ch. vi. 1. to the end).
“ IX. He fhows that the law of Mofes no longer con¬
cerns us at all; for our juftification arifes from our ap¬
pearing in God’s fight, as if actually dead with Chrift on
account of our fins ; but the law of Mofes was not given
to the dead. On this occafion he proves at large, that
the eternal power of God over us is not affefled by this;
and that whilft we are under the law of Mofes we per¬
petually become fubjeft to death, even by fins of inad¬
vertency, (ch. vii. 1. to the end).
“ X. Hence he concludes, that all thofe, and thofe
only, who are united with Chrift, and for the fake of his
union, do not live according to the flefh, are free from
all condemnation of the law, and have an undoubted
fhare in eternal life, (ch. viii. 1.—17.).
“ XI. Having defcribed their bleflednefs, heis aware
that the Jews, who expe&ed a temporal happinefs, fhould
objebt to him, that Chriftians notwithftanding endure
much fuffering in this world. He anfwers this objeftion
at large, (ch. viii. 18. to the end).
“ XII. He fhows that God is not the lefs true and
faithful, becaufe he doth not juftify, but rather rejedls
and punifhes, thofe Jews who would not believe the Mef-
fiah, (ch. ix. x. xi.). In difcufling this point, we may
obferve the cautious manner in which, on account of the
Jewifli prejudices, he introduces it (ch. ix. 1 5.), as
well as in the difcuflion itfelf.
“ He fhows that the promifes of God were never’;
made to all the pofterity of Abraham, and that God al¬
ways
S C K
[ 37 1
SCR
Scripture, ways reTerved to liimfelf the power of choofing thofe fons
of Abraham whom, for Abraham’s fake, he intended to
blefs, and of punUhing the wicked fons of Abraham j
and that with refpeft to temporal happinefs or mifery,
he was not even determined in his choice by their works.
Thus he rejedled Ifhmael, Efau, the Ifraelites in the de-
fert in the time of Mofes, and the greater part of that
people in the time of Ifaiali, making them a facrifice
to his juft ice, (ch. ix. 6.—29.)*'
“ He then proceeds to fhow, that God had reafon to
rejeft molt of the Jews then living, becaufe they would
not believe in the Meffiah, though the gofpel had been
preached to them plainly enough, (ch. ix. 30. x. to the
end). However, that God had not rejeftcd all the
people, but was ftill fulfilling his promile upon many
thoufand natural defcendants of Abraham, who believed
in the Mefliah, and would in a future period fulfil them
upon more; for that all Ifrael would be converted, (ch.
xi. 1—32.). And he concluded with admiring the wife
counfels of God, (ver. 33. to the end).
“ XIII. From the dodtrine hitherto laid down, and
particularly from this, that God has in mercy accepted
the Gentiles ; he argues, that the Romans fhould con-
fecrate and offer themfelves up wholly to God. This
leads him to mention in particular fome Chriftian duties,
(ch. xii.), viz.
“ XIV. He exhorts them to be fubjedl to magi-
flrates (ch. xiii. x—7.) 5 the Jews at that time being
given to fedition.
“ XV. To love one another heartily (ver. 2—10.).
And,
“ XVI. To abftain from thofe vices which were con-
lidered as things indifferent among the Gentiles, (ver. 11.
to the end).
“ XVII. He exhorts the Jews and Gentiles in the
Chriftian church to brotherly unity, (ch. xiv. 2. xv.
I3-)-
“ XVIII. He concludes his Epiftle with an excufe
for having ventured to admonifh the Romans, whom he
had not converted ; with an account of the journey to
Jerufalem ; and with fome falutations to thofe perfons
whom he meant to recommend to the church at Rome.”
^ See Michae/is's Le&ures on the New Tejiament.
Fir ft Epiftle Corinth was a wealthy and luxurious city, built upon
to the Co- the ifthmus which joins the Morea to the northern
parts of Greece. In this city Paul had fpent two
years founding a Chriftian church, which confifted of
a mixture of Jews and Gentiles, but the greater part
Gentiles.
About three years after the apoftles had left Corinth,
he wrote this Epiftle from Ephefus in the year 56 or
57, and in the beginning of Nero’s reign. That it
was written from Ephefus, appears from the falutation
with which the Epiftle elofes, (chap. xvi. 19.). “ The
churches of Afia falute you. Aquila and Prifcilla falute
you much in the Lord.” From thefe words it is evi¬
dent, in the ift place, that the Epiftle was written in
Alia. 2dly, It appears from A6ts xviii. 18, 19. that
Aquila and Prifcilla accompanied Paul from Corinth to
Ephefus, where they feem to have continued till Paul’s
departure.
St Paul had certainly kept up a conftant intercourfe
with the churches which he had founded \ for he was
evidently acquainted with all their revolutions. They
feem to have applied to him for advice in thofe diiE-
rinthians.
1S2
Its date.
cult cafes which their own underftanding could not Scripture,
folve ; and he wras ready on all occafions to correct their v—
miftakes. 183
This Epiftle confifts of two parts. I. A reproof General de¬
fer thofe vices to which they were moft propenfe 0^t‘
2. An anfwer to fome queries which they had propofed
to him.
The Corinthians, like the other Greeks, had been
accuftomed to fee their philofophers divide themfelves
into different fe£ts j and as they brought along with
them into the Chriftian church their former opinions
and cuftoms, they wilhed, as before, to arrange them¬
felves under different leaders. In this Epiftle Paulap0^je
condemns thefe divifions as inconfiftent with the fpirit reproves
of Chriftianity, which inculcates benevolence and una-the Corin-
nimity, and as oppofite to the conduct of Chriftian^J1’
teachers, who did not, like the philofophers, afpire af-
ter the praife of eloquence and wifdom. They laid no
claim to thefe nor to any honour that cometh from
men. The apoftle declares, that the Chriftian truths
were revealed from heaven*, that they were taught with
great plainnefs and fimplicity, and proved by the evi¬
dence of miracles, (chap. i. I.). He diffuades them
from their divifions and animofities, by reminding them
of the great trial which every man’s work mult under¬
go ; of the guilt they incurred by polluting the temple
or church of God *, of the vanity of human wifdom ;
and of glorying in men. He admonilhes them to efteem
the teachers of the gofpel only as the fervants of Chrift;
and to remember that every fuperior advantage which
they enjoyed was to be aferibed to the goodnefs of God,
(chap. iii. 4.).
2. In the fifth chapter the apoftle confiders the cafe
of a notorious offender, xvho had married his ftepmo-
ther *, and tells them, that he ought to be excommuni¬
cated. He alfo exhorts the Chriftians not to affociate
with any perfon who led fuch an openly profane life.
3. He cenlures the Corinthians for their litigious dif-
pofition, which caufed them to profecute their Chri-
ftian brethren before the Heathen courts. Pie expreffes
much warmth and furprife that they did not refer their
differences to their brethren; and concludes his exhorta¬
tions on this fubjeft, by affuring them that they ought
rather to allow themfelves to be defrauded than to feek
redrefs from Heathens (chap. v. 1 — 9.).
4. He inveighs againft thofe vices to which the Co¬
rinthians had been addi£led before their converfion, and
efpecially againft fornication, the criminality of which
they did not fully perceive, as this vice was generally
overlooked in the fyftems of the philofophers, (chap. vi.
10. to the end). tg;.
Having thus pointed out the public irregularities And an-
writh which they were chargeable, he next replies to cer-fwers cer¬
tain queftions which the Corinthians had propofed totain(lue"
him by letter. He, 1. Determines fome queftions re-^°ySj^j1Cl
lating to the marriage ft ate ; as, ift, Whether it was propofed to
good to marry under the exifting circumftances of the him.
church ? And, 2d, Whether they fhould withdraw
from their partners if they continued unbelievers ?
(chap. vii.).
2. He inftrufts them how to aft ■with refpeff to idol
offerings. It could not be unlawful in itfelf to eat the
food which had been offered to idols ; for the confecra-
tion of flefh or wine to an idol did not make it the pro¬
perty of the idol, an idol being nothing, and therefore
incapable
S C ft
[ 38 ]
S C ft
^Scripture. Incapable of property. But feme Corinthians thought
" it lawful to go to a feaft in the idol temples, which at
the fame time were places of refort for lewdnefs, and
to eat the facriflees whilft praifes were fung to the idol.
This was publicly joining in the idolatry. He
advifes to abilain from fuch participation as was lawful,
rather than give offence to a weak brother •, which he
enforces by his own example, who had abftained from
many lawful things, rather than prove a fcandal to the
gofpel, (chap. viii. ix. x.).
3. He anfwers a third query concerning the manner
in which women Ihould deliver any thing in public,
when called to it by a divine impulfe. And here he
cenfures the unufual drefs of both fexes in prophefying,
which expofed them to the contempt of the Greeks,
among whom the men ufually went uncovered, and the
women veiled.
Being thus led to the confideration of the abufes that
prevailed in their public worfhip, he goes on to cenfure
the irregularities which were committed at their love-
feafts, or, as w'e term them, the Lord's Supper. It was
a common practice with the Greeks at their focial {up¬
pers for every man to bring his own provifions along
with him, not, however, to {hare them with the com¬
pany, but to feaft on them in a folitary manner. Thus
the rich ate and drank to excefs, whilft the poor were
totally neglefted. The Corinthians introduced the
fame praftice in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper,
thus confounding it with their ordinary meals, and
without ever examining into the end of the inftitution.
It was this grofs abufe that Paul reproves in the 1 ith
chapter. He alfo cenfures their conduft in the exercife
of the extraordinary gifts of the Holy Ghoft; he fhows
them they all proceeded from the fame fpirit, and were
intended for the inftru£Hon of Chriftian focieties ; that
all Chriftians ought to be united in mutual love; and
that tendernefs ought to be fhown to the moft inconfi-
derable member, as every one is fubfervient to the good
of the whole (chap. xii.). In the 13th chapter he gives
a beautiful defeription of benevolence, which has been
much and juftly admired. He reprefents it as fuperior
to the fupernatural gifts of the fpirit, to the moft exalt¬
ed genius, to univerfal knowledge, and even to faith.
In the 14th chapter he cautions the Corinthians againft
oftentation in the exercife of the gift of languages, and
gives them proper advices.
4. He afferts the refurre&ion of the dead, in oppofi-
tion to fome of the Corinthians who denied it, founding
it on the refurreflion of Jefus Chrift, which he confiders
as one of the moft efiential dodhrinesof Chriftianity. He
then anfwers fome objeftions to the refurreftion, drawn
from our not being capable of underftanding how it will
be accomplifhed (chap.xv.). He then concludes with
fome direftions to the Corinthian church concerning
the manner of collefting alms 5 promifes them a vifit,
lS(j and falutes fome of the members.
The fecond The fecond Epiftle to the Corinthians was written
Epiftle to from Macedonia in the year 57, about a year after the
the < onn- forrner> See 2 Cor. ix. 1.—5. viii. and xiii. I.
1 St Paul’s firft Epiftle had wrought different effedls
State of the among the Corinthians: many of them examined their
Corinthian conduft ; they excommunicated the inceftuous man $
church. requefted St Paul’s return with tears •, and vindicated
him and his office againft the falfe teacher and his ad¬
herents. Others of them ftill adhered to that adverfary
5
even mans
of St Paul, exprefsly denied his apoftolic office, and even Scripture,
furnifhed themfelves with pretended arguments from that " * ' 1 ''
Epiftle. He had formerly promifed to take a journey
from Ephefus to Corinth, thence to vifit the Macedo-
and return from them to Corinth (2 Cor. i. 1 $■,
16.). But the unhappy ftate of the Corinthian church
made him alter his intention (verfe 23.), fince he found
he muft have treated them with feverity. Hence his
adverfaries partly argued, I. That St Paul was irrefo-
lute and unfteady, and therefore could not be a prophet:
2. The improbability of Ids ever coming to Corinth
again, fince he was afraid of them. Such ivas the ftate
of the Corinthian church when St Paul, after his depar¬
ture from Ephefus, having vifited Macedonia (Adlsxx.
I.), received an account of the above particulars from
Titus (2 Cor. vii. 5, 6.), and therefore ivrote them his
fecond Epiftle about the end of the fame year, or the
beginning of 58. ... xSS
But to give a more diftindl view of the contents of view of
this Epiftle : the con-
l- The apoftle, after a general falutation, expreffes histert'
grateful fenfe of the divine goodnefs; profeffing his con- "vo^
fidence in God, fupported by a fenfe of his own integri- F
ty ; makes an apology for not having vifited the Corin¬
thians as he had intended, and vindicates himfelf from
the charge of ficklenefs, (chap. i ).
2. He forgives the inceftuous man, whofe conduft
had made fo deep an impreffion on the apoftle’s mind,
that one reafon why he had deferred his journey to Co¬
rinth was, that he might not meet them in grief, nor
till he had received advice of the effeftof his apoftolical
admonitions. He mentions his anxiety to meet Titus
at Troas, in order to hear of their welfare 5 exprefles
his thankfulnefs to God for the fuccefs attending
his miniftry, and fpeaks of the Corinthians as his cre¬
dentials, written by the finger of God, (chap. ii. iii.
i.—6.).
3. He treats of the office committed to him of
preaching the redemption •, and highly prefers it to
preaching the law : to which probably his adverfaries
had made great pretences. They had ridiculed his fuf-
ferings •, which he fhows to be no difgrace to the go¬
fpel or its minifters ; and here he gives a ftiort abftrafk
of the do£lrine he preaches, chap. iii. 6. v. to the
-end).
He expatiates with great copioufnefs on the temper
with which, in the midft of afllictions and perfecutions,
he and his brethren executed their important embaffy j
and with great affection and tendernefs he exhorts them
to avoid the pollution of idolatry, (chap. vi.). He en¬
deavours to win their confidence, by telling them how
much he rejoiced in their amendment and welfare, and
how forry he had been for the diftrefs which his necef-
fary reproofs had occafioned, (chap. vii.). He then ex¬
horts them to make liberal contributions for the Chri¬
ftians in Judea. He recommends to them the example
of the Macedonians, and reminds them of the benevo¬
lence of the Lord Jefus. He exprefles his joy for the
readinefs of Titus to affift in making the colleftion-, and
makes alfo honourable mention of other Chriftian bre¬
thren, whom he had joined with Titus in the fame com-
miffion, chap. viii.). He then, with admirable addrefs,
urges a liberal contribution, and recommends them to
the divine bleffing, (chap. ix.).
4. Next he obviates fome reflexions which had been
thrown
SCR
[ 39 ]
SCR
189
Epiftle to
the Gala¬
tians.
Scripture, thrown on him for the mildnefs of his conduct, as if it
““’'■v had proceeded from fear. He afierts his apoftolical
power and authority, cautioning his opponents againft
urging him to give too fenfible demonftrations of it,
(chap. x.). He vindicates himfelf againft the infinua-
tions of fome of the Corinthians, particularly for having
declined pecuniary fupport from the church ; an aftion
which had been ungeneroufly turned to his difadvan-
tage. To fttow his fuperiority over thole defigning
men who had oppofed his preaching, he enumerates his
fufferings *, gives a detail of fome extraordinary revela¬
tions which he had received ; and vindicates himfelf
from the charge of boafting, by declaring that he had
been forced to it by the defire of fupporting his apofto¬
lical charafter, (chap. xi. xii.). He clofes the Epiftle,
by affuring them with great tendernefs how much it
would grieve him to demonftrate his divine commiftxon
by feverer methods.
The Galatians were defcended from thofe Gauls who
had formerly invadedt Greece, and afterwards fettled in
Lower Afia. St Paul had preached the gofpel among
them in the year 51, foon after the council held at Jeru-
falem, (Afts xvi. 6.). Afia fwarmed at that time with
zealots for the law of Mofes, who wanted to impofe it
on the Gentiles, (Acfs xv. 1.). Soon after St Paul had
left the Galatians, thefe falfe teachers had got among
them, and wanted them to be circumcifed, &c. This
occafionedthe following Epiftle, which Michaelis thinks
was written in the fame year, before St Paul left Thef-
falonica. Dr Lardner dates it about the end of the year
52, or in the very beginning of <13, before St Paul fet
out to go to Jerufalem by way of Ephefus.
The fubjeft of this Epiftle is much the fame with
that of the Epiftle to the Romans •, only this queftion
is more fully confidered here, “ Whether circumcifion,
and an obfervance of the Levitical law, be neceffary to
the falvation of a Chriftian convert ?” It appears, thefe
Judaizing Chriftians, whofe indire£l views St Paul ex-
pofes (Afts xv. I. Gal. v. 3, 9.), at firft only reprefen-
ted circumcifion as neceflary to falvation *, but afterwards
they infifted upon the Chriftians receiving the Jewifli
feftivals, (Gal. iv. to.).
As St Paul had founded the churches of Galatia, and
inftrufled them in the Chriftian religion, he does not fet
before them its principal doflrines, as he had done in
the Epiftle to the Romans ; but referring them to what
he had already taught (chap, i, 8, 9.), he proceeds at
once to the fubjefl of the Epiftle.
As it appears from feveral paffages of this Epiftle,
particularly chapter i. 7, 8, 10. and chapter v. II. that
the Judaizing Chriftians had endeavoured to perfuade
the Galatians that Paul himfelf had changed his opi¬
nion, and now preached up the Levitical law •, he de¬
nies that charge, and affirms that the doctrines which
he had taught were true, for he had received them from
God by immediate revelation. He relates his miracu¬
lous converfion ; afierts his apoftolical authority, which
had been acknowledged by the difciples of Jefus *, and,
as a proof that he had never inculcated a compliance
with the Mofaic law, he declares that he had oppofed
Peter at Antioch for yielding to the prejudices of the
Jews.
Having now vindicated his charadler from the fufpi-
eion of ficklenefs, and fhown that his commiffion was
190
The date
191
and con¬
tents of it.
divine, he argues that the Galatians ought not to fub- Scripture;^
mit to the law of Mofes : 1. Becaufe they had received ^
the Holy Ghoft and the gift of miracles, not by the Arguments
law, but by the gofpel, (chap. iii. 1—5.). 2. Becaufe by which
the promifes which God made to Abraham were nottheapofUe
reftrifted to his circumcifed defcendants, but extended
to, all who are his children by faith, (chap. iii. 6—18.). Mopes was
In anfwer to the objection, To what then ferveth M^not obliga-
law ? he replies, That it was given becaufe of tranf- tory on the
greffion j that is, to preferve them from idolatry till the Galatians.
Meffiah himfelf ftiould come. 3.. Becaufe all men, Locke on
ther Jews or Gentiles, are made the children of God by the Epi~
faith, or by receiving the Chriftian religion, and there-
fore do not ftand in need of circumcifion, (chap. iii. 26
—29.). From the ift verfe of chap. iv. to the nth,
he argues that the law was temporary, being only fitted
for a ftate of infancy ; but that the world, having at¬
tained a ftate of manhood under the Meffiah, the law
was of no farther ufe. In the remaining part of chap¬
ter iv. he reminds them of their former alfedlion to him,
and affures them that he was ftill their fincere friend.
He exhorts them to ftand faft in the liberty with which
Chrift had made them free 5 for the fons of Agar, that
is, thofe under the law given at Mount Sinai, are in
bondage, and to be caft out 5 the inheritance being de-
figned for thofe only who are the free-born fons of God
under the fpiritual covenant of the gofpel.
The apoftle next confutes the falfe report which had How he-
beerr fpread abroad among the Galatians, that Paul vimlicatea
himfelf preached up circumcifion. He had already in-
dire&ly refuted this calumny by the particular account frorn fajfe
which he gave of his life j but he now diredlly and afperfions.
openly contradi£ls it in the following manner :
1. By alluring them, that all who thought circumci¬
fion necefiary to falvation could receive no benefit from
the Chriftian religion, (chap. v. 2.-—4.).
2. By declaring, that he expefted juftification only
by faith, (verfe 5, 6.).
3. By teftifying, that they had once received the
truth, and had never been taught fuch falfe doftrines
by him, (verfe 7, 8.).
4. By infinuating that they fliould pafs fome cenfure
on thofe who mifled them (verfe 9, io.), by declaring
that he was perfecuted for oppofing the ciroumcifion of -
the Chriftians, (verfe 11.).
5. By expreffing a wifti that thofe perfons ffiould be
cut off who troubled them wfith his do&rine.
This Epiftle affords a fine inftance of Paul’s {kill in
managing an argument. The chief objedlion which
the advocates for the Mofaic law had urged againft
him was, that he himfelf preached circumcifion. In
the beginning of the Epiftle he overturns this fiander
by a ftatement of fails, without taking any exprefs
notice of it 5 but at the end fully refules it, that it
might leave a ftrong and lafting impreffion on their
minds.
He next cautions them againft an idea which his ar¬
guments for Chriftian liberty might excite, that it con-
fifted in licentioufnefs. He {hows them it does not
confift in gratifying vicious defires; for none are un¬
der ftronger obligations to moral duties than the Chri¬
ftian. He recommends gentlenefs and meeknefs to the
weak (chap vi. 1—5.), and exhorts them to be liberal
to their teachers, and to all men (ver. 6—10.). He
concludes
f
Setipture.
194
Epiftle to
tha Ephefi-
T9S
The date
T96
and defign
of it.
. *97
Epiftle to
the Philip-
pians.
SCR
concludes with expofing the falfe pretence
daizing teachers, and afferting the integrity of his own
conduit.
Itphefus was the chief city of all Aha on this fide
Mount Taurus. St Paul had palled through it in the
year 54, but without making any Itay, (Acts xviii. 19
•—21.). The following year he returned to Ephefus
again, and llaid there three years, (chap, xix.). Dur¬
ing his abode there he completed a very flourillung
church of Chriftians, the firft foundations of which had
been laid by fome inferior teachers. As Ephefus was
frequented by perfons of dill in it ion from all parts of
Alia Minor, St Paul took the opportunity of preach¬
ing in the ancient countries (ver. 10.) 5 and the other
churches of Alia were confidered as the daughters of
the church of Ephefus; fo that an Epiftle to the Ephe-
fians was, in effeil, an epiftle to the other churches of
Alia at the fame time.
Dr Lardner (hows it to be highly probable that this
epiftle was written in the year 61, foon after Paul’s ar¬
rival at Rome.
As Paul was in a peculiar manner the apoftle of the
Gentiles, and was now a prifoner at Rome in confe-
quence of having provoked the Jews, by aflerting that
an obfervance of the Mofaic law was not neceffary to
obtain the favour of God, he was afraid leaft an advan¬
tage ftiould be taken of his confinement to unfettle the
minds of thofe whom he had converted. Hearing that
the Ephefians flood firm in the faith of Chrift, without
fubmitting to the law of Mofes, he writes this Epiftle
to give them more exalted views of the love ef God, and
of the excellence and dignity of Chrift. This epiftle
is not compofed in an argumentative or didadic ftyle ;
The firft three chapters confift almoft entirely of thankf-
givings and prayers, or glowing deferiptions of the
bleftings of the Chriftian religion. This circumftance
renders them a little obfeure •, but by the afliftance of
the two following epiftles, which were written on the
fame oecafion, and with the fame defign, the meaning
of the apoftle may be eafily difeovered. The laft three
chapters contain practical exhortations. He firft incul¬
cates unity, love, and concord, from the confideration
that all Chrifiians are members of the fame body, of
which Chrift is the head. He then advifes them to
forfake the vices to which they had been addifted while
they remained heathens. He recommends juftice and
charity ; ftrenuoufly condemns lewdnefs, obfeenity, and
intemperance, vices which feem to have been too com¬
mon among the Ephefians. In the 6th chapter he points
out the duties which arife from the relations of hufhands
and wives, parents and children, mafters and fervants j
and concludes with ftrong exhortations to fortitude,
which he deferibes in an allegorical manner.
The church at Philippi had been founded by Paul,
Silas, and Timothy (Afts xvi.), in the year 51, and had
continued to lliow a ftrong and manly attachment to
the Chriftian religion, and a tender afi’eflion for the
apoftle. Hearing of his imprifonment at Rome, they
fent Epaphroditus, one of their paftors, to fupply him
with money. It appears from this epiftle that he was
in great want of neceflaries before-this contribution ar¬
rived } for as he had not converted the Romans, he did
not confider himfelf as intitled to receive fupplies from
them. Being-a prifoner, he could not work as former¬
ly ; and it was a maxim of his never to accept any pe-
[ 4° ] SCR
of the Ju- cuniary afflftance from thofe churches where a fa^lioh Scripture,
had been raifed againft him. From the Philippians he
was not averfe to receive a prefent in the time of want,
becaufe he confidered it as a mark of their affedion, and
becaufe he was .allured that they had conducted them-
felves as fincere Chriftians. IoS
It appears from the apoftle’s owm words, that this The date
letter was written while he wras a prifoner at Rome,
(chap. i. 7, 13. iv. 22.) ; and from the expectation which
he difeovers (chap. ii. 24.) of being foon releafed and
reftored to them, compared with Philemon, v. 22. and
Heb. xiii. 13. where he expreffes a like expedation in
ftronger terms, it is probable that this epiftle was writ¬
ten towards the end of his firft imprifonment in the
year 62. _ _ . ,09
The apoftle’s defign in this epiftle, which is quite and defign
of the pradical kind, feems to be, “ to comfort thect it*
Philippians under the concern they had expreiled at the
news of his imprifonment ; to check a party-fpirit that
appears to have broken out among them, and to pro¬
mote, on the contrary, an entire union and harmony of
affedion ; to guard them againft being feduced from the
purity of the Chriftian faith by Judaizing teachers ; to
fupport them under the trials with which they ft niggled*
and, above all, to inlpire them with a concern to adorn
their profeflion by the moft eminent attainments in the
divine life.” After fome particular admonitions in the
beginning of the 4th chapter, he proceeds in the 8th
verfe to recommend virtue in the moft extenfive fenfe,
mentioning all the different foundations in w hich it had
been placed by the Grecian philofophers. Towards the
clofe of the epiftle, he makes his acknowledgments to
the Philippians for the feafonable and liberal fupply
which they had fent him, as it was fo convincing a proof
of their affedion for him, and their concern for the fup¬
port of the gofpel, which he preferred far above any
private fecular intereft of his owm * exprefsly difclaiming
all felfifh, mercenary views, and affuring them with a
noble fimplicity, that he was able upon all occafions to
accommodate his temper to his circumftances * and had
learned, under the teachings of Divine grace, in what¬
ever ftation Providence might fee fit to place him, there¬
with to be content. After which, the apoftle, having
encouraged them to exped a rich fupply of all their
wants from their God and Father, to whom he devoutly
aferibes the honour of all, concludes with falutations
from himfelf and his friends at Rome to the whole
church, and a fblemn benedidion, (verfe io. to the
end) *, and declares, that he rejoiced in their liberality
chiefly on their own account. 20C
The epiftle to the Coloflians was written while Paul Epiftle to
was in prifon (chap. iv. 3.), and was therefore probably the Colofli-
compofed in the year 62. The intention of the apoftle, ans''7I?^te
as far as can be gathered from the epiftle itfelf, was to ^lt * l°n
fecure the Coloflians from the influence of fome doc¬
trines that were fubverfive of Chriftianity, and to excite
them to a temper and behaviour worthy of their facred
charader. A new fed had arifen, which had blended
the oriental philofophy with the fuperftitious opinions of
the Jews.
20T
They held, 1. That God was furrounded by demons To guard
or angels, who were mediators with God, and therefore the Coloffi-
to be worfhipped. 2. That the foul is defiled by the ans againft
body * that all bodily enjoyments hurt the foul, whichthe ^anger‘
they believed to be immortal, though they feem to have ^ies°of
denied the Jews.
SCR
C 4* ]
SCR
Scripture, denied the refurreftion of the body, as it would only
 ^ render the foul finful by being reunited to it. 3. That
Percy's tjjere was a great myftery in numbers, particularly in
^Nev^Te- ^ nund361- feven *, they therefore attributed a natural
jlament. holinefs to the feventh or Sabbath day, which they ob-
ferved more ftri&ly than the other Jews. They fpent
their time moftly in contemplation *, abftained from mar¬
riage, and every gratification of the fenfes •, ufed w a fil¬
ings, and thought it finful to touch certain things ; re¬
garded wine as poifon, &c.
The arguments againft tliefe do£lrines are managed
with great fkill and addrefs. He begins with exprefiing
great joy for the favourable character which lie had
-apottle em- }jearj 0f them, and affures them that he daily prayed
102
The argu-
mei^U
which the
ploys.
103
Exhorta¬
tions.
104
FirftEpiftle
to the Thef-
'ialonians.
for their farther improvement. Then he makes a ftiort
digreffion, in order to defcribe the dignity of Jefus
Chrift •, declares that he had created all tilings, whether
thrones or dominions, principalities and powers ; that he
alone was the head of the church, and had reconciled
men to the Father. The inference from this defcription
is evident, that Jefus was fuperior to angels •, that they
were created beings, and ought not to be worfiiipped.
Thus he indireflly confutes one doftrine before he for¬
mally oppofes it. Paul now returns from his digreffion
in the 2ift verfe to the fentiments with which he had
introduced it in the 13th and 14th verfes, and again
expreffes his joy that the Philippians remained attached
to the gofpel, which was to be preached to the Gentiles,
without the reftraints of the ceremonial law. Here again
he ftates a general doftrine, which was inconfiftent with
the opinions of thofe who were z- alous for the law of
Mofes ; but he leaves the Coloffians to draw the infer¬
ence, (chap. i.).
Having again affured them of his tender concern for
their welfare, for their advancement in virtue, and that
they might acknowledge the myftery of God, that is,
that the gofpel was to fuperfede the lawT of Mofes, he
proceeds direflly to caution them againft the philofophy
of the new teachers, and their fuperftitious adherence to
the law ; fhows the fuperiority of Chrift to the angels,
and warns Chriftians againft worffiipping them. He
cenfures the obfervation of Sabbaths, and rebukes thofe
who required abftinence from certain kinds of food, and
cautions them againft perfons who affume a great appear¬
ance of wifdom and virtue, (chap. ii.).
In the 3d chapter he exhorts them, that, inftead of
being occupied about external ceremonies, they ought
to cultivate pure morality. He particularly guards them
againft impurity, to which they had before their con-
verfion been much addi&ed. He admonifties them
againft indulging the irafcible paffions, and againft
committing falfehood. He exhorts them to cultivate
the benevolent affeftions, and humility, and patience.
He recommends alfo the relative duties between huf-
bands and wives, parents and children, mafters and fer-
vants. He enjoins the duties of prayer and thankfgiving
(chap. iv. 2.), and requefts them to remember him in
their petitions. He enjoins affability and mild behavi¬
our to the unconverted heathens (verfe 6th) j and con¬
cludes the epiftle with matters which are all of a private
nature, except the directions for reading this epiftle
in the church of Laodicea, as well as in the church of
Coloffe.
This epiftle is addreffed to the inhabitants of Theffa-
Vol. XIX, Part J.
lonica, the capital of Macedonia, a large and populous Scripture.^
city. It appears from the A£ts, chapter Xvii. 1. that
the Chriftian religion was introduced into this city by
Paul and Silas, foon after they had left Philippi. At
firft they made many converts $ but at length the Jews,
ever jealous of the admiffion of the Gentiles to the fame
privileges with themfelves, ftirred up the rabble, which
affaulted the houfe where the apoftle and his friends
lodged •, fo that Paul and Silas were obliged to flee to
Berea, -where their fuceefs rvas foon interrupted by the
fame reftlefs and implacable enemies. The apoftle then
withdrew to Athens *, and Timothy, at his defire, re¬
turned to Theffalonica (1 Theff. iii. 2.), to fee what
were the fentiments and behaviour of the inhabitants
after the perfecution of the Jews. From Athens Paul
went to Corinth, where he flayed a year and fix months j
during which, Timothy returned with the joyful tidings,
that the Theffalonians remained ftedfaft to the faith, and
firmly attached to the apoftle, notwithftanding his flight.
Upon this he fent them this epiftle, A. D. 52, in the
12th year of Claudius. 205
This is generally reckoned the-firft epiftle which Paul The date
wrote j and we find he was anxious that it fhould be
read to all the Chriftians. In chap. v. 27. he ufes thefe
words ; “ I adjure you by the Lord, that this epiftle be
read unto all the holy brethren.” This direclien is very
properly inferted in his firft epiftle. 206-
The intention of Paul in writing this epiftle was evi- and defign
dently to encourage the Tbeffalonians to adhere to theofh*
Chriftian religion. This church being ftill in its in¬
fancy, and oppreffed by the powerful Jews, required to
be eftablifhed in the faith. St Paul, therefore, in the
three firft chapters, endeavours to convince the Theffa- s
lonians of the truth and divinity of his gofpel, both by
the miraculous gifts of the Holy Ghoft which had been
imparted, and by his own conduft when among them.
While he appeals, in the firft chapter, to the mira¬
culous gifts of the Holy Spirit, lie is very liberal in
his commendations. He vindicates himfelf from the
charge of timidity, probably to prevent the Theffalo¬
nians from forming an unfavourable opinion of his forti¬
tude, which his flight might have excited. He afferts,
that he was not influenced by felfifli or difhonourable
motives, but that lie was anxious to pleafe God and not
man. He exprefies a ftrong affeflion for them, and how
anxious he was to impart the bleffings of the gofpel.
He congratulates himfelf upon his fucccfs ; mentions it
to their honour that they received the gofpel as the
word of God and not of man, and therefore did not re¬
nounce it when perfecution was railed by the Jews. He
expreffes a ftrong defire to vifit the Theffalonians j and
affures them he had been hitherto retained againft his
will.
As a farther proof of his regard, the apofile informs
them, that when he came to Athens, he vras fo much
concerned, leaft, being- difeouraged by his fufferings,
they ftiould be tempted to caft off their profeffion, that
he could not forbear fending Timothy to comfort and
ftrengthen them ; and expreffes, in very ftrong terms,
the fenfible pleafure he felt, in the midft of all his afflic¬
tions, from the favourable account he received of their
faith and love ; to which he adds, that he wras continu¬
ally praying for their farther eftabliftiment in religion,
and for an opportunity of making them another vifit, in
F order
2C7
Second E-
piftle to
the Thefla-
lonians.
208
Contents of
k.
S C Ft [
•Scrip-are^ order to promote their edification, whiclrlay fo near his
— ' heart, (chap. iii. throughout).
Having now fhown his paternal affection for them,
■with great addrefs he improves all that influence which
his zeal and fidelity in their fervice mult naturally have
given him to inculcate upon them the precepts of the
gofpel. He recommends chaftity, in oppofition to the
prevailing practice of the heathens •, jullice, in oppofi¬
tion to fraud. He praifes their benevolence, and en¬
courages them to cultivate higher degrees of it. He
recommends induflry and prudent behaviour to their
heathen neighbours. In order to comfort them under
the lofs of their friends, he affures them that thofe who
were fallen afleep in Jeius (liould be raifed again at the
lad day, and fhould, together with thofe who remained
alive, be caught up to meet their Lord, and fliare his
triumph, (chap. iv.). He admonifhes them to prepare
for this folemn event, that it might not come upon them
unawares •, and then concludes the epiftle with various
exhortations.
I he Lcond epiftle to the Theffalonians appears to
have been written foon after the firft, and from the fame
place ; for Silvanus or Silas, and Timothy, are joined
together with the apoftle in the inferiptions of this
epiftle, as well as the former.
The apoftle begins with commending the faith and
charity of the Theffalonians, of which he had heard a
favourable report. He expreffes great joy on account
of the patience with which they fupported perfecution 5
and obferves that their perfecution was a proof of a
righteous judgment to come, where their perfecutors
would meet with their proper recompenfe, and the
/ righteous be delivered out of all their affliftions. He
affures them of his conftant prayers for their farther im¬
provement, in order to attain the felicity that was pro-
mifed, (chap. i.).
From mifunderftan-ding a paffage in his former letter,
it appears that the Theffalonians believed the day of
judgment was at hand. To re£Hfy this miftake, he
informs them that the day of the Lord will not come
till a great apoftafy has overfpread the Chriftian world,
the nature of which he deferibes (g). Symptoms of this
myftery of iniquity had then appeared j but the apoftle
expreffes- his thankfulnefs to God that the Theffalo-
nians had efcaped this corruption. He exhorts them
to ftedfaftnefs, and prays that God would comfort and
ilrengthen them, (chap. ii.).
He requefts the prayers of the Theffalonians for him
and his two afliftants, at the fame time exprefling his
eonfidence that they would pay due regard to the in-
ftruftions which he had given them. He then pro¬
ceeds to correct fome irregularities. Many of the
Theffalonians feem to have led an idle diforderly life ;
thefe he fevercly reproves, and commands the faithful
to fhun their company if they ilill remained incorri-
,09 §IbTleT;
Fkft Epiftle When the firfl: Epiftle to Timothy was written, it is
to Timothy, difficult to afeertain. Lardner dates it in 56} Mill,
when writ- Whitby, and Macknight, pla ee it in 64 : but the ar-
42 ]
SCR
guments on which each party founds their opinion are Scripture,
too long to infert here. 1 v—^
Timothy was the intimate friend and companion ofj {
Paul, and is always mentioned by that apoftle with
much affeftion and efteem. Having appointed him to tents of it.
fuperinlend the church of Ephefus during a journey
which he made to Macedonia, he wrote this letter, in
order to direct him how to difeharge the important truft
which was committed to him. This was the more ne-
ceffary, as Timothy was young and inexperienced,
(1 Tim. iv. 12.). In the beginning of the epiftle he
reminds him of the charge with which he had intruded
him, to wit, to preferve the purity of the gofpel again!!
the pernicious doctrines of the Judaizing teachers, whofe
opinions led to frivolous controverfies, and not to a good
life. He ftiows the ufe of the law of Mofes,.of which
thefe teachers were ignorant. This account of the law*
he affures Timothy, was agreeable to the reprefentation
of it in the gofpel, with the preaching of which he was
intruded. He then makes a digreflion, in the fulnefs of
his heart, to exprefs the fenfe which he felt of the goodr
nefs of God towards him.
In the fecond chapter, the apoftle preferibes the man¬
ner in which the worftiipof God was to be performed in
the church of Ephefus •, and in the third explains the
qualifications of the perfons whom he was to ordain as
bifhops and deacons. In the fourth chapter he foretels
the great corruptions of the church which were to pre¬
vail in future times, and inftrufls him how to fupport
the facred charadler. In the fifth chapter he teaches
Timothy how to admoniffi the old and young of both
fexes $ mentions the age and character of fuch widows
as were to be employed by the foeiety in fome peculiar
office j and fubjoins fome things concerning the refpeft
due to elders. In the fixth chapter he deferibes the
duties which Timothy was to inculcate on Haves j con¬
demns trifling controverfies and pernicious difputes; ten-
fures the exceffive love of money, and charges the rich
to be rich in good wrords.
That the fecond Epiftle to Timothy w as- written sec0nӣ
from Rome is univerfally agreed ; but w'hether it was piftie to
during his firft or fecond imprifonment has been much Timothy,
difputed. That Timothy wfas at Ephefus or in Alia
Minor when this Epiftle was fent to him, appears from
the frequent mention in it of perfons refiding at Ephe- 212
fus. The apoftle feems to have intended to prepare Ti- Defign and
mothy for thofe fufferings which he forefaw he would ™f tcnts ot'
be expofed to. He exorts him to conftancy and perfe-
verance, and to perform with a good confcience the du¬
ties of the facred function.
The falfe teachers, who had. before thrown this
church into confufion, grew: every day worfe : info much
that not only Hymenaeus, but Philetus, another Ephe-
fian heretic, now denied the refurreftion of the dead.
They were led into this error by a difpute about words.
At firft they only annexed various improper fignifica-
tions to the word refurre&ion, but at laft they denied it
altogether (h) 5 pretending that the refurreftion of the
dead was only a refurredlion from the death of fin, and
fo
(g) For an explanation of this prophecy, Dr Hurd’s fermons may be confulted. He applies it to the papal
power, to which it correfponds with aftonifhing exa&n.efs.
(ft) This is by no means uncommon among men 3 to begin to difpute about the fignification of words, and
to
_2T3
Epiftle to
Titus.
414
Scripture, fo was already paft
1 -v 1 ved from the eaftern philofophy, which placed the
origin of fin in the body (chapter ii.). He then
forewarns him of the fatal apoftafy and declenfion that
was beginning to appear in the church ; and at the
fame time animates him from his own example and
the great motives of Chriitianity, to the moft vigorous
and refolute difcharge of every part of the miniderial
office.
This E pi tile is addreiTed to Titus, whom Paul had
appointed to prefide over the church of Crete. It is
difficult to determine either its date or the place from
which it was fent. The apoftle begins with reminding
Titus of the reafons for which he had left him at
Defigns and Crete *, and directs him on what principles he was to
contents of ^ jn ordaining Chriftian pallors : the qualifications of
whom he particularly defcribes. To ffiow him how
cautious he ought to be in felefting men for the facred
office, he reminds him of the arts of the Judaizing
teachers, and the bad chara&er of the Cretans (chap¬
ter i.).
He advifes him to accommodate his exhortations to
the refpedtive ages, fexes, and circumftances, of thofe
whom it was his duty to indraft ”, and to give the
greater weight to his indruftions, he admoniffies him
to be an example of what he taught (chap. ii.). He
exhorts him alfo to teach obedience to the civil magif-
trate, becaufe the Judaizing Chridians affirmed that no
obedience was due from the worlhippers of the true
God to magidrates who were idolaters. He cautions
againd cenforioufnefs and contention, and recommends
meeknefs ; for even the bed Chridians had formerly
been wicked, and all the bleffings which they enjoyed
they derived from the goodnels of God. He then en¬
joins Titus drenuoudy to inculcat^ good works, and to
avoid ufelefs controverfies ; and concludes with direft-
ing him how to proceed with thofe heretics who at¬
tempted to fow diflenfion in the church.
The Epidle to Philemon was written from Rome at
the fame time with the Epidles to the Coloffians *nd
Philippians, about A. D. 6201- 63. The occafion of
the letter was this : Onefimus, Philemon’s Have, had
robbed his mader and fled to Rome •, where, happily
for him, he met with the apodle, who was at that time
a prifoner at large, and by his indruftions and admoni¬
tions was converted to Chridianity ; and reclaimed to a
-Doddridge’sfenfe his duty. St Paul'feems to have kept him for
Family Ex- fome confiderable time under his eye, that he might be
fojitor. fatisfied of the reality of the change •, and, when he had
made a fufficient trial of him, and found that his beha¬
viour was entirely agreeable to his prcfeffion, he would
not detain him any longer for his own private conveni¬
ence, though in a fituation that rendered fuch an affid-
ant peculiarly defirable (compare ver. 13, 14.), but fent
him back to his mader ; and, as a mark of his edeem,
entruded him, together with Tychicus, with the charge
of delivering his Epidle to the church at Coloffe, and
giving them a particular account of the date of things
at Rome,’recommending him to them, at the fame
time, as a'faithful and beloved brother (Col. iv. 9.).
e R [ 43 1 SCR
This error was probably deri- And as Philemon might well be fuppofed to be drongly Scripture.
,4IS
Epiftle to
Philemon.
—Date and
defijni of it.
prejudiced againd one who had left his fervice in fo
infamous a manner, he fends him this letter, in which
he employs all his induence to remove his fufpicions,
and reconcile hirn to the thoughts of taking Onefimus
into his family again. And whereas St Paul might
have exerted that authority which his charafter as an
apodle, and the relation in which he dood to Philemon
as a fpiritual father, would naturally give him, he
choofes to entreat him as a friend } and with the fofteft
and mod infinuating addrefs urges his fuit, conjuring
him by all the ties of Chridian friendlhip that he would
not deny him his requed : and the more effeftually to
prevail upon him, he reprefents his own peace and hap-
pinefs as deeply intereded in the event; and fpeaks of
Onefimus in fuch terms as were bed adapted to foften
his prejudices, and difpofe him to receive one who was
fo dear to himfelf, not merely as a fervant, but as a fel¬
low Chridian and a friend.
It is impoffible to read over this admirable Epidle, The ikill
without being touched with the delicacy of fentiment, and addrefs
and the maderly addrefs that appear in every part of it. which the
We fee here, in a mod driking light, how perfeftly con- ^°utse;nU*
fident true politenefs is, not only with all the warmth tys £piftiQ.
and fincerity of the friend, but even with the dignity of
the Chridian and the apodle. And if this letter were
to be confidered in no other view than as a mere human
compofition, it mud be allowed a mader-piece in its
kind. As an illudration of this remark, it may not be
improper to compare it with an epidle of Pliny, that
feems to have been written upon a fimilar occafion, (lib.
ix. lit. 21)5 which, though penned by one that was rec¬
koned to excel in the epidolary dyle, and though it has
undoubtedly many beauties, yet mud be acknowledged,
by every impartial reader, vadly inferior to this anima¬
ted compofition of the apodle. 2Iy
The Epidle to the Hebrews has been generally Epiftle to
afcribed to Paul •, but the truth of this opinion has been the He-
fufpefted by others, for three reaibns : 1. The name of^^^**
the writer is nowhere mentioned, neither in the begin- by pau£
ning nor in any other part of the Epidle. 2. T he dyle
is laid to be more elegant than Paul’s. 3. There are
expreffions in the Epidle which have been thought un-
fuitable to an apodle’s charafter. I. In anfwer to the
fird objeftion, Clemens Alexandrinus has affigned a
very good reafon : “ Writing to the Hebrews (fays he),
who had conceived a prejudice againd him, and were on the E-
fufpicious of him, he wifely declined fetting his xmcn&fijllcs.
at the beginning, led he ffiould offend them.” 2. Ori-
gen and Jerome admired the elegance of the dyle, and
reckoned it fuperior to that which Paul had exhibited
in his Epidles : but as ancient tedimony had affigned it
to Paul, they endeavoured to anfwer the objeftion, by
fuppofing that the fentiments were the apodle’s, but
the language and conrpofition the work of fome other
perfon. If the Epidle, however, be a trandation,
which wc believe it to be, the elegance of the language
may belong to the trandator. As to the compofilion
and arrangement, it cannot be denied that there are
many fpecimens in the writings of this apodle not in-
F 2 ferior
-to be led gradually to deny the thing fignified. This appears to have been the c^ufe of mod difputes and the
general beginning of fcepticifm and infidelity. ,
Scripture.
s C P. [ 44 I s
ferior in tliefe qualities to the Epiftle to the Hebrews, ence with his dominion
C R
ns
Quoted as
his by an-
sient wri¬
ters.
219
Written in
the Syro-
Chaldaic
language.
220
Bate of it.
Percy's
Key to the
New Tef-
titment.
221
Defign of
it to prove
to the Jews
the truth
of the Chri-
itian reli¬
gion and
its fuperi-
01 ity to the
law of
Mefes;
3. It is objected, that in Heb. ii. 3. the writer of this
Epiftle joins hinifelf with thofe who had received the
gofpel from Chrift’s apoftles. Now Paul had it from
Chrift himfelf. But Paul often appeals to the teftimony
of the apoftles in fupport of thofe truths which he had
received from Revelation. We may inftance 1 Cor. xv.
5, 6, 7, 8.; 2. Tim. ii. 2.
This Epiftle is not quoted till the end of the fecond
century, and even then does not feem to have been uni-
verfally received. This filence might be owing to the
Hebrews themfelves, wrho fuppofing this letter had no
relation to the Gentiles, might be at pains to diffufe co¬
pies .of it. The authors, however, on whofe teflimony
rve receive it as authentic, are entitled to credit; for
they lived fo near the age of the apoftles, that they
were in no danger of being impofed on ; and from the
numerous lift of books which they rejedled as fpurious,
we are allured that they were very careful to guard
againft impofition. It is often quoted as Paul’s by
Clemens Alexandrinus, about the year 194. It is
received and quoted as Paul’s by Origen, about 230 ;
by Dionyfius bifhop of Alexandria in 247 ; and by a
numerous lift of fucceeding writers.
The Epiftle to the Hebrews was originally written
in Hebrew, or rather Syro-Chaldaic 5 a fa£t which we
believe on the teftimony of Clemens Alexandrinus, Je¬
rome, and Eufebius. To this it has been objedled,
that as thefe writers have not referred to any authority,
we ought to confider what they fay on this fubjeft mere¬
ly as an opinion. But as they ftate no reafons for
adopting this opinion, but only mention as a fa£t that
Paul wrote to the Hebrews in their native language,
• •• • #oo7
Ave mult allow that it is their teftimony which they
produce, and not their opinion. Eufebius informs us,
that feme fuppofed Luke the Evangelift, and others
Clemens Romanus, to have been the tranflator.
According to the opinion of ancient writers, particu¬
larly Clemens Alexandrinus, Jerome, and Euthalius,
this Epiftle was addreffed to the Jewrs in Paleftine.—:
The fcope of the Epiftle confirms this opinion.
Having now given fufficient evidence that this Epiftle
was written by Paul, the time when it was written
may be eafily determined : For the falutation from the
faints of Italy (chap. iv. 24.), together with the apoftle’s
promife to fee the Hebrews (ver. 23.), plainly intimate,
that his confinement was then either ended or on the
eve of being ended. It muft therefore have been writ¬
ten foon after the Epiftles to the Colofiians, Ephefians,
and Philemon, and not long before Paul left Italy, that
is, in the year 61 or 62.
As the zealous defenders of the Mofaic law rvould
naturally infill on the divine authority of Mofes, on the
majefty and glory attending its promulgation by the
miniftry of angels, and the great privileges it afforded
thofe who adhered to it 5 the apoftle ftiows,
I. That in all thefe feveral articles Chriftianity had
an infinite fuperiority to the law.
This topic he purfues from chap. i. to xi. wherein
he reminds the believing Hebrews of the extraordinary
favour ftiown them by God, in fending them a revela¬
tion by his own fon, whofe glory was far fuperior to
that of angels (chap. i. throughout) ; very naturally
inferring from hence the danger of defpifing Chrift on
account of his humiliation, which, in perfect confift-
3
over the world to come, was Scripture,
voluntarily fubmitted to by him for wife and important
reafons 5 particularly to deliver us from the fear of
death, and to encourage the freedom of our accefs to
God (chap. ii. throughout). With the fame view he
magnifies Chrift as fuperior to Mofes, their great legif-
lator j and from the punilhment inflicted on thofe who
rebelled againft the authority of Mofes, infers the dan¬
ger of contemning the promifes of the gofpel (chap.
iii. 2—13.). And as it was an eafy tranfition to call to
mind on this occafion that reft in Canaan to which the
authority invefted in Mofes was intended to lead them j
the apoftle hence cautions them againft: unbelief, as
what would prevent their entering into a fuperior ftate a
of reft to what the Jews ever enjoyed (chap. iii. 14.
iv. 11.). This caution is ftill farther enforced by aw ¬
ful views of God’s omnifcience, and a lively reprefenta-
tion of the high-priefthood of Chrift (chap. iv. to the
end } and chap. v. throughout). In the next place, he
intimates the very hopelefs fituation of thofe who apo-
ftatife from Chriftianity (chap. vi. 1—9.) ; and then,
for the comfort and confirmation of fincere believers,
difplays to them the goodnefs of God, and his faithful
adherence to his holy engagements $ the performance of
which is fealed by the entrance of Chrift into heaven as
our forerunner (chap. vi. 9. to the end). Still far¬
ther to illuftrate the charafter of our Lord, he enters
into a parallel between him and Melchizedec as to
their title and defeent j and, from inftances wherein the
priefthood of Melchizedec excelled the Levitical, infers,
that the glory of the priefthood of Chrift furpaffed that
under the law (chap. vii. 1—17.). From thefe premifes
the apoftle argues, that the Aaronical priefthood was
not only excelled, but confummated by that of Chrift,
to which it was only introduftory and fubfervient j and
of courfe, that the obligation of the law was henceforth
diffolved (chap. vii. 18. to the end). Then recapitu¬
lating what he had already demonftrated concerning the
fuperior dignity of Chrift’s priefthood, he thence illu-
ftrates the diftinguiflied excellence of the new cove¬
nant, as not only foretold by Jeremiah, but evidently
enriched with much better promifes than the old (ch.
viii. throughout) : Explaining farther the doftrine of
the priefthood and interceflion of Chrift, by comparing
it with what the Jewifh high-prieft did on the great
day of atonement (chap. ix. I—14*)* Afterwards he
enlarges on the necefiity of ftiedding Chrift’s blood, and
the fufficiency of the atonement made by it (chap. ix.
15. to the end) ; and proves that the legal ceremonies
could not by any means purify the confcience : whence
he infers the infufticiency of the Mofaic law, and the
neceflity of looking beyond it (chap. x. 1—15.). He
then urges the Hebrews to improve the privileges which
fuch an high-prieft and covenant conferred on them, to
the purpofes of approaching God with confidence, to
a conftant attendance on his worlhip, and moft benevo¬
lent regards to each other (chap. x. 15—25.).
The apoftle having thus obviated the inlinuations and
objections of the Jew's, for the fatisfaClion and eftablifh-
ment of the believing Hebrews, proceeds, 222
II. To prepare and fortify their minds againft theandtoam-
ftorm of perfecution which in part had already befallen111316 them
them, which was likely to continue and be often renew- -c
ed, he reminds them of thofe extremities they had endu- ^ith^forti^
red, and of the fatal effe&s which would attend their tude.
apoftafy
calling
of faith and forti-
2Z3
The feven
Catholic
epiftles.
SCR
Scripture, apoflafy (chap. x. 26. to the end)
 r remembrance the eminent example
tude exhibited by holy men, and recorded in the Old
Teftament (chap. xi. 1—29.). He concludes his dif-
courfe with glancing at many other illuftrious worthies j
and, befides thofe recorded in Scripture, refers to the
cafe of feveral who fuffered under the perfecution of An-
tiochus Epiphanes (2 Maceab. chap. viii. &c. chap. xi.
3°. xii. 2.). .
Having thus fmidled tlie argumentative part of the
Epiftle, the apoitle proceeds to a general application ;
in which he exhorts the Hebrew Chriftians to patience,
peace, and holinefs (chap. xii. 3—14.) j cautions them
againft fecular views and fenfual gratifications, by lay¬
ing before them the incomparable excellence of the
bleffmgs introduced by the gofpel, which even the Jew-
ilh economy, glorious and magnificent as it was, did by
no means equal j exhorts them to brotherly affeftion,
purity, compaflion, dependence on the divine care, Ifed-
faftnofs in the profeflion of truth, a life, of thankfulnefs
to God, and benevolence to man : and concludes the
whole with recommending their pious minifters to their
particular regard, intreating their prayers, faluting and
granting them his ufual benediftion.
The feven following Epiftles, one of James, two of
Peter, three of John, and one of Jude, have been dif-
tinguilhed by the appellation of catholic or general epit-
tles, becaufe mod; of them are inferibed, not to parti¬
cular churches or perfons, but to the body of Jewitli
or Gentile converts over the world. The authenticity
of fome of thefe has been frequently quellioned, viz.
The Epiftle of James, the fecond of Peter, the Epiftle of
Jude, and the fiecond and third of John. The ancient
Chriftians were very cautious in admitting any books
into their canon whole authenticity they had any reafon
Macknight to fufpefl. They rejefted all the writings forged by
heretics in the name of the apoftles, and certainly, there¬
fore, ivould not receive any without firft fubjecting them
to a fevere ferutiny. Now, though thefe five epiftles
were not immediately acknowledged as the writings of
the apoftles, this only (hows that the perfons who
doubted had not received complete and inconteftable
evidence of their authenticity. But as they were af¬
ter-wards univerfally received, we have every reafon to
conclude, that upon a Uriel: examination they were
found to be the genuine productions of the apoftles.
The truth is, fo good an opportunity had the ancient
Chriftians of examining this matter, fo careful were they
to guard aagainft impofition, and fo well founded was
their judgment concerning the books of the New Tefta¬
ment, that, as Dr Lardner obferves, no writing which
they pronounced genuine has yet been proved fpurious,
nor have we at this day the leaft reafon to believe any
book genuine which they rejected.
That the Epiftle of James was written in the apofto-
lical age is proved by the quotations of ancient authors.
Clemens Romanus and Ignatius feem to have made re¬
ferences to it. Origen quotes it once or twice.—.There
are feveral reafons why it was not more generally quoted
by the firft Chriftian writers. Being written to cor-
re£t the errors and vices which prevailed among the Jews,
the Gentiles might think it of lefs importance to them,
and therefore take no pains to procure copies of it. As
the author wras fometimes denominated James the Juft,
and often called bifhop of Jerufalem, it might be doubt-
on the E-
piJUes.
224
Eplftle of
Tames the
Lefs.
t 45 1 SCR
to their ed whether he was one of the apoftles. But its au- Scripture,
thenticity does not feem to have been fufpedled on ac-v-—-'
count of the doftrines which it contains. In modern
times, indeed, Luther called it a ftrawy epiftle {epiftola
Jlraminea), and excluded it from the facred writings, on
account of its apparent oppofition to the apoftle Paul
concerning juftification by faith.
This Epiftle could not be written by James the Elder,
the Ion of Zebedee, and brother of John, -who was be¬
headed by Herod in the year 44, for it contains paffages
which refer to a later period. It mull, therefore, have
been the compofition of James the Lefs, the fon of
Alpheus, who was called the Lord's brother, becaufe he
was the fon of Mary, the filler of our Lord’s mother. 225
As to the date of this Epiftle, Lardner fixes it in the The date
year 61 or 62.
James the Lefs ftatedly refided at Jerufalem, whence
lie hath been ilyled by lome ancient fathers bilhop of
that city, though without fufficient foundation. Now Loddrid-
James being one of the apoftles of the circumcifion,^ ■f Family
while he confined his perfonal labours to the inhabitants ’
of Judea, it was very natural for him to endeavour by
his writings to extend his fervices to the Jewilh Chrif¬
tians who were difperfed abroad in more diftant re- t2(^
gions. For this purpofe, there are two points which and defign
the apoftle feems to have principally aimed at, though
he hath not purfued them in an orderly and logical me¬
thod, but in the free epiftolary manner, handling them
jointly or diftintftly as occafions naturally offered. And
thefe were, “ to correct thofe errors both in dotffrine
and praftice into which the Jewifli Chriftians had fallen,
which might otherwife have produced fatal confequen-
ces j and then to eftablilh the faith and animate the hope
of fincere believers, both under their prefent and their
approaching fufferings.”
The opinions -which he is moft anxious to refute are
thefe, that God is the author of fin, (ch. i. 13.) 5 that
the belief of the doftrines of the gofpel was fufficient
to procure the favour of God for them, however defi¬
cient they were in good ivorks, (ch. ii.). He diffuades
the Jews from afpiring to the office of teachers in the
third chapter, becaufe their prejudices in favour of the
law of Mofes might induce them to pervert the doctrines
of the gofpel. He therefore guards them againft the
fins of the tongue, by reprefenting their pernicious ef¬
fects ; and as they thought themfelves wile and intelli¬
gent, and were ambitious of becoming teachers, he ad-
vifes them to make good their pretenfions, by ffiowing
themfelves pofl’efled of that wifdom which is from above,
(ch. iii.).
The deftrudlion of Jerufalem was now approaching j
the Jews were fplit into faftions, and often flaughtered
one another ; the apoftle, therefore, in the fourth chap¬
ter, admonilhes them to purify themfelves from thofe
vices which produced tumults and bloodlhed. To roufe
them to repentance, he foretels the miferies that were
coming upon them. Laftly, he checks an irreligious
fpirit that feems to have prevailed, and concludes the
Epiftle with feveral exhortations.
The authenticity of the firft Epiflle of Peter has Firft
never been denied. It is referred to by Clemens piftle o£
Romanus, by Polycarp, and is quoted by Papias, Ire-Peter>
nceus, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Tertullian. It is
addrefled to the ftrangers fcattered through Pontus, &c.
who arc evidently Chriftians in general, as appears from
chap.
SCR [ 46 1
“In time part they were not a people, controverted
azS
The date
229
and defign
of it.
Scripture. chap. ii. 10.
' ^ ' but are now the people of God.” From Peter’s fend
ing the falutation of the church at Babylon to the
Chriftians in Pontus, &c. it is generally believed that
he wrote it in Babylon. There was a Babylon in
and another in Aflyria. It could not be the
former, for it was an obfcure place, which feems to
have had no church for the firlt four centuries. We
have no authority to affirm that Peter ever was in Af-
fyria. Ihemoft probable opinion is that of Grotius,
Whitby, Lardner, as well as of Eufebius, Jerome, and
others, that by Babylon Peter figuratively means Rome.
Lardner dates it in 63 or 64, or at the lateft 65.
St Peter’s chief defign is to confirm the do&rine of
St Paul, which the falfe teachers, pretended he was op-
pofing 5 and to allure the profelytes that they rtood in
the true grace of God, (ch. v. 12.). With this view he
calls them ele£! ; and mentions, that they had been
declared fuch by the effufion of the Holy Ghoft upon
them, (ch. i. 1, 2.), He aflures them that they were
regenerate without circumcifion, merely through the
gofpel and refurre&ion of Chrift, (ver. 3, 4,. 21—25.) ;
and that their fufferings were no argument of their be¬
ing under the difpleafure of God, as the Jews imagined,
(ver. 6—12.). He recommends it to them to hope
for grace to the end, (ver. 13.). He teftifies, that
they were not redeemed by the Pafchal lamb, but
through Chrift, whom God had preordained for this
purpofe before the foundation of the world, (ver.
18—20.).
The lecond Epiftle of Peter is not mentioned by any
ancient writer extant till the fourth century, from which
The time it has been received by all Chriftians except the Sy-
1C1' rians. Jerome acquaints us, that its authenticity was
difputed, on account of a remarkable difference between
the ftyle of it and the former Epiftle. But this re¬
markable difference in ftyle is confined to the 2d chapter
of the 2d Epiftle. No objedftion, however, can be
drawn from this circumftance j for the fubjeft of that
chapter is different from the reft of Peter’s writings,
and nothing is fo well known than that different fubjedts
fuggeft different ftyles. Peter, in defcribing the cha-
rafler of fome flagitious impoftors, feels an indignation
which he cannot fupprefs : it breaks out, therefore, in
the bold and animated figures of an oriental 'Writer.
Such a diverfity of ftyle. is not uncommon in the beft
writers, efpecially when warmed with their lubjedh
This objedlion being removed, we contend that this
Epiftle was written by Peter, from the infcription, Si¬
mon Peter, a fervant and an apojlle of Jefus Chrijl. It
appears from chap. i. 16, 17, 18. that the writer was
one of the difciples who faw the transfiguration of our
Saviour. Since it has never been afcribed to James or
John, it muft therefore have been Peter. It is evident,
from chap. iii. x. that the author had written an Epiftle
before to the fame perfons, which is another eireum-
ftance that proves Peter to be the author.
It is acknowledged, however, that all this evidence is
merely internal; for we have not been able to find any
external evidence upon the fubjeft. If, therefore, the
credit which we give to any fadl is to be in proportion
to the degree of evidence with which it is accompanied,
we fliall allow more authority due to the gofpels than
to the epiftles ; more to thofc epiftles which have been
generally acknowledged than to thofe which have been
sen
230
Second E-
piftle of
Peter,
authentici
ty of it
-proved *
231
from inter¬
nal evi¬
dence.
and therefore no doftrine of ChrfTtianity Scripture
ought to be founded folely upon them. It may alfo be -v—-
added, that perhaps the beft way of determining what
are the cffential dodtrines of Chriftianity would be to
examine what are the doctrines which occur ofteneft
in the gofpels ; for the gofpels are the plaineft parts of
the New leftament; and their authenticity is moft
completely proved. They are therefore beft fitted for
common readers. Nor will it be denied, we prefume,
that our Saviour taught all the doftrines of the Chrif-
tian religion himlelf j that he repeated them on different
occafions, and inculcated them with an earneftnefs pro¬
portionable to their importance. The Epiftles are to be
confidered as a commentary on the effential do&rines of
the gofpel, adapted to the fituation and circumftances of
particular churches, and perhaps fometimes explaining
doftrines of inferior importance. 1. The effential doc¬
trines are therefore firft to be fought for in the gofpels,
and to be determined by the number of times they occur.
2. They are to be fought for, in the next place, in the
uncontroverted Epiftles, in the fame manner. 3. No
effential doftrine ought to be founded on a fingle paffage,
nor on the authority of a controverted Epiftle.
That Peter was old, and near his end, when he wrote
this Epiftle, may be inferred from chap. i. 14. “ Know¬
ing that ftiortly I muft put off this tabernacle, even as
our Lord Jefus has (hewn me.” Lardner thinks it was
written foon after the former. Others, perhaps with
more accuracy, date it in 67.
The general defign of this Epiftle is, to confirm tbeDe^ot-
doffrines and inftruffions delivered in the former j “ toit. *
excite the Chriftian converts to adorn, and ftedfaftly ad¬
here to their holy religion, as a religion proceeding
from God, notwithftandingthe artifices of falfe teachers,
whofe character is at large deferibed; or the perfecution
of their bitter and inveterate enemies.” ,33
The firft Epiftle of John is afcribed by the unanimous Tirft E-
fuffrage of the ancients to the beloved difciple of ourP'ftleof
r j t. • r , . , t, , • T, . - John. I
Lord.
Its
It is referred to by Polycarp, is quoted by Pa- aut}ient;
pias, by Ireneeus, and was received as genuine by Cle- c;ty ari(j"
mens Alexandrinus,'by Dionyfius of Alexandria, by Cy-ftyie.
prian, by Origen, and Eufebius. There is fuch a refem-
blance between the ftyle and fentiments of this Epiftle
and thofe of the gofpel according to John, as to afford
the higheft degree of internal evidence that they are the
compofition of the fame author. In the ftyle of this
apoftle there is a remarkable peculiarity, and efpecially
in this Epiftle. His fentences, coniidered feparately, are
exceeding clear and intelligible ; but when we fearch for
their connexion, we frequently meet with greater dif¬
ficulties than we do even in the Epiftles of St Paul.
The principal fignature and charafteriftic of his manner
is an artlefs and amiable fimplicity, and a fingular mo-
defty and candour, in conjunction with a wonderful fub-
limity of fentiment. His conceptions are apparently de¬
livered to us in the order in which they arofe to his own
mind, and are not the product of artificial rtafoning or
laboured inVeftigation.
It is impoflible to fix with any precifion the date of
this Epiftle, nor can we determine to what perfons it
Avas addreffed.
The leading defign of the apoftle is to thoAV the in-Deficit ef
fufficiency of faith, and the external profeffion of reli-it. ^
gion, feparate from morality ; to guard the Chriftians
to Avhom he xvrites againft the delufive arts of the cor¬
rupters
S C R
£
Scripture.
235 ,
Second and
third E-
piftles of
John.
23d
Epiitie of
Jude. Its
authenti¬
city
rupters of Chriftianity, whom he calls Antichrlft j
to inculcate univerfal benevolence. His admonitions
concerning the neceflity of good morals, and the inef¬
ficacy of external profeffions, are fcattered over the
Epiftle, but are moil frequent in the ill, 2d, and 3d
chapters. The enemies or corrupters of Chrillianity,
againll whom he contends, feem to have denied that
Jefus was the Mefliah the Son of God (chapter ii. 22.
v. 1.), and had aflually come into the world in a human
form, (chap. iv. 2, 3.). The earneftnefs and frequency
with which this apoltle recommends the duty of bene¬
volence is remarkable. He makes it the diftinguilhing
charaileriftic of the difciples of Jefus, the only fure
pledge of our love to God, and the only affurance of
eternal life, (chap. iii. 34, 15.). Benevolence was his
favourite theme, which he affectionately preffed upon
others, and conllantly praClifed himfelf. It was conlpi-
cuous in his conduCl to his great Matter, and in the re¬
ciprocal affedlion which it infpired in his facred breaft.
He continued to recommend it in his laft words. When
his extreme age and infirmities had fo walled his llrength
that he was incapable to exercife the duties of his office,
the venerable old man, anxious to exert in the fervice
of his Mailer the little llrength which Hill remained,
eaufed himfelf to be carried to church, and, in the midll
of the congregation, he repeated thefe words, “ Little
children love one another.”
It has been obferved by Dr Mill that the fecond and
third Epillles of John are fo ffiort, and referable the firft
fo much in fentiment and llyle, that it is not worth
ivhile to contend about them. The fecond Epiltle con-
fills only of 13 verfes •, and of thefe eight may be found
in the ill Epiltle, in which the fenfe or language is pre-
cifely the fame.
I he fecond Epiltle is quoted by Irenams, and was
received by Clemens Alexandrinus. Both were ad¬
mitted by Athanafius, by Cyril of Jerufalem, and by
Jerome. The fecond is addreffed to a woman of di-
IlinClion whofe name is by fome fuppofed to be Cijria
(taking y-v^u, for a proper name), by others Kc/e£ia.
The third is infcribed to Gaius, or Caius according to
the Latin orthography, who, in the opinion of Lardner,
was an eminent Chriltian, that lived in fome city of
Alia not far from Ephefus, where St John chiefly re-
lided after his leaving Judea. The time of writing
thefe two Epillles cannot be determined with any cer¬
tainty. They are fo Ihort that an analyfis of them is
not neceffary.
The Epiltle of Jude is cited by no ancient Chriltran
writer extant before Clemens Alexandrinus about the
year 194 ; but this author has tranfcribed eight or ten
verfes in his Stromata and Pedagogue. It is quoted
once by Tertullian about the year 20Q ; by Origen
frequently about 230. It was not however received
by many of the ancient Chriltians, on account of a
fuppofed quotation from a book of Enoch. But it is
not certain that Jude quotes any book. He only fays
that Enoch prophejied, faying, The Lord cometh with
ten thoufand of his faints. Thefe might be words of
47 J- S G R .
and a prophecy preferved by tradition, and inferted occafion- Scripture,
ally in different writings. Nor is there any evidence —v—
that there was fuch a book as Enoch’s prophecies in the
time of Jude, though a book of that name was ex¬
tant in the fecond and third centuries. As to the date
of this Epiltle nothing beyond conjedlure can be pro-
duced. _ . . 237
The defign of it is, by deferibing the chara&er of the and delign.
falfe teachers, and the punilhments to which they were
liable, to caution Chriltians againll lillening to their
fuggeltions, and being thereby perverted from the faith
and purity of the gofpel. 2jS
The Apocalypfe or Revelation has not always been The Apo-
unanimoully received as the genuine production of thecal^Pfe‘. Its
apoltle John. Its authenticity is proved, however, by
the tellimony of many refpeClable authors of the firllVed/
centuries. It is referred to by the martyrs of Lyons :
it was admitted by Jultin Martyr as the work of the
apoltle John. It is often quoted by Irenaeus, by The-
ophilus bilhop of Antioch, by Clement of Alexandria,
by Tertullian, by Origen, and by Cyprian of Carthage.
It was alfo received by heretics, by Novatus and his fol¬
lowers, by the Donatills, and by the Arians. For the
firlt two centuries no part of the New Teltament was
more univerfally acknowledged, or mentioned with
higher refpedt. But a difpute having arifen about the
millennium, Caius with fome others, about the year
212, to end the controverfy as fpeedily and effeCtually
as poflible, ventured to deny the authority of the book
which had given occafion to it.
The book of Revelation, as we learn from Rev. i. 9. The date
was written in the ifle of Patmos. According to th©of it*
general tellimony of ancient authors, John was baniffied
into Patmos in the reign of Domitian, and reltored by
his fucceffor Nerva. But the book could not be pu-
blifhed till after John’s releafe, when he returned to E-
phefus. As Domitian died in 96, and his perfecution
did not commence till near the end of his reign, the Re¬
velation might therefore be publilhed in 96'or 97.
Here we ffiould conclude j but as the curious reader Percy's
may defire to be informed hovr the predictions revealed Key to the
in this book of St John have ufually been interpretedTe~
and applied, wTe lhall confiltently with our fubjeft {u\)-ment'
join a key to the prophecies contained in the Revelation.
This is extracted from the learned differtations of Dr
Newton, bilhop of Briltol (1) : to which the reader is
referred for a more full illultration of the feveral parts,
as the concifenefs of our plan only admits a fhort ana¬
lyfis or abridgment of them. 140
Nothing of a prophetical nature occurs in the firlt three Dr New-
chapters, except, 1. What is laid concerning the church t?”,s
of Ephefus, that her “ candleltick ihall be removed out thep^o- °
of its place,” which is now verified, not only in this, butphecies
in all the other Afiatic churches which exifted at that which have
time $ the light of the gofpel having been taken from^ee“ a‘"
them, not only by their herefies and divifions from with-^.4^’^
in, but by the arms of the Saracens from without : And,
2. Concerning the church of Smyrna, that IHe {hall
“ have tribulation ten days j” that is, in prophetic lan-
guage,
(1) Differtations on the prophecies which have remarkably, been fulfilled, and at this time are fulfilling, in the*
world, vol. iii. 8vo.
2
SCR
[ 48
1Pture- guagej ten years 5” referring to the perfecution of
Diocletian, which alone of all the general perfecutions
lafted fo long.
The next fiye chapters relate to the opening of the
Seven Seals ; and by thefe feals are intimated fo many
different periods of the prophecy. Six of thefe feals are
opened in the fixth and feventh chapters.
The JirJl feal or period is memorable for conquefts.
It commences with Vefpafian, and terminates in Nerva j
and during this time Judea was fubjugated. The fe-
condfeal is noted for war and daughter. It commences
with Trajan, and continues through his reign, and that
of his fucceffors. In this period, the Jews were entire¬
ly routed and dilperfed j and great was the daughter
and devadation occafioned by the contending parties.
The third feal is characterifed by a rigorous execution
of judice, and an abundant provifion of corn, wine, and
oil. It commences with Septimius Severus. He and
Alexander Severus were juff and fevere emperors, and
at the fame time highly celebrated for the regard
they paid to the felicity of their people, by procur¬
ing them plenty of every thing, and particularly
corn, wine, and oil. This period lafted during the
reigns of the Septimian family. The fourth feal is di-
*ftinguiftied by a concurrence of evils, fuch as war, fa¬
mine, peftilence, and wild beafts j by all which the Ro¬
man empire wras remarkably infefted from the reign of
Maximin to that of Diocledan. The fifth feal begins
at Dioclefian, and is fignali'Zed by the great perfecution,
from whence arofe that memorable era, the Era of
Martyrs. With Conftantine begins the fixth feal, a
period of revolutions, pi&ured forth by great commo¬
tions in earth and in heaven, alluding to the fubverfion
of Paganifm and the eftablifhment of Chriftianity. This
period lafted from the reign of Conftantine the Great
to that of Theodofius the Firft. The feventh feal includes
under it the remaining parts of the prophecy, and com¬
prehends feven periods diftinguifhed by the founding of
feven trumpets.
As the feals foretold the ftate of the Roman empire
before and till it became Chriftian, fo the trumpets fore-
Ihow the fate of it afterwards ; each trumpet being an
alarm to one nation or other, roufing them up to over-
throw that empire.
Four of thefe trumpets are founded in the eighth
chapter.
At the founding of the firft, Alaric and his Goths
invade the Roman empire, befiege Rome twice, and fet
it on fire in feveral places. At the founding of the fe-
cond, Attila and his Huns wafte the Roman provinces,
and compel the eaftern emperor Theodofius the Second,
and the weftern emperor Valentinian the Third, to fub-
mit to fhameful terms. At the founding of the third,
Genferic and his Vandals arrive from Africa j fpoil and
plunder Rome, and fet fail again with immenfe wealth
and innumerable captives. At the founding of the
fourth, Odoacer and the Heruli put an end to the very
name of the weftern empire 5 Theodoric founds the
kingdom of the Oftrogoths in Italy \ and at laft Italy
becomes a province of the eaftern empire, Rome being
governed by a duke under the exarch of Ravenna. As
the foregoing trumpets relate chiefly to the downfal of
the weftern empire, fo do the following to that of the
eaftern. They are founded in the ninth, tenth, and
.part of the eleventh chapters. At the founding of the
] SCR
fifth trumpet, Mahomet, that blazing ftar, appears, opens Scripture,
the bottomlefs pit, and with his locufts the Arabians vt—«■
darkens the fun and air. And at the founding of the
fixth, a period not yet finilhed, the four angels, that is,
the four fultans, or leaders of the Turks and Othmans,
are loofed from the river Euphrates. The Greek or
Eaftern empire was cruelly “ hurt and tormented” un¬
der the fifth trumpet; but under the fixth, was “ flain,”
and utterly deftroyed.
I he Latin or Weftern Church not being reclaimed
by the ruin of the Greek or Eaftern, but ftill perfifting
in their idolatry and wickednefsj at the beginning of the
tenth chapter, and under the found of this fixth trumpet,
is introduced a vifion preparative to the prophecies re-
fpeding the Weftern Church, wherein an angel is repre-
fented, having in his hand a little book, or codicil, de-
feribing the calamities that fhould overtake that church.
The meafuring of the temple (hows, that during all this
period there will be fome true Chriftians, who will con¬
form themfelves to the rule of God’s word, even whilft
the outer court, that is, the external and more extenfive
part of this temple or church, is trodden under foot by
Gentiles, z. e. fuch Chriftians as, in their idolatrous
worfhip and perfecuting practice, referable and outdo the
Gentiles themfelves. Yet againft thefe corrupters of re¬
ligion there will always be fome true witneffes to proteft,
who, however they may be overborne at times, and in
appearance reduced to death, yet will arife again from
time to time, till at laft they triumph and glorioufly
afeend. The eleventh chapter concludes with the found¬
ing of the feventh trumpet.
In the twelfth diapter, by the woman bearing a man-
child is to be underftood the Chriftian church j by the
great red dragon, the heathen Roman empire ; by the
man-child whom the woman bore, Conftantine the
Great 5 and by the war in heaven, the contefts between
the Chriftian and Heathen religions.
In the thirteenth chapter, by the beaft with feven
heads and ten horns, unto whom the dragon gave his
power, feat, and great authority, is to be underftood,
not Pagan but Chriftian, not imperial but papal Rome j
in fubmitting to whofe religion, the world did in effeft
fubmit again to the religion of the dragon. The ten¬
horned beaft therefore reprefents the Romifti church
and ftate in general: but the beaft with two horns like
a lamb is the Roman clergy •, and that image of the
ten-horned beaft, which the two-horned beaft caufed to
be made, and infpired with life, is the pope j rvhofe
number is 666, according to the numerical powers of
the letters conftituting the Roman name Axlttto;, Latinus,
or its equivalent in Hebrew, n"m“i Romith.
30
I
300
5
10
50
7°
200
200 n
6 t
40
10 v
10 '
400 n
666
666
Chapter xiv. By the lamb on Mount Sion is meant
Jefus •, by the hundred forty and four tboufand, his
church and follorVers, by the angel preaching the ever-
lafting
SCR t 49 ] S C U
Scripture lading gofpel, the firft principal elFort made towards a
II reformation by that public oppofition formed againil the
-Scruple. . 0f faints and images by emperors and biihops in
the eighth and ninth centuries; by the angel crying,
“ Babylon is fallen,” the Waldenfes and Albigenfes,
ivho pronounced the church of Rome to be the A-
pocalyptic Babvlon, and denounced her deftrutlion j
and by the third angel Martin Luther and his fellow
reformers, who protefted againil; all the corruptions of
the church of Rome as deitructive to falvation. For
an account of the doctrines and precepts contained in
the Scriptures, fee Theology. For proofs of their
divine origin, fee Religion, Prophecy, and Mira¬
cles.
SCRIVENER, one who draws contrails, or whofe
bufinefs it is to place money at intered. If a fcrivener
be entrufted with a bond, he may receive the intereft;
and if he fail, the obligee (hall bear the lofs: ?nd fo
it is if he receive the principal and deliver up the bond;
for being entrufted with the fecurity itfelf, it muft be
prefumed that he is trufted with power to receive inte¬
reft or principal; and the giving up the bond on pay¬
ment of the money fhail be a difcharge thereof. But
If a fcrivener fhall be entrufted with a mortgage-deed,
he hath only authority to receive the intereft, not the
principal; the giving up the deed in this cafe not being
fufficient to reftore the eftate, but there muft be a re¬
conveyance, &c. It is held, where a fcrivener puts out
his client’s money on a bad fecurity, which upon in¬
quiry might have been eafily found fo, yet he cannot in
equity be charged to anfwer for the money ; for it is
here faid, no one would venture to put out money of
another upon a fecurity, if he were obliged to warrant
and make it good in cafe a lofs Ihould happen, without
any fraud in him.
SCROBICULUS cordis, the fame as Anticar-
DIUM..
SCROFANELLO, in Ichthyology, a name by
which fome have called a fmall filh of the Mediterra¬
nean, more ufually known by the name of the fcor-
periia.
SCROLL, in Heraldry. See that article, chap. iv.
fe<ft. 9. When the motto relates to the creft, the fcroll
is properly placed above the achievement; otherwife it
fliould be annexed to the efcutcheon. Thofe of the
order of knighthood are generally placed round ftiields.
SCROPHULA, the King’s Evil. See Medicine,
N° 349.
SCROPHUL ARI A, Figwort, a genus of plants
belonging to the didynamia clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 40th order, Perfonatce. See
Botany Index.
SCROTUM. See Anatomy, N® 220.
SCRUPLE, Scrupulus, or Scrupulum, the leaft
of the weights ufed by the ancients, which amongft
the Romans was the 24th part of an ounce, or the 3d
part of a dram. The fcruple is ftill a weight among
us, containing the 3d part of a dram, or 20 grains.
Among goldfmiths it is 24 grains.
SCRUPLE, in Chaldean Chronology, is -f5*B 0- part of
an hour, called by the Hebrews helakin. Thefe fcruples
are much ufed by the Jews, Arabs, and other eaftern
people, in computations of time.
SCRUPLES of half Duration, an arch of the moon’s
Vol. XIX. Part I.
orbit, which the moon’s centre defcribes from the be¬
ginning of an eclipfe to its middle.
SCRUPLES of Immerfion or Incidence, an arch of the
moon’s orbit, which her centre deieribes from the be¬
ginning of the eclipfe to the time when its centre falls
into the fhadow.
SCRUPLES of Emerfon, an arch of the moon’s orbit,
which her centre defcribes in the time from the firft
emerfion of the moon’s limb to the end of the eclipfe.
SCRIJ ITNY, (Scrutinium), in the primitive church,
an examination or prooatioii pra£tiled in the fall week
of Lent, on the catechumens, who were to receive bap-
tifm on the Eafter-day. The fcrutiny was performed
with a great many ceremonies. Exorcifms and prayers
were made over the heads of the catechumens; and on
Palm Sunday, the Lord’s Prayer and Creed were given
them, which they were afterwards made to rehearfe.
This cuftom was more in ufe in the church of Rome
than anywhere clfe; though it appears, by fome miifals,
to have been like wife uled, though much later, in the
Gallican church. It is fuppofed to have ceafed about
the year 860. Some traces of this practice ftill remain
at Vienne in Dauphine, and at Liege.
Scrutiny, is alfo ufed, in the Canon Law, for a ticket
or little paper billet, wherein at eletlions the electors
Ayrite their votes privately, fo as it may not be known
for whom they vote. Among us the term fcrutiny is*
chiefly ufed for a ftrift perufal and examination of the
feveral votes haftily taken at an eleftion ; in order to
find out any irregularities committed therein, by un¬
qualified voters, &c.
SCRUTORE, or Scrutoir (from the French ef-
critoire'), a kind of cabinet, with a door or lid opening
downwards, for conveniency of writing on, &c.
SCRY, in falconry, denotes a large flock of fowl.
SCUDDING, the movement by which a fhip is car¬
ried precipitately before a tempeft. As a fhip flies with
amazing rapidity through the water whenever this ex¬
pedient is put in practice, it is never attempted in a
contrary wind, unlefs when her condition renders her
incapable of fuftaining the mutual effort of the wind
and waves any longer on her fide, without being
expofed to the moft imminent danger of being over-
fet.
A fhip either feuds with a fail extended on her fore-
maft, or, if the ftorm is exceflive, without any fail:
which, in the fea-phrafe, is called feudding under bare
poles. In floopsand fehooners, and other fmall veffels,
the fail employed for this purpofe is called the fquare
fail. In large fhips, it is either the forefail at large,
reefed, or with its goofe-wings extended, according
to the degree of the tempeft; or it is the fore-top fail,
clofe reefed, and lowered on the cap ; which laft is
particularly ufed when the fea runs fo high as to becalm
the forefail occafionally, a circumftance which expofes
the fhip to the danger of broaching to. The principal
hazards incident to feudding are generally, a pooping
fea ; the difficulty of fleering, which expofes the veffel
perpetually to the rifk of broaching to; and the want of
fufficient fea-room. A fea ftriking the fhip violently on
the ftern may dafh it inwards, by which fhe muft inevi¬
tably founder. In broaching to (that is, inclining fud-
denly to windward), fhe is threatened ivith being imme¬
diately overturned; and, for want of fea-room, fhe is en-
G dangeredt
Scruple
II.
Scudding.
SOU [50
Scudding, dangered by (hipwreck on a lee (bore, a circumftance
Sculpuneae ^00 dreadful to require explanation.
' SCULPONE^E, among the Romans, a kind of
] s c u
(hoes worn by flaves of both fexes. Thefe fhoes were Sculponcae-
only blocks of wood made hollow, like the French u * -f
fabots.
SCULPTURE,
Definition
of fculp-
ture.
Origin of
it,
* Apud
Syncellum,
P< 37-
f Hifl. Nat.
lib. vii. cap.
S<>-
not folely
from idbia-
tiy;
TS the art of carving wood or hewing ftone into images.
It is an art of the moll remote antiquity, being
praftifed, as there is reafon to believe, before the general
deluge. We are induced to affign to it this early origin,
by confidering the expedients by which, in the firft
ftages of fociety, men have every where fupplied the
place of alphabetic characters. Thefe, it is univerfally
known, have been piCture-writing, fuch as that of the
Mexicans, which, in the progrefs of refinement and
knowledge, was gradually improved into the hierogly¬
phics of the Egyptians and other ancient nations. See
Hieroglyphics.
That mankind Ihould have lived near 1700 years,
from the creation of the world to the flood of Noah,
without falling upon any method to make their concep¬
tions permanent, or to communicate them to a diftance,
is extremely improbable ; efpecially when we call to
mind that fuch methods of writing have been found, in
modern times, among people much lefs enlightened than
thofe mufl: have been who rvere capable of building
fuch a veffel as the ark. But if the antediluvians were
acquainted with any kind of writing, there can be little
doubt of its being,hieroglyphical writing. Mr Bryant
has proved th&t the Chaldeans were poffeffed of that art
before the Egyptians 5 and Berofus * informs us, that
a delineation of all the monftrous forms which inhabit¬
ed the chaos, wrhen this earth was in that Hate, was to
be feen in the temple of Belus in Babylon. This deli¬
neation, as he defcribes it, mufl: have been a hiflory in
hieroglyphical chara&ers ; for it confifted of human fi¬
gures with wings, with two heads, and fome with the
horns and legs of goats. This is exaftly fimilar to the
hieroglyphical writing of the Egyptians 5 and it was
preferved, our author fays, both in drawings and engra¬
vings in the temple of the god of Babylon. As Chal¬
dea was the firft peopled region of the earth after the
flood, and as it appears from Pliny f, as well as from
Berofus, that the art of engraving on bricks baked in
the fun was there carried to a confiderable degree of
perfeftion at a very early period, the probability cer¬
tainly is, that the Chaldeans derived the art of hiero¬
glyphical writing, and confequently the rudiments of
the art of fculpture, from their antediluvian anceftors.
It is generally thought that fculpture had its origin
from idolatry, as it w'as found neceffary to place before
the people the images of their gods to enliven the fer¬
vour of their devotion : but this is probably a mxftake.
The worlhip of the heavenly bodies, as the only gods
of the heathen nations, prevailed fo long before the dei¬
fication of dead men was thought of (fee Polytheism),
that we cannot fuppofe mankind to have been, during
all that time, ignorant of the art of hieroglyphical xvri-
ting. But the deification of departed heroes undoubt¬
edly gave rife to the almoft univerfal pra&ice of repre-
fen'ing the gods by images of a human form j and
therefore we muft conclude, that the elements of fculp¬
ture Avere known before that art was employed to enliven
the devotion of idolatrous worlhippers. The pyramids
and obeliflcs of Egypt, which were probably temples,
or rather altars, dedicated to the fun (fee Pyramid),
were covered from top to bottom Avith hieroglyphical
emblems of men, beafts, birds, fillies, and reptiles, at a
period prior to that in which there is any unexception¬
able evidence that mere itatue-AVorlhip prevailed even
in that nurfery of idolatry. ^
But though it appears thus evident that pi&ure- though it
writing was the firft employment of the fculptor, AveProbabIy
are far from imagining that idolatrous Avorfliip did not ^°nctnbuted
contribute to carry his art to that perfedlion which it the ar^to
attaihed in fome of the nations of antiquity. Even in perfection. •
the dark ages of Europe, Avhen the other fine arts Avere
almoft extinguiftied, the mummery of the church of
Rome, and the veneration which flie taught for her
faints and martyrs, preferved among the Italians fome N
veftiges of the fifter-arts of fculpture and painting j and
therefore, as human nature is every Avhere the fame, it
is reafonable to believe that a fimilar veneration for he¬
roes and demigods Avould, among the ancient nations,
have a fimilar effeft. But if this be fo, the prefump-
tion is, that the Chaldeans Avere the firft Avho invented
the art of herving blocks of Avood and ftone into the fi¬
gures of men and other animals 5 for the Chaldeans were
unqueftionably the firft idrdaters, and their early pro¬
grefs in fculpture is confirmed by the united teftimonies
of Berofus, Alexander Polyhiftor, Apollodorus, and
Pliny ; not to mention the eaftern tradition, that the
father of Abraham Avas a ftatuary. ^
Againft this conclufion Mr Bromley, in his late Hi- Mr Brom-
ftory of the Fine Arts, has urged fome plaufible argu- ley’5 theo-
ments. In ftating thefe he profefies not to be original, *7’tbat
or to derive his information from the fountain-head of v™sPinvent^
antiquity. He adopts, as he tells us, the theory of a ed by the
French Avriter, Avho maintains, that in the year of the Scythians,
world 1949, about 300 years after the deluge, the Scy¬
thians under Brouma, a defcendant of Magog the fon
of Japhet, extended their conquefts over the greater part
of Afia. According to this fyftem, Brouma was not
only the civilizer of India, and the author of the brami-
nical do&rines, but alfo diffufed the principles of the
Scythian mythology over Egypt, Phoenicia, Greece, and
the continent of Afia.
Of thefe principles Mr Bromley has given us no di-
ftindl enumeration ; the account which he gives of them
is not to be found in one place, but to be collefted from
a variety of diftant paflages. In attempting therefore
to prefent the fubftance of his fcattered hints in one
vieAV, avc Avill not be confident that avc have omitted
none of them. The ox, fays he, Avas the Scythian em¬
blem of the generator of animal life, and hence it be¬
came the principal divinity of the Arabians. The fer-
pent was the fymbol of the fource of intelligent nature.
Thefe Avere the common points of union in all the firft
religions
SCULPTURE.
5f
religions of the earth. From Egypt the Ifraelites car¬
ried with them a religious veneration for the ox and the
ferpent. Their veneration for the ox appeared foon af¬
ter they marched into the Avildernefs, when in the ab-
fence of Mofes they called upon Aaron to make them
gods which flrould go before them. The idea of ha¬
ving an idol to go before them, fays our author, was
completely Scythian •, for fo the Scythians afted in all
their progrefs through Alia, with this difference, that
their idol Avas a living animal. The Ifraelites having
gained their favourite god, Avhich Avas an ox (not a calf
as it is rendered in the book of Exodus), next proceed¬
ed to hold a feftival, which Avas to be accompanied
Avith dancing ♦, a fpec’Ts of gaiety common in the fefti-
vals Avhich were held in adoration of the emblematic
Urotal or ox in that very part of Arabia near Mount
Sinai Avhere this event took place. It is mentioned
too as a curious and important fa£t, that the ox Avhich
Avas revered in Arabia Avas called Adonau According¬
ly Aaron announcing the feaft to the ox or golden calf,
fpeaks thus, to-morrow is a feajl to Adonai, which is in
our tranflation rendered to the lord. In the time of
Jeroboam avc read of the golden calves fet up as objects
of Avorfliip at Bethel and Dan. Nor was the reverence
paid to the ox confined to Scythia, to Egypt, and to
Afia •, it extended much farther. The ancient Cimbri,
as the Scythians did, carried an ox of bronze before them
on all their expeditions. Mr Bromley alfo informs us,
that as great refpe£t Avas paid to the living ox among
the Greeks as Avas offered to its fymbol among other na¬
tions.
The emblem of the ferpent, continues Mr Bromley,
Avas marked yet more decidedly by the exprefs direc¬
tion of the Almighty. That animal had ever been
confidered as emblematic of the fupreme generating
power of intelligent life : And Avas that idea, fays he,
difcouraged, fo far as it Avent to be a fign or fymbol of
life ? when God faid to Mofes, “ Make thee a brazen
ferpent, and fet it on a pole, and it fhall come to pafs
that every one Avho is bitten, Avhen he looketh on it,
ftiall live.” In Egypt the ferpent furrounded their Ifis
and Ofiris, the diadems of their princes, and the bon¬
nets of their priefts. Theferpents made a diftinguifhed
figure in Grecian fculpture. The fable of Echidne,
the mother of the Scythians, gave her figure termina¬
ting as a ferpent to all the founders of ftates in Greece ;
from Avhich their earlieft fculptors reprefented in that
form the Titan princes, Cecrops, Draco, and even Eric-
thonius. Befides the fpear of the image of Minerva,
Avhich Phidias made for the citadel of Athens, he pla¬
ced a ferpent, Avhich Avas fuppofed to guard that god-
defs.
The ferpent Avas combined Avith many other figures.
It fometimes Avas coiled round an egg as an emblem of
the creation j fometimes round a trident, to fhoAV its
power over the fea ; fometimes it encircled a flambeau,
to reprefent life and death.
In Egypt, as Avell as in Scythia and India, the di¬
vinity Avas reprefented on the leaves of the tamara or
lotus. Pan Avas Avorfhipped as a god in that country,
as Avell as over the eaft. Their fphinxes, and all their
combined figures of animal creation, took their origin
from the mother of the Scythians, Avho brought forth
an offspring that Avas half a woman and half a ferpent.
Their pyramids and obelifks arofe from the idea of flame j
the firft emblem of the fupreme principle, introduced by
the Scythians, and which even the influence of Zoroa-
fter and the Magi could not remove.
We are told that the Bacchus of the Greeks is de¬
rived from the Brouma of the Indians 5 that both are
reprefented as feated on a fAvan fwimming over the
waves, to indicate that each A\*as the god of humid^ na¬
ture, not the god of Avine, but the god of waters. Ihe
mitre of Bacchus Avas fhaped like half an egg 5 an em¬
blem taken from this circumflance, that at the creation
the egg from Avhich all things fprung was divided in the
middle. Pan alfo was revered among the Scythians j
and from that people Avefe derNed all the emblems by
which the Greeks reprefented this divinity.
It Avould be tedious to follovv our author through the
Avhole of this fubjedt $ and Avere avc to fubmit to the la¬
bour of colledting and arranging his fcattered materials,
avc fhould flill vieAV his fyflem Avith fome degree of fuf-
picion. It is drawn, as he informs us, from the Avork of
M. D’Ancarville, intitled, Recherches fur ROrigine,
RE/prit, et les Prog res, des Arts de la Grece. 5
To form conclufions concerning the origin of nations,ll1 founded,
the rife and progrefs of the arts and fciences, without
the aid of hiftorical evidence, by analogies which are
fometimes accidental, and often fanciful, is a mode of
reafoning which cannot readily be admitted. 1 here
may indeed, avc acknoAVledge, be refemblances in the re¬
ligion, language, manners, and cuftoms, of different na¬
tions, fo ftriking and fo numerous, that to doubt of
their being defcended from the fame ftock would favour
of fcepticifm. But hiftorical theories muft not be adopt¬
ed raftily. We muft be certain that the evidence is
credible and fatisfa&ory before avc proceed to deduce
any conclufions. We muft firft knovv Avhether the
Scythian hiftory itfelf be authentic, before Ave make ,
any comparifon Avith the hiftory of other nations. But
what is called the Scythian hiftory, every man of learn¬
ing knoAvs to be a colleftion of fables. Herodotus and
Juftin are the tAvo ancient Avriters from whom Ave have
the fulleft account of that AA'arlike nation ; but thefe tAvo
hiftorians contraditt each other, and both Avrite what
cannot be believed of the fame people at the fame pe¬
riod of their progrefs. Juftin tells us, that there Avas a
long and violent conteft between the Scythians and E-
gyptians about the antiquity of their refpeftive nations ;
and after ftating the arguments on each fide of the que-
ftion, Avhich, as he gives them * , are nothing to the pur- * Lib. u.
pofe, he decides in favour of the claim of the Scy-caP-*’
thians. Herodotus Avas too partial to the Egyptians,
not to give them the palm of antiquity : and he Avas
probably in the right j for Juftin defcribes his moft an¬
cient of nations, even in the time of Darius Hyftafpes,
as ignorant of all the arts of civil life. “ They occu¬
pied their land in common (fays he), and cultivated
none of it. They had no houfes nor fettled habitations,
but Avandered Avith their cattle from defert to defert.
In thefe rambles they carried their wives and children
in tumbrels covered Avith the {kins of beafts, which fer-
ved as houfes to proteft them from the {forms of win¬
ter. They Avere without laAVs, governed by the dictates
of natural equity. They coveted not gold or filver like
the reft of mankind, and lived upon milk and honey.
Though they Avere expofed to extreme cold, and had
abundance of flocks, they kneAv not hoAV to make gar¬
ments of avooI, but clothed themfelves in the {kins of
G 2 wild
52
■f Lib. ii.
cap. a.
} Lib. v i.
$ Lib. iv.
cap. 62.
6
Egyptian
icuipture.
SCULP
'ivild bcafts f.” This is the mbft favourable account
which any ancient writer gives of the Scythians. By
Strabo J and Herodotus § they are reprefented as the
moft favage of mortals, delighting in war and bloodfhed,
cutting the throats of all ftrangeys who came among
them, eating their flefli, and making cups and pots of
their Ikulls. Is it conceivable that fuch favages could
be fculptors •, or that, even fuppofing their manners to
have been fuch as Juflin reprefents them, a people fo
ilmple and ignorant could have impofed their mytho-
logy upon the Chaldeans, Phenicians, and Egyptians,
whom wre know by the moft incontrovertible evidence
to have been great and poliihed nations fo early as in
the days of Abraham ? No ! We could as foon admit
other novelties of more importance, with which the
French of the prefent age pretend to enlighten the
world, as this origin afiigned by Mr Bromley to the art
of fculpture, unlefs fupported by better authority than
that of D’Ancarville.
The inference of our author from the name of the
facred ox in Arabia, and from the dancing and gaiety
which were common in the religious feftivals of the
Arabians, appears to us to be very haftily drawn. At
the early period of the departure of the Ifraelites from
Egypt, the language of the Hebrews, Egyptians, and
Arabians, differed not more from each other than do
the different diale£!s of the Greek tongue which are
found in the poems of Homer (fee Philology, Se6t.
III.) ; and it is certain, that for many years after the
formation of the golden-calf, the Hebrews were ftran-
gers to every fpecies of idolatry but that which they
had brought with them from their houfe of bondage.
See Remphan.
Taking for granted, therefore, that the Scythians did
not impofe their mythology on the eaftern nations, and
that the art of fculpture, as well as hieroglyphic writing
and idolatrous worlhip, prevailed firft among the Chal¬
deans, we (hall endeavour to trace the progrefs of this
art through fome other nations of antiquity, till we bring
it to Greece, where it was carried to the higheft perfec¬
tion to which it has yet attained.
The firft intimation that we have of the art of fculp¬
ture is in the book of Genelis, where we are informed,
that when Jacob, by the divine command, was return¬
ing to Canaan, his wife Rachel carried along with her
the teraphim or idols of her father. Thefe we are af-
fured were fmall, fince Rachel found it fo 'eafy to con¬
ceal them from her father, notwithftanding his anxious
fearch. We are ignorant, however, how thefe images
were made, or of what materials they were compofed.
The firft perfon mentioned as an artift of eminence is
Bezaleel, who formed the cherubims which covered the
mercy-feat.
The Egyptians alfo cultivated the art of fculpture ;
but there were two circumftances wThich obftrufted its
progrefs. 1. The perfons of the Egyptians were not
poffeffed of the graces of form, of elegance, or of fym-
metry •, and of confequence they had no perfeft ftandard
to model their tafte. They refembled the Chinefe in
the caft of their face, in their great bellies, and in the
clumfv rounding of their contours. 2. They were re-
ftrained by their laws to the principles and praftices of
their anceftors, and were not permitted to introduce any
innovations. Their ftatues were always formed in the
fame ftiff attitude, with the arms hanging perpendicular-
T U II E.
ly down the fides. What perfection were they capable
of who knew no other attitude than that of chairmen ?
So far were they from attempting any improvements,
that in the time of Adrian the art continued in the
fame rude date as at firft j and ■when their llavifli adu¬
lation for that emperor induced them to place the fta-
tue of his favourite Antinous among the objefts of
their worlhip, the fame inanimate ftiffnefs in the atti¬
tude of the body and pofition of the arms was obferved.
We believe it will fcarcely be neceffary to inform our
readers that the Egyptian ftatue juft now mentioned is
very different from the celebrated ftatue of Antinousj
of which fo many moulds have been taken that imita¬
tions of it are notv to be met with almoft in every cabi¬
net in Europe.
Notwithftanding the attachment of the Egyptians to
ancient ufages, Winkelman thinks he has difcovered two
different ftyles of fculpture which prevailed at different
periods. The firfb of thefe ends with the conqueft of
Egypt by Cambyfes. The fecond begins at that time,
and extends beyond the reign of Alexander the Great. ^
In the firft ftyle, the lines which form the contour are ftvle,
ftraight and projefting a little ; the pofition is ftiff and
unnatural ; In fitting figures the legs are parallel, the
feet fqueezed together, and the arms fixed to the fides j
but in the figures of women the left arm is folded acrofs
the bread •, the bones and mufcles are faintly difcernible j
the eyes are flat and looking obliquely, and the eyebrow's
funk—features which deftroy entirely the beauty of the
head 5 the. cheek-bones are high, the chin fmall and
piked *, the ears are generally placed higher than in na¬
ture, and the feet are too large and flat In (hort, if
we are to look for any model in the ftatues of Egypt,
it is not for the model of beauty but of deformity. The
ftatues of men are naked, only they have a (hort ;apron,
and a few folds of drapery furrounding their waift :
The veftments of women are only didingui(liable by the
border, which rifes a little above the furface of the
ftatue. In this age it is evident the Egyptians knew
little of drapery. g
Of the fecond ftyle of fculpture praftifed among the Second
Egyptians, Winkelman thinks he has found fpecimens ftyle.
in the twro figures of bafaltes in the Capitol, and in an¬
other figure at Villa Albani, the head of which has
been renewed. The firft two of thefe, he remarks, bear
vifible traces of the former ftyle, which appear efpecial-
ly in the form of the mouth and (hortnefs of the chin.
The hands poffefs more elegance j and the feet are
placed at a greater diftance from each other, than was
cuftomary in more ancient times. In the firft and third
figures the arms hang down clofe to the fides. In the
fecond they hang more freely. Winkelman fufpefts
that thefe three ftatues have been made after the con¬
queft of Egypt by the Greeks. They are clothed with
a tunic, a robe, and a mantle. The tunic, which is
puckered into many folds, defcends from the neck to
the ground. The robe in the firfl: and third ftatues
feems clofe to the body, and is only perceptible by
fome little folds. It is tied under the bread, and cover¬
ed by the mantle, the two buttons of which are placed
under the epaulet.
The Antinous of the Capitol is compofed of two
pieces, which are joined under the haunches. But as
all the Egyptian ftatues which now remain have been
hewn out of one block, we muft: believe that Diodorus,
in
53
SCULP
in faying the ftone was divided, and each half hnilhed
by a feparate artizan, fpoke only of a coloffus. T. he
fame author informs us, that the Egyptians divided the
human body into 24^ parts 5 but it is to be regretted
that he has not given a more minute detail of that di-
vifion.
The Egyptian ftatues were not only formed by the
chifel, they were alfo polilhed with great care. Even
thofe on the fummit of an obeliik, which could only be
viewed at a diftance, were finifhed with as much labour
and care as if they had admitted a dole infpeftion. As
they are generally executed in granite or bafaltes, flones
of a very hard texture, it is impoflible not to admire the
indefatigable patience of the artifts.
The eye was often of different materials from the reft
of the flatue; fometimes it was compofed of a precious
ftone or metal. We are allured that the valuable dia¬
mond of the emprefs of Ruflia, the largeft and molt
beautiful hitherto known, formed one of the eyes of
the famous ftatue of Scheringham in the temple of
Brama.
Thofe Egyptian ftatues which ftill remain are com¬
pofed of wood or baked earth : and the ftatues of earth
are covered with green enamel.
Phenitian The Phenicians poffeffed both a charafler and fitua-
fculpture. tion highly favourable to the cultivation of ftatuary.
They had beautiful models in their own perfons, and
their induftrious charafler qualified them to attain per-
feflion in every art for which they had a tafte. I heir
fituation raifed a fpirit of commerce, and commerce in¬
duced them to cultivate the arts, i heir temples fhone
with ftatues and columns of gold, and a profufion of
emeralds was everywhere fcattered. Ail the great works
of the Phenicians have been unfortunately deftroyed ;
but many of the Carthaginian medals are ftill preferved,
ten of which are depofited in the cabinet of the grand
duke of Florence. But though the Carthaginians were
a colony of Phenicians, we cannot from their works
IO judge of the merit of their anceftors.
This art not The Perfians made no diftinguilhed figure in the arts
cultivated 0f defign. They were indeed fenfible to the charms of
among the beauty? blit they did not ftudy to imitate them. Their
PeiTians. con{ifted of long flowing robes concealing
the whole perfon, prevented them from attending to the
beauties of form. Their religion, too, which taught
them to worfhip the divinity in the emblem of fire, and
that it was impious to reprefent him under a human
form, feemed almoft to prohibit the exercife of this art,
by taking away thofe motives which alone could give it
dignity and value 5 and as it was not cuftomary among
them to raife ftatues to great men, it was impoflible that
IX ftatuary could flourifti in Perfii.
Etrurian The Etrurians or ancient Tufeans, in the opinion of
fcutpture. Winkelman, carried this art to feme degree of perrec-
tion at an earlier period than the Greeks. It is faid to
have been introduced before the fiege of Troy by De-
dalus, who, in order to efcape the refentment of Minos
king of Crete, took refuge in Sicily, from whence he
paffed into Italy, where he left many monuments of his
art. Paufanias and Diodorus Siculus informs us, that
Fotne works aferibed by him were to be feen when they
wrote, and that thefe poffefled that charafter of ma-
jefty which afterwards diftinguifhed the labours of
Etruria.
A character ftrongly marked forms the chief diftinc-
T U R E,
tion in thofe productions of Etruria which have defeend-
ed to us. Their ftyle was indeed harlh and overchar¬
ged j a fault alfu committed by Michael Angelo, the
celebrated painter of modern Etruria; for it is not to
be fuppofed that a people of fuch rude manners as the
Etrurians could communicate to their works that vivid-
nefs and beauty which the elegance of Grecian man¬
ners infpired. On the other hand, there are many of
the Tufcan ftatues which bear fo clofe a refemblance
to thofe of Greece, that antiquarians have thought it
probable that they were conveyed from that country,
or Magna Graecia, into Etruria, about the time of the
Roman conqueft, when Italy was adorned with the
fpoils of Greece. . l2
Among the monuments of Etrurian art two different F;rft ftylei-
ftyles have been obferved. In the firft the lines are
ftraight, the attitude ftiff, and no idea of beauty ap¬
pears in the formation of the head. The contour is
not v-ell rounded, and the figure is too flender. The
head is oval, the chin piked, the eyes flat, and looking
afquint.
Thefe are the defedls of an art in a ftate of infancy,
which an accomplifhed mafter could never fall into, and
are equally confpicuous in Gothic ftatues as in the pro¬
ductions of the ancient natives of Florence. They re¬
ferable the ftyle of the Egyptians fo much, that one is
almoft induced to fuppofe that there had once been a
communication between thefe two nations ; but others
think that this ftyle Avas introduced by Dedalus. . jj
Winkelman fuppofes that the fecond epoch of this Second
art commenced in Etruria, about the time at which itftyle*
had reached its greateft perfection in Greece, in the
age of Phidias •, but this conjeCture is not fupported by
any proofs.. To deferibe the fecond ftyle of fculpture
among the Etrurians, is almoft the fame as to deferibe
the ftyle of Michael Angelo and his numerous imita¬
tors. ^ The joints are ftrongly marked, the mufcles
raifed, tlm bones diftinguifliable j but the whole mien
harfti. In defigning the bone of the leg, and the fepa-
ration of the mufcles of the calf, there is an elevation
and ftrength above life'. - The ftatues of the gods are de-
figned with more delicacy. In forming them, the ar¬
tifts were anxious to fliow that they could exercife their
power without that violent diftenfion of the mufcles
which is neceffary in the exertions of beings merely
human ; but in general their attitudes are unnatural, and
the aClions ftrained. If a ftatue, for infiance, hold ai>y
thing Avith its fore fingers, the reft are ftretched out in
a ftiff pofition.
According to ancient hiftpry, the Greeks did not
emerge from the favage ftate till a long time after the
Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Indians, had arrived at a
confiderable degree of civilization. The original rude
inhabitants of Greece Avere civilized by colonies Avhich
arrived among them, at different times, from Egypt
and Phenicia. Thefe brought along Avith them the re¬
ligion, the letters, and the arts of their parent coun¬
tries : and if fculpture had its origin from the Avorfhip
of idols, there is reafon to believe that it Avas one of
the arts which were thus imported j for that the gods
of Greece Avere of Egyptian and Phenician extraCfion
is a fad incontrovertible; (fee Mysteries, Mytho¬
logy, Philology, Seft. VII. Philosophy, N° 19,
and Titan). The original ftatues of the gods, how¬
ever, were very rude. Tke earlieft; objeCls of idolatrous
worftup
54
SCULP
Worftup have everywhere been the heavenly bodies j
and the fymbols confecrated to them were generally pil¬
lars of a conical or pyramidal figure. It was not till
hero-worfhip was engrafted on the planetary, that the
Iculptor thought of giving to the facred ftatue any part
of the human form (fee POLYTHEISM, N° 19, 23.) •, and
it appears to have been about the era of their revolution
in idolatry that the art of fculpture was introduced
among the Greeks. The firlt reprefentations of their
gods were round ftones placed upon cubes or pillars j
and thefe ftones they afterwards formed roughly, fo as
to give them fotnething of the appearance of a head.
Agreeable to this defcription was a Jupiter, which Pau-
fanias faw in Tegeum, in Arcadia. Thefe repi*< fenta-
tions were called Hermes ; not that they reprefented
Mercury, but from the word Herma, which fignified a
rough done. It is the name which Homer gives to
the ftones which were ufed to fix veffels to the fhore.
Paufanias faw at Pheres 30 deities made of unformed
blocks or cubical ftones. The Lacedaemonians repre¬
fented Caftor and Pollux by two parallel pofts ; and a
•tranfverfe beam was added, to exprefs their mutual af-
feftion.
If the Greeks derived from foreign nations the rudi¬
ments of the arts, it muft redound much to their ho¬
nour, that in a few centuries they carried them to fuch
•wonderful perfeftion as entirely to eclipfe the fame of
■their mafters. It is by tracing the progrefs of fculpture
among them that we are to ftudy the hiftory of this art;
and we (hall fee its origin and fucceflive improvements
correfpond with nature, which always operates flowly
and gradually.
View of Grecian Sculpture.
Caufes^ The great fuperiority of the Greeks in the’ art of
which pro-'fculpture may be afcribed to a variety of caufes. The
moted thej -influence of climate over the human body is fo ftriking,
ture°i ^CU^” tbat it muft have fixed the attention of every thinking
Greece. man wh° has reflected on the fubjedl. The violent
heats of the torrid zone, and the excelfive cold of the
polar regions, are unfavourable to beauty. It is only
in the mild climates of the temperate regions that it
appears in its moft attractive charms. Perhaps no
country in the world enjoys a more ferene air, lefs taint¬
ed with mill and vapours, or poffeffes in a higher degree
that mild and genial warmth which can unfold and ex¬
pand the human body into all the fymmetry of mufcular
ftrength, and all the delicacies of female beauty in great¬
er perfection, than the happy climate of Greece •, and
never was there any people that had a greater tafte for
beauty, or were more anxious to improv* it. Of the
four wilhes of Simonides, the fecond was to have a hand-
fome figure. The love of beauty was fo great among
the Lacedaemonian women, that they kept in their
chambers the ftatues of Nereus, of Narciffus, of Hya-
cinthus, and of Caftor and Pollux j hoping that by
often contemplating them they might have beautiful
children. x
There was a variety of circumftances in the noble and
virtuous freedom of the Grecian manners that rendered
thefe models of beauty peculiarly fubfervient to the
cultivation of the fine arts. There were no tyrannical
laws, as among the Egyptians, to check their progrefs.
They had the beft opportunities to ftudy them in the
2
T U R E.
public places, where the youth, who needed no other
veil than chaftity and purity of manners, performed their
various exercifes quite naked. They had the ftrongeft
motives to cultivate fculpture, for a ftatue was the high-
eft honour which public iperit could attain. It was an
honour ambitioufly fought, and granted only to thofe
who had diftinguiflied themfelves in the eyes of their
fellow citizens. As the Greeks preferred natural qua¬
lities to acquired accomplifhments, they decreed the
firft rewards to thofe who excelled in agility and ftrength
of body. Statues were often raifed to wreftlers. Even
the moft eminent men of Greece, in their youth, fought
renown in gymnaftic exercifes. Chryfippus and Cle-
anthes diftinguithed themfelves in the public games be¬
fore they were known as philofophers. Plato appeared
as a wreftler both at the Ifthmian and Pythian games j
and Pythagoras carried off the prize at Elis, (fee Py¬
thagoras). The paflion by which they were infpired
was the ambition of having their ftatues erefted in the
moft facred place of Greece, to be feen and admired by
the whole people. The number of ftatues eredted on
different occafions was immenfe ; of courfe the number
of artifts muft have been great, their emulation ardent,
and their progrefs rapid.
As moft of their ftatues were decreed for thofe who
vanquilhed in the public games, the artifts had the op¬
portunity of feeing excellent models ; for thofe who
furpaffed in running, boxing, and wreftling, muft in ge¬
neral have been well formed, yet would exhibit different
kinds of beauty.
The high eftimation in which fculptors were held
was very favourable to their art. Socrates declared the
artifts the only wife men. An artift could be a legifla-
tor, a Commander of armies, and might hope to have
his ftatue placed befide thofe of Miltiades and Themif-
tocles, or thofe of the gods themfelves. Befides, the
honour and fuccefs of an artift did not depend on the
caprice of pride or of ignorance. The productions of
art were eftimated and rewarded by the greateft fages
in the general affembly of Greece, and the fculptor who
had executed his work with ability and tafte was confi¬
dent of obtaining immortality.
It was the opinion of Winkelman, that liberty was
highly favourable to this art j but, though liberty is ab-
folutely neceffary to the advancement of fcience, it may
be doubted whether the fine arts owe their improvement
to it. Sculpture flouriftied moft in Greece, when Pe¬
ricles exerciled the pourer of a king j and in the reign
of Alexander, when Greece was conquered. It attain¬
ed no perfeftion in Rome till Auguftus had enflaved the
Romans. It revived in Italy under the patronage of the
family of Medici, and'in France under the defpotic rule
of Louis. XIV. It is the love of beauty, luxury, Avealth,
or the patronage of a poAverful individual, that promotes
the progrefs of this art. z ^
It Avill noAv be proper to give a particular account of(-recjan
the ideas which the Greeks entertained concerning the ideas of
ftandard of beauty in the different parts of the human l>eauty.
body. And Avith refpeft to the head, the profile which l(t
they chiefly admired is peculiar to dignified beauty. It Tha profile,
eonfifts in a line almoft ftraight, or marked by fuch
flight and gentle inflections as are fcarcely diftinguifh-
able from a ftraight line. In the figures of Avomen and
young perfons, the forehead and nofe form a line ap¬
proaching to a perpendicular.
Ancient
SCULP
17 Ancient writers, as well as artifls, affure us that the
The fore- Greeks reckoned a {mall forehead a mark of beauty,
hcad' and a high forehead a deformity. From the fame idea,
the Circaffians wore their hair hanging down over their
foreheads almoft to their eyebrows. To give an oval
form to the countenance, it is neceffary that the hair
(hould cover the forehead, and thus make a curve about
the temples •, otherwife the face, which terminates in an
oval form in the inferior part, will be angular in the
higher part, and the proportion will be deftroyed. This
rounding of the forehead may be feen in all handfome
perfons, in all the heads of ideal beauty in ancient fta-
tues, and efpecially in thofe of youth. It has been over¬
looked, however, by modern ilatuaries. Bernini, who
modelled a ftatue of Louis XIV. in his youth, turned
l8 back the hair from the forehead.
The eyes. It is generally agreed that large eyes are beautiful;
but their fize is of lefs importance in fculpture than their
form, and the manner in which they are enchafed. In
ideal beauty, the eyes are always funk deeper than they
are in nature, and confequently the eyebrows have a
greater proje&ion. But in large ftatues, placed at a
certain diftance, the eyes, which are of the fame colour
with the reft of the head, would have little effeft if they
were not funk. By deepening the cavity of the eye,
the ftatuary increafes the light and ftiade, and thus gives
the head more life and expreflion. The fame praftice
is ufed in fmall ftatues. The eye is a chara&eriftic
feature in the heads of the different deities. In the
ftatues of Apollo, Jupiter, and Juno, the eye is large and
round. In thofe of Pallas they are alfo large ; but by
lowering the eyelids, the virgin air and expreflion of mo-
defty are delicately marked. Venus has fmall eyes, and
the lower eyelid being raifed a little, gives them a lan-
guilhing look and enchanting fweetnefs. It is only
neceffary to fee the Venus de Medicis to be convinced
that large eyes are not effential to beauty, efpecially if
we compare her fmall eyes with thofe which refemble
them in nature. The beauty of the eyebrows confxfts
in the finenefs of the hair, and in the ftiarpnefs of the
bone which covers them ; and mafters of the art con-
fidered the joining of the eyebrows as a deformity,
though it is fometimes to be met with in ancient fta-
10 tues*
The mouth. The beauty of the mouth is peculiarly neceffary to
conftitute a fine face. The lower lip muft be fuller
than the upper, in order to give an elegant rounding
to the chin. The teeth feldom appear, except in laugh¬
ing fatyrs. In human figures the lips are generally clofe,
and a little opened in the figures of the gods. The lips
of Venus are half open.
In figures of ideal beauty, the Grecian artills never
interrupted the rounding of the chin by introducing a
dimple : for this they confidered not as a mark of beau¬
ty, and only to be admitted to diftinguifh individuals.
The dimple indeed appears in fome ancient ftatues, but
antiquaries fufpedl it to be the work of a modern hand.
It is fufpe&ed alfo, that the dimple which is fometimes
found on the cheeks of ancient ftatues is a modern inno¬
vation.
Thee° ' Part t^ie ^eac^ WaS execute<^ ^7 t^e ancients
5' with more care than the ears, though little attention has
been given to them by modern artifts. This chara&er
is. fo decifive, that if we obferve in any ftatue that the
ear* are not highly finiftied, but only roughly marked,
T u R E. 55
we may conclude with certainty that we are examining
a modern production. The ancients were very attentive
to copy the precife form of the ear in taking likeneffes.
Thus, where we meet with a head the ears of which
have a very large interior opening, we know it to be
the head of Marcus Aurelius. tr
The manner in which the ancient artifts formed the The hair,
hair alfo enables us to diftinguifti their works from
thofe of the moderns. On hard and coarfe Hones the
hair was fhort, and appeared as if it had been combed
with a wide comb ; for that kind of ftone was difficult
to work, and could not without immenfe labour be
formed into curled and flowing hair. But the figures
executed in marble in the molt flouriftiing period of the
art have the hair curled and flowing •, at leaft where the
head was not intended to be an exaft refemblance, for
then the artift conformed to his model. In the heads of
women, the hair was thrown back, and tied behind in a
waving manner, leaving confiderable intervals ; which
gives the agreeable variety of light and ffiade, and pro¬
duces the effeCts of the claro-obfcuro. ihe hair of the
Amazons is difpofed in this manner. Apollo and Bac¬
chus have their hair falling down their ffioulders j and
young perfons, till they arrived at manhood, wore their
hair long. The colour of the hair which was reckon¬
ed moft beautiful, was fair ; and this they gave without
diftinClion to the moft beautiful of their gods, Apollo
and Bacchus, and likewife to their moft illuftrious he¬
roes. 23
Although the ravages of time have preferved but The hands,
few of the hands or feet of ancient ftatues, it is evident
from what remains how anxi©us the Grecian artifts
were to give every perfection to thefe parts. The
hands of young perfons were moderately plump, rvith
little cavities or dimples at the joints of the fingers.
The fingers tapered very gently from the root to the
point, like well-proportioned columns, and the joints
were fcarcely perceptible. The terminating joint was
not bent, as it commonly appears in modern ftatues. 23
In the figures of young men the joints of the knee The legs
are faintly marked. The knee unites the leg to the and feeU
thigh without making any remarkable projections or
cavities. The moft beautiful legs and beft-turned knees,
according to Winkelman, are preferved in the Apollo
Sauroclhones, in the Villa Borghefe ; in the Apollo
which has a fwan at its feet •, and in the Bacchus of Vil¬
la Medicis. The fame able connoiffeur remarks, it is
rare to meet with beautiful knees in young perfons, or
in the elegant reprefentations of art. As the ancients
did not cover the feet as we do, they gave to them the
moft beautiful turning, and ftudied the form of them
with the moft fcrupulous attention. 24
The breafts of men were large and elevated. TheThebreaft
breafts of women did not poffefs much amplitude. The a«d
figures of the deities have always the breafts of a virgin, l'ne
the beauty of which the ancients made to confift in a
gentle elevation. So anxious were the women to re¬
femble this ftandard, that they ufed feveral arts to re-
ftrain the growth of their breafts. The breafts of the
nymphs and goddeffes were never reprefented fwelling,
becaufe that is peculiar to thofe women who fuckle.
The paps of Venus contraCl and end in a point, this
being confidered as an effential charaCleriftic of perfeCt
beauty. Some of the moderns have tranfgreffed thefe
rules, and have fallen into great improprieties.
Tks
56 SCULP
The lower part of the body in the ftatues of men
was formed like that of the living body after a profound
ileep and good digeftion. The navel was coniiderably
25 funk, efpecially in female ftatues.
Ideal beau- As beauty never appears in equal perfedlion in every
*7* part of the fame individual, perfect or ideal beauty can
only be produeed by felecling the moft beautiful parts
from different models *, but this muft be done with fuch
judgment and care, that thefe detached beauties when
united may form the moft exaft fymmetry. Yet the
ancients fometimes confined themfelves to one indivi¬
dual, even in the moft fluurifhing age. Theodorus,
whom Socrates and his difciples vifited, ferved as a mo¬
del to the artifts of his time. Phryne alfo appears to
have been a model to the painters and fculptors. But
Socrates, in his converfation with Parrhaftus, fays, that
when a perfeft beauty was to be produced, the artifts
joined together the moft ftriking beauties which could
be collected from the fineft figures. We know that
Zeuxis, when he was going to paint Helen, united in
one picture all the beauties of the moft handfome women
of Crotona.
26
The dra- The Grecian fculptors, who reprefented with fuch
tues ^a" ^ucce^s the moft perfect beauty of the human form, were
not regardlefs of the drapery of their ftatues. They
clothed their figures in the moft proper ftuff, which
they wrought into that ftiape which was beft calculated
to give effect to their defign.
The veftments of women in Greece generally con-
fifted of linen cloth, or fome other light ftuff, and in
latter times of filk and fometimes of woollen cloth.
They had alfo garments embroidered with gold. In the
works of fculpture, as well as in thofe of painting, one
may diftinguifli the linen by its tranfparency and fmall
united folds. The other light fluffs Avhich were worn
by the women (a) were generally of cotton produced in
the ifle of Cos *, and thefe the art of ftatuary was able to
diftinguilh from the linen veftments. The cotton cloth
was fometimes ftriped, and fometimes embellilhed with
a profufion of flowers. Silk was alfo employed •, but
whether it Avas known in Greece before the time of the
Roman emperors cannot eafily be determined. In paint¬
ings, it is diftinguifhable by changing its colour in dif¬
ferent lights to red, violet, and fky-blue. There were
two forts of purple } that which the Greeks called the
colour of the fea, and Tyrian purple, which refembled
lac. Woollen garments are eafily known by the ampli¬
tude of their folds. Befides thefe, cloth of gold fome-’
times compofed their drapery : but it was not like the
modern fabric, confifting of a thread of gold or of filver
fpun with a thread of filk $ it was compofed of gold or
filver alone, without any mixture.
The veftments of the Greeks, which deferve particu-
2^ lar attention, are the tunic, the robe, and the mantle.
Tire tunic. The tunic was that part of the drefs which was next
to the body. It may be feen in fleeping figures, or in
thofe in difhabille ; as in the Flora Farnefe, and in the
ftatues of the Amazons in the Capitol. The youngeft
of the daughters of Niobe, who throws herfelf at her
T U R E.
mother’s fide, is clothed only with a tunic. It was of
linen, or fome other light fluff, without fleeves, fixed
to the fhoulders by a button, fo as to cover the whole
breaft. None but the tunics of the goddefs Ceres and
comedians have long ftraight fleeves. 2g
The robes of women commonly confifted of two long The robe,
pieces of woollen cloth, without any particular form, at¬
tached to the fhoulders by a great many buttons, and
fometimes by a clafp. They had ftraight fleeves which
came down to the wrifts. The young girls, as well as
the women, faftened their robe to their fide by a cinc¬
ture, in the fame way as the high-prieft of the Jews faf¬
tened his, as it is ftill done in many parts of Greece.
The cinfture formed on the fide a knot of ribbons
fometimes refembling a rofe in fhape, which has been
particularly remarked in the two beautiful daughters of
Niobe. In the younger of thefe the cinffure is feen paf-
fing over the fhoulders and the back. Venus has two
cimftures, the one pafling over the fhoulder, and the
other furrounding the waift. The latter is called cejlus
-by the poets. 29
The mantle was called pcplon by the Greeks, which The man.«
fignifies properly the mantle of Pallas. The name was tie-
oftervvards applied to the mantles of the other gods, as
well as to thofe of men. This part of the drefs was not
fquare, as fome have imagined, but of a roundifh form.
The ancients indeed fpeak in general of fquare mantles,
but they received this ftiape from four taffels which
were affixed to them ; two of thefe were vifible, and
two were concealed under the mantle. The mantle
was brought under the right arm, and over the left
fhoulder j fometimes it was attached to the fhoulder by
two buttons, as may be feen in the beautiful ftatue of
Leucothoe at Villa Albani. go
The colour of veftments peculiar to certain ftatues is The eolo«r
too curious to be omitted. To begin with the figures of°ftheve^”
the gods.—The drapery of Jupiter was red, that of Nep-mentb’
tune is fuppofed by Winkelman to have been fea-green.
The fame colour alfo belonged to the Nereids and
Nymphs. The mantle of Apollo was blue or violet.
Bacchus was dreffed in white. Martianus Capella af-
figns green to Cybele. Juno’s veftments were fky-blue,
but flie fometimes had a white veil. Pallas was robed
in a flame-coloured mantle. In a painting of Hercula¬
neum, Venus is in flowing drapery of a golden yellow.
Kings were arrayed in purple ; priefts in white } and
conquerors fometimes in fea-green.
With refpett to the head, women generally were no
covering but their hair ; when they wifhed to cover
their head, they ufed the corner of their mantle.—
Sometimes we meet with veils of a fine tranfparent tex-
ture. Old women wore a kind of bonnet upon their
head, an example of which may be feen in a ftatue in
the Capitol, called the Prcefica; but Winkelman thinks
it is a ftatue of Hecuba.
The covering of the feet confifted of fhoes or fandals.
The fandals were generally an inch thick, and compofed
of more than one foie of cork. Thofe of Pallas in Villa
Albani has two foies, and other ftatues had no lefs than
five.
Winkelman
(a) Men fometimes wore cotton, but all who did fo were reckoned effeminate.
S C U L I
31 Wink ELM AN lias afligned four different ftyles to this
Four ftyles Xhe ancient ffyle, which continued until the time
of this art p],jj;as . t]ie grarul ftyle, formed by that celebrated
Greeks! C ftatuary ; the beautiful, introduced by Praxiteles, A-
pelles, and Lyfippus ; and the imitative ftyle, praclifcd by
thofe artifts who copied the works of the ancient mafters.
The an- The moft authentic monuments of the ancient ftyle
tient ftyle, are medals, containing an. infcription, which leads us
back to very diftant times. The writing is from right
to left in the Hebrew manner \ a ufage which was aban¬
doned before the time of Herodotus. The ftatue of
Agamemnon at Elis, which was made by Ornatas, has
an infcription from right to left. This artifan flourifti-
ed 50 years before Phidias ; it is in the intervening pe¬
riod therefore between thefe two artifts, that we are to
look for the ceffation of this prattice. The ftatues
formed in the ancient ftyle were neither diftinguilhed
by beauty of ftiape nor by proportion, but bore a clofe
refemblance to thofe of the Egyptians and Etrurians
(b) •, the eyes were long and Hat; the feriion of the
mouth not horizontal ; the chin was pointed *, the curls
of the hair were ranged in little rings, and refembled
grains inclofed in a heap of raiftns. What was ftill
worfe, it was impoftible by infpefting the head to diftin-
guith the fex.
The characters of this ancient ftyle were thefe : The
defigning was energetic, but harih *, it was animated,
but without gracefulnefs; and the violence of the ex-
23 preffion deprived the whole figure of beauty.
The grand The grand ftyle was brought to perfection by Phi-
dias, Polycletus, Scopas, Alcamenes, Myron, and other
illuftrious artifts. It is probable, from fome paffages of
ancient writers, that in this ftyle were preferved fome
characters of the ancient manner, fuch as the ftraight
lines, the fquares and angles. The ancient mafters,
fuch as Polycletus, being the legiflators of proportions,
fays Winkelman, and of confequence thinking they had
a right to diftribute the meafures and dimenfions of the
parts of .the human body, have undoubtedly facrificed
fome degree of the form of beauty to a grandeur which
is harfh, in comparifon of the flowing contours and
graceful forms of their fucceffors.—The molt confider-
able monuments of the grand ftyle_are the ftatues of
Niobe and her daughters, and a figure of Pallas, to be
feen in Villa Albani 5 which, however, muft not be
confounded with the ftatue which is modelled according
to the firft ftyle, and is alfo found in the fame place.
The head pofteffes all the characters of dignified beauty,
at the fame time exhibiting the rigidnefs of the an¬
cient ftyle. The face is defeClive in gracefulnefs •, yet
it is evident how eafy it would have been to give the
features more roundnefs and grace. The figures of
Niobe and her daughters have not, in the opinion of
Winkelman, that aufterity of appearance which marks
the age of the ftatue of Pallas. They are charaCterifed
by grandeur and fimplicity : fo Ample are the forms,
that they do not appear to be the tedious productions of
art, but to have been created by an inftantaneous effort
of nature.
Vol. XIX. Part I.
TURK. 57
The third ftyle was the graceful or beautiful. Ly- 34
fippus W'as perhaps the artift who introduced this ftyle.
Being more converfant than his predeceffors with the
fweet, the pure, the flowing, and the beautiful lines of
nature, he avoided the fquare forms which the mafters
of the fecond ftyle had too much employed. He was of
opinion that the ufe of the art was rather to pleafe than
to aftonilh, and that the aim of the artift ftiould be to
raife admiration by giving delight. I he artifts who
cultivated this ftyle did not, however, negleCt to ftudy
the fublime works of their predeceffors. They knew
that grace is confiftent with the moll dignified beauty,
and that it poffeffes charms which muft ever pleafe :
they knewy alfo that thefe charms are enhanced by dig¬
nity. Grace is infufed into all the movements and atti¬
tudes of their ftatues, and it appears in the delicate turns
of the hair, and even in the adjufting of the drapery.
Every fort of grace was wTell known to the ancients j
and great as the ravages of time have been amongft the
works of art, fpecimens are ftill preferved, in which can
be diftihguiftred dignified beauty, attraEiive beauty, and
a beauty peculiar to infants. A fpecimen of dignified
beauty may be feen in the ftatue of one of the mufes in
the palace of Barberini at Rome •, and in the garden of
the pope, on the Ouirinal, is a ftatue of another mufe,
which affords a fine inftance of attraClive beauty. Win¬
kelman fays that the moft excellent model of infant
beauty which antiquity has tranfinitted to us is a fatyr
of a year old, which is preferved, though a little muti¬
lated, in Villa Albani. _ 35 _
The great reputation of Praxiteles and Apelles raifed The imita-
an ardent emulation in their fucceffors, who defpairingtive
to furpafs fuch illuftrious mafters, were fatisfied wdth
imitating their works. But it is well known that a mere
imitator is always inferior to the mafter whom he at¬
tempts to copy. When no original genius appears, the
art mull therefore decline.
Clay was the firft material which was employed in Materials
ftatuary. An inftance of this may be feen in a figure Grecian
of Alcamenes in bas-relief in Villa Albani. The an- atuC5-
cients ufed their fingers, and efpeeially their nails, to
render certain parts more delicate and lively : hence 37
arofe the phrafe ad unguem faElus homo, “ an accom- Gay and
plilhed man.” It was the opinion of Count Caylus thatPlafter*
the ancients did not ufe models in forming their ftatues.
But to difprove this, it is only neceffary to mention an
engraving on a ftone in the cabinet of btofch, which re-
prefents Prometheus engraving the figure of a man, with
a plummet in his hand to meafure the proportions of his
model. The ancients as well as the moderns made
works in plafter •, but no fpecimens remain except fome
figures in bas-relief, of which the moft beautiful were
found at Baia. 3S
The Avorks made of ivory and filver Avere generally Ivory, fiE
of a fmall fize. Sometimes, hoAvever, ftatues of a pro-vej‘’and
digious fize AArere formed of gold and ivory. The co-®
loffal Minerva of Phidias, Avhich Avas compofed of thefe
materials, was 26 cubits high. It is indeed fcarcely
II poflible
(b) This is a proof additional to thofe that Avill be found in the articles to Avhich Ave have referred, that the
Greeks received the rudiments of the art of fculpture from the nations to which they Avere confeffedly indebted for
the elements of fcience.
39
Marble.
40
fiorphyry.
41
Ixpreffion
gnd atti¬
tude.
42
In the ft a-,
tues of the.
gods.
In the fta-
tues of
heroes.
SCULPTURE.
poiTible to believe that ftatues of fuch a lize could en¬
tirely confift of gold and ivory. The quantity of ivory
neceflary to a colofial ftatue is beyond conception. M.
de Paw calculates that the llatue of Jupiter Olympus,
•which was 54 feet high, would confume the teeth of
300 elephants.
The Greeks generally hewed their marble ftatues out
of one block, though they after worked the heads fepa-
rately, and fometimes the arms. The heads of the
famous groupe of Niobe and her daughters have been
adapted to their bodies after being feparately finifhed.
It is proved by a large figure reprefenting a river, which
is preferved in Villa Albani, that the ancients firft
hewed their ftatues roughly before they attempted to
finilh any part. When the ftatue had received its per-
fe£t figure, they next proceeded to polifli it with pumice-
ftone, and again carefully retouched every part with the
chifel.
The ancients, when they employed porphyry, ufually
made the head and extremities of marble. It is true,
that at Venice there are four figures entirely compofed
of porphyry j but thefe are the produftion of the
Greeks of the middle age. They alfo made ftatues of
bafaltes and alabafter.
Without expreflion, gtfture, and attitude, no figure
can be beautiful, becaufe in thefe the graces always re-
ftde. It was for this reafon that the graces are always
reprefented as the companions of Venus.
The expreflion of tranquillity was frequent in Grecian
ftatues, becaufe, according to Plato, that was confider-
ed as the middle ftate of the foul between pleafure and
pain. Experience, too, fhows that in general the moft
beautiful perfons are endowed with the fweeteft and moft
engaging manner. Without a fedate tranquillity digni¬
fied beauty could not exift. It is in this tranquillity,
therefore, that we muft look for the complete difplay of
genius.
The moft elevated fpecies of tranquillity and repofe
was ftudied in the figures of the gods. The father of the
gods, and even inferior divinities, are reprefented with¬
out emotion or refentment. It is thus that Homer paints
Jupiter ftiaking Olympus by the motion of his hair and
his eyebrows.
Shakes his ambrofial curls, and gives the nod.
The ftamp of fate and fanftion of the god.
Jupiter-is not always exhibited in this tranquil ftate. In
a bas-relief belonging to the marquis Rondini he ap¬
pears feated on an arm-chair with a melancholy afpedh
The Apollo of the Vatican reprefents the god in a fit of
rage againft the ferpent Python, which he kills at a
blow-. The artift, adopting the opinion of the poets, has
made the nofe the feat of anger, and the lips the feat of
difdain.
To exprefs the adlion of a hero, the Grecian feulptors
delineated the countenance of a noble virtuous cliaracltr
reprefting his groans, and allowing no expreflkm of pain
to appear. In deferibing. the a61 ions of a hero the
poet has much more liberty than the artift. The poet
can paint them fuch as they were before men were
taught to fubdue their paflions by the reftraints of law,
©r the refined cuftoms of focial life. But the artift,
obliged to feledl the moft beautiful forms, is reduced to
the i.eceflity of giving fuch an expreflion of the paflions
as may not (hock our feelings and difguft us with his
produdlion. The truth of thefe remarks will be ac¬
knowledged by thofe who have feen two of the moft .
beautiful monuments of antiquity j one of which repre ¬
fents the fear of death, the other the moft violent pains
and fufferings. The daughters of Niobe, againft whom
Diana has difeharged her fatal arrows, are exhibited in
that ftate of ftupefadtion which wre imagine muft take
place when the certain profpedl of death deprives the
foul of all fenfibility. The fable prefents us an image
of that ftupor which Efchylus deferibes as feizing the
daughters of Niobe when they were transformed into a
rock. The other monument referred to is the image of
Laocoon, which exhibits the moft agonizing pain that
can affe6t the mufcles, the nerves, and the veins. The
fufferings of the body and the elevation of the foul are
exprefled in every member with equal energy, and form
the moft; fublime contrail imaginable. Laocoon appears
to fuflfer with fuch fortitude, that, whilft his lamentable
fituation pierces the heart, the whole figure fills us with
an ambitious defire of imitating hisconftancy and mag¬
nanimity in the pains and fufferings that may fall to our
lot.
Philo61etes is introduced by the poets fhedding tears,
uttering complaints, and rending the air wdth his groans
and cries j but the artift exhibits him filent and bear¬
ing his pains with dignity. The Ajax of the celebra¬
ted painter Timomachus is not drawn in the a6t of de-
ftroying the flieep which he took for the Grecian chiefs,
but in the moments of refle6lion which fucceeded that
frenzy. So far did the Greeks carry their love of
calmnefs and How movements, that they thought a
quick ftep always announced rufticity of manners. De-
mofthenes reproaches Nicobulus for this very thing j
and from the words he makes ufe of, it appears, that to
fpeak with infolence and to walk haftily were reckoned
fynonymous.
In the figures of women, the artifis have conformed in the^fU-
to the principle obferved in all the ancient tragedies, and tues of
recommended by Ariftotle, never to make women ihow wcinen*
too much intrepidity or exceflive cruelty. Conforma¬
ble to this maxim, Clytemneftra is reprtfented at a little
diftance from the fatal fpot, watching the murderer, but
without taking any part with him. In a painting of
Timomacbus reprefenting Medea and her children,
when Medea lifts up the dagger they fmile in her face,
and her fury is immediately melted into compaflion for
the innocent victims. In another reprefentation of the-
fame fubjedl, Medea appears hefitating and indecifive.
Guided by the fame maxims, the artifts of moft refined
tafte were careful to avoid all deformity, ehoofing rather
to recede from truth than from their accuftomed refpedf
for beauty, as may be feen in feveral figures of Hec uba.
Sometimes, however, ftie appears in the decrepitude of
age, her face furrowed with wrinkles, and her breads
hanging down.
llluftrious men,, and thofe invefted with the offices of in thefta-
dignity, are reprefented with a noble affurance and firm tues of the
afpedl. The ftatues of the Roman emperors referable Ronian cm“
thole of heroes, and are far removed from every fpeciesPerors‘
of flattery, in the gefture, in the attitude, and adlion.
They never appear with haughty looks, or with the
fplendour of royalty ; no figure is ever feen prefenting
any thing to them with bended knee, except captives j
and none addreffes them, with an inclination of the head.
In*
59
46
Of propor¬
tion.
SCULPTURE.
fit modern works too little attention has been paid, to
the ancient cojlume. Winkelman mentions a bas-relief,
which was lately executed at Horae for the fountain, of
Trevi, reprefenting an architeft in the aft of prefenting
the plan of an aqueduft to Marcus Agrippa. The mo¬
dern fculptor, not content with giving a long beard to
that illuftrious Roman, contrary to all the ancient mar¬
ble llatues as well as medals which remain, exhibits the
architeft on his knees.
In general, it was an eftabliihed principle to banifh all
violent paffions from public monuments. This will
ferve as a decilive mark to ditlinguilh the true antique
from fuppofititious works. A medal has been found
exhibiting two Affyrians, a man and woman, tearing
their hair, with this infcription, Assyria, et. pa-
EAESTINA. IK. POTEST. P. R. REDAC. S* c. The for¬
gery of this medal is manifeft from the word Pa/aeJH-
na, which is not to be found in any ancient Roman me¬
dal with a Latin infcription. Befides, the violent ac¬
tion of tearing the hair does not fuit any fymbolical
figure. This extravagant ftyle, which was called by the
ancients parenthijrfis, has been imitated by moft of the
modern artifts. Their figures referable comedians on the
ancient theatres, who, in order to fuit the dillant fpcc-
tators, put on painted malks, employed exaggerated
geftures, and far overleaped the bounds of nature. This
ftyle has been reduced into a theory in a treatife on the
pafiions compofed by Le Brun. The defigns which ac¬
company that work exhibit the padions in the very
higheft degree, approaching even to frenzy : but thefe
are calculated to vitiate the tafte, efpecially of the
young *, for the ardour of youth prompts them rather to
feize the extremity than the middle •, and it will be dif¬
ficult for that artift rvho has formed his tafte from fuch
empadioned models ever to acquire that noble fimplicity
and fedate grandeur which diftinguifhed the Works of
ancient tafte.
Proportion is the balls of beauty, and there can
be no beauty without it ^ on the contrary, proportion
may exift where there is little beauty. Experience
every day teaches us that knowledge is diftinft from
tafte ; and proportion, therefore, which is founded on
knowledge, may be ftriftly obferved in any figure, and
vet the figure have no pretentions to beauty. The an¬
cients confidering ideal beauty as the moft perfeft,
have frequently employed it in preference to the beauty
■of nature.
The body confifts of three parts as well as the mem¬
bers. The three parts of the body are the trunk, the
thighs, and the legs. The inferior parts of the body
are the thighs, the legs, and the feet. The arms alfo
confift of three parts. Thefe three parts mult bear a
certain proportion to the whole as well as to one an¬
other. In a well formed man the head and body muft
he proportioned to the. thighs, the legs, and the feet, in
the fame manner as the thighs are proportioned to the
legs and the feet, or the arms to the hands. The face
alfo confifts of three parts, that is, three times the length
of the nofe *, but the head is not four times the length of
the nofe, as feme writers have afierted. From the place
where the hair begins to the crown of the head are only
three-fourths of the length of the nofe, or that part is to
the nofe as 9 to I 2.
It is probable that the Grecian, as well as Egyptian
artifts, have determined the great and fmalt proportions
by fixed rules j that they have eftablilhed a pofitive
meafure for the dimenfions of length, breadth, and cir¬
cumference. This fuppofition alone can enable us to
account for the great conformity which we meet with
in ancient ftatues. Winkelman thinks that the foot was
the meafure which the ancients ufed in all their great
dimenfions, and that it was by the length of it that
they regulated the meafure of their figures, by giving
to them fix times that length. This in faft is the
length which Vitruvius affigns, Pes verq altitudinis cor¬
poris fextec, lib. iii. cap. 1. That celebrated antiquary
thinks the foot is a more determinate meafure than the
head or the face, the parts from which modern painters
and fculptors too often take their proportions. This pro¬
portion of the- foot of the body, which has appeared
ftrange and incomprehenfible to the learned Huetius, and
has been entirely rejefted by Perrault, is how'ever found¬
ed upon experience. After meafuring with great care
a vaft number of figures, Winkelman found this pro¬
portion obferved not only in Egyptian ftatues, but alfo
in thofe of Greece. This faft may be determined by
an infpeftion of thofe ftatues the feet of which are per¬
feft. One may be fully convinced of it by examining
fome divine figures, in which the artifts have made
fome parts beyond their natural dimenfions. In the
Apollo Belvidere, which is a little more than feven
heads high, the foot is three Homan inches longer than
the head. The head of the Venus de Medicis is very
fmall, and the height of the ftatue is feven heads and a
half: the foot Is three inches and a half longer than the
head, or precifely the fixth part of the length of the
whole ftatue.
Practice of Sculpture.
47
We have been thus minute in our account of the Grecian
Grecian fculnture, becaufe it is the opinion of the ableft lcuh:)tlfre
. . , 1 , • n 1 1 A , r . to be ftu-
cntics that modern artnts have been more or leis emi-bv the
nent as they have ftudied w’itli the greater or lefs atten*modern ar-
tion the models left us by that ingenious people : tifts.
Winkelman goes fo far as to contend that the moft fi~
nifhed works of the Grecian mailers ought to be ftudied
in preference even to the works of nature. This ap¬
pears to be paradoxical ; but the reafon affigned by the
Abbe for his opinion is, that the faireft lines of beauty
are more eafily difeovered, and make a more ftrikin'g
and powerful impreflion, by their reunion in thefe fub-
lime copies, than when they are fcattered far and wide
in the original. Allowing, therefore, the ftudy of na¬
ture the high degree of merit it fo juflly claims, it muft
neverthelefs be granted, that it leads to true beauty by
a much more tedious, laborious, and difficult path, than
the ftudy of the tuiticjue, which prefents immediately to
the artift’s view the objeft of his refearches, and com¬
bines in a clear and ftfong point of light the various
rays of beauty that are difperfed through the wide do¬
main of nature.
As foon as the artift has laid this excellent founda¬
tion, acquired an intimate degree of familiarity with the
beauties of the Grecian ftatues, and formed his tafte af¬
ter the admirable models they exhibit, he may then pro¬
ceed with advantage and affurance to the imitation of
nature. The ideas he has already formed of the perfec¬
tion of nature, by obferving her dilperfed beauties com¬
bined and collefted in the compofitions of the ancient
H 2 artifts.
6o
48
Two ways
of imita¬
ting na¬
ture.
49
Models of
ftatues.
SCULPT U R E.
artifts, will enable him to acquire with facility, and to
employ with advantage, the detached and partial ideas
of beauty which will be exhibited to his view in a fur-
vey of nature in her aftual date. When he difcovers
thefe partial beauties, he will be capable of combining
them with tlxofe perfedt forms of beauty with which
he is already acquainted. In a word, by having always
prefent to his mind the noble models already mentioned,
he xvill be in fome meafure his own oracle, and will draw
rules from his owm mind.
There are, however, two ways of imitating nature.
In the one a lingle objedl occupies the artift, who en¬
deavours to reprefent it with preciiion and truth •, in
the other, certain lines and features are taken from a
variety of obiedls, and combined and blended into one
regular whole. All kinds of copies belong to the firlt
kind of imitation ; and produ&ions of this kind muft
be executed neceffarily in the Dutch manner, that is to
fay, with high finilhing, and little or no invention. But
the fecond kind of imitation leads diredlly to the invefti-
gation and difcovery of true beauty, of that beauty
whofe idea is connate with the human mind, and is only
to be found there in its higheft perfedlion. This is
the kind of imitation in which the Greeks excelled, and
in which men of genius excite the young artitfs to ex¬
cel after their example, viz. by Undying nature as they
did.
After having ftudied in the produdlions of the Gre¬
cian mafters their choice and expreflion of feledt na¬
ture, their fublime and graceful contours, their noble
draperies, together with that fedate grandeur and ad¬
mirable fimplicity that conftitute their chief merit, the
curious artifts will do rvell to ftudy the manual and me¬
chanical part of their operations, as this is abfolutely
neceffary to the fuccefsful imitation of their excellent
manner.
It is certain that the ancients almoft always formed
their firft models in wax: to this modern artifls have
fubftituted clay, or fome fuch compofition : they prefer
clay before wax in the carnations, on account of the
yielding nature of the latter, and its flicking in fome
meafure to every thing it touches. We mull not, how¬
ever, imagine from hence that the method of forming
models of wet clay was either unknown or negle&ed
among the Greeks : on the contrary, it was in Greece
that models of this kind xvere invented. Their author
was Dibutades of Sicyon ; and it is well known that
Arcefilas, the friend of Lucullus, obtained a higher de¬
gree of reputation by his clay models than by all his
other produdlions. Indeed, if clay could be made to
preferve its original moidure, it would undoubtedly be
the fitted: fubfiance for the models of the fculptor; but
when it is placed either in the fire or left to dry im¬
perceptibly in the air, its folid parts grow more com-
padl, and the figure lofing thus a part of its dimenfions,
is neceffarily reduced to a fmaller volume. This dimi¬
nution would be of no confequence did it equally affecl
the whole figure, fo as to preferve its proportions en¬
tire. But this is not the cafe : for the fmaller parts
of the figure dry fooner than the larger ; and thus lofing
more of their dimenfions in the fame fpace of time than
the latter do, the fymmetry and proportions of the figure
inevitably fuffer. This inconveniency does not take
place in thofe models that are made in wax. It is in¬
deed extremely difficult, in the ordinary method of
working the wax, to give it that degree of fmoothnefs
that is neceffary to reprefent the foftnefs of the carnations
or fleihy parts of the body. This inconvenience may,
however, be remedied, by forming the model firft in
clay, then moulding it in plafter, and laftly calling it
in wax. And, indeed, clay is feldom ufed but as a
mould in which to call a figure of plafter, ftucco, or
wax, to ferve henceforth for a model by which the
meafures and proportions of the ftatue are to be ad-
jufted. In making waxen models, it is common to
put half a pound of colophony to a pound of wax j,
and fome add turpentine, melting the whole with oil of
olives.
So much for the. firft or preparatory fteps in this Method of
procedure. It remains to confider the manner of work-working
ing the marble after the model fo prepared j and thethe mar-
method here followed by the Greeks feems to haveble’an<i
been extremely different from that which is generally
obferved by modern artiils. In the ancient ftatues
we find the moll linking proofs of the freedom and
boldnefs that accompanied each ftroke of the chifel,
and which refulted from the artift’s being perfe&ly
fure of the accuracy of his idea, and the precifion and
fteadinefs of his hand : the moll minute parts of the
figure carry thefe marks of affurance and freedom;
no indication of timoroufnefs or diffidence appears ; no¬
thing that can induce us to fancy that the artift had
occafion to correbl any of Ids ftrokes. It is difficult to
find, even in the fecond-rate produdiions of the Gre¬
cian artills, any mark of a falfe ftroke or a random
touch. This firmnefs and precifion of the Grecian chi¬
fel were certainly derived from a more determined and
per ft ft fet of rules than thofe which are obferved in mo¬
dern times.
The method generally obferved by the modern fculp¬
tor is as follows : Firft, out of a great block of marble
he faws another of the fize required, which is perform¬
ed with a fmooth Heel faw, without teeth, calling water
and fand thereon from time to time ; then he falhions
it, by taking off what is fuperfluous with a Heel point
and a heavy hammer of foft iron *, after this, bringing
it near the meafure required, he reduces it ftill nearer
with another finer point ; he then ufes a flat cutting
inftrument, having notches in its edge ; and then a
chifel to take off the fcratches which the former has
left; till, at length, taking rafps of different degrees of
finenefs, by degrees he brings his work into a condition
for pulilhing.
After this, having ftudied his model with all poffible'
attention, he draws upon this model horizontal and per¬
pendicular lines which interfeft each other at right
angles. He afterwards copies thefe lines upon his
marble, as the painter makes ufe of fuch tranfverfa!
lines to copy a pifture, or to reduce it to a fmaller fize.
Thefe tranfverfal lines or fquares, drawn in an equal
number upon the marble and upon the model, in a man¬
ner proportioned to their refpeftive dimenfions, exhibit
accurate meafures of the furfaces upon which the artift
is to work ; but cannot determine, with equal precifion,
the depths that are proportioned to thefe furfaces 
The fculptor, indeed, may determine thefe depths by
obferving the relation they bear to his model ; but as
his eye is the only guide he has to follow in this efti-
mate, he is always more or lefs expofed to error, or at
lead to doubt. He is never fure that the cavities made
3
by
6i
SCULPTURE.
by his clufel are exact; a degree of uncertainty accom¬
panies each ttrokc j nor can he be affured that it has
carried away neither too much nor too little of his mar¬
ble. It is equally difficult to determine, by fuch lines
as have already been mentioned, the external and inter¬
nal contours of the figure, or to transfer them from the
model to the marble. By the internal contour, is un-
derftood that which is defcribed by the parts which ap¬
proach towards the centre, and which are not marked
in a ftriking manner.
It is farther to be noticed, that in a complicated and
laborious work, which an artift cannot execute without
affillance, he is often obliged to make ufe of foreign
hands, that have not the talents or dexterity that are
neceffary to finifh his plan. A fingle ftroke of the chifel
that goes too deep is a defeft not to be repaired } and
fuch a ftroke may eafily happen, where the depths are
fo imperfectly determined. DefeCts of this kind are
inevitable, if the fculptor, in chipping his marble, begins
by forming the depths that are requifite in the figure lie
defigns to reprefent. Nothing is more liable to error
than this manner of proceeding. The cautious artift
ought, on the contrary, to form thefe depths gradually,
by little and little, with the utmoft circumfpeCtion and
care ; and the determining of them with precifion ought
to be confidered as the laft part of his work, and as the
- gi finiftiing touches of his chifel.
of copying The various inconveniences attending this method
ancient fta- determined feveral eminent artifts to look out for one
that would be liable to lefs uncertainty, and productive
of fewer errors. The French academy of painting at
Rome hit on a method of copying the ancient ftatues,
which fome fculptors have employed with fuccefs, even
in the figures which they finiihed after models in clay or
wax. This method is as follows. Tl he ftatue that is
to be copied is inclofed in a frame that fits it exaCtly.
The upper part of this frame is divided into a certain
number of equal parts, and to each of thefe parts a
thread is fixed with a piece of lead at the end of it.
tues.
Thefe threads, which hang freely, (how what parts of
the ftatue are moft removed from the centre with much
more perfpicuity and precifion than the lines which are
drawn on its furface, and which pafs equally over the
higher and hollow parts of the block : they alfo give the
artift a tolerable rule to meafure the more ftriking va¬
riations of height and depth, and thus render him more
bold and determined in the execution of his plan.
But even this method is not without its defefts : for
as it is impoffible, by the means of a ftraight line, to de¬
termine with precifion the procedure of a curve, the artift;
has, in this method, no certain rule to guide him in his
contours } and as often as the line which he is to deferibe
deviates from the direction of the plumb line, which is
his main guide, he muft necefiarily feel himfelf at alofs,
and be obliged to have recourfe to conjecture.
It is alfo evident, that this method aftbrds no certain
rule to determine exaCtly the proportion which the va¬
rious parts of the figure ought to bear to each other,
confidered in their mutual relation and connexions.
The artift, indeed, endeavours to fupply this defeCt by
interfeXing the plumb-lines by horizontal ones. This
recourfe has, neverthelefs, its inconveniences, fince the
fquares formed by tranfverfal lines, that are at a diftance
from the figure (though they be exaXly equal), yet re¬
prefent the parts of the figure as greater or fmaller, ac¬
cording as they are more or lefs removed from our pofi-
tion or point of view. But, notwithftanding thefe in¬
conveniences, the method now under confideration is
certainly the beft that has hitherto been employed : it
is more praXicable and fure than any other we know,
though it appears, from the remarks we have now been
making, that it does not exhibit a fure and univerfal cri¬
terion to a fculptor who executes after a model. ^
To polilh the ftatue, or make the parts of it fmootn of polifh*
and {leek, pumice-ftone and fmelt are ufed } then tripoli; ing the
and when a ftill greater luftre is required, burnt ftraw is ftatue-
employed. For the Cajling of Statues, fee Founder Y,
and Plaster of Paris.-
Scum,
Scurvy.
s c u
SCUM, properly denotes the impurities which a
liquor, by boiling, calls up to the furface. The term
feum is alfo ufed for what is more properly called the
fcoria of metals.
SCUPPERS, in a ftiip, are certain channels cut
through the water-ways and Tides of a fhip, at proper
diftances, and lined with plated lead, in order to carry
the water off from the deck into the fea. The feuppers
of the lower deck of a ftfip of war are ufually furniftied
with a leathern pipe, called the feupper-hofe, which
hangs downward from the mouth or opening of the
feupper. The intent of this is to prevent the water
from entering when the ftiip inclines under a weight of
fail.
SCURVY, in Medicine, fee that article, N*3 351.
where we have given an account of the fymptoms,
caufes, and modes of prevention and cure, according to
fome of the moft eminent writers in medicine. We have
here only to add, that, in the opinion of Dr Beddoes,
the mineral acids, efpecially the nitric and vitriolic, may
s c u
be employed in the prevention or cure of this dreadful
difeafe with as much fuccefs as the vegetable acids.—
But of all the fubftances that can at once be cheaply ^
procured and long preferved, he thinks the concrete acid
of tartar by far the moft promifing. It is very grateful,
and comes near to the citric acid. In tropical countries
the feurvy is feldom known.
ScuRVY-Grafs. See Cochlearea, Botany///^.
SCUTAGE (feutagium, Sax. fcildpening), was a
tax or contribution raifed by thofe that held lands by
knights fervice, towards furniihing the king’s army, at
one, two, or three merks for every knight’s fee. Hen¬
ry III. for his"voyage to the Holy Land, had a tenth
granted by the clergy, and fcut age, three merks of every
knight’s fee by the laity. This was alfo levied by Hen¬
ry II. Richard I. and King John. See KNIGHT-Service.
SCUTE, (feutum), a French gold coin of 3s. qd. in
the reign of King Henry V. Catharine queen of Eng¬
land had an affurance made her of lundry caftles,
manors, lands, &c. valued at the fum of 000 fcutes.
Scurvy
II
Scute.
Scute
Soy*ala.
Slither-
S C Y [ 62
every two whereof were w'orth a noble. Rot. Par/. 1.
Hen. VI.
SCUTELLARIA, Skuli^-cap, a genus ©f plants,
belonging to the didynarnia clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 40th order, Perfonatev. See
Botany Index.
SCUTTLES, in a (hip, fquare holes cut in the deck,
big enough to let down the body of a man, and which
ferve upon feme occafions to let the people down into
any room below, or from one deck to another.
SCYLAX, a celebrated mathematician and geogra¬
pher of Caria, dourilhed under the reign of Darius Hyf-
tafpes, about 558 B. C. Some have attributed to him
the invention of geographical tables. We have under
his name a geographical work publifhed by Hoefchelius
but it is written by a much later author, and is perhaps
only an abridgement of Scylax’s Ancient Geography.
SCYLLA, in Ancient Geography, a rock in the
Fretum Siculum, near the coaft of Italy, dangerous to
flapping, oppolite to Charybdis, a whirlpool on the coaft
of Sicily 5 both of them famous in mythology.
Scylla and Charybdis have been almoft fubdued by
land s Towr^he repeated convulfions of this part of the earth, and
“strait* by the violence of the current, which is continually in-
Letter 'xii. -crealing the breadth of the ftraits. If proper allowance
be made for thefe circumftances, we lhall acquit the an¬
cients of any exaggeration, notwithftanding the very
dreadful colours in which they have painted this paffage.
It is formed by a low peninfula, called Cupe Pelorus,
llretching to the eaftward on the Sicilian fide, immedi¬
ately within which lies the famous whirlpool of Charyb¬
dis, and by the rocks of Scylla, which a few miles be¬
low on the Calabrian fliore project towards the weft.
The current runs with furprifing force from one to the
other alternately in the direftion of the tide, and the
tides themfelves are very irregular. Thus veffels, by
Ihunning the one, were in the utmoft danger of being
fwallowed up by the other.
At prefent, in moderate weather, when the tide is
either at ebb or flood, boats pafs all over the whirlpool:
but, in general, it is like the meeting of two contending
currents, with a number of eddies all around •, and, even
now, there is fcarcely a winter in which there are not
fome wrecks.
“ At the time when we paffed the ftraits (fays Cap¬
tain Sutherland, from whom avc have obtained this ac¬
curate information) the weather was as favourable as
we could Aviflr •, and yet, in fpite of a itrong breeze and
the current, which hurried us on with furprifing velo¬
city, the fliip’s head was fuddenly whirled round near
three points 5 but the wind blowing frefh, in a few fe-
conds (lie dallied through the eddy that had caught her j
for, to avoid Scylla, and fecure Meflina, we had kept
pretty clofe to Charybdis.n For a later account of thefe
rocks, fee Sicily.
SCYROS, an ifland in the AEgean fea, at the di-
ftance of about 28 miles north-eaft from Euboea. It is
60 miles in circumference. It was originally in the pof-
feflion of the Pelafgians and Carians. Achilles retired
there to avoid going to the Trojan war, and became fa¬
ther of Neoptolemus by Deidamia the daughter of King
Xycomedes- Scyros was conquered by the Athenians
under Cimon. It wras very rocky and barren. Now
Sciro. E. Long. 25. O. N. Lat. 38. 15.
. SCYTALA LACONICA, in antiquity, a ftratagem or
] S C Y
device of the Lacedaemonians, for the fecret writing of Seytala
letters to their correfpondents, fo that if they ftiould II
chance to be intercepted, nobody might be able to read
them.— lo fids end they had two wooden rollers or cy-
linders, perfectly alike and equal; one whereof ivas
kept in the city, the other by the perfon to whom the
letter was diredled. For the letter, a ikin of very thin
parchment was wrapped round the roller, and thereon
was the matter written; which done, it vras taken off,
and font awray to the party, who, upon putting it in the
fame manner upon his roller, found the lines and wrords
in the very fame difpofition as when they were firft
written. This expedient they fet a very high value on ;
though, in truth, artlefs and grofs enough : the moderns
have improved vaftly on this method of waiting. See
Cipher.
SCYTALI A, a genus of plants belonging to the
oftandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking with
thofe that are doubtful. See Botany Index.
SCYTHE, in Hujbandry, a ivcll known inftrument
which has been long employed for cutting grafs for
hay. The fame inflrument with certain modifications
in its conftrudtion has been ufed in reaping grain, in
place of the fickle, the ufe of which is far more common,
and in Scotland at leaft prevails almoft univerfally, al¬
though it muft be admitted that the method of reaping
by the feythe, where it is practicable, is attended with
lefs labour, is more expeditious, and therefore more eco¬
nomical. But againft the ufe of the feythe, as a reap¬
ing inftrument, many objections have been raifed. Some
of thefe are probably founded in prejudice, while others,
confidering the flow progrefs which has been made in
introducing this inftrument as a fubftitutefor the fickle,
reft on a more folid foundation.
It is faid that this inftrument ftiakes the ear, fo that
many of the grains are loft ; that it lets the corn fall
after it is cut, in a fcattered confufed manner, in confe-
quence of which either a great deal of it is loft, or much
time is wafted in gathering it together. It is alfo af¬
firmed that it can only be made ufe of in very even
land, and which is free from ftones; that it does not
leave length enough of ftubble on the ground, on which
to lay the corn Avhen it is cut; that it mixes noxious
weeds with the corn, the feeds of which are fown the
enfuing year ; and finally, that the ufe of the feythe is
prejudicial to the health of the reaper.
It appears, however, that thefe objeClions have either
no weight, or they are made by thofe who are unac¬
quainted with the feythes peculiarly adapted to this pur-
pofe, and with the manner in which they ought to be
ufed. With a -good feythe properly managed, the
corn when cut, remains at firft upright, afterwards fal-
ling gently on the rake fixed to the feythe, without
any fhaking or jolting, or at leaft with lefs than what
is oceafioned by the fickle. The lofs of grain chiefly
arifes from the corn being too dry, and therefore it
ought to be reaped on proper days, and fuitable times of
the day, which is more eafily accompliftied by the feythe
than the fickle, becaufe the one requires lefs time than
the other. The ftalks, held together by the rake, may
be laid on the ground, or againft the corn not yet cut
dowm, in a ftate fo regular and conneRed, that thofe by
whom the {heaves are colleRed and bound have them¬
felves alone to blame, fhould any thing be left behind.
It is fufficiently even when lands are ploughed and har¬
rowed
S C Y [ 63 ] S C Y
ScjtJie. rowed in a proper manner ; and the only neceflary pre-
caution in itony ground, is to keep the fcythe a little
higher, that it may not ftrike againft the ftones. If
the flubble be fliort, the draw cut off will of courfe
be the longer, and of confequence more valuable •, and
long ftubble only incommodes the cattle afterwards fent
to feed upon it.
Thefe and fimilar confideration*, prevailed with the
patriotic fociety of Milan, to fend to thefe places where
i'cythes are ufed for reaping 5 and having procured a
model from Silefia, they ordered one of a proper fize to
be made. It was firft tried on corn, and afterwards on
millet; and notwithftanding the firlt was far from be¬
ing made with accuracy, and although fuch an inllru-
ment had never before been made ufe of by the reaper,
nearly half the ufual time was found to be faved, and
the wonted fatigue and labour were much diminilhed.
The corn was cut without receiving any injurious fhock,
falling in an even and regular ftate, by which means it
was afterwards bound up with eafe in compadl {heaves.
Plate Thefe inftruments are fo fimple in their conltrudlion,
cccdxxviii. that a figure of one of them renders a defcription almoft
I< unneceffary. Fig. 1. reprefents the Silefian fcythe tried
by the fociety, the difference between which and the
Auftrian one we {hall mention in our defcription. The
Silefian fcythe differs little from that commonly employ¬
ed in mowing grafs, except that the blade is rather
fmaller •, to it four teeth of wood are added, parallel to
the blade, fixed and fecured in a proper manner, and
defigned to keep the corn together after it is cut ; fo
that inftead of its falling in a confufed Hate, the reaper
can lay it down in a regular and compact manner. The
Auffrian fcythe is fimilar to the former, but the blade
is larger j of courfe the wooden teeth, being five in
number, are longer} the handle is alfo flatter, and rather-
crooked.
In the firft, the handle a b (fee fig. 1.) is four feet
three inches in length } the blade £ c is about two feet;
the piece of wood in which the teeth are fixed, one foot
ten inches and a half. In the fecond, the handle is four-
feet one inch} the blade, two feet eight inches} the
, piece in which the teeth are fixed, 11^ inches.
The difference in the conftruclion of thefe two fcythes
renders it neceffary to ufe them in a different manner,
which will be better acquired in practice than by pre¬
cept. Such as are accuftomed to the ufe of the com¬
mon fcythe will foon find out the moft advantageous
manner of ufing thefe new kinds of fcythes, and of lay¬
ing dow-n the corn properly after it is cut.
It is neceffary to obferve, that, in mowing gvafs, the
feet are held in a pofition nearly parallel to each other,,
whereas in reaping corn they ftrould be kept on a line,
the one behind the other, bringing the right foot for-
•ward, and drawing the left towards it. Ihe reafon is,
that when grafs is mowed it is left, to fall where it is
cut -, but when corn is cut down, it is to be laid in a
proper manner againft that which is not yet cut, and
which is at the reaper’s left hand. Were the feet kept
parallel to each other, the reaper would be under the
neceflity of extending and turning his body in a very in¬
convenient manner.
Thefe obfervations having been publithed, the fociety
made farther experiments on the fubjeift, by which they
difcovered, that when the ftalks of corn are bent down
hy reafon of extremely wet weather, the wooden teeth
of the fcythes are apt to lay hold of fome ears, to the Scythe,
ftalks of which the iron does not extend } and therefore Scythia.
thefe not being cut below, are pulled fo that the grain ' *
is fcattered. This chiefly happens from the reapers not
being accuitomed to that kind of fcythe, and therefore
not knowing how to adapt it to particular exifting cir-
cumftances.
It occurred to an ingenious blackfmith, that, in or¬
der to remedy this inconvenience, a colleSior made of
cloth flhould be added to the common fcythe, as may be
feen at fig. 2. where «£ c is a common fcythe, c dmlof neFig. z*
is the gatherer, which c d e is compofed of a thin
plate of iron, having a hollow at its extremity for re¬
ceiving the point of the blade. At ed are holes for
fewing in tin? cloth, which is coarfe, light, and of low
price } it is alfo fixed to two thick iron w ires, of which
the upper one is continued to f where it terminates in a
hole in the handle} the other is fixed to the back of the
blade. The manner of fixing this gatherer to the back
of the fcythe will be better underftood by referring to
fig. 3. which reprefents one of the irons, which, by Fig. 3*
means of the fcrew, are faftened to the back of the
fcythe. Thefe proceed from, and make part of the up¬
right irons mn, / 0, which ferve to keep the gatherer
extended.
This contrivance is both cheap and fimple } but an
attempt was made to render it more fo, by fubftituting
two iron hoops for the gatherer, which are {hewn in
fig. 2. by the dotted lines /i g, k i, with a crofs piece />, Fig. a,
which connects them. Experience has {hewn, however,
that the gatherer is in general preferable to thefe hoops,
as it does not leave an ear of corn behind.
SCYTHIA, an ancient name for the northern parts
of Afia, now known by the name of Tarta>~y ; alfo for
fome of the north-eaftern parts of Europe.
This vail territory, which extends itfelf from the Ifter
or Danube, the boundary of the Celts, that is, from
about the 25th to almoft the noth degree of call lon¬
gitude, was divided into Scythia in Europe and Scythia
in Afia, including, however, the two Sarmatias} or,
as they are called by the Greeks, Sauromotias, now the
Circaftian Tartary, which lay between and fevered the
two Scythias from each other. Sauromatia was alfo di-
ftinguiihed into European and Afiatic} and was divided
from the European Scythia by the river Don or Tanais,
which falls into the Palus Meotisj and from the Afiatic
by the Rha, now Volga, which empties itfelf into the
Cafpian fea.
1. The Afiatic Scythia comprehended in general,
Great Tartary, and Ruffia in Afia } and, in particular,
the Scythia beyond or without Imaus, contained the re¬
gions ot Bogdoi or Oftiacoi, and Tanguti. That within,
or on this fide Imaus, had Turkeftan and Mongal, the
Ufbeck or Zagatai, Kalmue and Nagaian Tartars } be-
fides Siberia, the land of the Samoiedes and Nova Zem-
bla. Thefe three laft not being fo foon inhabited as the
former, as may be reafonably fuppofed, were w holly un¬
known to the ancients } and the former were peopled by
the Eaftrians, Sogdians, Gandari, Sacks, and Maffagetes.
As for Sarrmitia, it contained Albania, Iberia, and
Colchis } which makes now the Circaflian Tartary, and
the province of Georgia.
2. Scythia in Europe reached (towards the fouth-
weft) to the- Po and the Alps, by which it was divided
from Celto-Gallia* It was bounded on the foutlx by
the
SEA [ 64 1 SEA
Scythia the Iftef or Danube and the Euxine Tea. Its northern lieved the exiftence of a vaft fouthern continent, which Sea.
It limits have been fuppofed to ftretch to the fpring-heads Captain Cook has ihovn to be vilionary. It was this v “■./
, of the Borifthenes or Nieper, and the Rha or Volga, and cireumftance which milled him. According to the
fo to that of the Tanais.—The ancients divided this moft accurate obfervations hitherto made, the lurface of
country into Scythia Arimafpsea, which lay eaitward, the fea is to the land as three to one 5 the ocean therefore
joining to Scythia in Afia 5 and Sarmatia Europeana extends over 128,2355759 m^es> fuppoling the
on the weft. In Scythia, properly fo called, wrere the fuperficies of the whole globe to be Iquare
Arimafpsei on the north } the Getee or Dacians along miles. I o afcertain the depth ol the lea is ftill more ^ ^ ^
the Danube, on the fouth j and the Neuri between difficult than its fuperficies, both on account of the thepfea°
thefe two. So that it contained the European Ruffia numerous experiments which it would be neceffary to
or Mufcovy, and the Leffer Crim Tartary eaftward 5 make, and the want of proper inftruments for that pur-
and, on the weft, Lithuania, Poland, part of Hungary, pofe. Beyond a certain depth the fea has hitherto
Tranfylvania, Walachia, Bulgaria, and Moldavia. Sar- been found unfathomable •, and though feveral methods
matia is fuppofed to have reached northward to that have been contrived to obviate this difficulty, none of
part of Swedeland called Feningia, now Finland; in them has completely anfwered the purpofe. Vve know
which they placed the Ocenes, Panoti, and Hippopodes. in general that the, depth of. the fea increafes gradually
This part they divided from Northern Germany, now as we leave the {here } but it this continued beyond a
the w'eft part of Sweden and Norway, by the Mare certain diftance, the depth in the middle ot the ocean
Sarmaticum or Scythicutn, which they fuppofed ran up would be prodigious. Indeed the numerous ihands
into the northern ocean, and, dividing Lapland into two everywhere fcaticred in the tea demonftrate the con-
parts, formed the weftern part of Swreden, with Norway, trary, by Ihowing m that the bottom of the water L
into one ifland, and Finland into another 5 fuppofing this unequal like the land, and that fo lar from uniformly
alfo to be cut off from the continent by the gulf of finking, it fometimes riles into lofty mountains. If the
that name. depth of the fea be in proportion to the elevation of
Although tbe ancieint Scythians were celebrated as the land, as has generally been fuppofed, its greateft
a warlike people, yet their hiftory is too uncertain and depth will not exceed five or fix miles, for there is no
obfcure to enable us to give any detail which would not mountain fix miles perpendiculai above the level of the
prove equally tirefome and uninterefting to the reader, fea. I he fea has never been actually founded to a
MrPinkerton, in a differtation on their origin', endeavours greater depth than a mile and 66 feet j every thing be-
to prove that they were the moft ancient of nations } yond that therefore refts entiiely upon conjecture, and
and he affigns for the place of their firft habitation the analogical reaioning, which ought never to be admitted
country known by the name of Perfia. From Perfia, to determine a fingle point that can be afcertained by
lie thinks, they proceeded in numerous hordes weft ward, experiment, becaule, when admitted, they have too often
furrounded the Euxine, peopled Germany, Italy, Gaul, led to falfe conelufions. Along the coafts, vhere the
the countries bordering on the Baltic, Avith part of depth of the fea is in general uell known, it has always
Britain and Ireland. That the Scythiatis Avere of Afia- been found proportioned to^ the height of the ftiore :
tic origin, cannot, we think, be queftionedj and as Perfia Avhen the coaft is high ana mountainous, the fea that
Avas peopled at a Arery early period, it may not impro- wadies it is deep } Avhen, on the contrary, the coaft is
bably have been their parent country : but Avlien our Ioav, the Avater is dialloAv. V hether this analogy holds
author contends that their empire had fubfifted for more at a diftance from the ffiore, experiments alone can de-
than 1500 years before Ninus the founder of the Ally- termine. . . 3
rian monarchy, and that it extended from Egypt to the Fo calculate the quantity of Avater contained in the Quantity
Ganges, and from the Perfian gulf and Indian fea to lea, Avhile its depth is unknown, is impoffible. But if ot water
the Cafpian, Ave cannot help thinking that his prejudices avc fuppofe Avith Buffon that its medium depth is the
againft the Celts, and his defire to do honour to his fa- fourth part of a mile, the ocean, it its luperficies be
vourite Goths, have made him advance a paradox incon- 120,235,759 filuare miles, Avill contain 32?°5^5939’75
fiftent Avith the moft authentic records of antiquity. His cubic miles Aif Avater.
differtation hoAvever is ingenious, and replete Avith a \7a- Let us mnv endeavour to compute .the quantity of
rietv of curious learning. xvater Avhich is conftantly difcharged into the fta. For
ScTTHIAN Lamb, in Natural Flijlory. See Scythian this purpofe let us take a river whofe velocity and quan-
Lamb. tity of Avater is known, the Po, for inftance, Avhich ac-
SCYTHROPS, or Channel-bill, a genus of birds cording to Riccioli is 1000 feet (or ico perches of^^0^
belonging to the order of Picse. See Ornithology, Bologna) broad, 10 feet deep, and runs at the rate of art> IOi
N° 149.° fyur miles ln an hour; confequently that river dif-
SEA, in a ftrifl fenfe, fignifies a large portion of charges into the fea 200,000 cubic perches of AA^ater in
Avater almoft furrounded by land, as the Baltic and an hour, or 4,800,000 in a day. A cubic mile con-
Mediterranean feas ; but it is frequently ufed for that tains 125,000,000 cubic perches ; the Po therefore
T vaft body of Avater Avhich encompaffes the whole earth. will take 26 days to difeharge a cubic mile of Avater
What pro- What proportion the fuperficies of the fea bears to into the fea. Let us noAV fuppofe, Avhat is perhaps not
■portion the 0f t}je lanJ cannot eafily be afcertained. Buflbn has very far from the truth, that the quantity of Avater
furface of f^ppofed that the furface of our globe is equally divided Avhich the fea receives from the rivers in any country is
bear.f to between land and Avater, and has accordingly calculated proportioned to the extent of that country. The Po
that of the the fuperficies of tlie fea to be 85,490,506 fquare miles, from its origin to its .mouth traverfes a country 380
land. ]3ut ft is now Avell known that the ocean covers much miles long, and the rivers Avhich fall into it on every
more than the half of the earth’s furface. Buffon be- fide rife from fources about fixty miles diftant from it.
The
Sea.
4
Why it
does not
increafe.
SEA- [
The Po, therefore, and the rivers which it receives, wa¬
ter a country of 45,600 fquare miles. Now fmce the
whole fuperficies of the dry land is about 42,745,253
fquare miles, it follows, from our fuppofition, that the
quantity of water difcharged by all the rivers in the
world, in one day, is 3^ cubic miles, and in a year
13,140. If therefore the fea contains 32,058,939 cubic
niiles of water, it would take all the rivers in the world
2439 years to difcharge an equal quantity.
It may feem furpriiing that the fea, lince it is con¬
tinually receiving fuch an immenfe fupply of water, does
not vifibly increafe, and at laft cover the whole earth.
But our furprife will ceafe, if we confider that the ri¬
vers themfelves are fupplied from the fea, and that they
do nothing more than carry back thofe waters which
the ocean is continually lavifliing on the earth. Dr
Halley has demonftrated that the vapours raifed from
the fea and tranfported on land are fufficient to main¬
tain all the rivers in the world. The fimplicity of this
great procefs is aftonilhing : the fea not only connefts
diftant countries, and renders it eafy to tranfport the
commodities of one nation to another, but its waters
tiling in the air defcend in (bowers to fertilize the earth
and nourilh the vegetable kingdom, and collecting into
rivers flow onwards, bringing fertility and wealth and
commerce along with them, and again return to the fea
to repeat the fame round.
The knowledge of this procefs of nature might, one
would think, have convinced philofophers that the pro¬
portion between fea and land continued always nearly
the fame. Philofophers.however have formed different
theories about this as well as moft other fubje&s,. main¬
taining on the one hand that the fea is continually
encroaching on the land, and on the other that the land
is conftantly gaining on the fea. Both fides have fup-
ported their theories by arguments, demonftrations, and
incontrovertible faCls!
The height of the mountains, fay the philofophers
»» who fupport the encroachments of the fea, is continual-
who affirm jy diminifhing •, expofed to the violence of every ftorm,
that the fea the harde{l rocks mull at laft give way and tumble
ingonThe down. The rivers are continually fweeping along with
Sea.
5.
Theories
philofo
phers on
this fub-
jeft.
Ar guments
of thofe
land. them particles of earth which they depolite in the bot¬
tom of the fea. Both the depth of the ocean then and
the height of the dry land mult be always decreafing j
the waters therefore muft, unlefs a part of them were
annihilated, fpread over a greater extent of furface in
proportion as thefe caufes operate. 1 his reafoning,
convincing as it is, might be confirmed by a great
number of faCts: it will be fufficient however to.men-
tion one or two. In the reign of Auguftus the ifle of
Wight made a part of Britain, fo that the Englilh
crolfed over to it at low water with cart loads of tin >
yet that illand is at prefent feparated from Britain by a
channel half a mile wide. The Godwin fands on the
eaftern Ihore of England were formerly the fertile eftate
•f Earl Godwin. Nor are the encroachments of the
fea confined to Britain, In the bay of Baiae near Na¬
ples there are remains of houfes and ftreets ftill vilible
below the prelent level of the fea. The fea, therefore,
is making continued encroachments upon the land ; and
the time will come, fay they, when the waters will again
cover the furface of the earth.
Such are the arguments of thofe philofophers W'hb
maintain the continual encroachments of the fea, Thofe
VOL. XIX. Part I,
65 ] SEA
who maintain the oppofite theory, that the land is gra¬
dually gaining on the fea, though they pretend not to
deny the fads advanced by their opponents, affirm that Argu,nents
they are altogether infufficient to eflablilh the hypo-0f tliofe
thelis which they were brought forward to fupport. who affirm
Though the rivers carry down particles of earth into|^^e
the fea, thefe, fay they, are either accumulated on other ^a"in;ng oft
ffiores, or, collefling in the bottom ot the ocean, harden the fea.
into ftone, which being polfeffed of a vegetative power
rifes by degrees above the furface of the fea, and forms
rocks, and mountains, and illands. The vegetative na-.
ture of ftone indeed is fufficient, of itfelf, to convince
us that the quantity of earth muft be daily accumula-
ting, and confequently that the furface of the fea is di-
miniffiing in extent. Celfius, a Swedilh philnfopher
(for this difpute has been carried on in Sweden with
the greateft keennefs), has endeavoured to build this
theory with more folid materials than vegetable ftone.
In a curious memoir, publilhed in 1743* he afferts that
the Baltic and the Atlantic, at leaft that part of it which
waffies Norway, is conftantly diminilhing } and he proves
this by the teftimony of a great many aged pilots and
fiffiermen, who affirmed that the fea was become much
lhallower in many places than it had been during their
youth : that many rocks formerly covered with water
were now feveral feet above the furface of the fea : that
loaded velTels ufed formerly to ride in many places where
pinnaces and barks could now with difficulty fwim.
He produces inftanees of ancient fea-port towns now
feveral leagues from the Ihore, and of anchors and
wrecks of veffels found far within the country. He
mentions a particular rock which 168 years before was
at the bottom of the fea, but was then raifed eight feet
above its furface. In another place where the water
50 years before had reached to the knee there was then
none. Several rocks, too, which during the infancy of
fome old pilots had been two feet under water, were
then three feet above it. From all thefe obfer vat ions
M. Celfius concludes, that the water of the Baltic de-
creafes in height 4^ lines in a year, 4 inches 5 lines in
18 years, 4 feet 5 inches in a hundred years, and in a
thoufand years 45 feet. Confcious, however, that thefe
fads, how conclufive foever as far as relates to the Bal¬
tic, can never determine the general queftion, M. Celfius
advances another argument in fupport of his theory.
All that quantity of moifture, fays he, which is imbibed
by plants is loft to the general mafs of water, being con¬
verted into earth by the putrefa&ion of vegetables.
This notion had been mentioned by Newton, and was
adopted by Van Helmont: if granted, it follows as a
confequence that the earth is continually increaling and
the water diminilhing in a very rapid degree. s
Such are the arguments advanced in fupport of both Thefe a*,
theories 5 for it is needlefs to mention a notion of Lin-
neeus that the whole earth was formerly covered witht
water except a (ingle mountain. When fairly weighed,
they amount to nothing more than this, that the fea
has encroached upon the land in fome places, and reti¬
red in others *, a conclufion which we are very willing
to allow. What was advanced by thofe philofophers
who maintain that the fea is continually encroaching
on the land, about the depth of the fea conftantly di-
minilhing, muft remain a mere affertion, till they prove
by experiments, either that this is really the cafe, or
that nature has no way of reftoring thofe particles of
I earth
Sea.
9
.Bottom of
the fea.
SEA [66
earth which are wafhed down by the rivers. Nor have
they any good reafon to affirm that the height of the
mountains is decrealing. Can a Angle uncontrovertible
inftance be produced of this ? Are the Alps or the Apen¬
nines, or Taurus, or Caucafus, lefs lofty now than they
were a thoufand years ago ? We mean not to deny that
the rain actually waffies down particles of earth from
the mountains, nor to affirm that the hardeft rocks are
able to refill continual llorms, nor that many mountains
yhave fuffered, and continue to fuffer daily, from a thou¬
fand accidents. But the effefts produced by all thefe
caufes are lb trifling as to be altogether impercepti¬
ble (a). Nature has affiduoufly guarded againlt fuch
accidents 5 fhe has formed the mountains of the moft
durable materials; and where they are covered with
earth, the has bound it together by a thick and firm
matting of grafs, and thus fecured it from the rains 5
and Humid accident deprive it of this covering, Ihe takes
care immediately to fupply the defeft. Even fliould
the earth be fwept away together with its covering, na¬
ture has Hill fuch refources left as frequently reftore
things to their former ftate. Many kinds of mofs, one
would be tempted to think, have been created for this
very purpofe : they take root and flouriffi almofl: upon
the bare rock, and furnifh as they decay a fufficient bed
for feveral of the hardy Alpine plants. Thefe ptriffi
in their turn, and others fucceed them. The roots of
the plants bind fall the earth as it accumulates, more
plants fpring up and fpread wider, till by degrees the
whole furface is covered wfith a firm coat of grafs.
As the fea covers fo great a portion of the globe, we
fhould, no doubt, by exploring its bottom, difcover a
vafl: number of interefiing particulars. Unfortunately
in the greater part of the ocean this has hitherto been
impoffible. Part, however, has been examined; and the
difcoveries which this examination has produced may
enable us to form fome idea at leafl: of the whole. The
bottom of the fea, as might have been conje&ured in¬
deed beforehand, bears a great refemblance to the fur-
face of the dry land, being, like it, full of plains, rocks,
caverns and mountains ; fome of which are abrupt and
almofl: perpendicular, while others rife with a gentle de¬
clivity, and fometimes tower above the water and form
iflands. Neither do the materials differ which compofe
the bottom of the fea and the bafis of the dry land. If
we dig to a confiderable depth in any part of the earth,
we uniformly meet with rock ; the fame thing holds in
the fea. The ffrata, too, are of the fame kind, difpo-
fed in the fame manner, and form indeed but one whole.
The fame kind of mineral and bituminous fubftances
are alfo found interfperfed with thefe ftrata ; and it is
to them probably that the fea is indebted for its bitter
tafte. Over thefe natural and original ftrata an artifi¬
cial bed has pretty generally been formed, compofed of
different materials in different places. It confifts fre¬
quently of muddy tartareous fubftances firmly cemented
1
SEA
together, fometimes of fliells or coral reduced to pow- Sea.
der, and near the mouths of rivers it is generally com-
pofed of fine fand or gravel. The bottom of the fea
refembles the land likewife in another particular : many
freffi fprings and even rivers rife out of it, which, dif-
placing the fait water, render the lower part of the fea
wherever they abound quite freffi. An inftance of this
kind occurs near Goa on the weftern coaft of Indo-
ftan #, and anotherf in the Mediterranean fea not far * Boy/e da
from Marfeilles. Thefe fadts occafioned a notion, which Fu/ido Ma~
later experiments have exploded, that the fea beyond & r r
certain depth wras always freffi. HiJUnre 1
Subftances of a very beautiful appearance are fre- Phxfique de
quently brought up by the founding line from the bot- la Mar,
tom of the fea. The plummet is hollowed below, and Partle I*
this cavity filled with tallow, to which fome of the fub¬
ftances adhere which form the bed of the ocean. Thefe
are generally fand, gravel, or mud ; but they are fome¬
times of the brighteft fcarlet, vermilion, purple, and
yellow ; and fometimes, though lefs frequently, they
are blue, green, or white. Thefe colours are owing to
a kind of jelly which envelopes the fubftances, and va-
niih entirely as foon as this jelly dries. At times, how¬
ever, they affume the appearance of tartareous crufts,
and are then fo permanent, that they can be received
into white wax melted and poured round them, and
perhaps by proper care might be converted into valuable
paints. 10
Sea-water is really, as any one may convince himfelf Colour of
by pouring it into a glafs, as clear and tranfparent as^16^63,
river w'ater. The various appearances therefore which
it affumes are owing to accidental caufes, and not to any
change in the water itfelf. The depth, or the materials
which compofe the bottom of the fea, occafions it to
affume different colours in different places. The Ara¬
bian gulf, for inftance, is faid to be red from the co¬
lour of the fands which form its bed. The appearance
of the fea is affedted too by the winds and the fun,
while the clouds that pafs over it communicate all their
various and fleeting colours. When the fun ffiines it
is green ; when the fun gleams through a fog it is yel¬
low ; near the north pole it appears black ; while in
the torrid zone its colour is often brown. Sometimes
the fca affumes a luminous appearance. See Light,
Yol. XII. page 2. ir
The fea contains the greateft quantity of fait in the Saltnefs of
torrid zone, where otherwife from the exceflive heat the fea.
it would be in danger of putrefaction: as we advance
northward this quantity diminiffies, till at the pole it
nearly vaniffies altogether. Under the line Lucas found
that the fea contained a feventh part of folid contents,
confifting chiefly of fea-falt. At Harwich he found it
yielded -/j-th of fea-falt. At Carlfcroon in Sweden it
contains yg-th part (b), and on the coaft of Greenland
a great deal lefs. This deficiency of fait near the poles
probably contributes a good deal towards the prodigi-
(A) M. Genfanne pretends that the Pyrenean mountains become an inch lower every ten years. But even ac¬
cording to his own calculation, it would require a million of years to level thefe mountains with the plain,
though they continued to decreafe at the fame rate; and philofophers tell us that this rate is conftantly dx-
minilhing !
(b) This gradual diminution of faltnefs from the equator to the pole is not, however, without particular excep¬
tions. The Mediterranean fea contains -^th of fea-falt, which is left than the German fea contains.
SEA
[ 67 ]
SEA
Sea.
ous quantities of ice which are met with in thefe feas;
for fait water requires a much greater degree of cold
to freeze it than frelli water. It was this circumftance,
probably, together with its conflant motion, which in¬
duced the ancients to believe that the fea never froze.
Even among the moderns it has been a generally re¬
ceived opinion, that fea-ice is originally formed in ri¬
vers. Buffon has made the great quantities of ice
with which the South fea abounds an argument for the
exiftence of a continent near the Antarflic pole. But
it is now well known that great quantities of ice are
formed at a diftance from land. Sea-ice is of two kinds;
field ice, which extends along the (bore, and is only two
or three feet thick ; and mountain ice, which abounds
in the middle of the ocean. The fize of thefe moun¬
tains is fometimes prodigious. The fea-ice is always
frelh, and has been often of great ufe to navigators.
The weight of fea-water is to that of river-water as 73
to 70 ; that is, a cubic foot of fea-water weighs 731b.
while the fame quantity of river-water weighsonly 7olb. •,
but this proportion varies in different places. It is
worthy of our attention, too, that the water at the fur-
face of the fea contains lefs fait than near the bottom •,
the difference indeed is inconfiderable, but ftill it is
fomething. The Compte de Marfigli found the fame
quantity of water, when taken from the bottom of the
Mediterranean, to weigh one ounce three pennyweights
51 grains; whereas from the furface it weighed only
one ounce three pennyweights 49 grains. He repeated
the experiment frequently with nearly the fame refult.
The fca, with refpeft to temperature, may be divided
into two regions: The firft begins at the furface of the
water, and defcends as far as the influence of the fun’s
rays; the fecond reaches from thence to the bottom of
the fea. In fummer the lower region is confiderably
colder than the upper: but it is probable that during
Submarbia- winter the very reverfe takes place; at lead the Compte
rum. " de Marfigli found it fo repeatedly in the Mediterranean.
This naturally refults from the fituation of the water
near the bottom of the fea. Uninfluenced by the chan¬
ges in the atmofphere, it retains always nearly the fame
degree of temperature : and this is confiderably above
congelation ; for the lower region of the fea, at leaft in
the temperate parts of the world, was never known to
Phil. Tranf. freeze. Captain Ellis let down a fea-gage (fee Gage)
tor 1S7I> in latitude 250 12' north, and longitude 250 13' weft,
to take the degrees of temperature and faltnefs of the
fea at different depths. It defcended 5346 feet, which
is a mile and eleven fathoms. He found the fea falter
and colder in proportion to its depth till the gage had
defcended 3900 feet, when the mercury in the thermo¬
meter came up at 53 ; but the water never grew colder,
though he let down the gage 2446 feet lower. At the
furface the thermometer flood at 84.
The fea has three kinds of motion: 1. The firft is
that undulation which is occafioned by the wind. This
motion is entirely confined to the furface; the bottom
even during the moft violent ftorms remains perfeftly
calm. Mr Boyle has remarked, from the teftimony of
feveral divers, that the fea is affe&ed by the winds
only to the depth of fix feet. It would follow from
this, that the height of the waves above the furface does
not exceed fix feet; and that this holds in the Mediter¬
ranean at leaft, we are informed by the Compte de Mar¬
figli, though he alfo fometimes obferved them, during
Sea.
12
Tempera¬
ture of the
fea.
Boyle de
Temperie
p. 215.
13
The fea
has three
motions.
Motion
occafioned
by the
wind
a very violent tempeft, rife two feet higher. It is af¬
firmed by Pliny, and feveral other ancient writers, that 7 "“r’
oil calms the waves of the fea ; and that divers were ac- p.;pe4\y
cuftomed to carry feme of it for that purpofe in their 0;i.
mouths. This account was always confidered by the
moderns as a fable, and treated with fuch contempt, that
they did not even deign to put it to the teft of expe¬
riment, till Dr Franklin accidentally difcovered its
truth. Happening in 1757 to be in the middle of a
large fleet, he obferved that the water round one or two
veffels was quite calm and fmooth, while everywhere
elfe it was very much agitated by the winds. He ap¬
plied to the captain for an explanation of this phenome¬
non, who replied, that the cooks, he fuppofed, had
thrown their greafy water out at the fcupper-holes, and
by that means oiled the fides of the veffels in queftion.
This anfwer did not fatisfy the Do£tor at firft ; but re¬
collecting what Pliny had faid on the fubjeCt, he refol-
ved at leaft to make the experiment. He did fo accord¬
ingly in 1762, and found that oil actually calmed the
waves of the fea. He repeated the experiment upon a
pond at Clapham: the oil fpread itfelf with great rapidity
upon the furface, but did not produce the defired effect,
becaufe, having been thrown in upon the fide oppofite
to the wind, it was immediately driven to the edge ot
the water. But upon throwing in a like quantity upon
the other fide of the lake, it calmed in an inftant feve¬
ral yards of the furface ; and gradually fpreading, ren¬
dered all that part of the lake, to the extent of at leaft;
half an acre, as fmooth as glafs. The curious effect pro¬
duced by this liquid may be accounted for by the repul-
fion which exifts between oil and water, and between oil
and air, which prevents all immediate contaft, all rub¬
bing of the one upon the other. T „
2. The fecond kind of motion is that continual ten-M0tk,n to
dency which the whole water in the fea has towards the wards the
weft. It is greater near the equator than about theweft—Cur-
poles ; and indeed cannot be faid to take place at all inreHts’
the northern hemifphere beyond the tropic. It begins
on the weft fide of America, where it is moderate :
hence that part of the ocean has been called Pacific.
As the waters advance weftward their motion is accele¬
rated ; fo that, after having traverfed the globe, they
ftrike with great violence on the eaftern Ihore of Ame¬
rica. Being flopped by that continent, they turn north-
ward, and run with conftderable impetuofity in the
gulf of Mexico; from thence they proceed along the
coaft of North America, till they come to the fouth
fide of the great bank at Newfoundland, when they
turn off, and run down through the Weftern Ifles.
This current is called the Gulf Stream. It was firft
accurately defcribed by Dr Franklin, who remarked
alfo, that the Avater in it having been originally heated
in the torrid zone, cools fo gradually in its paffage
northward, that even the latitude might be found in
any part of the ftream by means of a thermometer.—
This motion of the fea weftward has never been ex¬
plained : it feems to have fome conneftion Avith the
trade-winds and the diurnal revolution of the earth on
its axis. _ }*
3. The third and moft remarkable motion of the fea
is the tide, which is a regular fwell of the ocean once
every 12 hours, oAving, as Newton has demonftrated,
to the attraftion of the moon. In the middle of the
fea the tide feldom rifes higher than one or two feet,
I 3 but
SEA [ 68 ] SEA
but on tbe coafl: it frequently readies the height of 45
feet, and in fome places even more. The tide ge¬
nerally rifes higher in the evening than in the morn¬
ing : on the coaft of Britain this holds in winter, but
in fummer the morning tides are higheft. In fome
leas it is faid that there are no tides. This cannot be
owing to their being furrounded by land, becaufe there
is a tide in the lakes of North America. For an ex¬
planation of thefe and other phenomena we refer to
the article Tide.
SEA- Air, that part of the atmofphere which is above
the fea.
Sea-air has been found falubrious and remarkably
beneficial in fome diftempers. This may be owing to
its containing a greater portion of oxigenous gas or vi¬
tal air, and being lefs impregnated with noxious vapours
than the land. Dr Ingenhoufz made feveral experi¬
ments to afcertain the falubrity of fea-air. By mixing
equal meafures of common air and nitrous air, he found,
that at Gravefend, they occupied about 104, or one mea-
fure and of a meafure: whereas on fea, about three
miles from the mouth of the Thames, two meafures of
air (one of common and one of nitrous air) occupied
from 0.91 to 0.94. He attempted a fimilar experiment
on the middle of the channel betiveen the Englifh coafl:
and Oftend j but the motion of the fliip rendered it im¬
practicable. He found that in rainy and windy weather
the fea-air contained a fmaller quantity of vital air than
when the weather wTas calm. On the fea-ihore at Oftend
it occupied from 944 to 97; at Bruges he found it at
105 *, and at Antwerp ic>94- Dr Ingenhoufz thus con¬
cludes his paper :
It appears, from thefe experiments, that the air at
fea and clofe to it is in general purer and fitter for ani¬
mal life than the air on the land, though it feems to be
fubjeCI to the fame inconftancy in its degree of purity
with that of the land j fo that we may now with more
confidence fend our patients, labouring under confump-
tive diforders, to the fea, or at leaft to places fituated
clofe to the fea, which have no marflies in their neigh¬
bourhood. It feems alfo probable, that the air will be
found in general much purer far from the land than near
the fliore, the former being never fubjeCI to be mixed
with land air.
Dr Damman, an eminent phyfician and profeflbr
royal of midwifery at Ghent, told Dr Ingenhoufz, that
when he was formerly a praCHtioner at Oftend, during
leven years, he found the people there remarkably heal¬
thy ; that nothing was rarer there than to fee a patient
labouring under a confumption or afthma, a malignant,
putrid, or fpotted fever j that the difeafe to which they
are the moft fubjeft, is a regular intermittent fever in
autumn, when hidden tranfitions from hot to cold wea¬
ther happen.
People are in general very healthy at Gibraltar,
though there are very few trees near that place 5 which
Dr Ingenhoufz thinks is owing to the purity of the air
arifing from the neighbourhood of the fea.
Mpft fmall iflands are very healthy.
At Malta people are little fubjefl to difeafes, and live
to a very advanced age.
SEA-Anemony. See A NIMAL ■ Flower.
SEA Bear. \ g p 1
Sea-Calf, j ’ > Mammalia Index.
SEA-Cow. See Trichecus, J
SEA-Crow, Mire-Crow, or Pewit. See Larus, Or- ^
NITHOLOGY Index.
SEA, Dead. See Asphaltites.
SEA-Devil. See Lophius, ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
SF.A-Dragon, a monfter of a very lingular nature. In
the Gentleman’s Magazine for the year 1749, we have
the account of a fea-dragon which was laid to be taken
between Orford and Southwould, on the coaft of Suf¬
folk, and afterwards carried round the country as a cu-
riofity by the filhermen who caught it.
“ Its head and tail (fays the writer) refemble thofe of
an alligator ; it has two large fins, which ferve it both
to fvvim and to fly; and though they were fo dried that
I could not extend them, yet they appear, by the folds,
to be lhaped like thofe which painters have given to
dragons and other winged monfters that ferve as fuppor-
ters to coats of arms. Its body is covered with impene¬
trable feales; its legs have two joints, and its feet are
hoofed like thofe of an afs: it has five rows of very white
and Iharp teeth in each jaw, and is in length about four
feet, though it was longer when alive, it having Ihrunk
as it became dry.
“ It was caught in a net with mackerel; and being
dragged on fliore, was knocked down with a ftretclier
or boat-hook. The net being opened,- it fuddenly
fprung up, and flew above 50 yards '■ the man who firft
feized it had feveral of his fingers bitten off; and the
wound mortifying, he died. It afterwards fattened on
the man’s arm who ftiows it, and lacerated it fo much,
that the mufcles are ihrunk, and the hand and fingers
diftorted \ the wound is not yet healed, and is thought
to be incurable. It is faid by fome to have been
deferibed by naturalifts under the name of the Sea-
dragon.'1' We muft add to the account now given of
the monfter called a fea-dragon, that we think it ex¬
tremely probable that the animal was nothing more
than a diftorted or overgrown individual of fome of the
well known fpecies of fifti.
SEA-Gage. See Sea GAGE.
SEA-Hare. See Lapjlysia, Helminthology In¬
dex.
SEA-Horfe, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name of the
Hippocampus. See Syngnathus, Ichthyology In¬
dex.
SEA-Lemon. See Doris, Helminthology Index.
SEA-Lion. See Phoca, Mammalia Index.
SEA-Mall, or SEA-Mew. See Larus, ORNITHOLO¬
GY Index.
SEA-Man. See Mermaid.
SEA-Marks. The erettion of beacons, light-houfes,,
and fea-marks, is a branch of the royal prerogative*
By 8 Eliz. 13. the corporation of the Trinity-houfe
are empowered to fet up any beacons or fea-marks
wherever they (hall think them neceffary j and if tne
owner of the land or any other perlon lhall deftroy
them, or take down any fteeple, tree, or other known
fea-mark, he fliall forfeit 100I. fterling j or, in cafe of
inability to pay it, he ftiall be ipfo fadlo outlawed.
SEA-Needle, Gar-ffh. See Esox, Ichthyology
Index.
SEA-Nettle. See AlNIMAL-Flower.
SEA-Pie, or Oyjler-Catcher. See Ha:MATOPUS, OR¬
NITHOLOGY Index.
SEA-Plants, are thofe vegetables that grow in falt-
water within the ftiores of the fea.. The old botanifts
divided
SEA
[ 69 ]
SEA
Sea. divided thefe into three claffes. I. The firft clafs, ae-
—V   cording to their arrangement, contained the a/g r, the
fuci, tlie fea-mqjjes, or confervas, and.the different ipe-
cies of fponges. 2. The iecond contained fubftances of
a hard texture, like ftone or horn, which feem to have
been of the fame nature with what we call %oophyta,
with this difference, that we refer fponges to this clafs
and not to the firft. The third clafs is the fame with
our lithophyta, comprehending corals, madrepora, &tc.
It is now Avell known that the genera belonging to the
fecond and third of thefe claffes, and even fome refer¬
red to the. firft, are not vegetables, but animals, or the
productions of animals. See CoRALLlNA, Madrepora,
Spongia. Sea-plants, then, properly fpeaking, belong
to the clafs of cryptogamia, and the order of algaj •,
and, according to Bomare, are all comprehended under
the genus of fucus. We may alfo add feveral ipecies
of the ulva and conferva and the fargazo. The fuel
and marine ulvae are immerfed in the fea, are fefiile, and
without root. The marine confervae are either feilile or
floating. The fargazo grows beyond foundings.
As fome fpecies of the fucus, when dried and pre-
ferved, are extremely beautiful, the curious, and efpeci-
ally thofe who profecute the ftudy of botany, muft be
anxious to know the beft method of preferving them,
without deftroying their colour and beauty. The fol¬
lowing method is recommended by M. Mauduyt. I ake
a fheet of paper, or rather of pafteboard, and cover it
with varnilh on both fides; and having rowed in a boat
to the rock where the fucus abounds, plunge your var-
niftied paper into the water, and, detaching the fucus,
receive it upon the paper. Agitate the paper gently in
the water, that the plants may be properly fpread over
it; and lift them up together foftly out of the water :
then fix down with pins the ftrong ftalks, that they
may not be difplaced, and leave the plant lying upon
the varniftied paper to dry in the open air. When it is
fully dry, the different parts will retain their pofition,
and the plant may be preferved within the leaves of a
book. To free it from the flime and fait which adhere
to it, wafh it gently in freftv water, after being removed
from the rock on which it grew.
SEA-Serpcnt, a monftrous creature, faidto inhabit the
northern feas about Greenland and the coafts of Nor¬
way. The following marvellous account of this monfter
is given by Guthrie. 44 In 1*]y6, one of them was ftiot
by a mafter of a ftiip : its head refembled that of a horfe ;
the mouth was large and black, as were the eyes, a
white mane hanging from its neck : it floated on the
furface of the water, and held its head at leaft two feet
out of the fea : between the head and neck w’ere feven
or eight folds, which were very thick 5 and the length
of this fnake was more than 100 yards, fome fay fa¬
thoms. They have a remarkable averfion to the fmell
of caftor ; for rvhich reafon, ftiip, boat, and bark mailers
provide themfelves with quantities of that drug, to pre¬
vent being overfet, the ferpent’s olfadlory nerves being
remarkably exquifite. JThe particularities related of this
animal would be incredible, were they not attefted upon
oath. Egede, a very reputable author, fays, that on the
6th day of July 1734, a large and frightful fea-monfter
raifed itfelf fo high out of the water, that its head
reached above the main-top-maft of the (hip , that it
had a long iharp fnout, broad paws, and fpouted water
Jike a whale j that the body feemed to be covered w ith
feales ) the ikin was uneven and wrinkled, and.the lower ^
part was formed like a fnake. 1 he body of this monher
is faid to be as thick as a hogftiead ; his Ikin is varie¬
gated like a tortoife {hell ; and his excrement, which
floats upon the furface of the water, is corrofive.'” . Not-
withftanding the belief of Guthrie, and the teftimony
which he produces, we cannot help doubting of the ex-
iftence of the fea-ferpent. Its bulk is faid to be lo dif-
proportionate to all the known animals of our globe,
that it requires more than ordinary evidence to render it
credible : but the evidence which is offered is fo very
feeble and unfatisfaclory, that no man of found judge¬
ment wrould think it fufficient to ettablifli the truth of
an extraordinary fadt.
Attempts have lately been made to revive the opi¬
nion of the exiftence of mermaids and fea-ferpents.
An individual of the latter, it is fuppofed, was lome time
ago thrown on fliore in Orkney. Part of the Ikeleton is
faid to be in the mufeum of the Univerfity of Edin¬
burgh, and another part is in the poffe.ffion of Mr Home
of London, who thinks that it may have belonged to an
individual of fome of the whale tribe, perhaps a monuer
of that tribe ; but according to others it is to be con-
fidered as conftituting a diftindl genus. We cannot
avoid obferving, that this point muft remain unfettled
till other fpecies of this new genus have been difeover-
ed, or at leaft till an entire individual have been de-
feribed by an experienced naturalift.
SEA-Sicknefs, a diforder incident to moft perfons on
their firft going to fea, oecafioned by the agitation of
the veffel. This diforder has not been much treated of,
although it is very irkfome and diftrefling to the pa¬
tient during its continuance. It lias, however, been
found beneficial in afthmatic and pulmonary complaints,
and the inftances in which it has proved fatal, are ex¬
tremely rare. The fea ficknefs appears to be a fpafmo-
dic affeftion of the ftomach, occaiioned by the alternate
preffure and recefs of its contents againft its lower inter¬
nal furface, according as the rife and fall of the ftiip op-
pofe the adlion of gravity.
The feas in which the attacks of this diforder are ac¬
companied with the greateft violence, are thofe where
the waves have an uninterrupted freedom of adlion
and of confequence bays, gulfs and channels, may be
navigated with lefs inconvenience, as the waves, meet¬
ing with more frequent refiftance, the veffel does not
experience that gentle uniform vacillation which in¬
duces ficknefs, and renders the head giddy. A perfon
feels lefs inconvenience from the diforder in a fmall vef¬
fel on the wide ocean, on which the High tell motion of
the waves makes a ftrong impreflion. He is alfo lefs
expofed to it in a very large veffel deeply laden, as the
waves, in this cafe, fcarcely affedl the veffel. It is in
(hips of an ordinary fize, and which carry but a light
cargo, that the paffenger fuffers moft from the fea fick¬
nefs. The fooner it takes place after embarkation, the
continuance of it becomes the more probable. It does
not always ceafe immediately on landing, but in fome
cafes continues for a conliderable time.
Many methods of preventing, or at leaft of mitigat¬
ing this diforder, have been recommended, of which the
moft efficacious appear to be the following.
1. Not to go on board immediately after eating, and
not to eat, when on board, any large quantity at a
time.
Sea.
2. To
SEA [ 70 ] SEA
2. To take muck exercife, Avitk as little intermiffion
as poflible j as indolent paffengers are always the greateft
fufferers from the diforder.
3. To keep much upon deck, even when the weather
is ftormy, as the fea breeze is not fo apt to affedt the
ftomach as the impure air of the cabin, rendered fo for
Want of proper circulation.
4. Not to watch the motion of the waves, particularly
when ftrongly agitated with tempeft.
5. Carefully to (bun all employments by which the
mind may be haraffed, as reading, ftudying, gaming,
&c. and to feek all opportunities of mental relaxation.
6. To drink occafionally liquids containing carbonic
acid, as the froth of beer ftrongly fermented, or wine
and Seltzer water mixed together, and fweetened with
pounded fugar.
7. It will alfo be beneficial to take fulphuric acid
dulcified, dropped on a bit of fugar, or in peppermint
water, or ten drops of ether.
The proper diet confifts of bread and frefh meat, to
be eaten cold with pepper. All fweet favoured food
fhould be carefully avoided, and the paflenger ought to
refrain from fat, and particularly from fuch meat as is
in the fmalleft degree tainted. Even the fmell of
flowers is injurious, for which reafon marine produftions
ought not to be examined ; but the fumes of vinegar
may be advantageoutly inhaled. The drink fhould
confift of lemonade or tart wines, but never of common
water. An accidental diarrhoea has often relieved the
patient from fea-ficknefs, and therefore a gentle laxa¬
tive in fuch a diforder feems to be indicated. It will
alfo be found ufeful to apply a tonic anodyne plafter to
the pit of the ftomach, fpread upon leather, and covered
with linen.
When fymptoms of vomiting appear, they may often
be remedied by the patient placing himfelf in a horizon¬
tal pofition on his back or belly, and lying perfedtly
ftill. If the fits of vomiting are too violent to be re-
prefled, they fhould be promoted by a ftrong dofe of
fait Avater ; not, however, to be often repeated, as it
debilitates the ftomach. When the emetic operates, the
patient fhould bend his body, bringing his knees to¬
wards his breaft, and fupporting his head againft a firm
refting-place. His garters and cravat muft be untied,
a precaution which will fecure him from the danger of
a rupture.
The vomiting having fubfided, a ftate of repofe will
prevent its return, and the eyes may be kept fhut for a
confiderable time. The patient muft make choice of a
cool, ventilated place, remembering to keep himfelf
warm and well clothed, as perfpiration is highly bene¬
ficial. A gargle of fugar diflblved in vinegar is to be
taken in the morning, accompanied with frequent and
fpare eating. Water mull never be taken in its pure Sea.
ftate, but mixed with wine, vinegar, or brandy. A u—“V
glafs of wine may be taken in the morning,'vvith an in-
fufion of orange peel, gentian root, or peruvian bark.
A glafs of punch occafionally taken will be extremely
beneficial, by which perfpiration is promoted.
Perfons aceuftomed to fmoke tobacco, will find the
ufe of the pipe falutary on fuch occafions, but the
praftice of fmoking will be injurious to all others.
We may add that Warm clothing, flannel Hurts, caps,
trowfers, &c. are powerful remedies againft exceflive
expectoration, with every other fymptom of this dread¬
ful malady.
SEA-Star. See Asterias, ^ Helminthology /«-
SEA-Urchin. See Echinus, £ dex.
SEA-Water, the fait water of the fea. The principal
falts contained in fea-water are, ift, Common marine or
culinary fait, compounded of foffil alkali or foda and
marine acid 5 2dly, A fait formed by the union of the
fame acid with magnefian earth ; and, laftly, A fmall
quantity of felenite. The quantity of faline matter
contained in a pint of fea-water, in the Britifti feas,
is, according to Neumann, about one ounce in each
pint (a).
The faltnefs of this water is fuppofed to arife from
numerous mines and mountains of fait difperfed here and
there in the depths of the fea. Dr Halley fuppofes that
it is probable the greatert part of the fea-falt, and of all
fait lakes, as the Cafpian fea, the Dead fea, the lake of
Mexico, and the Titicaca in Peru, is derived from the
water of the rivers which they receive : and fince this
fort of lakes has no exit or difcharge but by the exhala¬
tion of vapours, and alfo fince thefe vapours are entirely
frefti or devoid of fuch particles, it is certain that the
faltnefs of the fea and of fuch lakes muft from time
to time increafe 5 and therefore the faltnefs at this time
muft be greater than at any time heretofore. He
further adds, that if, by experiments made in differ¬
ent ages, we could find the different quantity of fait
which the fame quantity of water (taken up in the
fame place, and in all other the fame circumftances)
would afford, it would be eafy from thence, by rules of
proportion, to find the age of the world very nearly,
or the time wherein it has been acquiring its prefent
faltnefs.
This opinion of Dr Halley is fo improbable, that it
is furprifing fo acute a philofopher could have adopted
it. That frefti water rivers ftiould in the courfe of
many thoufand years produce faltnefs in the fea, is
quite incredible. If this were the cafe, every fea or
great body of water which receives rivers muft be fait,
and muft pofiefs a degree of faltnefs in proportion to
the quantity of water which the rivers difcharge. But
(a) In Bergman’s analyfis of fea-water taken up in the beginning of June 1776, about the latitude of the Ca¬
naries from the depth of 60 fathoms, the folid contents of a pint of the water were,
’ Grs. 1
5. 5 Grs.
or 5 1 iot9t
Of common fait
Salited magnefia
Gypfum
Total
253tt
69TT
8tV
3 3° A
(
SEA [ 7
fo far is this from being true, that the Palus Meotis
and the great lakes in America do not contain fait but
frelh water. It may indeed be objected, that the quan¬
tity of fait which the rivers carry along with them and
depofit in the fea, mult depend on the nature of the foil
through which they flow, which may in fome places
contain no fait at all : and this may be the reafon why
the great lakes in America and the Palus Meotis are
frefu. But to this opinion, which is merely hypotheti¬
cal, there are unfurmountable objeflions. It is a curious
fafit that the faltnefs of the fea is greatetl under the line,
and diminilhes gradually as we advance to the poles :
We muft therefore fuppofe, if Dr Halley’s theory be
true, that the earth contains more fait in the tropical
regions than in the temperate zones, and more in the
temperate zones than in the frigid j and confequendy
that the rivers in thefe different regions contain a quan¬
tity of fait proportionable to their diftance from the
equator. This, however, muft be firft proved by ex¬
periment, and cannot be affumed as an eftablifhed fa6t.
But there is another circumftance that entirely deftroys
this theory. If we allow that the fea receives its falt¬
nefs from the rivers, it muft be equally fait or nearly fo
in every part of the earth. For, according to a Ample
and well known principle in chemiftry, “ when any iub-
ftance is diffolved in water with the afliftance of agita¬
tion, at whatever part of the water it is introduced, it
will be equally diffufed through the whole liquid.”
Now though it were true that a greater quantity of fait
were introduced into the fea under the line than towards
the poles, from the conftant agitation occafioned by the
wind and tide, the fait muft foon pervade the whole
mafs of water. To fay that the fuperior degree of heat
in the tropical regions may diiTolve a greater quantity
of fait, will not deftroy our argument •, for it is an efta-
bliftied principle in chemiftry, that cold water will dif-
folve nearly as great a quantity of fait as hot water can
diflolve.
The faltnefs of the fea has alfo been afcribed to
the folution of fubterraneous mines of fait, which is
fuppofed to abound in the bottom of the fea and along
its fliores. But this hypothefis cannot be fupported.
If the fea were conftantly diffolving fait, it would foon
become faturated •, for it cannot be faid that it is depri¬
ved of any part of its fait by evaporation, fince rain¬
water is frefti. If the fea were to become faturated,
neither fifties nor vegetables could live in it. We muft
therefore defpair of being able to account for the falt¬
nefs of the fea by fecond caufes ; and muft fuppofe that
it has been fait from the creation. It is impoflible in¬
deed to fuppofe that the waters of the fea were at any
period freth fince the formation of fifties and fea-plants :
for as thefe will not live in water faturated with fait,
neither will they live in water that is frefti ; we therefore
conclude that the faltnefs of the fea has been nearly the
fame in all ages. This is the fimpleft hypothefis of the
three that has been mentioned. It explains beft the
various phenomena, and is involved in feweft difficulties.
We ftiall, however, allow that there may be fome ex¬
ceptions •, that the faltnefs of fome feas, or of particular
parts of the fame fea, may be increafed by mines of
rock-falt difperfed near its ftiores.
With regard to the ufe of thh fait property of fea-
water, it is obferved, that the faltnefs of the fea pre-
ferves its waters pure and fweet, which otherwife would
i ] SEA
corrupt and ftink like a filthy lake, and confcquently
that none of the myriads of creatures which now live k*"
therein could then have a being. From thence alfo the
fea water becomes much heavier, and therefore (hips of
greater fize and quantity may be ufed thereon. Salt¬
water alfo doth not freeze fo foon as frefti-water, whence
the feas are more free for navigation. We have a dif-
fertation, by Dr Rulfel, concerning the medical ufes of
fea-water in difeafes of the glands, &c. wherein the au¬
thor premifes fome obfervations upon the nature of
fea-water, conlidered as impregnated with particle* of all
the bodies it pafles over, fuch as fubmarine plants, filh,
falls, minerals, &c. and faturated with their feveral ef¬
fluvia, to enrich it and keep it from putrefaction : whence
this fluid is fuppofed to contraCl a foapinefs; and the
whole collection, being pervaded by the fulphureous
fleams paffing through it, to conftitute what we call
fea-water ; the confeffed diftinguiftiing charaCteriftics of
which are faltnefs, bitternefs, nitrofity, and unCtuofity :
whence the author concludes, that it may be juftly ex-
peCted to contribute fignally to the improvement of
phyfic. The cafes in which our author informs us we
are to expeCt advantages from fea-water are, I. In all
recent obltruCtions of the glands of the inteftines and
mefentery. 2. All recent obftruftions of the pulmo¬
nary glands, and thofe of the vifeera, which frequently
produce confumptions. 3. All recent glandular fwel-
lings of the neck, or other parts. 4. Recent tumours
of the joints, if they are not fuppurated, or become
fchirrous or cancerous, and have not carious bones for
their caufe. 5. Recent defluxions upon the glands of
the eyelids. 6. All defoedations of the fldn, from an
eryfipelas to a lepra. 7. Difeafes of the glands of the
nofe, with their ufual companion a thicknefs of the lip.
8. ObftruCIions of the kidneys, where there is no in¬
flammation, and the ftone not large. 9. In recent ob-
ftrudions of the liver, this method will be proper,
where it prevents conftipations of the belly, and affifts
other medicines direCled in iCterical cafes. The fame
remedy is faid to be of fignal fervice in the bronchocele 5
and is likewife recommended for the prevention of
thofe bilious colics that fo frequently affeft our ma¬
riners.
Prefervation of SEA-Water from PutrefaBion. As it
is fometimes neceflary to preferve fea-water in calks for
bathing and other purpofes, it is of importance to know
how to keep it from putrefaftion. Many experiments
were made to determine this point by Mr Henry, and
are recorded in the firft volume of the Memoirs of the
Literary and Philofophical Society of Manchefter. His
firft experiment we ftiall here prefent to our readers.
“ To one quart of fea-water were added two fcruples
of frefti quick-lime •, to another, half an ounce of com¬
mon culinary fait ; and a third was kept as a ftandard
without any addition. The mouths of the bottles being
loofely covered with paper, they were expofed to the
adtion of the fun in fome of the hotteft weather in
fummer. In about a week the ftandard became very
offenfive and the water, with the additional quantity
of fait, did not continue fweet many hours longer 5
whereas that with lime continued many months without
ever exhibiting the leaft marks of putridity.” When
he added a dram more of quicklime, the whole of the
magnefia contained in the water was feparated ; and
when a further addition was made, a lime-water was
immediately
SEA [ 72 ] SEA
Sea- Iramediately formed. He therefore concluded, that two
v fcruples of quicklime are fufficient to preferve a quart
of fea-water. The proportions, however, may vary a
little, according to the ilrength of the quicklime em-
1 ployed.
Different FreJJjenitig of SEA-Water. The method of making
methods of fea-water frelh was long a defideratum in navigation,
frelliening j\jany metl10ds have been propofed for this purpofe. Mr
lea-water, pUbli{hed an account of a procefs which he had
inftituted in the year 1734. He dillilled fea-water
with a quantity of /apis infernalis and calcined bones 5
but this procefs was foon laid alide, as it w'as not only
difficult in itfelf, but rendered the water unpalatable.
Dr Butler propofed foap-leys in place of Mr Appleby’s
ingredients j but the water was Itill liable to the fame
objeftion. Dr Stephen Hales recommended powdered
chalk ; but his method was expenfive, and did not im¬
prove the tafte of the water. Dr Lind of Portfmouth
diftilled fea-water without any ingredients •, but as the
experiment he made was performed in a veflel contain¬
ing only two quarts, with a glafs receiver, in his Itudy,
2 nothing conclufive can be drawn from it for the ufe of
Dr Irving’s, failors. At length Dr Irving brought the procefs to a
very high degree of fimplicity and perfe&ion, by which
the water is obtained pure, without much expence of
fuel or a complicated apparatus. For this valuable dif-
covery he received a reward of 5000I. The advantages
of this method remain to be dated, which may be redu¬
ced to the following : I. The abolifhing all dills, dill-
heads, worm-pipes, and their tubes, which occupy fo
much fpace as to render them totally incompatible with
the neceffary bufmefs of the diip *, and ufmg in the room
of thefe the ffiip’s kettle or boiler, to the top whereof
may occadonally be applied a fimple tube, which can be
ealily made on board a veffel at fea, of iron plate, dove
funnel, or tin ffieet *, fo that no fituation can prevent a
drip from being completely fupplied with the means of
diddling fea-water. 2. In confequence of the principles
of didillation being fully afcertained, the contrivance of
the fimpled means of obtaining the greated quantity of
diddled water, by making the tube diffidently large to
receive the whole column of vapour, and placing it
nearly in a horizontal diredion, to prevent any com-
preffion of the duid, which takes place fo much with
the common worm. 3. The adopting of the fimpled
and mod efficacious means of condenling vapour j for
nothing more is required in the didillation but keeping
the furface of the tube always wet, which is done by
having fome fea-water at hand, and a perfon to dip a
ynop or fwab into this water, and pafs it along the upper
furface of the tube. By this operation the vapour con¬
tained in the tube will be entirely condenfed with the
greated rapidity imaginable4 for by the application of
the wet mop thin ffieets of water are uniformly fpread,
and mechanically preffed upon the furface of the hot
tube; which being converted into vapour make way for
a fucceffion of freffi (beetsand thus, both by the eva¬
poration and clofe contaft of the cold water condantly
rept ated, the heat is carried off more effe&ually than by
any other method yet known. 4. 1 he carrying on the
didillation without any addition, a correft chemical ana-
lyds of fea-water having evinced the futility of mixing
ingredients with it, either to prevent an acid from rifing
with the vapour, or to dedroy any bituminous oil dip
pofed to exid in fea- water, and to contaminate the di¬
ddled water, giving it that dery unpalatable tade infe- Sea.
parable from the former precedes. 5. The alcertaining 1 " v
the proper quantity ot fea-water that ought to be didd¬
led, whereby the Ireffi water is prevented from contract¬
ing a noxious impregnation ot metallic (aits, and the
veffel from being corroded and otherwift damaged by
the falls caking on the bottom of it. 6. I he produc¬
ing a quantity of (weet and uholefome water, per¬
fectly agreeable to the tade, and fufficient for all the
purpofes of dripping. 7- ^ taking advantage of the
dreding the Ihip’s provifions, fo as to didil a very confi-
derable quantity of water from the vapour, -which
would otherwife be lod, without any addition of fuel.
To dim up the merits of this method in a few words :
The ufe of a fimple tube, of the mod eafy condruCtion, ,
applicable to any drip’s kettle. The rejeCling all ingre¬
dients j afeertaining the proportion of w ater to be di¬
ddled, with every advantage of qualityfaving of fuel,
and prefervation of boilers. The obtaining freih water,
wholefome, palatable, and in fufficient quantities. Ta¬
king advantage of the vapour which afeends in the ket¬
tle while the Ihip’s providons are boiling. All thefe
advantages are obtained by the above-mentioned fimple
addition to the common drip’s kettles. But Dr Irving
propofes to introduce two further improvements. The
fird is a hearth, or dove, fo confiru&ed that the fire
which is kept up the whole day for the common budnefs
of the drip ferves likewife for didillation ; whereby a
fufficient quantity of water for all the economical pur¬
pofes of the drip may be obtained, with a very inconfi-
derable addition to the expence of fuel. The other im¬
provement is that of fubdituting, even in the larged
drips, cad-iron boilers, of a new condruCtion, in the
place of coppers. . _ 3
As foon as fea-water is put into the boiler, the tube Diredtiorrs
is to be dtted either into the top or lid, round which, if for diftill-
neeeffary, a bit of wet linen may be applied, to makefea-w*
it fit clofe to the mouth of the vefiel ; there will be no
occafion for luting, as the tube aCts like a funnel in car¬
rying off the vapour. When the water begins to boil,
the vapour drould be allowed to pafs freely for a minute,
which will effectually clean the tube and upper part of
the boiler. The tube is afterwards to be kept con¬
dantly wet, by paffing a mop or fwab, dipped in fea
water, along its upper furface. The w'ade water run¬
ning from the mop may be carried off by means of a
board made like a fpout, and placed beneath the tube.
The didillation may be continued till three-fourths of
the water be drawn off, and no further. This may be
afcertained either by a gauge-rod put into the boiler, or
by meafuring the water didilled. The brine is then to
be let out. ‘ Water may be didilled in the fame manner
while the provifions are boiling. When the tube is
made on {bore, the bed fubdance for the purpofe is thin
copper well tinned, this being more durable in long
voyages than tih-plates. Indead of mopping, the tube,
if required, may have a cafe made alio of copper, fo
much larger in diameter as to admit a thin (heet of wa¬
ter to circulate between them by means of a fpiral cop¬
per thread, with a pipe oi an inch diameter at each end
of the cafe ; the lower for receiving cold water, and the
upper for carry it off wffien heated.
When only a very (mall portion of room can be con¬
veniently allow for didillation, the machine (fig. 2.),
which is only 27 inches long, may be fubdituted, as
was
S C YTHE S . FLATE fY7r(rLXXV//I.
SERIES
Sea.
Plate
cccclxxviii.
fig. i.
A [ 73 ] SEA-
The principal intention of than of a compact body, and the quantity of the fluid
Fig. z.
4
Lorgna’s
method of
frelhening
it by conge
Nation.
S E
was done in this voyage,
this machine, however, is to diftil rum and other li¬
quors for which purpofe it has been employed with
extraordinary fuccefs, in preventing an empijreuma, or
fiery tafte.
Figure i. reprefents in perfpeftive a feclion of the
two boilers taken out of the frame. In the back part
at D, E, are feen openings for the cocks. On the top
is a diftilling tube A, B, C, five inches diameter at A,
and decreafing in fize to three inches at C j the length
from B to C is five feet. Near C is a ring to prevent
the water which is applied to the furface from mixing
with the diltilled water. In the infide of the tube be¬
low B, is a fmall lip or ledging, to hinder the diftilled
Avater from returning into the boiler by the rolling of
the (hip.
In figure 2. A, B, C, D, reprefent a vertical fedlion
of a copper box, 27 inches long, feven inches Avide, and
11 in height, tinned on the infide. In the bottom F is
an aperture about fix inches in diameter, having a ring
to fit on the ftill or boiler. The dotted lines Avhich run
nearly horizontal, are veflels of thin copper, tinned on
the outfide, two feet long, feven inches Avide, and three
quarters of an inch deep. At G is a funnel to receive
cold water, Avhich is coiweyed into the veflels by com¬
municating pipes, contrived in fuch a manner as to form
a complete and quick circulation of the Avater through
their Avhole extent. When the Avater is become hot by
the action of the fleam, it is difeharged by the horizon¬
tal pipe at A. E is a pipe from which the diftilled Ava¬
ter or fpirits run, and is bent in fuch a form that the li¬
quor running from it a£ts as a val\^e, and hinders any
fleam from efcaping that Avay. On the top of the box,
at H, is a fafety-valve, which prevents any danger from
a great accumulation of vapour not condenfed for Avant
of a proper fupply of cold Avater.
We (hall noAV mention a different method, difeovered
by the Chevalier Lorgna, by congelation of fea-vvater.
Sea-Avater requires a very great degree of cold in order
to become ice. Our author found that a freezing mix¬
ture, made by mixing three parts of pounded ice Avith
two parts of common fait, Avas quite fufficient to freeze
it. The cold produced by this mixture is equal to about
40 beloAV o of Fahrenheit’s thermometer.
A quantity of fea-Avater is never entirely congealed,
a portion of it always remaining fluid j and, what is very
remarkable, this fluid part is incomparably more full of
fait and more naufeous than the reft : hence, if this be
feparated from the congealed part, the latter on being
melted Avill be found to contain much lefs fait than it
did before congelation. This Ave {hall call the water of
the firjl purification.
If the Avater of the firft purification be again congeal¬
ed, apart of it Avill remain fluid as in the firft operation.
This fluid portion Avill contain a greater proportion of
fait than the reft, which is of courfe more pure, and, be¬
ing melted, forms the water of the fecond purification.
Thus, by repeatedly freezing the fame fea-Avater, and
feparating the fluid from the congealed part in every
operation, it is at laft perfedlly purified, fo as to be en¬
tirely divefted of fait, and as fit for drink and other pur-
pofes as the pureft Avater that is ufed.
At firft the fea-Avater, in order to be congealed, re¬
quires a very great degree of cold, as mentioned aboAre,
the ice formed in it confifts rather of feales or filaments
VOL. XIX. Part I.
parts bears a confiderable proportion to the quantity of ^
ice. But as the Avrater, by undergoing the fucceflive
congelations, becomes more and more pure, fo it be¬
comes capable of being congealed by a Imaller and
fmaller degree of cold; the ice is at the fame time more
compaft, and in greater quantity j the fluid part at lalt
becoming very inconfiderable.
SEA-Weed, or A/ga Marina, is commonly ufed as a
manure on the fea-coaft, Avhere it can be procured in
abundance. The beft fort groAVS on rocks, and is that
from Avhich kelp is made. The next to this is called
the peafy fea-weed; and the Avorft is that Avith a long
ftalk. In the neighbourhood of Benvick, the farmers
mix it Avith ftable-dung and earth, and thus obtain a
great quantity of excellent manure. Sea Aveed is found
alfo to be a very fit manure for gardens, as it not only
enriches them, but deftroys the vermin by which they
are ufually infefted.
SEA-Wo/f. See Anarrhicas, Ichthyology
Salinefs of the SEA. See SEA-Water.
South Sea. See PACIFIC Ocean, and SOUTH Sea.
SEAL, a puncheon, piece of metal, or other matter,
ufually either round or oval; Avhereon are engraven the
arms, device, &c. of fome prince, flate, community, ma-
giftrate, or private perfon, often Avith a legend or in-
icrjption 5 the impreflion avhereof in wax ferves to make
acts, inftruments, &c. authentic.
The ufe of foals, as a mark of authenticity to letters
and other inftruments in Avriting, is extremely ancient.
We read of it among the .L avs and Perfians in the ear-
lieft and moft facred records of hiftory. And in the
book of Jeremiah there is a very remarkable inftance,
not only of an atteftation by feal, but alfo of the other
ufual formalities attending a JeAvilh purchafe. In the
civil Eav alfo, feals Avere the evidences of truth, and
were required, on the part of the Avitneffes at leaft, at
the atteflation of every teftament. But in the times of
our Saxon anceftors, they Avere not much in ufe in
England. For though Sir EdAvard Coke relies on an
inftance of King Edvvyn’s making ufe of a feal about
100 years before the Conqueft, yet it does not folloAV
that this Avas the ufage among the Avhole nation : and
perhaps the charter he mentions may be of doubtful
authority, from this very circumftance of its being foal¬
ed •, fmee avc are allured by all our ancient hiflorians
that fealing Avas not then in common ufe. The method
of the Saxons Avas, for fuch as could Avrite to fubferibe
their names, and, Avhether they could Avrite or not, to
affix the fign of the crofs •, which cuftom our illiterate
vulgar do for the moft part to this day keep up, by
figning a crofs for their mark when unable to Avrite
their names. And indeed this inability to Avrite, and
therefore making a crofs in its Head, is honeftly avoAV-
ed by CeedAvalla, a Saxon king, at the end of one of his
charters. In like manner, and for the fame infurmount-
able reafon, the Normans, a bravre but illiterate nation,
at their firft fettlement in Fiance ufed the pradlice of
fealing onty, without Avriting their names; Avhich cuftom
continued Avhen learning made its Avay among^them,
though the reafon for doing it had ceafed ; and hence
the charter of EdAvard the Confeffor to Weftminfter-
abbey, himfelf being brought up in Normandy, was
Avitneffed only by his feal, and is generally thought to
be the oldeft foaled charter of any authenticity in Eng-
K land.
Sea,
Seal.
SEA
Seal- land. At the Conqueft, the Norman lords brought
v over into this kingdom their own fadiions ; and intro¬
duced waxen feals only, inllead of the Englifh method
of writing their names, and figning with the fign of the
crofs. . The impreflions of thefe feals were fometimes a
knight on horfeback, fometimes other devices; but
coats of arms were not introduced into feals, nor in¬
deed ufed at all till about the reign of Richard I. who
brought them from the croifade in the Holy Land,
where they were firft invented and painted on the fliields
of the knights, to diftinguilh the variety of perfons of
every Chriftian nation who reforted thither, and who
could not, when clad in complete Reel, be otherwife
known or afcertained.
This negleft of figning, and refting only upon the
authenticity of feals, remained very long among us j for
it was held in all our books, that lealing alone was fuf-
ficient to authenticate a deed: and fo the common form
of attelling deeds, “ fealed and delivered,” continues to
this day j notwithftanding the ftatute 29 Car. If. c. 3.
revives the Saxon cuftom, and exprefsly dire&s the fign¬
ing in all grants of lands and many other fpecies of
deeds : in which, therefore, figning feems to be now as
neceffary as fealing, though it hath been fometimes held
that the one includes the other.
The king’s great feal is that whereby all patents,
commiffions, warrants, &c. coming down from the king
are fealed •, the keeping whereof is in the hands of the
lord chancellor. The king’s privy feal is a feal that is
ufually firll fet to grants that are to pafs the great feal.
Seal. See KEEPER of the Privy Seal.
SEA
Seal is alfo ufed for the wax or lead, and the im- Seal,
preflion thereon affixed to the thing fealed.
An amalgam of mercury with gold, reduced to the _ _
confidence of butter, by itraining off part of the mer¬
cury through leather, has been recommended as a pro¬
per material for taking off the impreffion of feals in wax.
In this ftate, the compound fcarcely contains one part
of mercury to two of gold; yet is of a filver whitenefs,
as if there was none of the precious metal in it. In
this ftate it grows foft on being warmed or worked be¬
tween the fingers; and is therefore proper for the pur-
pofe above mentioned, but is not fuperior to fome amal¬
gams made with the inferior metals, as is well known
to fome impoftors, who have fold for this ufe amalgams
of the bafe metals as curious preparations of gold.
Seal. See Phoca, Mammalia Index.
SEALER, an officer in chancery appointed by the
lord chancellor or keeper of the great feal, to feal the
writs and inftruments there made in his prefence.
SEALING, in Archite&ure, the fixing a piece of
wood or iron in a wall with plafter, mortar, cement,
lead, or other folid binding. For ftaples, hinges, and
joints, plafter is very proper.
Sealing- Wax. See Wax.
SEAM, or Seme, of corn, is a meafure of eight bu-
ftiels.
Seam of Glafs, the quantity of 1 20 pounds, or 24
ftones, each five pounds weight. The feam of wood is
an horfe-load working.
Seam, in mines, the fame with a ftratum or bed; as
a feam of coal.
[ 74 1
SEAMANSHIP.
Definition. T) Y this word we exprefs that noble art, or, more
-C' purely, the qualifications which enable a man to
exercife the noble art of working a ftiip. A seaman,
in the language of the profeffion, is not merely a mari¬
ner or labourer on board a ftiip, but a man who under-
ftands the ftru&ure of this wonderful machine, and eve¬
ry fubordinate part of its mechanifm, fo as to enable him
to employ it to the beft advantage for puftiing her for¬
ward in a particular direflion, and for avoiding the num-
berlefs dangers to which Ihe is expofed by the violence
of the winds and waves. He alfo knows what courfes
can be held by the ffiip, according to the wind that
blows, and what cannot, and which of thefe is moft con¬
ducive to her progrefs in her intended voyage; and he
rauft be able to perform every part of the neceffary ope¬
ration with his own hands. As the feamen exprefs it,
he muft be able to “ hand, reef, and fteer.”
We are juftified in calling it a noble art, not only by
its importance, which it is quite needlefs to amplify or
embellilh, but by its immenfe extent and difficulty, and
the prodigious number and variety of principles on which
it is founded—all of which muft be poffeffed in fuch a
manner that they ffiall offer themfelves without reflec¬
tion in an inftant, otherwife the pretended feaman is but
a lubber, and cannot be trufted on his watch.
The art is pra&ifed by perfons without what we call
education, and in the humbler walks of life, and there¬
fore it fuffers in the eftimation of the carelefs fpc&ator.
Importance
of it.
It is thought little of, becaufe little attention is paid
to it. But if multiplicity, variety, and intricacy of
principles, and a fyftematic knowledge of thefe prin¬
ciples, intitle any art to the appellation of fcientifc and
liberal, feamanlhip claims thefe epithets in an eminent
degree. We are amufed with the pedantry of the fea¬
man, which appears in his whole language. Indeed it
is the only pedantry that amufes. A fcholar, a foldier,
a lawyer, nay, even the elegant courtier, would difguft
us, were he to make the thoufandth part of the allufions
to his profeffion that is well received from the jolly fea¬
man ; and we do the feaman no more than juftice. His
profeffion mufl engrofs his whole mind, otherwife he can
never learn it. He poffeffes a prodigious deal of know¬
ledge ; but the honeft tar cannot tell what he knows, or
rather what he feels, for his fcience is really at his fin- ^
gers ends. We can fay with confidence, that if a per- Difficulty
fon of education, verfed in mechanics, and acquainted of the art,
with the ftnnfture of a ftiip, were to obferve with at¬
tention the movements which are made on board a firft or
fecond rate ffiip of war during a ffiifting ftorm, under
the direflion of an intelligent officer, he would be rapt
in admiration.
What a pity it is, that an art fo important, fo diffi¬
cult, and fo intimately connefted with the invariable
laws of mechanical nature, ffiould be fo held by its pof-
feffors, that it cannot improve, but muft die with each
individual. Having no advantages of previous educa-
75
SEAMANSHIP.
tlon, trrey cannot arrange tlreir thoughts ; they can
hardly be faid to think. They can far lefs exprefs or
communicate to others the intuitive knowledge which
they poffefe ; and their art, acquired by habit alone, is
little different from an inftinft. We are as little in-
titled to expedt improvement here as in the architec¬
ture of the bee or the beaver. The fpecies (pardon
the allulion, ye generous hearts of oak) cannot improve.
Yet a Ihip is a machine. We know the forces which
•atf on it, and we knoxv the refults of its conltruclion—
all thefe are as fixed as the laws of motion. What hin¬
ders this to be reduced to a fet of pra&ieal maxims,. as
well founded and as logically deduced as the working
of a iteam engine or a cotton mill. ’I he ftoker or the
fpinner a£ls only with his hands, and may u whiftle as
he works, for want of thought 5” but the mechanic, the
•engineer, thinks for him, improves his machine, and di¬
rects him to a better pra£tice. May not the rough Tea¬
man look for the fame affiltance j and may not the inge¬
nious fpeculatift in his clofet unravel the intricate thread
of mechanifm which connects all the manual operations
with the unchangeable laws of nature, and both furnith
the fcaman with a better machine and direct him to a
more dexterous ufe of it ?
which has We cannot help thinking that much may be done •,
been zeal- nay, we may fay that much has been done. We think
oufly culti- highly of the progreflive labours of Renaud, Pitot, Bou-
vated by guer, Du Hamel, Groignard, Bernoulli, Euler, Komme,
phi'Ao-1 ancl others ; and are both furprifed and forry that Bri-
phers. tain has contributed fo little in thefe attempts. Gor¬
don is the only one of our countrymen who has given a
profeffedly fcientific treatife on a fmall branch of the
fubje£t. The government of France has always been
itrongly impreffed with the notion of great improve¬
ments being attained by fyftematic ftudy of this art j
and we are indebted to the endeavours of that ingenious
nation for any thing of praftical importance that has
been obtained. M. Bouguer was profeffor of hydro¬
logy at one of the marine academies of France, and
was enjoined, as part of his duty, to compofe differta-
tions both on the conftru&ion and the working of (hips.
His Traite du Navire, and his Manoeuvre des VaiJJeaux,
are undoubtedly very valuable performances: So are
thofe of Euler and Bernoulli, confidered as mathemati¬
cal differtations, and they are wonderful works of ge¬
nius, confidered as the productions of perfons who hard¬
ly ever faw a ihip, and were totally unacquainted with
the profeflion of a feaman. In this refped Bouguer had
great fuperiority, having always lived at a fea-port,
and having made many very long voyages. His trea-
tifes therefore are infinitely better accommodated to the
demands of the feamen, and more directly inftruftive ;
but ftill the author is more a mathematician than an ar-
tift, and his performance is intelligible only to mathe¬
maticians. It is true, the academical education of the
young gentlemen of the French navy is fuch, that a
great number of them may acquire the preparatory
knowledge that is neceffary •, and we are well informed
that, in this refpeft, the officers of the Britiffi navy are
greatly inferior to them.
Argument But this very circumftance has furnilhed to many
againft the perfons an argument againft the utility of thofe per-
utihty of formances. It is faid, “ that notwithftanding this fu-
formanTes Per*or mathematical education, and the poffeffion of
’ thofe boafted performances of M. Bouguer, the French
are greatly inferior, in. point of feamanffiip, to our coun¬
trymen, who have not a page in their language to in-
flruft them, and who could not perufe it if they had it.’*
Nay, fo little do the Frencli themfelves feem fenfible of
the advantage of thefe publications, that no pcrfon a-
mong them has attempted to make a familiar abridge¬
ment of them, written in a way fitted to attraft atten¬
tion- •, and they ftill remain neglected in their original
ab ft rule and uninterefting form.
We wiffi that we could give a fatisfaflory anfwer to
this obfervation. It is-juft, and it is important. Thefe
very ingenious and learned differtations are by no means
fo ufeful as we thould expedh They are large books.,
and appear to contain much and as their plan is logical,
it feems to occupy the whole fubjeift, and therefore to
have done almoft all that can be done. But, alas! they
have only opened the fubjett, and the ftudy is yet in its
infancy. The whole fcience of the art muft proceed
on the knowledge of the impulfions of the wind and
water. Thefe are the forces which aft on the machine ^
and its motions, xvbich are the ultimatum of our re-
fearch, whether as an end to be obtained or as a thing
to be prevented, muft depend on thefe forces. Now it
is with refpeft to this fundamental point that we are as $
yet almoft totally in the dark. And in the perform-which are
ances of M. Bouguer, as alfo in thofe of the other au- cor/cflcdly
thors we have named, the theory of thefe forces, by ^r™tePus
which their quantity and the direflion of the ir action fun^amen.
are afeertained, is altogether erroneous •, and its refults tal princi-
deviate fo enormoufty from what is obferved in the mo-p^es;
tions of a (hip, that the perfon who ftiould direff the
operations on fliipboard, in conformity to the maxims
dedueible from M. Bouguer’s propofitions, would be
baffled in moft of his attempts, and be in danger of
lofing the ftiip. The whole proceeds on the fuppofed
truth of that theory which ftates the impulfe of a fluid
to be in the proportion of the fquare of the fine of the
angle of incidence •, and that its aflion on any fmall
portion, fuch as a fquare foot of the fails or hull, is the
fame as if that portion were detached from the reft, and
were expofed fingle and alone, to the wind or water in
the fame angle. But we have fhown, in the article
Resistance of Fluids, both from theory and experi¬
ence, that both of thefe principles are erroneous, and
this to a very great degree, in cafes which occur moll
frequently in pra&ice, that is, in the fmall angles of in ¬
clination. When the wind falls nearly perpendicular on
the fails, theory is not very erroneous : but in thefe
cafes, the circumitances of the {hip’s fituation are gene¬
rally fuch that the practice is eafy, occurring almoft
without thought •, and in this cafe, too, even confider-
able deviations from the very bell pradlice are of no
great moment. The interefting cafes, where the in¬
tended movement requires or depends upon very oblique
actions of the wind on the fails, and its prafticability or
impra£licability depends on a very fmall variation of
this obliquity *, a miftake of the force, either as to in-
tenfity or dire£lion, produces a mighty effedt on the re-
fulting motion. This is the cafe in lailing to w indward *,
the moll important of all the general problems of fea-
manlhip. The trim of the fails, and the courfe of the
Ihip, fo as to gain moil on the wind, are very nice
things that is, they are confined within very narrow
limits, and a fmall millake produces a very confiderable
effe6l. The fame thing obtains in many of the nice pro-
K 2 blems
7<
SEAMANSHIP.
blems of tacking, box-hauling, wearing after lying to in
a florm, &c.
The error in the fecond affertion of the theory is ftill
greater, and the aftion on one part of the fail or hull is
lb greatly modified by its aftion on another adjoining
part, that a ifay-fail is often feen hanging like a loofe
rag, although there is nothing between it and the wind ;
and this merely becaufe a great fail in its neighbourhood
fends off a lateral ftream of wind, which completely
hinders the wind from getting at it. Till the theory of
the aclion of fluids be eftablifhed, therefore, we cannot
tell what are the forces which are afting on every point
of the fail and hull : Therefore we cannot tell either the
mean intenfity or direftion of the whole force which
afts on any particular fail, nor the intenfity and mean
dire&ion of the refiftance to the hull ; circumftances
abfolutely neceffary for enabling us to fay what will be
their energy in producing a rotation round any particu¬
lar axis. In like manner, rve cannot, by fuch a com¬
putation, find the fpontaneous axis of converfion (fee
Rotation), or the velocity of fuch converfion. In
ihort, we cannot pronounce with tolerable confidence
a priori what wdll be the motions in any cafe, or what
difpofitions of the fails will produce the movement we
wifh to perform. The experienced feaman learns by
habit the general effedfls of every difpofition of the fails ;
and though his knowledge is far from being accurate,
it feldom leads him into any very blundering operation.
Perhaps he feldom makes the bed adjuftment poflible,
but feldomer ffill does he deviate very far from it \ and
in the mod general and important problems, fuch as
working to windward, the refult of much experience
and many corre£tions has fettled a trim of the fails,
which is certainly not far from the truth, but (it mud
be acknowledged) deviates widely and uniformly from
> the theories of the mathematician’s clofet. The honed
tar, therefore, mud be indulged in his joke on the ufe-
lefs labours of the mathematician, who can neither hand,
reef, nor fleer.
After this account of the theoretical performances in
the art of feamanftiip, and what we have faid in another
place on the fmall hopes we entertain of feeing a perfect
theory of the impulfe of fluids, it will not be expefted
7 that we enter very minutely on the fubjeft in this place ;
though ufe nor is it our intention. But let it be obferved, that the
may be theory is defeflive in one point only *, and although this
•tem °f *s a ni°ft important point, and the errors in it deflroy
the conclufions of the chief propofitions, the reafonings
remain in full force, and the modus operandih precifely
fuch as is dated in the theory. The principles of the
art are therefore to be found in thefe treatifes 5 but falfe
inferences have been drawn, by computing from errone¬
ous quantities. The rules and the praftiee of the com¬
putation, however, are dill beyond controverfy : Nay,
fmce the procefs of invedigation is legitimate, we may
make ufe of it in order to difcover the very circumflance
in which we are at prefent miflaken : for by converting
the propofition, indead of finding the motions by means
of the fuppofed forces, combined with the known me-
ehanifm, we may difcover the forces by means of this
8 mechamfm and the obferved motions.
Defign of We fliall therefore in this place give a very general
this article, view of the movements of a Ihip under fail, fhowing
how they are produced and modified by the aftion of
the wind on her fails, the water on her rudder and on
her bows. We fliall not attempt a precife determina¬
tion of any of thefe movements ; but we fliall fay enough
to enable the curious landfman to underdand how this
mighty machine is managed amidfl the fury of the winds
and waves: and, what is more to our with, we hope to
enable the uninflru&ed but thinking feaman to gene-
ralife that knowledge which he poffeffes *, to clais his
ideas, and give them a fort of rational fyflem ; and even
to improve his practice, by making him fenfible of the
immediate operation of every thing he does, and in what
manner it contributes to produce the movement which
he has in view. " ^
A fliip may be confidered at prefent as a mafs of inert A fliip con-
matter in free fpace, at liberty to move in every direc-fidered as
tion, according to the forces which impel or refid her :*n ^re®
and when die is in actual motion, in the diredlion of her
courfe, we may dill confidcr her as at red in abfolute relifted by
fpace, but expofed to the impulfe of a current of wateroppofite
moving equally fad in the oppofite direction : for ;nl°rces*
both cafes the preffure of the water on her bows is the
fame ; and we know that it is poflible, and frequently
happens in currents, that the impulfe of the wind on
her fails, and that of the water on her bows, balance
each other fo precifely, that flie not only does not dir
from the place, but alfo remains deadily in the fame
pofition, with her head dire£ted to the fame point of the
compafs. This date of things is eafily conceived by
any perfon accudomed to confider mechanical fubjefts,
and every feaman of experience has obferved it. It
is of importance to confider it in this point of view, be¬
caufe it gives us the mod familiar notion of the man¬
ner in which thefe forces of the wind and wrater are fet
in oppofition, and made to balance or not to balance
each other by the intervention of the fliip, in the fame
manner as the goods and the weights balance each other
in the feales by the intervention of a beam or fleelyard. IO
When a fliip proceeds deadily in her courfe, withoutimpUlt'e of
changing her rate of failing, or varying the diredtion of the wind
her head, we mud in the firfl place conceive the accu-on *^e
mulated impulfes of the wind on all her fails as precife-,to
ly equal and directly opponte to the impulle ot the wa-wateron
ter on her bows. In the next place, becaufe the fliip the bows.,
does not change the diredtion of her keel, flie refembles
the balanced fleelyard, in which the energies of the two
weights, which tend to produce rotations in oppofite
diredtions, and thus to change the pofition of the beam,
mutually balance each other round the fulcrum ; fo the
energies of the adlions of the wind on the different fails
balance the energies of the water on the different parte
of the hull.
The feaman has two principal talks to perform. The
firff is to keep the (hip deadily in that courfe which
will bring her farthefl on in the line of her intended
voyage. This is frequently very different from that
line, and the choice of the bed courfe is fometimes a X1
matter of confiderable difficulty. It is fometimes pof-skill of the
fible to fhape the courfe precilely along the line of the feaman dif-
voyage ; and yet the intelligent feaman knows that he played in
wdll arrive fooner, or with greater fafety, at his port, 5
by taking a different courfe 5 becaufe he will gain more
by increafing his fpeed than he lofes by increafing the
didance. Some principle mud diredl him in the felec-
tion of this courfe. This we mud attempt to lay before
the reader.
Having chofen fuch a courfe as he thinks mod advan-
tageous,
77
IS
Impulfe of
the water
computed
in ounces
on the
fquare foot
SEA M A
ta?eous, he muft fet fuch a quantity of fail as the ftrength
ef the wind will allow him to carry with fafety and ef-
fe&, and mult trim the fails properly, or fo adjuft their
pofidons to the direftion of the wind, that they may
have the greateft poflible tendency to impel the (hip m
the line of her courfe, and to keep her iteadily in that
dire&ion. .
His other talk is to produce any deviations which he
fees proper from the prefent courle of the fliip j and to
produce thefe in the moil certain, tiie fafeft, and the
moll expeditious manner. It is chiefly in this movement
that the mechanical nature of a fliip comes into view,
and it is here that the fuperior addrefs and refource ot an
expert fearnan is to be perceived.
Under the article Sailing fome notice has been taken
of the fir ft talk of the feaman, and it was there fhown
how a ftiip, after having taken up her anchor and fitted
her foils, accelerates her motion, by degrees which con¬
tinually diminilh, till the increasing reliftance of the wa¬
ter becomes precifely equal to the diminilhed impulfe of
the wind, and then the motion continues uniformly the
fome fo long as the wind continues to blow with the fome
force and in the fame direction.
It is perfectly confonant to experience that the impulfe
of fluids is in the duplicate ratio of the relative velocity.
Let it be fuppofed that when water moves one foot per
fecund, its perpendicular preffure or impulfe on a fquare
foot is m pounds. Then, if it be moving with the velo¬
city V eftimated in feet per fecond, its perpendicular
impulfe on a furface S, containing any number of fquare
feet, muft be m SV*.
In like manner, the impulfe of air on the fame fur-
face may be reprefented by n SV* ; and the proportion
of the impulfe of thefe two fluids will be that of 771 to //.
We may exprefs this by the ratio of ^ to I, making
m
M. Bouguer’s computations and tables are on the
fuppolition 'that the impulfe of fea-water moving one
foot per fecond is 23 ounces on a fquare foot, and that
the impulfe of the wind is the fomte when it blows at
. the rate of 24 feet per fecond. Thefe meafures are all
J'l’tjfiQh. I hey by no means agree with the experi¬
ments of others *, and what we have already faid, when
treating of the RESISTANCE of Fluids, is enough to
{how us that nothing like precife meafures can be ex-
pefled. It was fhown as the refult of a rational invef-
tigation, and confirmed by the experiments of Buat
and others, that the impulfions and refiftances at the
fome furface, with the fame obliquity of incidence and
the fome velocity of motion, are different according to
the form and fituation of the adjoining parts. Thus
the total refiftance of a thin board is greater than that
of a long prifm, having this board for its front or bow,
&c.
We are greatly at a lofs what to give as abfolute mea¬
fures of thefe impulfions.
1. With refpeft to water. The experiments of the
French academy on a prifm two feet broad and deep,
and four feet long, indicate a refiftance of 0.973 pounds
avoirdupois to a fquare foot, moving with the velocity of
one foot per fecond at the furface of ftill water.
Mr Buat’s experiments on a fquare foot wholly im-
merfed in a ftream were as follow :
4-:
N S H I P.
A fquare foot as a thin plate - 1,81 pounds.
Ditto as the front of a box one foot
long ... - 1,42
Ditto as the front of a box three feet
long - - - - i»29
The refiftance of fea-water is about f-g greater.
2. With refpeft to air, the varieties are as great—
The refiftance of a fquare foot to air moving with the
velocity of one foot per fecond appears from Mr Ro¬
bins’s experiments on 16 fquare inches to be on a
fquare foot - - - 0,001596 pounds,
Chevalier Borda’s on 16 inches 0,001757
 — on 81 inches 0,002042
Mr Roufe’s on large furfaces 0,002291
Precife meafures are not to be expe&ed, nor are they
necefiary in this inquiry. Here we are chiefly intereft-
ed in their proportions, as they may be varied by their
mode of aftion in the different circumftances of obliqui¬
ty and velocity.
We begin by recurring to the fundamental propofi-
tion concerning the impulfe of fluids, viz. that the abfo¬
lute preffure is always in a direction perpendicular to
the impelled furface, whatever may be the direflion of
the ftream of fluid. We muft therefore illuftrate the Diredt im-
doflrine, by always fuppofing a flat furface of foil
ftretched on a yard, which can be braced about in an7
diredlion, and giving this foil fuch a pofition and fueh jar t0 tjie
an extent of furface, that the impulfe on it may be the yard,
fame both as to direftion and intenfity with that on
the .real foils. Thus the confideration is greatly fimpli-
fied. The direftion of the impulfe is therefore perpen¬
dicular to the yard. Its intenfity depends on the ve¬
locity with which the wind meets the foil, and the obli¬
quity of its ftroke. We fhall adopt the conftru&ions
founded on the common doftrine, that the impulfe is as
the fquare of the fine of the inclination, becaufe they
are fimple; whereas, if we were to introduce the values
of the oblique impulfes, fuch as they have been obfer-
ved in the excellent experiments of the Academy of
Paris, the conftrudlions would be complicated in the
extreme, and we could hardly draw any confequences
which would be intelligible to any but expert mathema¬
ticians. The conclufions will be erroneous, not in kind
but in quantity only *, and we (hall point out the necef-
fory corrections, fo that the final refults will be found
not very different from real obfervation. 14
If a fhip were a round cylindrical body like a flat A fliip
tub, floating on its bottom, and fitted with a maft and
fail in the centre, fhe would, always foil in the direction
perpendicular to the yard. This is evident. But fhe
is an oblong body, and may be compared to a cheft,
whofe length greatly exceeds its breadth. She is fo
flsaped, that a moderate force will pufli her through
the water with the head or ftern foremoft j but it re¬
quires a very great force to pufh her fidewife with the
fome velocity. A fine foiling fhip of war will require
about 12 times as much force to pufh her fidewife as
to pufh her head foremoft. In this refpeft therefore fhe
will very much refemblea cheft whofe length is 12 times
its breadth *, and whatever be the proportion of tbefe
refiftances in different (hips, we may always fubftitute a
box which fhall have the fome refiftances headwife and
fidewife.
Let EFGH (fig. 1.) be the horizontal feClion of
fuch
7§
Plate
CCCCLXXXX.
fig. I.
Makes lee¬
way when
not failing
•direcftiy be¬
fore the
wind.
16
Kotv to
find the
quantity of
foeway,
SEAMANSHIP.
fuch si box, and AB its middle line, and C its centre.
In whatever dire&ion this box may chance to move, the
dire&ion of the whole refiftance on its two fides will
pafs through C. -For as the whole ftream has one incli¬
nation to the fide EF, the equivalent of the equal im-
pulfcs on every part will be in a line perpendicular to
the middle of EF. For the fame reafon, it will be in a
line perpendicular to the middle of FG. Thefe per¬
pendiculars muft crofs in C. Suppofe a maft ereftcd
at C, and YCy to be a yard hoi tied on it carrying a
fail. Let the yard be firft conceived as braced right
athwart at right angles to the keel, as reprcfented by
Yjy. Then, whatever be the direction of the wind
abaft this fail, it will impel the veffel in the direction
CB. But if the fail has the oblique pofition Y the
impulfe will be in the direction CD perpendicular to
CY, and will both pufh the veflel ahead and fidewife:
For the impulfe CD is equivalent to the two impulfes
CK and Cl (the fides of a reflangle of which CD is
the diagonal). The force Cl pulhes the veffel ahead,
and CK pulhes her fidewife. She muft therefore take
fome intermediate direction a b, fuch that the refiftance
of the water to the plane FG is to its refiftance to the
plane EF as Cl to CK.
The angle b CB between the real courfe and the di-
re6Kon of the head is called the Leeway ; and in the
courfe of this differtation we lhall exprefs it by the
fymbol x. It evidently depends on the ftiape of the
veffel and on the pofition of the yard. An accurate
knowledge of the quantity of leeway, correfponding to
different circumftances of obliquity of impulfe, extent of
furface, &c. is of the utmoft importance in thepradlice
of navigation j and even an approximation is valuable.
The fubjeft is fo very difficult that this muft content us
for the prefent.
Let V be the velocity of the ffiip in the dire£lion
C b, and let the furfaces FG and FE be called A' and
B'. Then the refiftance to the lateral motion is
tn V* X B' X ffne *, b CB, and that to the direft motion
is m V1 X A' X fine*, b CK, or V* X A' X cof. 1 Z>CB.
Therefore thefe- refiftances are in the proportion of
B'xfme # t° A'Xc°f-*, x (reprefenting the angle
of leeway b CB by the fymbol ic).
Therefore we have Cl I CK, or Cl : ID =r A'.
cof. lx : B'' • fine = A': B' • -A-'-* == A : B • tan-
col. 1 x
gent * x.
Let the angle YCB, to which the yard is braced
up, be called the Trim of the fails, and expreffed by
the fymbol b. This is the complement of the angle
DCI. Now Cl : ID cz: rad. ; tan. DCI, =1 : tan.
DCI, —1 : cotan. b. Therefore We have finally 1 : co¬
tan. b—A! : B' * tan. 1 x, and A! • cotan. bzzW • tan-
A
gent * x, and tan. * — cot. b. This equation evi¬
dently afcertains the mutual relation between the trim
of the fails and the leeway in every cafe where we can
tell the proportion between the refiftances to the direft
and broadfide motions of the fliip, and where this pro¬
portion does not change by the obliquity of the courfe.
Thus, fuppofe the yard braced up to an angle of 3O0
with the keel. Then cotan. 30° rz 1,732 Very nearly.
Suppofe alfo that the refiftance fidewife is r'2 times
greater than the refiftance headwife. This gives
A'r= 1 and B'— 12. Therefore 1,^32“ 12 X tan*
17 2 2
gent z*, and tangent 'x~ —:::::0>I4434> and tan*
a — 0,3 799, and x — 20° 48', very nearly two points
of leewayi
This computation, or rather the equation which gives
room for it, fuppofes the refiftances proportional to the
Iquares of the fines of incidence. The experiments of
the Academy of Paris, of which an abftraft is given
in the article RESISTANCE of Fluids, ffiow that this
fuppofition is not far from the truth when the angle of
incidence is great. In the prefent cafe the angle of in*
cidence on the front FG is about 70°, and the experi¬
ments juft now mentioned ffiow that the real refiflanccs
exceed the theoretical ones only T^. But the angle
of incidence on EF is only 20° 48', Experiment
fliows that in this inclination the refiftance is almoft
quadruple of the theoretical refiftances. Therefore the
lateral refiftance is affumed much too fmall in the pre¬
fent inftance. Therefore a much fmaller leeway will
fuffice for producing a lateral refiftance which will ba¬
lance the lateral impulfe CK, arifing from the obliquity
of the fail, viz. 30°. The matter of fad is, that a pret¬
ty good failing (hip, with her fails braced to this angle
at a medium, will not make above five or fix degrees
leeway in fmooth water and eafy weather; and yet in
this fituation the hull and rigging prefent a very great
furface to the wind, in the moft improper pofitions, fo
as to have a very great effeft in incteafing her leeway.
And if we compute the refinances for this leeway of
fix degrees by the adlual experiments of the French A-
cademy on the angle, we lhall find the refult not far
from the truth ; that is, the diredt and lateral refiftanees
will be nearly in the proportion of Cl to ID.
It refults from this view of the matter, that the lee¬
way is in general much fmaller than what the ufual theo¬
ry affigm.
We alio fee, that according to whatever law the re- whicf^<3e-
fiftances change by a change of inclination, the leeway pends on
remains the fame while the trim of the fails is the fame, the trim of
The leeway depends only on the diredlion of the jm_dwells,
pulfe of the wind ; and this depends folely on the pofi¬
tion of the fails with refpeft to the keel, whatever may
be the dire&ion of the wind. This is a very important
obfervation, and will be frequently referred to in the
progrefs of the prefent inveftigatiofi. Note, however,
that we are here confidering only the adliort on the fails,
and on the fame fails. We are not confidering the ac¬
tion of the wind on the hull and rigging. This may be
very confiderable ; and it is always in a lee direclion,
and augments the leeway ; and its infiucence muft be fo
much the more fenfible as it bears a greater proportion
to the impulfe on the fails. A fhip under courfes, or
clofe-reefed topfails and courfes, muft make more leeway
than when under all her canvas trimmed, to the fame
angle. But to introduce this additional caufe of devia-.
tion here Would render the inveftigation too complicated
to be of any ufe. ^
This dodrine will be confiderably illuftrated by at-xHngration
tending to the manner in which a lighter is tracked a-of this doc-
long a canal, or fwings to its anchor in a flream. The tr’ne Fy
track rope is made fall to fome ftaple or bolt E on theexPeri~
deck (fig. 2.), and is palled between two of the timber* 2"
heads of the bow D, and laid hold of at F on ffiore. 6
The men or cattle walk along the path FG, the rope
keeps
19
On models
and
10
on fliips.
F:g- i-
SEAMANSHIP.
keeps extended in the direftions BF, and the lighter ar¬
ranges itfelf in an oblique poiitxon AB, and is thus
dragged along in the direction a b, parallel to the fide
of the canal. Or, if the canal has a current in the op-
pofite diredlion b a, the lighter may be kept Heady in
its place by the rope DF made faft to a poll at F. . In
this cafe, it is always obferved, that the lighter fvvings
in a pofition AB, which is oblique to the ftream a L
Now the force which retains it in this pofition, and
which precifely balances the action of the ftream, is cer¬
tainly exerted in the direction OF and the lighter
would be held in the fame manner if the rope were
made faft at C amidthip, without any dependence on the
timberheads at D ; and it would be held in the fame
pofition, if, inftead of the fingle rope CF, it were riding
by two ropes CG and CH, of which CFI is in a direc¬
tion right ahead, but oblique to the ftream,. and the
other CG is perpendicular to CH or AB. And, drawl¬
ing DI and DK perpendicular to AB and CG, the
ftrain on the rope CH is to that on the rope CG as Cl
to CK. The a&ion of the rope in thefe cales is pre¬
cifely analogous to that of the fail y ^ } tmd the
obliquity of the keel to the direftion of the motion, or
to the direction of the ftream, is analogous to the lee¬
way. All this muft be evident to tiny perfon accuftom-
ed to mechanical difquifitions.
A moft important ufe may be made of this illufra-
tion. If an accurate model be made of a ftiip, and if
it be placed in a ftream of water, and ridden iu this
manner by a rope made faft at any point B of the bow,
it will arrange itfelf in fome determined pofition AB.
There will be a certain obliquity to the ftream, mea-
fured by the angle B 0 £ ; and there will be a corre-
fponding obliquity of the rope, meafured by the angle
FCB. Let y CY be perpendicular to CF. i hen CY
will be the pofition of the yard, or trim of the fails cor-
refponding to the leeway b CB. Ihen, if we fhift the
rope to a point of the bow diftant from B by a fmall
quantity, we (hall obtain a new pofition of the ftiip,
both with refpeft to the ftream and rope ^ and in this
way may be obtained the relation between the pofition
of the fails and the leeway, independent of all theory,
and fufeeptible of great accuracy j and this may be
done with a variety of models fuited to the moft ufual
forms of (hips.
In farther thinking on this fubjeft, we are perfuaded
that thefe experiments, inftead of being made on mo¬
dels, may with equal eafe be made on a fhip-of any fize.
Let the fliip ride in a ftream at a mooring B (fig. 3.)
by means of a fhort hawfer BCB from her bow, hav¬
ing a fpring AC on it carried out from her quarter.
She will fwing to- her moorings, till flie ranges herfejf
in a certain pofition AB with refpetft. to the direGion
a A of the ftream ; and the direaion of the hawfer BC
will point to fome point E of the line of the keel. Now,
it is plain to any perfon acquainted with mechanical dil-
quifitions, that the deviation BE b is precifely the lee¬
way that the ftiip will make when the average pofition
of the fails is that of the line GEH perpendicular to
EB •, at leaft this will give the leeway which is produ¬
ced by the fails alone. By heaving on the fpring, the
knot C may be brought into any other pofition we pleafe j
and for every new pofition of the knot the ftiip will take
a new pofition with refpect to the ftream and to the haw¬
fer. And we perfift in faying, that more information
will be got by this train of experiments than from any
mathematical theory: for all the theories of the impulfes
of fluids muft proceed on phyfical poftulates with relpedft
to the motions of the filaments, which are exceedingly
conjectural. 21
And it muft now be farther obferved, that the fub-The coin-
ftitution which we have made of an oblong parallelopi-
ped for a ftiip, although well fuited to give us clear no- an olqong
tions of the fubjetft, is of fmall ufe in pradtice : for it is body is
next to impoflible (even granting the theory of oblique only ufe-
impulfions) to make this fubftitution. A Hup is of a^G°S^ve
form which is not reducible to equations; and therefore on"
the adtion of the water on her bow or broadfide can only tbe fubjedh
be had by a moft laborious and intricate calculation for
almoft every fquare foot of its furface. (See Bezout's
Gdurs de Mu them. vol. v. p. 72, &c). And this muft
be different for every ftiip. But, which is more un¬
lucky, when we have got a parallelepiped which will
have the fame proportion of diredt and lateral refiftance
for a particular angle of leeway, it will not anfwer for
another leeway of the fame fliip •, for when the leeway
changes, the figure adlually expofed to the adfion of the
water changes alfo. When the leeway is increafed,
more of the lee-quarter is adted on by the water, and a
part of the weather-bow is now removed from its action.
Another parallelepiped muft therefore be difeovered,
whofe refiftances ftiall fait this new pofition of the keel
with refpedt to the real courfe of the ftiip.
We therefore beg leave to recommend this train of
experiments to the notice of the Association for the
Improvement of Naval Architecture as a very
promifing method for afeertaining this important point.
And we proceed, in the next place, to afeertain the re¬
lation between the velocity of the fliip and that of the
wind, modified as they may be by,the trim of the fails
and the obliquity of the impulfe. 22
Let AB (fig. 4, 5, and 6.) reprefent the horizontal The rek-
fedtion of a fliip. In place of all the drawing fails, that*^”^6'^
is, the fails which are really filled, we can always fubfti- veiocjty 0f
tute one fail of equal extent, trimmed to the fame angle the fhip
with, the keel. This being fuppofed attached to the and wind
yard BCB, let this yard be firft of all at right anglesafeertiuned,
to the keel, as reprefented in fig. 4. Let the, wind b lg'4>
blow in the diredlion WC, and let CE (in the diredlion
WC continued) reprefent the velocity V of the wind.
Let CF be the velocity v of the ftiip, It muft alfo be
in the diredlion of the ftiip’s motion, becaule when the
fail is at right angles to the keel, the abfolute impulfe
on the fail is in the diredlion of the,keek, and there is
no lateral impulfe, and confequeutly no leeway. Braw
EF, and complete the.parallelogram CFE*’, producing
rC through the centre of the yard to cu. Then wC
will be the,relative or apparent diredlion of the wind,
and Ce or FE will be its apparent or relative velocity :
For if the line C e be carried along CF, keeping always
parallel to its firft pofition, and if a particle of air move
uniformly along CE (a fixed line in abfolute fpace) in
the fame time, this particle will always be found in that
point of CE where it is interfedled at that inftant by
the moving line C ; fo that if C e were a tube, the par¬
ticle of air, which really moves in the line CE, would
always be found in the tube C e. While CE is the real
diredtion of the wind, C e will be the pofition of the
vane
go S E A M A
vane at the mafl head, which will therefore mark the
apparent diredtion of the wind, or its motion relative to
the moving (hip.
We may conceive this in another way. Suppofe a
cannon-ihot fired in the direction CE at the palling fiiip,
and that it pafles through the mail; at C with the velo¬
city of the wind. It will not pafs through the off-fide
of the fhip at P, in the line CE : for while the Ihot
moves from C to P, the point P has gone forward, and
the point p is now in the place where P was when the
fhot paired through the mall. I he fhot will therefore
pafs through the fhip’s fide in the point and a perfon
on board feeing it pafs through C and p will fay that its
motion w'as in the line C p.
When a Thus it happerts, that when a {hip is in motion the
fhip is in apparent diredlion of the Avind is always ahead of its
motion the real diredlion. The line iuC is always found within
diredtion of t^e an§le W<-B. It is eafy to fee from the conftruc-
thcTwind ° tion, that the difference between the real and apparent
is always diredtions of the w'ind is fo much the more remarkable
different as tlie velocity of the fliip is greater : For the angle
*7/'* WCiu or EC e depends on the magnitude of E ? or
lira. IlLC CF, in proportion to CE. Perfons not much accuf-
tomed to attend to thefe matters are apt to think all at¬
tention to this difference to be nothing but affedlation
of nicety. They have no notion that the velocity of a
fhip can have any fenfible proportion to that of the
wind. “ Swift as the wind” is a proverbial expref-
fion ; yet the velocity of a fhip always bears a very len-
fible proportion to that of the wind, and even very fre¬
quently exceeds it. We may form a pretty exadl no¬
tion of the velocity of the wind by obferving the llia-
dows of the fummer clouds Hying along the face of a
* country, and it may be very well meafured by this me¬
thod. The motion of fuch clouds cannot be very differ¬
ent from that of the air below 5 and when the preffure
of the wind on a fiat furface, while blorving with a ve¬
locity meafured in this way, is compared with its pref¬
fure when its velocity is meafured by more unexcep¬
tionable methods, they are found to agree with all de-
firable accuracy. Now obfervations of this kind fre¬
quently repeated, {how that what we call a pleafant
brilk gale blows at the rate of about 10 miles an hour,
or about 15 feet in a fecund, and exerts a preffure of
half a pound on a fquare foot. Mr Smeaton has fre¬
quently obferved the fails of a windmill, driven by fuch
a wind, moving fafter, nay much fafter, towards their
extremities, fo that the fail, inftead of being preffed to
the frames on the arms, was taken aback, and flutter¬
ing on them. Nay, we know that a good fliip, with
alf her fails let and "the wind on the beam, will in fuch
a fituation fail above ten knots an hour in fmooth wa¬
ter. There is an obfervation made by every experienced
feaman, which fliows this difference between the real and
apparent directions of the wind very diftinftly. When
a ftiip that is failing brifldy with the wind on the beam
tacks about, and then fails equally well on the other
tack, the wind always appears to have fhifted and come
more ahead. This is familiar to all feamen. The fea¬
man judges of the direttion of the wind by the pofition
of the {hip’s vanes. Suppofe the {hip failing due weft on
the {larboard tack, with the wind apparently N.N. W.
the vane pointing S. S. E. If the {hip put about, and
Hands due eaft on the larboard tack, the vane will be
found no longer to point S. S. E. but perhaps S. S. W. the
N S H I P.
wind appeal ing N.N.E. and the ftiip muff be nearly clofe-
hauled in order to make an eaft courfe. The wind ap- 1
pears to have fhifted four points. If the ftiip tacks
again, the wind returns to its old quarter. We have 24
often obferved a greater difference than this. The ce- Obferva-
lebrated aftronomer Dr Bradley, taking the amufement^" 7
of failing in a pinnace on the river Thames, obferved ^ fubje<ft,
this, and was furprifed at it, imagining that the change
of wind was owing to the approaching to or retiring
from the ftiore. The boatmen told him that it always
happened at fea, and explained it to him in the beft
manner they were able. The explanation ftruck him,
and fet him a muling on an aftronomical phenomenon
which he had been puzzled by for fome years, and
which he called THE ABERRATION OF THE FIXED
stars. Every ftar changes its place a fmall matter
for half a year, and returns to it at the completion of
the year. He compared the ftream of light from the
ftar to the wind, and the telefcope of the aftronomer to
the fliip’s vane, while the earth was like the ftiip, mo¬
ving in oppofite directions when in the oppofite points
of its orbit. The telefcope muft always be pointed a-
head of the real direction of the ftar, in the fame man¬
ner as the vane is always in a direction ahead of the
wind ; and thus he afeertained the progreflive motion
of light, and difeovered the proportion of its velocity
to the velocity of the earth in its orbit, by obferving
the deviation which was neceffarily given to the tele-
fcope. Obferving that the light lliifted its direClion
about 40", he concluded its velocity to be about 11,000
times greater than that of the earth •, juft as the intelli¬
gent feaman would conclude from this apparent ftiifting
of the wind, that the velocity of the wind is about
triple that of the fhip. This is indeed the beft method
for difeovering the velocity of the wind. Let the di¬
rection of the vane at the maft-head be very accurately
noticed on both tacks, and let the velocity of the Ihip
be alfo accurately meafured. The angle between the
directions of the {hip’s head on thefe different tacks be¬
ing halved, will give the real direClion of the wind,
which muft be compared with the pofition of the vane
in order to determine the angle contained between the
real and apparent directions of the wind or the angle
EC e ; or half of the obferved flufting of the wind will
fhow the inclination of its true and apparent directions.
This being found, the proportion of EC to EC (fig. 6.)
is eafily meafured.
We have been very particular on this point, becaufe
fince the mutual aCtions of bodies depend on their rela¬
tive motions only, we ftiould make prodigious miftakes if
we eftimated the aCtion of the wind by its real direction
and velocity, when they differ fo much from the rela¬
tive or apparent. a.
We now refume the inveftigation of the velocity of Velocity
the {hip (fig. 4.), having its fails at right angles to the of a ihip
keel, and the wind blowing in the direction and with 77reS
the velocity CE, while the ftup proceeds in the direc- ^
tion of the keel Avith the velocity CF. Produce E e, angies to
Avhich is parallel to BC, till it meet the yard in g, and the keel,
dratv EG perpendicular to E^-. Let a reprefent the
angle WCD, contained betAveen the fail and the real
direction of the Avind, and let b be the angle of trim
DCB. CE the velocity of the Avind Avas exprefied by
V, and CF the velocity of the fhip by v.
The abfolute impulfe on the fail is (by the ufual
theory
8t
S E A M A
theory) proportional to the r<iuare of the relative velo¬
city, and to the fquare of the fine of the angle of inci¬
dence •, that is, to FE1 X fin.* w CD. Now the
angle GEE — w CD, and EG is equal to FE X fin-
GFE *, and EG is equal to Ej-—g G. But £ ?•=:
EC X fin- EC^, =r V X fin. a ; and^G~CF, ~v.
Therefore EG = Vxfin. a—v, and the impulfe is
proportional to V X fin. a—v1. If S reprefent the iur-
faee of the fail, the impulfe, in pounds, will be /z S (V X
fin. a—v)2.
Let A be the furface which, when it meets the wa-
t?r perpendicularly with the velocity v, will fuftain the
fame preffure or refidance which the bows ol Urn fliip
atlually meets with. This impulfe, in pounds, will be
m A.v2. Therefore, becaufe we are confidering the
Ihip’s motion as in a Hate of uniformity, the two pref-
fures balance each other ; and therefore m A v2z=n S (V
X fin. a—'y)*, and —- A “y* ~ S (V X fin* a—l')1 ?
therefore
y/A X v=>f S X V X fin. a—v*JS, and
^/S X u X fin. a__V X fin. a_ V X fin, a
We fee, in the firft place, that the velocity of the
fiiip is (carteris paribus) proportional to the velocity of
the wind, and to the fine of its incidence on the fail
jointly ; for while the furface of the fail S and the
equivalent furface for the bow remains the fame, v in-
creafes or diminifhes at the fame rate with V • fin. a.—
When the wind is right aftern, the fine of a is unity,
. . v
and then the {hip’s velocity is
J
m A
n S
fi-
Note, that the denominator of this fraftion is a com¬
mon number j for tn and n are numbers, and A and S
being quantities of one kind, -g- is alfo a number.
It muft alfo be carefully attended to, that S expreffes
a quantity of fail actually receiving wind with the in¬
clination a. It will not always be true, therefore, that
the velocity will increafe as the wind is more abaft, be¬
caufe feme fails will then becalm others. This obferva-
tion is not, however, of great importance •, for it is very
unufual to put a (hip in the fituation confidered hither¬
to •, that is, with the yards fquare, unlefs Ihe be right
before the wind.
If we would difeover the relation between the velo¬
city and the quantity of fail in this fimple cafe of the
, • V
wind right aft, obferve that the equation v— ■
' " +1
/nj m A
gives us
J
n S
m A
—,+ll=v,
and
J
, m A
and v
n o
—V —v.
n o
and becaufe
is propor*.
—V—cy* and 4 5
’ mA (V—u)* ’
n and m and A are conflant quantities, S
^ . • .
tional to or the furface of fail is proportional
to the fquare of the fid p’s velocity direefily, ahd to the
iqUare of the relative velocity inverfely. Thus, if a ftiip
VOL. XIX. Part I.
N S H I P.
be failing with one-eighth of the velocity of the wind,
and we would have her fail with one-fourth of it, we
muft quadruple the fail. This is more eafily feen in
another way. The velocity of the fidp is proportional
to the velocity of the wind ; and therefore the relative
velocity is alfo proportional to that of the wind, and the.
impulfe of the wind is as the fquare of the relative velo¬
city. Therefore, in order to increafe the relative velo¬
city by an increafe of fail only, we mull make this in¬
creafe of fail in the duplicate proportion of the increafe
of velocity.
Let us, in the next place, confider the motion of a
{hip whofe fails {land oblique to the keel. 26
The conitruction for this purpofe differs a little from Its velocity
the former, becaufe, when the fails are trimmed to any vviien ,-he
oblique pofition DCB (fig. 5. and 6.), there muft be a^'Jj
deviation from the direction of the keel, or a leeway the keel
BC b. Call this x. Let CF be the velocity of the {hip. an[j
Draw, as before, E^- perpendicular to the yard, andg^’^ an
FG perpendicular to alfo draw FH perpendicu¬
lar to the yard : then, as before, EG, which is in the
fubduplicate ratio of the impulfe on the fail, is equal to
E^—Gjr. Now E^- is, as before, =:V X fin. a, and
G^- is equal to FH, which is —CF Xfin. FCH, or =:
v X fin. (b-\-x'). Therefore we have the impulfe —n S
(V • fin. a—v • fin. (£-}-#)*.
This exprefiion of the impulfe is perfectly fimilar to
that in the former cafe, its only difference confifting in
the fubduftive part, which is here ■yxfin. b-\-x inftead
of v. But it expreffes the fame thing as before, viz.
the diminution of the impulfe. The impulfe being rec¬
koned folely in the direflion perpendicular to the fail,
it is diminiftied folely by the fail withdrawing itfelf in
that direEiion from the wind ; and as ^ E may be confi-
dered as the real impulfive motion of the wind, GE
muft be confidered as the relative and effeftive impulfive
motion. The impulfe would have been the fame had
the ftiip been at reft, and had the wind met it perpen¬
dicularly with the velocity GE.
We muft now ftiow the connexion between this im- Connec-
pulfe and the motion of the ftiip. The fail, and con- tion be-
fequently the ftiip, is preffed by the wind in the direc-!;ween t*1®
tion Cl perpendicular to the fail or yard with the force ”^1 ^motion
which we have juft now determined. This (in the ftate 0f the fliip.
of uniform motion) muft be equal and oppofite to the
aftion of the water. Draw IL at right angles to the
keel. The impulfe in the direflion Cl (which we may
meafure by Cl) is equivalent to the impulfes CL and
LI. By the firft the ftiip is impelled right forward,
and by the fecond file is driven fidewife. Therefore
we muft have a leeway, and a lateral as well as a direfl
refiftance. We fuppofe the form of the ftiip to be
known, and therefore the proportion is known, or dif-
coverable, between the diredl and lateral refiftances cor-
refponding to every angle x of leeway. Let A be the
furface whofe perpendicular refiftance is equal to the di-
ref! refiftance of the ftiip correfponding to the leeway
.v, that is, whofe refiftance is equal to the refiftance real¬
ly felt by the (hip’s bows in the direction of the keel
when (he is failing with this leeway j and let B in like
manner be the furface whofe perpendicular refiftance is
equal to the. aflual refiftance to the (hip’s motion in the
direction LI, perpendicular to the keel. (A. E. This
is not equivalent to A and B' adapted to thexeflangular
box, but to A! * cof.* x and B' • fin.* x). We have
L therefore
82
SEAMANSHIP.
B=CL : LI, and LI=
CL-B
Alfo,
therefore A
becaufe CI~ -j-LI2, we have A : \/ Aa + B1
-CL : CL and CI=CL‘^Al + BS
A
The refiftance
in the direction LC is properly meafured by mAva, as
has been already obferved. Therefore the refiftance in
the diredtion IC muft be exprefled hy msjA1 B2} v2 j
or (making C the furface which is equal to A2 + B2,
and which will therefore have the fame perpendicular
refiftance to the water having the velocity v') it may be
exprefled by m C va.
Therefore, becaufe there is an equilibrium between
the impulfe and refiftance, we have m C v2~n SCV-
fin. a—v * fin. b-\-x')* and ~ Cn2, or ^Cd2—S(V’fin.
c—v fin. ^-f-^)2, and q \/ C vz= S (V * fin. a—v *
fin. £-{-«)•
\/ S * V • fin. «
Therefore v:
V • fin. a
-yZ q C -j- S
Sin.
fin. b-\-x
yj q b-\-x’
: V
VS
Obferve that the quantity which is the coefficient
of V in this equation Is a common number ; for fin. a
Is a number, being a decimal fradtion of the radius I,
Sin. b--\-x is alfo a number, for the fame reafon. And
m
finee m and n were numbers of pounds,
■common number. And becaufe C and S are furfaces,
C
or quantities of one kind, — is alfo a common num-
o
ber.
This is the fimpleft expreflion that we can think of
for the velocity acquired by the fliip, though it muft
be acknowledged to be too complex to be of very
prompt ufe. Its complication arifes from the neceffity
of introducing the leeway x. This a fife 61 s the whole of
the denominator; for the furface C depends on it, be¬
caufe C is A2-f-B2, and A and B are analogous
to A! cof.2 x and B? fin.2 at.
Important But we can deduce feme important confequences from
eonfequen- this theorem.
ces (ledu- While the furface S of the fail actually filled by the
the tore- wi^d remains the fame, and the angle DCB, which in
going theo- future we ftiall call the Trim of the fails, alfo remains
cem, the fame, both the leeway x and the fubftituted furface
C remains the fame. The denominator is therefore con-
ftant; and the velocity of the fliip is proportional to
t/ S • V ' fin. a; that is, directly as the velocity of the
wind, dire6tly as the abfolute inclination of the wind
to- the yard, and diredtly as the fquare root of the fur¬
face of the fails.
We alfo learn from the conftruction of the figure that
FG parallel to the yard cuts CE in a given ratio. For
CF is in a conftant ratio to as has been juft now
demonftraied. And the angle DCF is conftant. There¬
fore CF • fin. £, or FH or G^, is proportional to Ejf,
and GC to EC, or EC is cut in one proportion, what¬
ever may be the angle ECD, fo long as the angle DCF
is conftant.
We alfo fee that it is very poflible for the velocity
of the fhip on an oblique courfe to exceed that of
the wind. This will be the cafe when the number
fin. a
exceeds unity, or when fin. a is
Vi
q-^- -f- fin. b x
greater than V il-f-fin. Now this may eafily
s
be by fufficiently enlarging S and diminifhing Z'-J-.r. It
is indeed frequently feen in fine failers with all their fails
let and not hauled too near the wind.
We remarked above that the angle of leeway x af-
fe6ls the whole denominator of the fra6Hon which ex-
prefies the velocity. Let it be obferved that the angle
I CL is the complement of LCD, or of b. Therefore,
CL : LI, or A : B—I : tan. ICL, — I : cot. Zq and
B—A • cotan. b. Now A is equivalent to A'' cof. 2^,
and thus b becomes a fumffion of x. C is evidently fo,
being A24-B2. Therefore before the value of this
fradtion can be obtained, we muft be able to compute,
by our knowledge of the form of the Ihip, the value of
A for every angle x of leeway. This can be done only
by refolving her bows into a great number of elemen¬
tary planes, and computing the impulfes on each and
adding them into one fum. The computation is of im-*-
menfe labour, as may be feen by one example given by -
Bouguer. When the leeway is but fmall, not exceed¬
ing ten degrees, the fubftitution of the rectangular prilm
of one determined form is abundantly exadl for all lee¬
ways contained within this limit; and we ftiall foon fee
reafon for being contented with this approximation. We
may now make ufe of the formula exprefting the velo¬
city for folving the chief problems in this part of the
feaman’s talk.
20
And firft let it be required to determine the belt poll- Problem I,
tion of the fail for Handing on a given courfe ab, when To deter-
CE the direction and velocity of the wind, and its angle m’ne t'be
with the courfe WCF, are given. This problem hasj^ of tlie
exercifed the talents of the mathematicians ever fince fails for
the days of Newten. In the article Pneumatics we Itar.ding'
gave the folution of one very nearly related to it, name- cn a given
ly, to determine the pofition of the fail which would ^elfthc
produce the greateft impulfion in the diredlion of the direction
eourfe. The folution was, to place the yard CD in fuch and veioci-
a pofition that the tangent of the angle FCD may be T.t^e
one half of the tangent of the angle DCW. This will qTanTe^
indeed be the bell pofition of the fail for beginning the wit‘h the
motion; but as foon as the fliip begins to move in the courfe are
diredtion CF, the efxedHve impulfe of the wind is di-given*
miniftied, and alfo its inclination to the fail. The
angle DC‘to diminilhes continually as the Ihip accele¬
rates 5 for CF is now accompanied by its equal e E,
and by an angle EC e or WCw. CF increafes, and
the impulfe on the fail diminilhes, till an equilibrium
obtains between the refiftance of the water and the im¬
pulfe of the wind. The impulfe is now meafured by
CE2 xfin.2 e CD inftead of CE2xfin.2 ECD, that is,,
by EG2 inftead of E^2.
This introduflion of the relative motion of the wind
renders the dctual folution of the problem extremely
difficult.
Fig. 7-
30
Problem II.
To deter-
tnine the
courfe and
trim of the
fails moft
proper for
plying to
windward.
31
Problem
III. To de-
t ermine the
heft courfe
and trim of
the fails for
getting a-
way from
a given
line of
coaft.
32
Obferva-
tions on the
preceding
problems.
SEA M A
difficult. It is very eafily expreffed geometrically :
Divide the angle wCF in luch a manner that the tan¬
gent of DCF may be half of the tangent of DCm, and
the problem may be conftrudted geometrically as fol¬
lows.
Let WCF (fig. 7.) be the angle between the fail and
courfe. Round the centre C defcribe the circle WDFY;
produce WC to £),. fo that CQ=fWC, and draw QY
parallel to CF cutting the circle in Y j bifedt the arch
WY in D, and draw DC. DC is the proper pofition
of the yard.
Draw the chord WY, cutting CD in V and CF m
T •, draw the -tangent PD cutting CF in S and CY
in R. .
It is evident that WY, PR, are both perpendicular
to CD, and are bifeaed in V and D ; therefore (by
reafon of the parallels QY, CF) 4 : 3r=Qv\f : CW,
—Y W : TW, =RP : SP: Therefore PD : PS=r2 : 3,
and PD : DS=2 : 1. % E. D. But this djvifion
cannot be made to the bell advantage till the fliip has
attained its greateft velocity, and the angle w CF has
been produced.
We muff confider all the three angles, a, by and x, as
variable in the equation which exprefles the value of v,
and we muft make the fluxion of this equation — o;
then, by means of the equation B =: A' cotan. b, we
muft obtain the value of b and of b in terms of x and x>
With relpedl to cr, obferve, that if we make the angle
WCFzr^, we have/)“«-}-; andbeing a con-
ftant quantity, we have a Subftituting for
a, b, a and b, their values in terms of x and x, in the
fluxionary equation = 0, we readily obtain x, and then
a and b, which folves the problem.
Let it be required, in the next place, to determine
the courfe and the trim of the fails moft proper for ply¬
ing to windward.
In fig. 6. draw FP perpendicular toWC. CF is the
motion of the fhip •, but it is only by the motion PC
that flie gains to windward. Now CP is= CF X
cofin. WCF, or v ’ cofin. (a-H?-}-#). This muft be ren¬
dered a maximum, as follows.
By means of the equation which exprefles the value
of v and the equation Bar A’ cotan. b, we exterminate
the quantities v and b ; we then take the fluxion of the
quantity into which the expreflion -y* cof. («-}-£-j-tf)
is changed by this operation. Making this fluxion no,
we get the equation which muft folve the problem.
This equation will contain the two variable quantities
a and x with their fluxions j then make the coefficient
of x equal to 0, alfo the coefficient of a equal to 0. This
will give two equations ivhich will determine a and aq
and from this we get b—p—a—x.
Should it be required, in the third place, to find the
beft courfe and trim of the fails for getting away from
a given line of coaft CM (fig. 6.), the procefs perfe&ly
refembles this laft, which is in fa£t getting away from
a line of coaft whicb makes a right angle with the wind.
Therefore, in place of the angle WCF, we muft fubftL
tute the angle WCMrirWCF. Call this angle c. We
muft make v- Cof. (e=±:ar!r£ri=tf) a maximum. The
analytical procefs is the fame as the former, only e is
here a conftant quantity.
Thefe are the three principal problems which can be
folved by means of the knowledge that we have obtain-
N s H 1 P. 83
ed of the motion of the (hip when impelled by an ob¬
lique fail, and therefore making leeway ; and they may
be confidered as an abftraft of this part of M. Bouguer’s
work. We have only pointed out the procefs for this
folution, and have even omitted fome things taken no¬
tice of by M. Besout in his very elegant compendium.
Our reafons w ill appear as we go on. The learned read¬
er will readily fee the extreme difficulty of the fubjett,
and the innnenfe calculations which are ncceflary even
in the fimpleft cafes, and will grant that it is out of the
power of any but an expert analyft to derive any ufe
from them ; but the mathematician can calculate tables
for the ufe of the praftical feaman. I bus he can calcu¬
late the beft pofition of the fails for advancing in a courfe
go0 from the wind, and the velocity in that courfe } 33
then for 85°, 8o°, 750, &c. M. BougUer has given aM. Bou-^
table of this kind } but to avoid the immenfe difficulty
of the procefs, he has adapted it to the apparent direc-t^ie
lion of the wind. We have inferted a fewr of his num-pofition of
bers, fuited to fuch cafes as can be oi fervice, namely, the fails for
when all the fails draw, or none Hand in the wray of:^'a™cin°
others. Column ill is the apparent angle of the wind“urf^
and courfe ; column 2d is the correfponding angle of the
fails and keel ; and column 3d is the apparent angle of
the fails and wind.
1
1
wCF DCB
I°3053' 42°
99 J3 40 —
94 25 37 3°
89 28 35 —
84 23 S2 3°
79 06 30 —
73 39 27 3°
68 — 25 —
3
wVD
6i° 23'
59 I3
56 55
54 28
51 53
49 06
46 09
43 “
In all thefe numbers we have the tangent of w CD
double of the tangent of DCF. 34
But this is really doing but little for the feaman. Inutility of
The apparent direction of the wind is unknown to him jhe/e calcu"
till the fhip is failing with uniform velocity ; and he islatlons'
ftill uninformed as to the leeway. It is, however, of fer¬
vice to him to know, for inftance, that when the angle
of the vanes and yards is 56 degrees, the yard fhould be
braced up to 370 30', &c.
But here occurs a new difficulty. By the conftruc-
tion of a fquare-rigged ffiip it is impoffible to give the
yards that inclination to the keel \yhich the calculation
requires. Few fliips can have their yards braced up to
37° 3°' 5 and yet reciuired in order to have an in¬
cidence of 56°, and to hold a courfe 940 25' from the
apparent dire£tion of the wind, that is, with the wind
apparently 40 25' abaft the beam. A good failing Ihip
in this pofition may acquire a velocity even exceeding
that of the wind. Let us fuppofe it only one half of
this Velocity. We fliall find that the angle WC w is in
this cafe about 290, and the fhip is nearly going 123®
from the wind, with the wind almoft perpendicular to
the fail •, therefore this utmoft bracing up of the fails is
only giving them the pofition fuited to a wind broad on
the quarter. It is impoflible therefore to comply with
the denland of the mathematician, and the feaman muft
be contented to employ a lefs favourable difpofition of
bis fails in all cafes where his courfe does not lie at leaf
eleven points -from the wind.
L 2 Bet
34
S E A M A
Let us fee whether this reftriftion, arifing from ne-
cefiity, leaves any thing in our choice, and makes one
eourfe preferable to another. We fee that there are a
prodigious number of courfes, and thefe the moft ufual
and the moif important, which we muft hold with one
trim of the fails •, in particular, failing with the wind on
the beam, and all cafes of plying to windward, muft be
performed with this unfavourable trim of the fails. We
are certain that the fmaller we make the angle of inci¬
dence, real or apparent, the fmaller will be the velocity
of the fbip •, but it may happen that w'e fhall gain more
to windward, or get fooner away from a lee-coaft, or
any objeft of danger, by failing (lowly on one courfe
than by failing quickly on another.
We have feen that while the trim of the fails remains
the fame, the leeway and the angle of the yard and
courfe remains the fame, and that the velocity of the
Ihip is as the line of the angle of real incidence, that is,
as the fine of the angle of the fail and the real diredlion
of the wind.
Fig. 8, Let the {hip AB (fig. 8.) hold the courfe CF, with
the wind blowing in the direction WC, and having her
yards DCD braced up to the fmalleft angle BCD
which the rigging can admit. Let CF be to CE as
the velocity of the (hip to the velocity of the w’ind ;
join FE and draw C w parallel to EF ; it is evident
that FE is the relative motion of the wind, and w CD
is the relative incidence on the fail. Draw FO parallel
to the yard DC, and defcribe a circle through the points
COF; then we fay that if the (hip, with the fame wind
and the fame trim of the fame drawing fails, be made to
fail on any other courfe C f, her velocity along CF is
to the velocity along Cf as CF is to C f; or, in other
words, the fliip will employ the fame time in going from
C to any point of the circumference CFO.
Join fO. Then, becaufe the angles CFO, cfO are
on the fame chord CO, they are equal, and fO is pa¬
rallel to d C d, the new pofition of the yard correfpond-
ing to the new pofition of the keel a b, making the
angle d C Z'rrDCB. Alfo, by the nature of the circle,
the line CF is to Cf as the fine of the angle CFO to
the fine of the angle COf that is (on account of the
parallels CD, OF and C d, O f), as the fine of WCD
to the fine of WC d. But when the trim of the fails
remains the fame, the velocity of the fliip is as the fine
of the angle of the fail wuth the dire£lion of the wind ;
therefore CF is to C f as the velocity on CF to that on
Cf and the propofition is demonftrated.
To deter- Let it now be required to determine the beft courfe
mine the for avoiding a rock K lying in the direction CR, or for
belt eourfe withdrawing as fall as poffible from a line of coaft PQ.
tng^ ro-k Draw CM through R, or parallel to PQ, and let m be
the middle of the arch C m M. It is plain that m is
the mofi: remote from CM of any point of the arch
C m M, and therefore the fhip will recede farther from
the coaft PQ^ in any given time by holding the courfe
C m than by any other courfe.
This courfe is eafily determined; for the arch C tn M
=r36o°— (arch CO -{-arch QM), and the arch CO
is the meafure of twice the angle CFO, or twice the
angle DCB, or twice bfx, and the arch OM mea-
fures twice the angle ECM.
Thus, fuppofe the lharpeft poftible trim of the fails
to be 3 50, and the obferved angle ECM to be 70° 5
then CO-{-OM is 7o°-j-i400 or 2100. This beingta-
N S H I P.
ken from 360°, leaves 150°, of which the half M m is
750, and the angle MC m is 370 30'. This added to
FCM makes TLCm 107° 30', leaving WC m,=zt]20 30',
and the fhip muft hold a courfe making an angle of
72° 30' with the real diredlion of the wind, and W CD
will be 370 30'.
This fuppofes no leeway. But if we know that un¬
der all the fail which the fhip can carry with fafety and
advantage fhe makes 5 degrees of leeway, the angle
DC to of the fail and courfe, or b-\-x, is 40°. Then
CO-{-OM=r 220°, which being taken from 360° leaves
140°, of which the half is 70°, —M to, and the angle
PJC to = 350, and EC to — 105°, and WC m — 750,
and the fhip muft lie with her head 7o°from the wind,
making 5 degrees of leeway, and the angle WCD is
35°-
l he general rule for the pofition of the fhip is, t/iat
the line on fbipboard which bifcBs the angle b-f-x may
alfo bifcB the angle WCM, or make the angle between
the courfe and the line from which we wifh to withdraw
equal to the angle between the fail and the real direc¬
tion of the wind. ^,6
It is plain that this problem includes that of plying Corollaries,
to windward. We have only to fuppofe ECM to be
90° then, taking our example in the fame fhip, with
the fame trim and the fame leeway, we have Z'-j-.v—40°.
This taken from 90° leaves 50° and WC//—9c—2qz=
65, and the fliip’s head muft lie 6o°from the wind, and
the yard muft be 250 from it.
It muft be obferved here, that it is not always eligi¬
ble to fele<5l the courfe which will remove the fliip faft-
eft from the given line CM ; it may be more prudent
to remove from it more fecurely though more flowly.
In fuch cafes the procedure is very Ample, viz. to fliape
the courfe as near the wind as is poffible.
The reader will alfo eafily fee that the propriety of
thefe pra£!ices is confined to thofe courfes only where
the practicable trim of the fails is not fufficienlly fliarp.
Whenever the courfe lies fo far from the wind that it is
pofiible to make the tangent of the apparent angle of
the wind and fail double the tangent of the fail and
courfe, it fliould be done.
Thefe are the chief pradical confequences which can The adjuft-
be deduced from the theory. But we fliould confider ment of the
how far this adjuftment of the fails and courfe can be
performed. And here occur difficulties fo great as to^ 'n t-'ie
A ^ theory nn—
make it almoft impracticable. We have always fuppo- practicable.
fed the pofition of the furface of the fail to be diftinCtly
obfervable and meafurable ; but this can hardly be af¬
firmed even with refpeCt to a fail ftretched on a yard..
Here we fuppofed the furface of the fail to have the
fame inclination to the keel that the yard has. This is
by no means the cafe 5 the fail affumes a concave form,,
of which it is almoft impoffible to affign the direction
of the mean impulfe. We believe that this is always-
confiderably to leeward of a perpendicular to the yard,
lying between Cl and CE (fig. 6.). This is of fome
advantage, being equivalent to a (harper trim. We can¬
not affirm this, however, with any confidence, becaufe
it renders the impulfe on the weather-leech of the fail
fo exceedingly feeble as hardly to have any effeCl. In
failing clofe to the wind the (hip is kept fo near that
the weather-leech of the fail is almoft ready to receive
the wind edgewife, and to flutter or fliiver. The moft
effeClive or drawing fails with a fide-wind, efpeciafly
when.
S E A M A- N S H I P.
■when plying to windward, are the flay fails. We be¬
lieve that it is impoflible to fay, with any thing ap¬
proaching to precifion, what is the petition _of the gene¬
ral furface of a ftayfail, or to calculate the inteniity and
direction of the general impulfe ; and we affirm with
confidence that no man can pronounce on thefe points
with any exa£tnefs. If we can guefs within a third or
a fourth part of the truth, it is all v^e can pretend to 5
and after all, it is but a guefs. Add to this, the fails
coming in the way of each other, and either becalming
them or fending the wind upon them in a dirc&ion
widely different from that of its free motion. Ail thefe
points avc think beyond our poAver of calculation, and
therefore that it is in vain to give the feaman mathema¬
tical rules, or even tables of adjuftment ready calcula¬
ted 5 fince he can neither produce that medium pofition
of his fails that is required, nor tell what is the pofition
33
The theory
itfelf erro¬
neous,
Avhich he employs.
This is one of the principal reafons why fo little ad¬
vantage has been derived from the very ingenious and
promifing difquifitions of Bouguer and other mathemati¬
cians, and has made us omit the aflual folution of the
chief problems, contenting ourfelves with pointing out
the procefs to fuch readers as have a reliffi for thefe ana¬
lytical operations.
But there is another principal reafon for the fmall
progrefs Avhich has been made in the theory of feaman-
(hip ; This is the error of the theory itfclf, Avhich fup-
pofes the impulfions of a fluid to be in the duplicate ra¬
tio of the fine of incidence. The mod careful compari-
fon which has been made between the refults of this
theory and matter of faft is to be feen in the experi¬
ments made by the members of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris, mentioned in the article RESISTANCE
of Fluids. We fubjoin another abftrafl of them in the
following table j ay here col. ill gives the angle of inci¬
dence *, col. 2d gives the impulfions really obferved •,
col. 3d the impulfes, had they folloAved the duplicate
ratio of the fines-, and col. 4th the impulfes, if they were
in the Ample ratio of the lines.
Angle
of
Incid
90
84
78
72
66
60
54
48
42
36
3°
24
18
12
6
Impul-
lion
obferved-
989
958
908
845
771
693
615
543
480
440
424
414
406
400
Impulfe,
as
Sine J.
IOOO
989
957
9°5
835
75°
655
552
448
346
250
165
96
43
11
Impulfe
as
Sine.
ICOO
995
978
95'
9I4
866
8-9
743
669
587
coo
407
3°9
208
i°5
Here Ave fee an enormous difference in the great ob¬
liquities. When the angle of incidence is only fix de¬
grees, the obferved impulfe is forty times greater than
the theoretical impulfe j at *2° it is ten times greater 5
at 18° it is more than four times greater ; and at 240 it
is almoft three times greater. 39
No Avonder then that the deduftions from this theory- ami t'16 <lC-
are fo ufelefs and fo unlike Avhat Ave familiarly obferve.
We look notice of this Avhen Ave were confidering the |e^s<
leeway of a reftangular box, and thus faiv a reafon for
admitting an incomparably fmaller leeivay than what
avouM relult from the laborious computations neceffary
by the theory. This error in theory has as great an in¬
fluence on the impulfions of air Avhen a£Hng obliquely
on a fail; and the experiments of Mr Robins and of
the Chevalier Bordaon the oblique impulfions of air are
perfedly conformable (as far as they go) to thofe of
the academicians on Avater. The oblique impulfions of
the ivind are therefore much more efficacious for pref-
fing the fliip in the diredlion of her courfe than the
theory alloAvs us to fuppofe ; and the progrefs of a fliip
plying to windwrard is much greater, both becaufe the
oblique impulfes of the Avind are more effective, and be¬
caufe the leeway is much fmaller, than Ave fuppofe.
Were not this the cafe, it Avould be impoffible for a
fquare-rigged ffiip to get to windAvard. The impulfe
on her fails Avhen clofe hauled would be fo trifling that
ffie Avould not have a third part of the velocity which
Ave fee her acquire : and this trifling velocity would be
Avafled in leeway; for avc have feen that the diminution
of the oblique impulfes of the Avater is accompanied by
an increafe of leeivay. But Ave fee that in the great ob¬
liquities the impulfions continue to be very confiderable,
and that even an incidence of fix degrees gives an impulfe
as great as the theory allows to an incidence of 40.
We may therefore, on all occafions, keep the yards
more fquare; and the lofs Avhich we fuflain by the dimi¬
nution of the very oblique impulfe Avill be more than
compenfated by its more favourable direction Avith re-
fpeft to the fhip’s keel. Let us take an example of
this. Suppofe the Avind about two points before the
beam, making an angle of 68° with the keel. I he
theory affigns 430 for the inclination of the wind to
the fail, and 1 50 for the trim of the fail. The perpen¬
dicular impulfe being fuppofed IOCO, the theoretical im¬
pulfe for 450 is 465. This reduced in the proportion of
radius to the fine of 250, gives the impulfe in the direc¬
tion of the courfe only 197.
But if Ave eafe off the lee-braces till the yard makes an
angle of 50° Avith the keel, and allows the AA'ind an inci¬
dence of no more than 180, Ave have the experimented
impulfe 414, which, when reduced in the proportion of
radius to the fine of 50°, gives an effedlive impulfe 317.
In like manner, the trim 56°, Avith the incidence 1 2°,
gives an effeftive impulfe 337 ; and the trim 62°, Avith
the. incidence only 6°, gives 3 53.
Hence it would at firft fight appear that the angle
DCB of 62° and WCD of 6° would be better for hold¬
ing a courfe Avithin 6 points of the Avind than any
more oblique pofition of the fails ; but it Avill only give
a greater initial impulfe. As the {hip accelerates, the
Avind apparently comes ahead, and Ave muft continue to
brace up as the ffiip frefliens her way. It is not unufual
for her to acquire half or two thirds of the velocity of
the Avind ; in which cafe the Avind comes apparently
ahead more than tAvo points, Avhen the yards muft
be braced up to 350, and this alioAVs an impulfe no
greater than about 7V. Now this is very frequently
obferved.
86
SEAMANSHIP.
obferved m good flaps, ivliicli in a briik gale and fniooth
■water will go five or fix knots clofe-hauled, the flap’s
bead fix points from the wind, and the fails no more
than juft full, but ready to fluvcr by the fmalleft luff.
All this would be impoffible by the ufual theory ; and in
this refpect thefe experiments of the French academy
gave a fine illuftration of the feaman’s practice. They
account for what we fhould otherwife be much puzzled
to explain ; and the great progrels which is made by
a fliip clefe-hauled being perfedlly agreeable to what
we fhould expeft from the law of oblique impulfion
deducible from thefe fo often mentioned experiments,
while it is totally incompatible with the common theory,
fhould make us abandon the theory without hefitation,
40 and ftrenuoufly fet about the eftablifhment of another,
Expert- founded entirely on experiments. For this purpofe the
per'f!)Veft.exPer^men 1:5 Ibould be made on the oblique impulfions
blifhing an-0^ ab' on as great a fcale as poflible, and in as great a
other ° variety of circumftances, fo as to furnifli a feries of im¬
pulfions for all angles of obliquity. We have but four
or five experiments on this fubjeift, viz. two by Mr
Robins, and two or three by the Chevalier Borda. Hav¬
ing thus gotten a feries of impulfions, it is very pradli-
cable to raife on this foundation a praftical inftitute, and
to give a table of the velocities of a (hip fuited to every
angle of inclination and of trim j for nothing is more
certain than the refolution of the impulfe perpendicular
to the fail into a force in the dire&ion of the keel, and
a lateral force.
We are alfo difpofed to think that experiments might
be made on a model very nicely rigged with fails, and
trimmed in every different degree, which would point
out the mean diredlion of the impulfe on the fails, and
the comparative force of thefe impulfes in different di¬
rections of the wind. The method would be very fi-
milar to that for examining the impulfe of the water on
the hull. If this can alfo be afcertained experimental*-
ly, the intelligent reader will eafily fee that the whole
motion of a fhip under fail may be determined for every
cafe. Tables may then be conftruCled by calculation,
or by graphical operations, which will give the velo¬
cities of a flap in every different courfe, and correfpond-
ing to every trim of fail. And let it be here obferved,
that the trim of the fail is not to be eftimated in de¬
grees of inclination of the yards 5 becaufe, as we have
already remarked, we cannot obferve nor adjuft the la¬
teen fails in this way. But, in making the experiments
for afcertaining the impulfe, the exact pofition of the
tacks and Hicets of the fails are to be noted ; and
this combination of adjuftments is to pafs by the name
of a certain trim. Thus that trim of all the fails
may be called 40, wiiofe direction is experimentally
found equivalent to a flat furface' trimmed to the obli¬
quity 40°.
Having done this, we may conftruCl a figure for each
trim fimilar to fig. 8. where, inftead of a circle, we {hall
have a curve COM'F', whole chords CP, cf, &c.
are proportional to the velocities in thefe courfes ; and
by means of this curve we can find the point m', which
is moft remote from any line CM from which we wifh
to withdraw : and thus we may folve all the principal
problems of the art.
Wc hope that it wall not be accounted prefumption
in us to expeCt more improvement from a theory
3
founded on judicious experiments only, than from a
theory of the impulfe of fluids, which is found fo in-
confiftent with obfervation, and of whofe fallacy all its
authors, from Newton to D’Alembert, entertained
ftvong fufpicions. .Again, we beg leave to recommend
this view of the fubjeCt to the attention of the Societyrecom-
for the Improvement of Naval Architecture.mended to j
Should thefe patriotic gentlemen entertain a favourable^ Society
opinion of the plan, sand honour us with their corre-
fpondence, we will cheerfully impart to them our no-of Naval
tions-of the wyay in which both thefe trains of experi-Architec-
ments may be profecuted with fuccefs, and refults ob-ture'
tained in which we may confide j and we content our-
felves at piefent with oft’ering to the public thefe hints,
which are not the fpeculations of a man of mere fcience,
but of one who, with a competent knowledge of the
laws of mechanical nature, has the experience of feveral
years fervice in the royal navy, where the art of work¬
ing of {hips was a favourite objedt of his fcientific at¬
tention. ^
With thefe obfervations wre conclude our difcuflion of Means em-
the firft part of the feaman’s talk, and now proceed to ployed to
confider the means that are employed to prevent or toPreventor
produce any deviations from the uniform redtilinealy™^^ e*
courfe which has been feledled. from a
Here the {hip is to be confidered as a body in free courfe.
fpace, convertible round her centre of inertia. For
whatever may be the point round which {he turns, this
motion may always be confidered as compounded of a
rotation round an axis palling through her centre of
gravity or inertia. She is impelled by the wind and by
the w^ater adling on many furfaces differently inclined
to each other, and the impulfe on each is perpendicular
to the furface. In order therefore that Ihe may con¬
tinue fteadily in one courfe, it is not only neceffary that
the impelling forces, eftimated in their mean direction,
be equal and oppofite to the refilling forces eftimated
in their mean direftion j but alfo that thefe two direc¬
tions may pafs through one point, otherwife {he will be
affefted as a log of wood is when puflied in oppofite
direftions by two forces, which are equal indeed, but
are applied to different parts of the log. A fliip muft
be confidered as a lever, adled on in different parts by
forces in different direclions, and the. whole balancing
each other round that point or axis where the equiva¬
lent of all the refilling forces paffes. This may be con¬
fidered as a point fupported by this refilling force and
as a fort of fulcrum : therefore, in order that the ftiip
may maintain her pofition, the energies or momenta of all
the impelling forces round this point muft balance each
other.
When a fhip fails right afore the wind, with her yardsimpuffes
fquare, it is evident that the impulfes on each fide of the on a fhip
keel are equal, as alfo their mechanical momenta roundrlg^
any axis palling perpendicular through the keel. ^ !.v; ml‘differ-
are the adlions of the water on her bows. But when Ihe ent from
fails on an oblique courfe, with her yards braced up onthofe on
either fide, {he fuftains a preffure in the direction Cl^er when
(fig. 5.) perpendicular to the fail. This, by giving her .°b*
a lateral preffure LI, as well as a preffure CL ahead, ^ J’
caufes her to make leeway, and to move in a line C b in¬
clined to CB. By this means the balance of adlion on
the two bows is deftroyed ; the general impulfe on the
lee-bow* is increafed •, and that on the weather-bow is dL
miniflied.
S E A M A
imnifted. The combined impulfe is therefore no longer
in the direftion B C, but (in the Bate of uniform mo¬
tion) in the dire&ion IC.
Suppofe that in an inftant the whole fails are annihi¬
lated, and the impelling preffure Cl, which precifely ba¬
lanced the refilling preffure on the bows, removed. The
(hip tends, by her inertia, to proceed in the direction
C b. This tendency produces a continuation of the re¬
finance in the oppofite diredlion IC, which is not di-
redlly oppofed to the tendency of the fhip in the direc¬
tion C b; therefore the {hip’s head would immediately
come up to the wind. The experienced feamen will re-
colledl fomething like this Avhen the fails are fuddenly
lowered when coining to anchor. It does not hap¬
pen folely from the obliquity of the action on the bows :
It would happen to the parallelepiped of fig. 2. which
was fuftaining a lateral impullion B’fin/.r, and a diredl
impulfion A * cof.1 x. Thefe are continued for a mo¬
ment after the annihilation of the fail : but being no
longer oppofed by a force in the diredtion CD, but by
a force in the diredlion C />, the force B * fin.2 x muil
prevail, and the body is not only retarded in its motion,
but its head turns towards the -wind. But this effedt
of the leeway is greatly increafed by the curved form
of the (hip’s bows. This occafions the centre of eft'ort
of all the impulfions of the water on the leefide of the
{hip to be very far forward, and this fo much the more
remarkably as Hie is (harper afore. It is in general not
much abaft the foremaft. Now the centre of the (hip’s
tendency to continue her motion is the fame with her
centre of gravity, and this is generally but a little be¬
fore the mainmail. She is therefore in the fame con¬
dition nearly as if (he rvere purtied at the mainmail; in
a diredlion parallel to C b, and at the foremafl by a
force parallel to IC. The evident confequence of this
is a tendency to come up to the ■wind. This is inde¬
pendent of all fituation of the fails, provided only that
they have been trimmed obliquely.
Grimtf This tendency of the (hip’s head to windward is call-
* ed GRIPING in the feaman’s language, and is greateft
in (hips which are (harp forward, as we have faid al¬
ready. This circumftance is eafily underilood. What¬
ever is the diredlion of the (hip’s motion, the abfolute
impulfe on that part of the bow immediately contigu¬
ous to B is perpendicular to that very part of the fur-
face. The more acute, therefore, that the angle of the
bow is, the more will the impulfe on that part be per¬
pendicular to the keel, and the greater will be its ener-
4- gy to turn the head to windward.
Propriety of Thus we are enabled to underftand or to fee the pro-
the difpofi- priety of the difpofition of the fails of a (hip. We fee
tion of the her crowded with fails forward, and even many fails ex-
’h/5 a tended far before her bow, fucb as the fprit fail, the
bowfprit-topfail, the fore-topmaft (layfail, the jib, and
flying jib. The fails abaft are comparatively fmaller.
The fails on the mizemnaft are much fmaller than thofe
on the foremafl:. All the (layfails hoifted on the main-
mad may be confldered as headfails, becaufe their cen¬
tres of effort are confiderably before the ce ntre of gra¬
vity of the (hip : and not with dandihg this difpofition,
it generally requires a fmall adlion of the rudder to
counteradl the windward tendency of the lee-bow. This
is confidered as a good quality when moderate ; be-
eaufe it enables the feaman to throw the fails aback, and
flop the (hip’s way in a moment, if (lie be in danger
N S H I p. 87
from any thing a-head *, and the fhip which does not
carry a little of a weather helm, is always a dull failer. ^
In order to judge fomewhat more accurately of the Adion of
a6Hon of the water and fails, fuppofe the (hip AB the water
(fig. 9.) to have its fails on the mizenmad D, the main-
mail E, and foremad F, braced up or trimmed alike, pjg
and that the three lines D 2, E e, Fj^ perpendicular to
the fails, are in the proportion of the impulfes on the
fails. The fhip is driven a-head and to leeward, and
moves in the path a C b. This path is fo inclined to
the line of the keel that the medium direclion of the
refidance of the water is parallel to the diredlion of the
impulfe. A line Cl may be drawn parallel to the lines
D E e, Fyj and equal to their fum : and it may be-
drawn from fuch a point C, that the adlions on all the
parts of the hull between C and B may balance the
momenta of all the adtions on the hull between C and A. 4-
This point may judly be called the centre of effort, or Centre of
the centre of refijlance. We cannot determine this point e^ort
for want of a proper theory of the refidance of fluids.
Nay, although experiments like thofe of the Parifian
academy fhould give us the mod perfedl knowledge of
the intenflty of the oblique impulfes on a fquare foot,
we (huuld hardly be benefited by them : for the adlion of
the water on a fquare foot of the hull at p, for inftance,
is fo modified by the intervention of the dream of -wa¬
ter which has druck the hull about B, and glided along
the bow Bo/?, that the preffure on p is totally different
from what it would have been were it a fquare foot or
furface detached from the red, and prefented in the
fame pofition to the water moving in the diredlion b C.
For it is found, that the refidances given to planes join¬
ed fo as to form a wedge, or to curved furfaces, are
widely different from the adcumulated refidances, calcu¬
lated for their feparate parts, agreeably to the experi¬
ments of the academy on (ingle furfaces. We therefore
do not attempt to afeertain the point C by theory •, but
it may be accurately determined by the experiments
which we have fo drongly recommended j and we offer
this as an additional inducemertt for profecuting them.
Draw through C a line perpendicular to Cl, that is, to be de-
parallel to the fails 5 and let the lines of impulfe of the termined
three fails cut it in the points 2, d, and m. This line experi-
im may be confidered as a lever, moveable round C,ments’
and adled on at the points 2’, and 7/z, by three forces.
The rotatory momentutn of the fails on the mizenmad
is Df X fCj that of the fails on the mainmad is
E f X C ; and the momentum of the fails on the fore-
mad is FfxmC. The two fird tend to prefs forward
the arm C 2, and then to turn the (hip’s head towards ^
the wind. The aflion of the fails on the foremad tends Equili-
to pull the arm C m forward, and produce a contrary bnum pre-
rotation. If the (hip under thefe three fails keeps dea- drved by
dily in her courfe, without the aid of the rudder, we ^ Po(lt‘on
mud have D fx f C + E <?x£ C = F/x/« C. Xhisof thelaiis*
is very podible, and is often feen in a dflp under her
mizen topfail, main topfail, and fore topfail, all parallel
to one another, and their furfaces duly proportioned by
reefing. If more fails are fet, we mud always have a
fimitar equilibrium. A certain number of them will
have their efforts dire£led from the larboard arm of the-
lever im lying to leeward of Cl, and a certain number
will have their efforts diredled from the darboard arm
lying to wirtdWard of Cl. The fum of the produdls of
each of the fird fet, by their didances from C, mud be
equal
88 S E A M A
e^ual to the fum of the fimilar produfls of the other
let. As this equilibrium is all that is neceilary for pre-
ierving the Drip’s pofition, and tlie ceffation of it is im¬
mediately followed by a converfion ; and as thefe Hates
of the fiiip may be had by means of the three fquare
fails only, when their furfaces are properly proportion¬
ed—it is plain that every movement may be executed and
explained by their means. This will greatly fimplify our
future difcuffions. We lhall therefore fuppofe in future
that there are only the three topfails fet, and that their
furfaces are fo adjailed by reefing, that their affions
exadlly balance each other round that point C of the
middle line AB, where the actions of the water on the
different parts of her bottom in like manner balance
each other. This point C may be differently fituated in
the fhip according to the leeway fhe makes, depending
on the trim of the fails ; and therefore although a certain
proportion of the three furfaces may balance each other
in one Hate of leeway, they may happen not to do fo in
m another Hate. But the equilibrium is evidently attainable
in every cafe, and we therefore flrall always fuppofe it.
Conte- It n0'v b® obferved, that when this equilibrium
quence of is deflroyed, as, for example, by turning the edge of the
deftroy- mizen-topfail to the wind, which the feamen call Jhiver-
inS ^ jug the mizen-topfail, and which may be confidered as
equivalent to the removing the mizen-topfail entirely, it
does not follow that the fhip will round the point C,
this point remaining fixed. The fhip muH be confi¬
dered as a free body, Hill adled on by a number of
forces, which no longer balance each other ; and fhe
muH therefore begin to turn round a fpontaneous axis
of converfion, which mufi be determined in the way fet
forth in the article Rotatiom. It is of importance to
point out in general where this axis is fituated. There-
Tig. xo. f°re Iet G (fig. io.) be the centre of gravity of the
fliip. Draw the line q Q v parallel to the yards, cut¬
ting D cf in <7, E e in r, Cl in t, and Fy'in v. While
the three fails are fet, the line a v may be confidered as
a lever afted on by four forces, vix. D d, impelling the
lever forward perpendicularly in the point q ; E im¬
pelling it forward in the point r ; ¥f, impelling it for¬
ward in the point “y; and Cl, impelling it backward in
the point t. Thefe forces balance each other both in
refpeft of progreflive motion and of rotatory energy: for
Cl was taken equal to the fum of D d, E e, and F f ; fo
that no acceleration or retardation of the fhip’s progrefs
in her courfe is fuppofed.
But by taking away the mizen-topfail, both the equi¬
libriums are deflroyed. A part D d of the accelerating
force is taken away •, and yet the fliip, by her inertia or
inherent force, tends, for a moment, to proceed in the
dire&ion Cj? with her former velocity, and by this ten¬
dency exerts for a moment the fame preflure Cl on the
water, and fuflains the fame refiflance IC. She mufl
therefore be retarded in her motion by the excefs of the
refiflance IC over the remaining impelling forces Ee
and Fyi that is, by a force equal and oppofite to D d.
She will therefore be retarded in the fame manner as if
the mizen-topfail were Hill fet, and a force equal and
oppofite to its aflion w^ere applied to G the centre of
gravity, and (lie would foon acquire a fmaller velocity,
which would again bring all things into equilibrium j
and (he would Hand on in the fame courfe, without
changing either her leeway or the pofition of her head.
But the equilibrium of the lever is alfo deflroyed.
N S H I P.
It is now aded on by three forces only, i'/sz. E c and
Fy, impelling it forward in the points r and v, and IC
impelling it backward in the point t. Make rv : ro—
lcLe-\-Yf: Ff, and make op parallel to Cl and equal
to Ec—Ff. Then we know, from the common prin¬
ciples of mechanics, that the force op ading at o will
have the fame momentum or energy to turn the lever
round any point whatever as the two forces E e and Y f
applied at r and v ; and now the lever is aded on by
two forces, vi-z. IC, urging it backwards in the point
/, and op urging it forwards in the point o. It mufl
therefore turn round like a floating log, which gets two
blows in oppofite diredions. If we now' make IC—op
: op—t o : t x, or IC—op : IC—Z o : o x, and apply to
the point x a force equal to IC—op in the diredion IC ;
we know by the common principles of mechanics, that
this force IC—op will produce the fame rotation round
any point as the two forces IC and op applied in their
proper diredions at t and o. Let us examine the fitua-
tion of the point x.
The force IC—o p is evidently =rD r/, and o p is
n:E e-j-F f. Therefore o t : t x—Y) d : op. But he-
caufe, when all the fails w'ere filled, there was an equi¬
librium round C, and therefore round t, and becaufe the
force op ading at o is equivalent to E e and Ff ading
at r and v, xve muft ftill have the equilibrium •, and
therefore we have the momentum dy^ q t— opyo t.
Therefore o t : t q—T) d : op, and tq—tx. Therefore
the point x is the fame with the point q. ^
Therefore, when wTe fliiver the mizen-topfail, the ro-By Ihiver-
tatidn of the flrip is the fame as if the fliip w'ere at refl, ing the
and a force equal and oppofite to the adion of the mi-
zen-topfail were applied at q or at D, or at any point
in the line T) q. • ,
This might have been fliown in another and fliorter
way. Suppofe all fails filled, the ftiip is in equilibrio.
This will be difturbed by applying to D a force oppo¬
fite to D d; and if the force be alfo equal to D d, it is
evident that thefe two forces deftroy each other, and
that this application of the force d~D is equivalent to
the taking away of the mizen-topfail. But we chofe to
give the whole mechanical inveftigation 5 becaufe it
gave us an opportunity of pointing out to the reader, in
a cafe of very eafy comprehenfion, the precife manner
in which the fliip is aded on by the different fails and
by the water, and what fliare each of them has in the
motion ultimately produced. We ftiall not repeat this
manner of procedure in other cafes, becaufe a little re-
fledion on the part of the reader will now enable him
to trace the modus operandi through all its Heps.
We now fee that, in refped both of progreflive mo¬
tion and of converfion, the ftiip is affeded by ftiivering
the fail D, in the fame manner as if a force equal and
oppofite to D d were applied at D, or at any point in
the line D d. We muft now have recourfe to the prin¬
ciples eftablifhed under the article Rotation.
Let p reprefent a particle of matter, r its radius vec¬
tor, or its diftance p G from an axis pafling through
the centre of gravity G, and let M reprelent the whole
quantity of matter of the fliip. Then its momentum
of inertia is • r (fee Rotation, N° 18.). The
fhip, impelled in the point D by a force in the direc¬
tion d D, will begin to turn round a fpontaneous verti¬
cal axis, pafling through a point S of the line q G,
which
/
S E A M A
which is drawn through the centre of gravity G, per¬
pendicular to the direction c/1 D of the external force,
and the diftance GS of this axis from the centre of gra-
/>•,•* . .
vitv is —   (fee Rotation, N° 96.), and it is
^ M'Gq
taken on the oppofite fide of G from <7, that is, S and q
are on oppofite fides of G.
Let us exprefs the external force by the fymbol F.
It is equivalent to a certain number of pounds, being
the preffure of the wind moving with the velocity V
and inclination a on the furface of the fail D; and may
therefore be computed either by the theoretical or ex¬
perimental law of oblique impulfes. Having obtained
this, we can afcertain the angular velocity of the rota¬
tion and the abfolute velocity of any given point of the
fliip by means of the theorems ellablilhed in the article
S2 Rotation.
Action of But before we proceed to this inveftigation, we Ihall
the rudder, confider the adlion of the rudder, which operates pre-
Fig. xi. cifely in the fame manner. Let the fliip AB (fig. 11.)
have her rudder in the pofition AD, the helm being
hard a-ftarboard, while the fliip failing bn the ftar-
board tack, and making leeway, keeps on the courfe
ab. The lee furface of the rudder meets the water
obliquely. The very foot of the rudder meets it in the
diredlion DE parallel to a b. The parts farther up
meet it with various obliquities, and with various velo¬
cities, as it glides round the bottom of the fliip and
falls into the wake. It is abfolutely impoflible to cal¬
culate the accumulated impulfe. We fliall not be far
miftaken in the defleftion of each contiguous filament,
as it quits the bottom and glides along the rudder ;
but we neither know the velocity of thefe filaments, nor
the defledlion and velocity of the filaments gliding
without them. We therefore imagine that all compu¬
tations on this fubjefl are in vain. But it is enough
for our purpofe that we know the diredlion of the ab¬
folute preffure which they exert on its furface. It is
in the diredlion Drf, perpendicular to that furface. We
alfo may be confident that this preffure is very confider-
able, in proportion to the action of the water on the
fhip’s bows, or of the wind on the fails 5 and wre may
fuppofe it to be nearly in the proportion of the fquare
of the velocity of the ftiip in her courfe; but we cannot
affirm it to be accurately in that proportion, for reafons
that will readily occur to one who confiders the way in
which the water falls in behind the fliip.
Greateftin It is obferved, however, that a fine failer always
afinefailer. fteers well, and that all movements by means of the
rudder are performed with great rapidity when the
velocity of the fliip is great. We fliall fee by and by,
that the fpeed with which the fliip performs the angu¬
lar movements is in the proportion of her progreflive
velocity: For we fliall fee that the fquares of the times
of performing the evolution are as the impulfes inverfe-
ly, which are as the fquares of the velocities. There is
perhaps no force which a£ls on a ftiip that can be
more accurately determined by experiment than this.
Let the fliip ride in a ftream or tideway whofe velocity
is accurately meafured; and let her ride from two moor¬
ings, fo that her bow may be a fixed point. Let a
fmall tow-line be laid out from her ftern or quarter at
right angles to the keel, and connefled with fome ap¬
paratus fitted up on fhore or on board another ftiip, by
Vol. XIX. Part I.
N S H I P. 89
which the ftrain on it may be accurately meafured ; a
perfon converfant with mechanics wiii fee n.airv ways 54
in- which this can be done. Perhaps the following may r’ow to de-
be as good as any: Let the end of the tow-line be fixed teraune 1 •
to fome point as high out ol the water as the point of
the flap from which it is given out, and let this be very
high. Let a block with a hook be on the rope, and
a confiderable weight hung on this hook. Things be¬
ing thus prepared, put down the helm to a certain angle,
fo as to caufe the fiiip to ftieer off Iron- the point to
which the far end ot the tow-line is attached. Ihis will
ftretch the rope, and raife the weight out ol the water.
Now heave upon the rope, to bring the fliip back again
to her former pofition, with her keel in the direction of
the ftream. When this pofition is attained, note care¬
fully the form of the rope, that is, the angle which its
two parts make with the horizon. Call this angle a.
Every perfon acquainted with thefe fubjedls knows that
the horizontal ftrain is equal to half the weight multi¬
plied by the cotangent of «, or that 2 is to the co¬
tangent of a as the weight to the horizontal ftrain.
Now it is this ftrain which balances and therefore mea-
fures the a£!ion of the rudder, or De in fig. 11. There¬
fore, to have the abfolute impulfe Dr/, we muft increafe
D e in the proportion of radius to the fecant of the
angle b which the rudder makes with the keel. In a
great (hip failing fix miles in an hour, the impulfe on
the rudder inclined 30° to the keel is not lefs than
3000 pounds. The furface of the rudder of fuch a
Ihip contains near 80 fquare feet. It is not, however,
very neceffary to know this abfolute impulfe D r/, be-
caufe it is its part D e alone which meafures the energy
of the rudder in producing a converfion. Such expe¬
riments, made with various pofitions of the rudder, will
give its energies correfponding to thef pofitions, and
will fettle that long difputed point, which is the beft:
pofition for turning a fliip. On the hypothefis that
the impulfions of fluids are in the duplicate ratio of the
fines of incidence, there can be no doubt that it fhould
make an angle of 540 4^ with the keel. But the form
of a large ftiip will not admit of this, becaufe a tiller of
a length fufficient for managing the rudder in failing
with great velocity has not room to deviate above 30
from the direftion of the keel j and in this pofition of
the rudder the mean obliquity of the filaments of xva-
ter to its furface cannot exceed 4c0 or 450. A greater
angle would not be of much (ervice, for it is never
for want of a proper obliquity that the rudder fails of
producing a converfion.
A (hip miffes flays in rough weather for want of
fufficient progreflive velocity, and becaufe her bows are miffes ftays,
beat off by the waves: and there is feldom any diffi-&.c.
culty in wearing the ftiip, if (lie has any progreflive
motion. It is, however, always definable to give the
rudder as much influence as poflible. Its furface fhould
be enlarged (efpecially below) as much as can be done
confidently with its ftrength and with the power of the
fteerfmen to manage it •, and it ftiould be put in the
moft favourable fituation for the water to get at it with
great velocity *, and it fliould be placed as far from the
axis of the (hip’s motion as poflible. Thefe points are
obtained by making the ftern-poft very upright, as has
always been done in the French dockyards. The Bri-
tifli (hips have a much greater rake •, but our builders are
gradually adopting the French forms, experience ha-
M ving
<)0
SEAMANSHIP.
ving tauglit us that their (hips, when in our pofleffion,
are much more obedient to the helm than our own.—
In order to afcortain the motion produced by the ac*
lion of the rudder, draw from the centre of gravity a
line G q perpendicular to D d (D d being drawn
through the centre of effort of the rudder). Then, as in
the confideration of the action of the fails, we may con-
peive the line <7 G as a lever connefled with the thip, and
impelled by a force D</ a6ting perpendicularly •aXq. The
confequence of this will be, an incipient converfion of
the fhip about a vertical axis palling through fome
point S in the line q G, lying on the other lide of G
from q; and we have, as in the former cafe, GS=
M • Gq
5«
The aiflion Thus the aflion and elfefls of the fails and of the
of the rud- rudder are perfeflly fimilar, and are to be confidered in
to^hat ofr t^ie ^ame raanner* We fee that the aftion of the rud-
the fails der, though of a fmall furface in eomparifon of the lails,
and very mult be very great : For the impulfe of water is many
great- hundred times greater than that of the wind j and the
arm ^ G of the lever, by which it a£ts, is incomparably
greater than that by which any of the impulfions on the
fails produces its effefl ; accordingly the Chip yields
much more rapidly to its action than Ihe does to the la¬
teral impulfe of a fail.
Obferve here, that if G were a fixed or fupported
axis, it would be the fame thing whether the abfolute
force D of the rudder a£ls in the direction D d, or
its tranfverfe part D e a£ts in the direction D e, both
would produce the fame rotation 5 but it is not fo in a
free body. The force D d both tends to retard the
Chip’s motion and to produce a rotation : It retards it as
much as if the fame force Dr/ had been immediately ap¬
plied to the centre. And thus the real motion of the
fhip is compounded of a motion of the centre in a di-
reftion parallel to D d, and of a motion round the centre.
Thefe two conftitute the motion round S.
Employed As the effedls of the adlion of the rudder are both
as an exam-more remarkable and fomewhat more fimple than thofe
pie of the q£ tjie we j-[iap employ them as an example of the
conveificn. mechanifm of the motions of converfion in general •, and
as we mult content ourfelves in a work like this with
what is very general, Ave {hall fimplify the inveftigation
by attending only to the motion of converfion. We
can get an accurate notion of the whole motion, if want¬
ed for any purpofe, by combining the progreffive or re¬
trograde motion parallel to D d with the motion of ro¬
tation which we are about to determine.
In this cafe, then, we obferve, in the firft place, that the
T>h ' qG
angular velocity (fee Rotation, N° 22.)
and, as was fhown in that article, this velocity of rota¬
tion increafes in the proportion of the time of the forces
uniform aflion, and the rotation would be uniformly ac¬
celerated if the forces did really a£I uniformly. This,
however, cannot be the cafe, becaufe, by the fhip’s
change of. pofition and change of progreffive velocity,
the direttion and intenfity of the impelling force is con¬
tinually changing. But if two {hips are performing
fimilar evolutions, it is obvious that the changes of force
are fimilar in fimilar parts of the evolution. Therefore
the confideration of the momentary evolution is fufficient
for enabling us to compare the motions of {hips aftuated
by fimilar forces, which is all we have in view at prefent.
The velocity v, generated in any time t by the con¬
tinuance of an invariable momentary acceleration (which
is all that we mean by faying that it is produced by the
adlion of a conftant accelerating force), is as the acce¬
leration and the time jointly. Now what we call the
angular velocity is nothing but this momentary accele¬
ration. Therefore the velocity v generated in the time
F ' qG
/ is zr t.
far3,
J . . 5s
The expreffion of the angular velocity is alfo the ex- Angular
preffion of the velocity v of a. point lituated at the di- velocity,
ftance 1 from the axis G.
Let 2; be the fpace or arch of revolution deferibed in
the time t by this point, whofe diilance from G is
Y • q G
— 1. Then x — v t — k t t, and taking the
' /*. This arch meafures the whole
fluent % — r
Jpr'
angle of rotation accompliflied in the time t. Thefe
are therefore as the fquares of the times from the begin¬
ning of the rotation.
Thofe evolutions are equal which are meafured by
equal arches. Thus two motions of 45 degrees each
are equal. Therefore becaule % is the fame m both,
Y’qG . J .
the quantity 7H—t* is a conftant quantity, and t* is
7‘
P
reciprocally proportional to
r
h
p ?
or is proportional
rp r2 . ^ f p r1
toj ■, and t is proportional to J   —. That
F ’qG VY-qG
is to fay, the times of the fimilar evolutions of two
{hips are as the fquare root of the momentum of iner¬
tia diredlly, and as the fquare root of the momentum of
the rudder or fail inverfely. This will enable us to
make the comparifon eafily. Let us fuppofe the lhips
perfectly fimilar in form and rigging, and to difter only
in length L and /; J'Y ' R1 is toJ'p r1 as Ls to Is.
For the fimilar particles P and p contain quantities of
matter which are as the cubes of their lineal dimenfions,
that is, as L3 to /3. And becaufe the particles are fi-
milarly fituated, R1 is to r* as L* to /*. Therefore
P • R* : /> • r2—L5 : Is. Now F is to f as L1 to /*.
For the furfaces of the fimilar rudders or fails are as
the fquares of their lineal dimenfions, that is, as L1 to
/2. And, laftly, G^ is to as L to /, and therefore
Y • G q \ f ’ g q -zzY? \ ll. Therefore we have T2 ;
_J p R*
1 ~ Y-Gq ' f'gq~V /3
= L* : /2, and T :
l zz L : /. 59
Therefore the times of performing fimilar evolutions Times of fi-
with fimilar fhips are proportional to the, lengths of the milar evo-
Ihips when both are failing equally faft j and fince the W1
evolutions are fimilar, and the forces vary fimilarly in
their
9i
SEAMANSHIP.
tlieir different parts, what is here demonftrated of^ the
fmalleft incipient evolutions is true of the whole. They
therefore not only defcribe equal angles of revolution,
but alfo fimilar curves.
A fmall (hip, therefore, works in lefs time and in
lefs room than a great (hip, and this in the proportion
of its length. This is a great advantage in all cafes,
particularly in wearing, in order to fail on the other
tack clofe-hauled. In this cafe (lie will always be to
windward and a-head of the large fhip, when both are
got on the other tack. It would appear at firft fight
that the large (hip will have the advantage in tacking.
Indeed the large (hip is farther to windward when again
trimmed on the other tack than the fmall {hip when {lie
is juft trimmed on the other tack. But this happened
before the large {hip had completed her evolution, and
the fmall {hip, in the mean time, has been going forward
on the other tack, and going to windward. She will
therefore be before the large {hip’s beam, and perhaps
as far to windward.
We have feen that the velocity of rotation is propor¬
tional, cceteris paribus, to F x G y. F means the ab-
folute impulfe on the rudder or fail, and is always per¬
pendicular to its furface. This abfolute impulfe on a
fail depends on the obliquity of the wind to its furface.
The ufual theory fays, that it is as the fquare of the
fine of incidence : buFwe find this not true. We muft
content ourfelves with exprefling it by fome as yet un¬
known fumftion <p of the angle of incidence a, and call it
Q a ; and if S be the furface of the fail, and V the ve¬
locity of the wind, the abfolute impulfe is ?i V’S X <P «-
This afts (in the cafe of the mizen-topfail, (fig. 10.)
by the lever q G, which is equal to DG X Cof. DG y,
and DG y is equal to the angle of the yard and keel ;
which angle we formerly called b. Therefore its energy
in producing a rotation is « V*S X « X FIG X cof.
Leaving out the conftant quantities «, V*, S, and DG,
its energy is proportional to ip « X eof. b. In order,
therefore, that any fail may have the greateft power
to produce a rotation round G, it muft be fo trimmed
that <p « X cof. b may be a maximum. Thus, if we
would trim the fails on the foremaft, fo as to pay the
(hip oft' from the wind right a-head with the greateft
effeft, and if we take the experiments of the French
academicians as proper meafures of the oblique impulfes
of the wind on the fail, we will brace up the yard to an
angle of 48 degrees with the keel. The impulfe corre-
fponding to 48 is 615, and the cofine of 48° is 669.
Thefe give a produft of 411435. If we brace the fail
to 54.44, the angle afligned by the theory, the efteftive
impulfe is 405274. If we make the angle 450, the im¬
pulfe is 408774. It appears then that 48° is preferable
to either of the others. But the difference is inconfi-
derable, as in all cafes of maximum a fmall deviation
from the beft pofition is not very detrimental. But the
difference between the theory and this experimental
meafure will be very great when the impulfes of the
wind are of neceflity very oblique. Thus, in tacking
{hip, as foon as the headfails are taken aback, they
ferve to aid the evolution, as is evident: But if wre were
now to adopt the maxim inculcated by the theory, wre
ftiould immediately round in the weather-braces, fo as
to increafe the impulfe on the fail, becaufe it is then
very fmall 5 and although we by this means make yard
more* fquare, and therefore diminifh the rotatory mo¬
mentum of this impulfe, yet the impulfe is more increafed
(by the theory) than its vertical lever is diminiftied.— <50
Let us examine this a little more particularly, becaufe Anice point
it is reckoned one of the niceft points of feamanfliip to of teaman-
aid the {hip’s coming round by means of the headfails •,
and experienced feamen differ in their pra&ice in this
manoeuvre. Suppofe the yard braced up to 40°, which
is as much as can be ufually done, and that the fail
Ihivers (the bowlines arc ufually let go when the helm is
put down), the fail immediately takes aback, and in
a moment we may fuppofe an incidence of 6 degrees.
The impulfe correfponding to this is 400 (by experi¬
ment), and the cofine of 40° is 766. This gives 306400
for the effective impulfe. To proceed according to the
theory, we ftiould brace the yard to 70°, which would
give the wind (now 340 on the weather-bow) an inci¬
dence of nearly 36°, and the fail an inclination of 20°
to the intended motion, which is perpendicular to the
keel. For the tangent of 20° is about 4 of the tangent
of 36°. Let us now fee what effedtive impulfe the ex¬
perimental law of oblique impulfions will give for this
adjuftment of the fails. The experimental impulfe for
36° is 480 the cofine of 70° is 342 ; the produdt is
164160, not much exceeding the half of the former.
Nay, the impulfe for 36°, calculated by the theory,
would have been only 346, and the effective impulfe
only 118332. And it muft be farther obferved, that this
theoretical adjuftment would tend greatly to check the
evolution, and in moft cafes would entirely mar it, by
checking the fhip’s motion a-head, and confequently the
aftion of the rudder, which is the moft powerful agent
in the evolution *, for here would be a great impulfe di-
redted almoft aftern.
We were juftifiable, therefore, in faying, in the be¬
ginning of this article, that a fcaman -would frequently
find himfelf baffled if he were to work a fliip according
to the rules deduced from M. Bouguer’s work j and we
fee by this inftanee of what importance it is to have the
oblique impulfions of fluids afeertained experimentally.
The pradlice of the moft experienced feaman is diredlly
the oppofite to this theoretical maxim, and its fuccefs
greatly confirms the ufefulnefs of thefe experiments of
the academicians fo often praifed by us. 1
We return again to the general confideration of the
1- i F • q G
rotatory motion. We found the velocity v—— .
J p r*
It is therefore proportional, cceteris paribus, to y .
We have feen in what manner q G depends on the P°~
fition and fituation of the fail or rudder when the point
G is fixed. But it alfo depends on the pofition of G.
With refpedt to the adtion of the rudder, it is evident
that it is fo much the more powerful as it is more-re¬
mote from G. The diftance from G may be increafed
either by moving the rudder farther aft or G farther
forward. And as it is of the utmoft importance that a
{hip anfwer her helm with the greateft promptitude,
thofe circumftances have been attended to which diftin-
guiftied fine fleering fliips from fuch as had not this
quality j and it is in a great meafure to be aferibed to
this, that, in the gradual improvement of naval architec¬
ture, the centre of gravity has been placed far forward.
Perhaps the notion of a centre of gravity did not come
into the thoughts of the rude builders in early times j but
they obferved that thofe boats and ftfips fleered beft which
M 2 had
(j2
S E A M A
had their extreme breadth before the middle point, and
confequently the bows not fo acute as the ftern. 1 his is
fo contrary to what one would expedl, that it; attracted
attention more forcibly •, and, being fomewhat myfteri-
ous, it might prompt to attempts of improvement, by
exceeding in this lingular maxim. We believe that it
has been carried as far as is compatible with other ef-
f>i fential requilites in a Ihip.
Ofimpor- We believe that this is the chief circumftance in
termine die W^at *S ca^e(* t^e tr'm a &ip i an^ were great\y
beft place 6 to be willted that the belt place for the centre of gravi-
for a fhip’s ty could be accurately afcertained. A praftice pre¬
centre of vails, which is the oppofite of what we are now ad-
gravity. vancing. It is ufual to load a Ihip fo that her keel is
not horizontal, but lower abaft. This is found to im¬
prove her fteerage. The reafon of this is obvious. It
increafes the afting furface of the rudder, and allows
the water to come at it with much greater freedom and
regularity 5 and it generally diminilhes the griping of
the Ihip forward, by removing a part of the bows out
of the water. It has not always this effedl ; for the
form of the harping aloft is frequently fuch, that the
tendency to gripe is diminiihed by immerfmg more of
the bow in the water.
But waving thefe circumlfances, and attending only
to the rotatory energy of the rudder, we fee that it is
of advantage to carry the centre of gravity forward.
The fame advantage is gained to the a6bon of the after
fails. But, on the other hand, the adlion of the head¬
fuls is diminiihed by it •, and we may call every fail
a headfail whofe centre of gravity is before the centre of
gravity of the Ihip ; that is, all the fails hoilled on the
bowfprit and foremaft, and the ftayfails hoifted on the
mainmall; for the centre of gravity is feldom far before
the mainmaft.
Suppofe that when the rudder is put into the pofi-
tion AD (fig. 11.), the centre of gravity could be
Ihifted to g, fo as to increafe q G, and that this is done
without increaling the fum of the produffs p r*. It is
obvious that the velocity of converfion will be increafed
in the proportion of ^ G to qg. I Ins is very pollible,
by bringing to that fide of the Ihip parts of her loading
which were fituated at a diftance from G on the other
fide. Nay, we can make this change in fuch a manner
that p r3 lhall even be lefs than it was before, by
taking care that every thing which we Ihift lhall be
nearer to g than it was formerly to G. Suppofe it all
placed in one fpot in, and that m is the quantity of mat¬
ter fo Ihifted, while M is the quantity of matter in the
whole Ihip. It is only neceffary that w ^ G1 lhall be
lefs than the fum of the produffs p r* correfponding to
the matter which has been Ihifted. Now, although the
matter which is ealily moveable is generally very fmall
in comparifon to the whole matter of the Ihip, and there¬
fore can make but a fmall change in the place of the
centre of gravity, it may frequently be brought from
places fo remote that it may occafion a very fenfible di¬
minution of the quantity J'p r*, which expreffes the
whole momentum of inertia.
A practice This explains a praffice of the feamen in fmall wher-
of feamen j-Jpg or Ikiffs, who in putting about are accultomed to
in putting jace themselves to leeward of the mall. They even
about ex- " . . . *1 • 1 .• _
plained.
N S H I P.
boats by the way in which they reft on their two feet,
fometimes leaning all on one foot, and fometimes on the
other. And we have often feen this evolution very fen-
fibly accelerated in a Ihip of war, by the crew running
fuddenly, as the helm is put down, to the lee-bow. And
we have heard it aflerted by very expert feamen, that
after all attempts to wear {hip (after lying-to in a ilorm)
have failed, they have fucceeded by the crew collefting
themfelves near the weather fore-lhrouds the moment
the helm was put down. It muft be agreeable to the
refleffing feaman to fee this praflice fupported by un¬
doubted mechanical principles.
It will appear paradoxical to fay that the evolution rheevolu-
may be accelerated even by an addition of matter to thetion accele-
ftiip ; and though it is only a piece of curiofity, our rated by-
readers may with to be made fenfible of it. Let m be a<!f*ltl0r|a!
the addition, placed in fome point m lying beyond G
from q. Let S be the fpontaneous centre of converfion
before the addition. Let v be the velocity of rotation
round g, that is, the velocity of a point whofe diftance
from <§■ is 1, and let g be the radius vedtor, or diftance of
a particle from g. We have (Rotation, N°22.) v=z
F * <7 P*
    . But we know (Rotation, N° 23.)
fp -\-m • mg2
63
G g2. Therefore v =
Let us determine G g
that J'p g =fP r* M •
 F • qs  
G^-f. til' mg2
and mg and qg.
Let ot G be called z. Then, by the nature of the
centre of gravity, M -f- w : M~G m : g : g m, and
M ^ a , m M1 , T 1M
p m   z, and m' g nr zz -=?— sr. In like
* M+m ’ S M + m*
IVa 771^
manner, M • G g2= ~   - zz. Now m M14- M m2
M + m1
zzMm X M 4- m. Therefore M. ‘ G g2-\- m • g m*
TY/T +-yt
Let n be —
M m X(M -\-m) j _ M m J
= * ’ ~ 1V1 -j- in %
M+w*
, then M * Gs -j- n %2. Alfo G g
M4-^
—n z, being rr
2;. Let ^ G be called c: then
M4- «
q g—c-\-n %. Alfo let SG be called e.
We have now for the expreflion of the velocity
F(<r4-W 20
J'p r14- M « iz*
“ = M X
c-\-n %
J'p r*
M4-« z2
But
fpr2
(Rotation, N° 30)^ Therefore, finally,z»-
Had there been no addition of matter
F c-\-n z
M ^ ce-\-n%-
F c
made, we fliould have had 1;=: X —• It remains to
’ M c e
c
{how, that 2; may be fo taken that — may be lefs than
c-\-n z
find that they can aid the quick motions of thefe light ce-\-nz2
Now, if c be to 2; as c e to 2d, that is, if
be
93
SEAMANSHIP.
be taken equal t® e, the two fractions will be equal.
But if » be lefs than e, that is, if the additional matter
is placed anywhere between S and G, the complex frac-
c
tion will be greater than the fraclion —, and the velo¬
city of rotation will be increafed. There is a particular
dillance which will make it the greateft poffible, name¬
ly, when 55 is made — — c1-^n ce—c), as will
eafily be found by treating the fradtion
c-(-» %
*4
The rota¬
tion per¬
formed
round a
fpontane-
ous axis.
„ /ith
ce-\-n%
2;, confidered as the variable quantity, for a maximum.
In what we have been faying on this fubjedt, we have
confidered the rotation only in as much as it is per¬
formed round the centre of gravity, although in every
moment it is really performed round a fpontaneous axis
lying beyond that centre. This vras done becaufe it af¬
forded an eafy invefligation, and any angular motion
round the centre of gravity is equal to the angular
motion round any other point. Therefore the extent
and the time of the evolution are accurately defined.—
From obferving that the energy of the force F is pro¬
portional to ^G, an inattentive reader will be apt to
conceive the centre of gravity as the centre of motion,
and the rotation as taking place, becaufe the motnenta of
the fails and rudder, on the oppofite fides of the centre
of gravity, do not balance each other. But we muft
always keep in mind that this is not the caufe of the ro¬
tation. The caufe is the want of equilibrium round
the point C (fig. io.), where the adtions of the water
balance each other. During the evolution, which con-
fifts of a rotation combined with a progreffive motion,
this point C is continually fliifting, and the unbalanced
momenta which continue the rotation always refpedt the
momentary fituation of the point C. It is neverthelefs
always true that the energy of a force F is proportional
\cceteris Paribas') to q G, and the rotation is always
made in the fame diredtion as if the point G w7ere really
the centre of converfion. Therefore the mainfail adts
always (when oblique) by pulhing the ftern away from
the wind, although it flrould fometimes adt on a point
of the vertical lever through C, which is a-head of C.
Thefe obfervations on the effedts of the fails and
rudder in producing a converfion, are fufficient for ena¬
bling us to explain any cafe of their adtion which may
occur. We have not confidered the effedts which they
tend to produce by inclining the fhip round a horizon¬
tal axis, viz. the motions of rolling and pitching. See
Rolling and Pitching. To treat this fubjedt pro¬
perly would lead us into the whole dodtrine of the equi¬
librium of floating bodies, and it would rather lead to
maxims of conftrudtion than to maxims of manoeuvre.
M. Bouguer’s Traite du Navire, and Euler’s Scientia
Navalis are excellent performances on this fubjedt, and
we are not here obliged to have recourfe to any errone¬
ous theory.
It is eafy to fee that the lateral preflure both of the
wind on the fails and of the water on the rudder tends
to incline the fhip to one fide. The fails alfo tend to
prefs the fhip’s bows into the water, and, if fhe were
kept from advancing, Avould prefs them down confider-
the fails ba-ably. But by the flop’s motion, and the prominent
lance each form of her bows, the refiftance of the water to the
ether. fore part Qf the flop produces a force which is diredled
<*5
Different
operations
of the wa
ter on the
fhip and
wind on
upwards. The fails alfo have a fmall tendency to raife
the fhip, for they conftitute a furface which in general
feparates from the plumb-line below. This is remark¬
ably the cafe in the ftayfails, particularly the jib and
fore-topmaft ftayfail. And this helps greatly to foften
the plunges of the fhip’s bows into the head feas. The
upward preflure alfo of the water on her bows, which
we juft now mentioned, has a great effedt in oppofing
the immerfion of the bows which the fails produce by
adding on the long levers furnifhed by the malts. M.
Bouguer gives the name otpaint velique to the point V
(fig. 12.) of the malt, where it is cut by the line CV, Fig. 12.
which marks the mean place and diredtion of the whole
impulfe of the water on the bows. And he obferves, that
if the mean diredtiun of all the adtions of the wind
on the fails be made to pafs alfo through this point,
there will be a perfedt equilibrium, and the fhip will
have no tendency to plunge into the water or to rife
out of it j for the whole action of the water on the
bows, in the diredtion CV, is equivalent to, and may
be refolved into the adtion CE, by which the progref¬
five motion is refifted, and the vertical adtion CD, by
which the fhip is raifed above the water. The force
CE muft be oppofed by an equal force VD, exerted by
the wind on the fails, and the force CD is oppofed by
the weight of the fhip. If the mean effort of the fails
paffes above the point V, the fhip’s bow will be preffed
into the water ; and if it pafs below V, her ftern will
be preffed doAvn. But, by the union of thefe forces,
flie Avill rife and fall Avith the fea, keeping always in a
parallel pofition. We apprehend that it is of very little
moment to attend to the fituation of this point. Ex¬
cept Avhen the fhip is right afore the Avind, it is a thou-
fand chances to one that the line CV of mean refiflance
does not pafs through any mafl ; and the fadt is, that
the fhip cannot be in a ftate of uniform motion on any
other condition but the perfedt union of the line of
mean adtion of the fails, and the line of mean adtion of
the refiftance. But its place fhifts by every change of
leeway or of trim ; and it is impoffible to keep thefe
lines in one conftant point of interfedtion for a moment,
on account of the inceffant changes of the furface of the
water on Avhich fhe floats. M. Bouguer’s obfervations
on this point are, however, very ingenious and original. ^
We conclude this differtation, by deferibing fome °f chief evo-
the chief movements or evolutions. What Ave have faid lutions de-
hitherto is intended for the inftrudtion of the artift* by feribed.-
making him fenfible of the mechanical procedure. The
defeription is rather meant for the amufement of the
landfman, enabling him to underfland operations that
are familiar to the feaman. The latter Avill perhaps
fmile at the awkward account given of his bufinefs by
one Avho cannot hand, reef, or fleer.
To tack Ship.
The fhip muft firft he kept full, that is, Avith a
very fenfible angle of incidence on the fails, and by
no means hugging the Avind. For as this evolution is
chiefly performed by the rudder, it is neceffary to give
the fhip a good velocity. When the fhip is obferved
to luff up of herfelf, that moment is to be catched for
beginning the evolution, becaufe fhe Avill by her inhe¬
rent force continue this motion. The helm is then put
down. When the officer calls out Helm’s a-lee, the
fore-fheet, fore-top boAvline, jib, and flag fail fheets for-
Avard
94
r;g. 13.
S E A M A
ward are let go. The jib is frequently hauled down.
Thus the obftacles to the ihip’s head coming up to the
wind by the aftion of the rudder are removed. If the
mainfail is fet, it is not unufual to clue up the weather
lide, which may be confidered as a headfail, becaufe it
is before the centre of gravity. The mizen muft
be hauled out, and even the fail braced to windward.
Its power in paying off the ftern from the wind con-
fpires with the action of the rudder. It is really an
aerial rudder. The fails are immediately taken aback.
In this date the effedl of the mizen-topfail would be
to obftrudl the movement, by prefling the ftern the con¬
trary way to what it did before. It is therefore either
immediately braced about ftiarp on the other tack, or
lowered. Bracing it about evidently tends to pay
round the ftern from the wind, and thus aflift in bring¬
ing the head up to the wind. But in this pofition it
checks the progreflive motion of the (hip, on which the
evolution chiefly depends. For a rapid evolution, there¬
fore, it is as well to lower the mizen-topfail. Mean¬
time, the headfails are all aback, and the aftion of the
wind on them tends greatly to pay the ftiip round. To
increafe this effeft, it is not unufual to haul the fore-top
bowline again. The fails on the mainmaft are now al-
moft becalmed ; and therefore when the wind is right a-
head, or a little before, the mainfail is hauled round and
braced up ftiarp on the other tack with all expedition.
The ftayfail flieets are now fhifted over to their places
for the other tack. The fliip is now entirely under the
-power of the headfails and of the rudder, and their ac¬
tions, confpire to promote the converfion. The fliip has
acquired an angular motion, and will preferve it, fo that
now the evolution is fecured, and the falls off apace from
the wind on the other tack. The farther a&ion of the
rudder is therefore unneceflary, and would even be pre¬
judicial, by caufmg the fliip to fall off too much from
the wind before the fails can be ftiifted and trimmed for
failing on the other tack. It is therefore proper to right
the helm when the wind is right ahead, that is, to bring
the rudder into the direftion of the keel. The ftiip con¬
tinues her converfion by her inherent force and the ac¬
tion of the headfails.
When the ftiip has fallen off about four points from
the wind, the headfails are hauled round and trimmed
ftiarp on the other tack with all expedition ; and al¬
though this operation was begun with the wind four
points on the bow, it will be fix before the fails are braced
up, and therefore the headfails will immediately fill.
The after-fails have filled already, while the headfails
were inaftive, and therefore immediately check the far¬
ther falling off from the wind. All fails now draw,
for the ftayfail ftieets have been ftiifted over while they
were becalmed or {baking in the wind. The ftiip now
gathers way, and will obey the fmalleft motion of the
helm to bring her clofe to the wind.
We have here fuppofed, that during all this opera¬
tion the fliip preferves her progreflive motion. She
muft; therefore have defcribed a curve line, advancing
all the while to windward. Fig. 13. is a reprefenta-
tion of this evolution when it is performed in the com-
pleteft manner. The fliip {landing on the courfe E «,
with the wind blowing in the direflion WF, has her
helm put hard a-lee when ftie is in the pofition A. She
immediately deviates from her courfe, and defcribing a
curve, comes to the pofition B, with the wind blowing
5
N S H I P.
in the direction WF of the yards, and the fquare-fails
now ftiiver. The mizen topfail is here reprefented
braced ftiarp on the other tack, by which its tendency
to aid the angular motion (w’hile it checks the progref-
five motion) is diftinftly feen. The main and fore¬
fails are now ftiivoring, and immediately after are taken
aback. The effeft of this on the headfails is diftinff-
ly feen to be favourable to the converfion, by puftiing
the point F in the direction F i; but for the fame rea-
fon it continues to retard the progreflive motion.
When the ftiip has attained to the pofition C, the main-
fail is hauled round and trimmed for the other tack.
The impulfe in the diredlion F i ftill aids the converfion
and retards the progreflive motion. When the fliip has
attained a pofition between C and D, fucli that the
main and mizen topfail yards are in the diredftion of the
wind, there is nothing to counteradl the force of the
headfails.to pay the ftiip’s head off from the wind.
Nay, during the progrefs of the fliip to this interme¬
diate pofition, if any wind gets at the main or mizen
topfails, it a£ts on their anterior furfaces, and impels
the after parts of the ftiip away from the curve abed,
and thus aids the revolution. We have therefore faid,
that when once the fails are taken fully aback, and
particularly when the wind is brought right ahead, it
is fcan* poflible for the evolution to fail •, as foon there¬
fore as the main topfail (trimmed for the other tack)
ftiivers, we are certain that the headfails will be filled
by the time they are hauled round and trimmed. The
ftayfails are filled before this, becaufe their ftieets have
been ftiifted, and they ftand much {harper than the
fquare-fails ; and thus every thing tends to check the
falling off from the wind on the other tack, and this
no fooner than it ftiould be done. The ftiip immedi¬
ately gathers "way, and holds on in her new courfe d G.
But it frequently happens, that in this converfion the
fliip lofes her whole progreflive motion. This fometimes
happens while the fails are fliivering before they are
taken fully aback. It is evident, that in this cafe there
is little hopes of fuccefs, for the «ftiip now lies like a log,
and neither fails nor rudder have any adtion. The fliip
drives to leeward like a log, and the water adting on the
lee fide of the rudder checks a little the driving of the
ftern. The head therefore falls off again, and by and
by the fails fill, and the ftiip continues on her former
tack. This is called missing stays, and it is generally
owing to the {hip’s having too little velocity at the be¬
ginning of the evolution. Hence the propriety of keep¬
ing the fails well filled for feme little time before. Rough
weather, too, by railing a wave which beats violently
on the weather-bow, frequently checks the firft luffing
of the ftiip, and beats her off again.
If the ftiip lofe all her motion after the headfails
have been fully taken aback, and before we have
brought the wind right ahead, the evolution becomes
uncertain, but by no means defperate ; for the adlion
of the wind on the headfails will prefently give her ftern-
way. Suppofe this to happen when the ftiip is in the po¬
fition C. Bring the helm over hard to windward, fo
that the rudder fhall have the pofition reprefented by
the fmall dotted line of. It is evident, that the refin¬
ance of the water to the ftern-way of the rudder acts in
a favourable direction, puftiing the ftern outwards. In
the mean time, the adtion of the wind on the headfails
pufties the head in the oppofite direction. Thefe ac¬
tions
95
SEAMANSHIP.
lionsconfpire therefore in promoting the evolution*, and
if the wind is right ahead, it cannot fail, but may even
be completed fpeedily, becaufe the fhip gathers ftern-
way, and the a&ion of the rudder becomes very power¬
ful *, and as foon as the wind comes on the formerly lee-
bow, the a&ion of the water on the now lee-quarter will
greatly accelerate the converiion. W hen the wind
therefore has once been brought nearly right ahead, there
is no rilk of being baffled.
But fflould the fflip have loft all her headway con-
fiderably before this, the evolution is very uncertain :
for the action of the water on the rudder may not be
nearly equal to its contrary aftion on the lee-quarter;
in which cafe, the adlion of the wind on the headlails
may not be fufficient to make up the difference. When
this is obferved, when the {hip goes aftern without
changing her pofition, w*e muft immediately throw the
headlails completely aback, and put the helm down
again, which will pay off the fhip’s head from the wind
enough to enable us to fill the fails again on the fame
tack, to try our fortune again ; or we muft boxhaul
the ftiip, in the manner to be defcribed by and by.
Such is the ordinary procefs of tacking {hip; a pro-
cefs in which all the different modes of aftion of the
rudder and fails are employed. To execute this evolu¬
tion in the moft expeditious manner, and fo as to gain
as much on the wind as poflible, is confidered as the
teft of an expert feaman. We have defcribed the pro¬
cefs which is beft calculated for enfuring the movement.
But if the {hip be failing very brilkly in fmooth w*ater,
fo that there is no danger of mifling flays, v’e may gain
more to windward confiderably by keeping faft the
fore-top bowline and the jib and ftay-fail ftieets till the
fquare-fails are all {hivering : For thefe fails, continuing
to draw with confiderable force, and balancing each
ether tolerably fore and aft, keep up the {hip’s velocity
very much, and thus maintain the power of the rudder.
If we now let all fly when the fquare fails are {hivering,
the fhip may be confidered as without fails, but expofed
to the action of the water on the lee bow *, from which
arifes a ftrong preffure of the bow to windward, which
confpires with the attion of the rudder to aid the con-
verfion. It evidently leaves all that tendency of the
bow to windward which ariles from leeway, and even
what was counteracted by the formerly unbalanced ac¬
tion of thefe head-ftayfails. This method lengthens the
whole time of the evolution, but it advances the {hip to
windward. Obferve, too, that keeping faft the fore¬
top bowline till the fail fhivers, and then letting it go,
infures the taking aback of that fail, and thus inftantly
produces an aftion that is favourable to the evolution.
The moft expert feamen, however, differ among
themfelves with refpeCf to thefe two methods, and the
firft is the moft generally praftifed in the Britifhnavy,
becaufe the leaft liable to fail. The forces which op-
pofe the converfion are fooner removed, and the produc¬
tion of a favourable aCfion by the backing of the fore-
top-fail is alfo fooner obtained, by letting go the fore¬
top bowline at the firft.
Having entered fo minutely into the defeription and
rationale of this evolution, we have fufficiently turned
the reader’s attention to the different a&ions which co¬
operate in producing the motions of converfion. We
fhall therefore be very brief in our defeription of the
other evolutions.
To wear Ship.
When the feaman fees that his {hip will not go a-
bout head to wind, but will mifs {lays, he muft change
his tack the other way ; that is, by turning her head
away from the wind, going a little way before the wind,
and then hauling the wind on the other tack. This is
called WEARING or VEERING {hip. It is moft neceffary
in ftormy weather with little fail, or in very faint
breezes, or in a difabled ftiip.
The procefs is exceedingly fimple; and the mere nar¬
ration of the procedure is fufficient for {flowing the pro¬
priety of every part of it.
Watch for the moment of the {hip’s falling off, and
then haul up the mainfail and mizen, and ftiiver the
mizen topfail, and put the helm a-weather. When the
fliip falls off fenfibly (and not before), let go the bow¬
lines. Eafe away the fore-ftieet, raife the fore-tack, and
gather aft the weather fore-lheet, as the lee-ftieet is ea-
fed aw7ay. Round in the weather-braces of the fore
and main-mafts, and keep the yards nearly bifeding the
angle of the ivind and keel, fo that when the fhip is
before the wind the yards may be fquare. It may even
be of advantage to round in the weather-braces of the
main-topfail more than thofe of the head-fails ; for the
mainmaft is abaft the centre of gravity. All this
while the mizen-topfail muft be kept fhivering, by
rounding in the weather-braces as the ftiip pays off
from the wind. Then the main top-fail will be braced
up for the other tack by the time that we have brought
the wind on the weather-quarter. After this it will
be fulk'and will aid the evolution. When the wind
is right aft, ftiift the jib and ftay-fail ftieets. The evo¬
lution now goes on with great rapidity 5 therefore brifk-
ly haul on board the fore and main tacks, and haul out
the mizen, and fet the mizen-ftayfail as foon as they will
take the wind the right way. We muft now* check
the great rapidity with which the fliip comes to the
wind on the other tack, by righting the helm before
we bring the wind on the beam 5 and all muft be trim¬
med ftiarp fore and aft by this time, that the headfails
may take and check the coming to. All being trim--
med,. ftand on clofe by the wind.
We cannot help lofing much ground in this move¬
ment. Therefore, though it be very fimple, it requires-
much attention and rapid execution to do it with as lit¬
tle lofs of ground as poflible. One is apt to imagine at
firft that it would be better to keep the headfails braced
up on the former tack, or at leaft not to round in the
weather-braces fo much as is here diredfed. When the
fhip is right afore the wind, we ftiould expeft afflftance
from the obliquity of the head-fails 5 but the rudder being
the principal agent in the evolution, it is found that more
is gained by increafing the {hip’s velocity than by a
fmaller impulfe in the headfails more favourably di¬
rected. Experienced feamen differ, however, in their
praftice in refpeft of this particular.
To boxhaul a Ship.
This is a procefs performed only in critical fituations,
as when a rock, a {hip, or fome danger, isfuddenly feen
right ahead, or when a ftrip miffes flays. It requires the
moft rapid execution.
The {hip being clofe-hauled on a wind, haul up the
mainfail
S E A M A
tnamfail and mizen, and flixver the topfails, and put the
helm hard a-lee altogether. Raii'e the fore-tack, let
go the head bowline:?, and brace about the he ad fails
lharp on the other tack. The (hip will quickly lofe
her way, get ftern-way, and then tall off, by the joint
aft ion of the headiails and of the inverted rudder.
When (lie has fallen off eight points, brace the after-
fails fquare, which have hitherto been kept ihivering.
This will at firll increafe the power of the rudder, by
increafing the ftern wray, and at the fame time it makes
no oppofition to the converfion which is going on. The
continuation of her circular motion will prefently caufe
them to take the wind on their after furfaces. This
will check the ftern-way, flop it, and give the fhip a
little head-way. Now drift the helm, fo that the rud¬
der may again aft in conjunction with the headfails in
paying her off from the wind. This is the critical part
of the evolution, becaufe the fhip has little or no way
through the water, and will frequently remain long in
this pofition. But as there are no counterafting forces,
the (hip continues to fall off. Then the weather-braces
of.the after-fails may be gently rounded in, fo that the
wind afting on their hinder furfaces may both pudi the
Ihip a little a-head and her ftern laterally in conjunc¬
tion with the rudder. Thus the wind is brought upon
the quarter, and the headfails driver. By this time the
{hip has acquired fome headway. A continuation of the
rotation would now fill the headfails, and their aftion
would be contrary to the intended evolution. They are
therefore immediately braced the other w’ay, nearly
fquare, and the evolution is now completed in the fame
manner with wearing fhip.
Some feamen brace all the fails aback the moment
that the helm is put hard a-lee, but the after-fails no
more aback than juft to fquare the yards. This quick¬
ly gives the drip ftern-way, and brings the rudder into
aftion in its inverted direftion ; and they think that the
evolution is accelerated by this method.
There is another problem of feamanfhip deferving of
our attention, which cannot properly be called an evo¬
lution. This is lying-to. This is done in general by
laying fome fails aback, fo as to flop the head-way pro¬
duced by others. But there is a confiderable addrefs
neceffary for doing this in fuch a way that the (hip
{hall lie eafily, and under command, ready to proceed in
her courfe, and eafily brought under weigh.
To bring-to with the fore or main-topfail to the maft,
brace that fail (harp aback, haul out the mizen, and
clap the helm hard a lee.
Suppofe the fore-tepfail to be aback ; the other fails
ftioot the fhip ahead, and the lee-helm makes the fhip
come up to the wind, which makes it come more
perpendicularly on the fail which is aback. Then its
impulfe foon exceeds thofe on the other fails, which are
now fhivering, or almoft fhivering. The fhip ftands ftill
awhile, and then falls off, fo as to fill the after-fails,
which again ftioot her ahead, and the procefs is thus
repeated. A fhip lying-to in this wray goes a good deal
ahead and alfo to leeward. If the main-topfail be
aback, the (hip fhoots ahead, and comes up till the di-
minifhed impulfe of the drawing fails in the direftion of
the keel is balanced by the increafed impulfe on the
main-topfail. She lies a long while in this pofition,
driving {lowly to leeward; and fire at laft falls off by the
N S FI I P.
beating of the water on her weather-bow. She falls off
but little, and foon comes up again.
Thus a fhip lying to is not like a mere log, but has
a certain motion which keeps her under command. To
get under weigh again, we mult watch the time of fall¬
ing off j and when this is juft about to finifh, brace
about brilkly, and fill the fail which was aback. To
aid this operation, the jib and fore top maft ftay-i’ail may
be hoifted, and the mizen brailed up : or, when the in¬
tended courfe is before the wind or large, back the fore-
topfail (harp, fhiver the main and mizen topfail, brail
up the mizen, and hoift the jib and fore-topmaft ft ay-
fails altogether.
In a ftorm with a contrary wind, or on a lee (here, a
fhip is obliged to lie-to under a very low fail. Some fail
is abfolutely neceffary, in order to keep the (hip fteadi-
ly down, otherwife (lie would kick about like a cork,
and roll fo deep as to ftrain and work herfelf to pieces.
Different (hips behave beft under different fails. In a
very violent gale, the three lower ftay-fails are in gene¬
ral well adapted for keeping her fteady, and diftribu-
ting the ftrain. This mode feems alfo well adapted for
wearing, which may be done by hauling down the mi¬
zen-ftayfail. Under whatever fail the fhip is brought-
to in a ftorm, it is always with a fitted fail, and never
with one laid aback. The helm is laftied down hard
a-lee j therefore the ftiip (hoots ahead, and comes up
till the fea on her weather bow-beats her off again. Get¬
ting under weigh is generally difficult ; becaufe the (hip
and rigging are lofty abaft, and hinder her from falling
off readily when the helm is put hard a-weather. We
muff watch the falling off, and aflift the (hip by fome
fmall headfail. Sometimes the crew get up on the wea¬
ther fore-ftirowds in a crowd, and thus prefent a furface
to the wind.
These examples of the three chief evolutions will
enable thofe who are not feamen to underftand the pro¬
priety of the different fteps, and alfo to underftand the
other evolutions as they are deferibed by praftical au¬
thors. We are not acquainted with any performance
in our language where the whole are confidered in a
connefted and fyftematic manner. There is a book on
this fubjeft in French, called Lc Manauvrier, by M.
Burde de Ville-Huet, which is in great reputation in
France. A tranflation into Englifti was publifhed fome
years ago, faid to be the performance of the Chevalier
de Saufeuil a French officer. But this appears to be a
bookfeller’s puff; for it is undoubtedly the work of
fome p^rfon who did not underftand either the French
language, or the fubjeft, or the mathematical principles
which are employed in the fcientific part. The blun¬
ders are not fuch as could poflibly be made by a French¬
man not verfant in the Englifh language, but natural
for an Engliftunan ignorant of French. No French
gentleman or officer would have tranflated a work of
this kind (which he profeffes to think fo highly of) to
ferve the rivals and foes of his country. But indeed
it can do no great harm in this way j for the fcientific
part of it is abfolutely unintelligible for want of fcience
in the tranllator j and the pradlical part is full of blun¬
ders for want of knowledge of the French language.
We offer this account of the fubjeft with all proper
refpeft and diffidence. We do not profefs to teach :
but
SEAMANSHIP.
PMTE CCCCLXX/X .
’ • V -. '
97
SEAMANSHIP.
but by pointing out the defers of the celebrated works
of M.' Bouguer, and the courfe which may be taken
to remove them, while we preferve much valuable know¬
ledge which they contain, we may perhaps excite fome
perfons to apply to this fubject, who, by a combination
of what is juft in M. Bouguer’s theory, with an expe¬
rimental doctrine of the impulfes ot fluids, may produce
a treatife of feamanftiip which will not be confined to
the libraries of mathematicians, but become a manual
for feamen by profeffion.
SEA
Seamen. SEAMEN, fuel) perfons as ferve the king or others
a—Y~—' at fea by navigation and fighting flaps, &c. See
Maritime State.
Seamen fighting, quarrelling, or making any difturb-
ance, may be puniihed by the commiflioners of the navy
with fine and imprifonment. Regiftered feamen are
exempted from ferving in any pariih office, &c. and are.
allowed bounty-money befide their pay. By the law of
merchants, the feamen of a veflel are accountable to the
mafter or commander, the mafter to the owners, and
the owners to the merchants, for damage fuftained ei¬
ther by negligence or otherwife. Where a feaman is
hired for a voyage, and he deferts before it is ended,
he fliall lofe his wages •, and in cafe a ihip be loft in a
ftornq the feamen lofe their wages, as well as the owners
their freight.
Means of Preferving the Health of SEAMEN. See
Medicine, N° 351.
In addition to what has been faid on this fubje<51: in
the place referred to, we fliall fubjoin fome valuable ob-
fervations which we have met with in the fixth volume
of the Memoirs of the Royal Society of Medicine at
Paris for the years 1-784 and 1785.
In 1783, the marihal de Caftries, intending to make
fome changes in the regulations of the navy, particu¬
larly with regard to diet, propofed to the fociety the
two following queftions: 1. “ What are the moft whole-
fome aliments for feamen, confidering the impoflibility
of procuring them frefti meat ? And what kinds of fait
meat or fiffi, of pulfe, and of drink, are moft proper for
them, and in what quantity, not omitting, to inquire
into the regimens in ufe amongft other maritime nations
for what may be adopted by us, and into what expe¬
rience has evinced the utility of, from the accounts of
the moft celebrated navigators?” 2. “ A number of
patients labouring under different difeafes being affem-
bled in naval hofpitals, and different conftitutions af¬
fected by the fame difeafe requiring difference of diet,
what general dietetic rules for an hofpital would be beft
adapted to every exigence, dividing the patients into
three claffes *, the firft in which liquids alone, are proper,
the fecond in which we begin to give folids in fmall
quantities, and the ftate of convalefcence in wfliich a
fuller diet is neceffary ?” A committee w^as appointed
to draw up an anfwer to thefe, who inveftigated the
fubjeCt very minutely. The refult of their labours is
there given at large. The obfervations moft worthy of
notice are, that the feurvy of the Englith feamen, who
live chiefly on falt-meat, is a putrid difeafe *, whilft that
of the Dutch, who ufe farinaceous vegetables and dried
pulfe in large quantities, has more of an hydropical
tendency. A mixture of both, even at the fame meal,
'is recommended. This is fupported by philofophical
reafohing, and the example of Captain Cook, who was
partly indebted to this mixed regimen for the preferva-
VOL, XIX. Part L
SEA
tion of his crew. Salt fifh ftiould never be ufed : fait Seamen,
beef grows hard, and after boiling its fibrous parts only Seapoys.
remain, which are more calculated to load the ftomach "v'"
than recruit the ftrength. Salt bacon may be kept at
fea 18 months j it does not lofe its moilt and nutri-
mental parts, and unites better with pulfe, but ftiould
not be ufed when rancid. Live animals kept on board
ihips tend to produce difeafes amongft the crew. Rice
ftiould be ufed largely. Our puddings are bad food :
the flour would be much better made into bread, which
might be done at fea, with no great trouble. Sour krout
ftiould be ufed freely. Muftard, vinegar, fugar, melaf-
fes, and honey, are good antifcorbutics. Of drinks,
wine is the beft : wort, fpruce-beer, or the Ruffian quas,
are good fubftitutes. Spirits are only to be ufed in cold
climates, and in fmall quantity. The greater part of
the excellent memoir in anfwer to the fecond queftion,
perfeflly coincides with M. Duhamel du Monceaux’s
“ Means of Preferving the Health of Seamen,” and
M. Poiffonnier des Perrieres’s treatifes “ On the Dif¬
eafes of Seamen,” and “ On the advantages of changing
the Diet of Seamen,” and his “ Examination of Pringle’s
Differtation.”
SEAPOYS, or Sepoys, natives of Indoftan fer¬
ving in a military capacity under the European powers,
and difoiplined after the European manner.
The Seapoys of the Englifti Eaft India Company
compofe perhaps the moft numerous, regular, and beft
difeiplined body of black’ troops in the world. They
are raifed from among the natives of the country, and
confift of Moors or Mahometans, Raja-poots, Hindoos,
Pariars, befides many intermediate calls peculiar to
themfelves; the whole modelled in all correfponding
particulars, and difeiplined in every refpedl as the army
of Great Britain.
The military eftabluhments of Bengal, Madras, and
Bombay, have each their rtfpeftive numbers, that of
Bengal exceeding the reft. The Seapoys are formed
into complete, uniform, and regular battalions, as our
marching regiments at home, being intended to repre-
fent and anfwer fully to every purpofe in India to the
like troops in Europe. A battalion confifts of 700
men, of complete effective ftrength. In each there are
eight companies, including two flank ones or grena¬
diers. They are refpe&ively commanded by their own
black and European officers ; to each company there
is attached a fubaltern, who takes the command, under
whom are two native commiffioned officers, bearing the
rank of fubidar and jimindar 5 of eight fubalterns, fix
are lieutenants, the other enfigns 5 exclufive is a ftaff,
of adjutant and furgeon. The black non-commiffioned
officers anfwer to our ferjeants and corporals, and are
called havildars and naigues. There is alfo to each
corps an Englifti ferjeant-major, drill and ftore ferjeantj.
to each battalion is a band of drums and fifes, and -to
N each
SEA [ 98 ] SEA
Seapoys.
each a pair of colours. A captain commands the
whole.
Their jackets, which are made entirely after the Eu¬
ropean fafhion, are of a red colour with yellow facings
(as worn by all the infantry of the company on the
Coromandel coaft). The remaining part of their at¬
tire refembles more the country or Indian habit, and
con fids of a dark blue turban, broad and round at top,
defeending deep to the bottom, the fides of which, of a
concave form, are crofled by a white band, running in
front, faftened under a rofe above. As an under gar¬
ment, they have a jacket of linen. A dark blue falh
girding, to anfwer the turban, goes round their middle.
On the thighs they have fhort drawers, fattened by a
fcolloped band. Their legs are bare, which renders
them more ready for action or fervice. Their arms are
a firelock and bayonet; their accoutrements or crofs
belts black leather, with pouches the fame.
A battalion drawn out cannot but flrike the fpefta-
ters with a lively and fanciful military impreflion, as
they unite in their exterior traits refpedtively Indian and
European.
They are brought to the utmoft exaftnefs of difei-
pline ; go through their evolutions and manoeuvres with
a regularity and precifion equal to, and not furpaffed by
European troops. In aftion they are brave and fteady,
and have been known to Hand where Europeans have
given way.
Their difeipline puts them on a footing with Euro¬
pean troops, with whom they are always ready to aft
in concert. *
Their utility and fervices are evident: they fecure to
the company the internal good order and prefervation
of their territorial dillrifts, which, though poffible to be
enforced with a ftrong hand by Europeans, requires
numbers, and can only be condufted with that eafe and
addrefs peculiar to the native forces of the country.
They are confidered with refpeft in the eyes of the
other natives, though they fufficiently, and with a good
grace, feel and affert their own confequence. In large
o-arrifons, where the duty is great, as Madras, Pondi¬
cherry, Trichinopoly, Vellore, &c. two or three batta¬
lions might be prefent together, exclufive of Europeans.
If fent fingly up the country, they are liable to be de¬
tached, fometimes by one or more companies being fent,
to a ftation dependent on the chief garrifon or head¬
quarters, otherwife they are difperfed through the di-
• Itrifts, four or five together, with a non commiffioned
officer (this is a part of the fervice which is called ^0/^
on command), on hills, or in villages, to preferve order,
convey intelligence, and affift the taffildar, renter, or
cut wall of the place, in cafes of emergency. They alfo
enforce the police, and prevent in fuch cafes the coun¬
try from being infefted with thieves, which otherwife
have combined, forming a banditti, to rob paffengers,
and plunder cattle, of which there are fo many inflances
upon record. As for fuch Britiffi officers in the com¬
pany’s fervice as are attached to battalions, they are
obliged to follow the fortunes and deftinations of their
men, with their refpeftive corps, leading a life often
replete with adventures of a peculiar nature. An in¬
dividual in fuch cafes is frequently feeluded from thofe
of his own colour when up the country, or detached
upon command, where in a frontier garrifon or hill fort
in the interior parts of India none but natives are to be
4
found. Here he might live as he pleafes, being perfeft- Seapoys,
ly abfolute within his jurifdiftion. Such llations being Search-
lucrative, with management may produce great for- . %v‘‘rruri;:-
tunes. Neither is the condition hard to a perfon eon-
verfant in the language of the country, or that of the
Seapoys called Moors (which moft officers in the com¬
pany’s ferviee acquire) 5 otherwife the lofs of fociety is
not recompenfed by other advantages, as you forget your
own language, grow melancholy, and pafs your days
without comfort.
The peace eftabliffiment at Madras confifts of 30 Sea-
poy battalions, but in time of war is augmented as oc-
caiion requires ; or frequently each corps is flrengthen-
ed by the addition of two companies, which are redu¬
ced again in time of peace, the officers remaining fuper-
numeraries in the fervice. In garrifon they are quarter¬
ed in barracks: they live agreeably to the ufage of
the country, fleep on the ground on a mat or thin car¬
pet. In their perfons they are cleanly, but appear to
beft advantage in their uniform. Off duty they go as-
the other natives in poor circumftancesj and have only
a cloth round their middle and over their ffioulders. As
to the different calls, the Moormen or Muffulmen afferfe
pre-eminence, as coming into the country by conqueft.
In their perfons they are rather robuft, and in their
tempers vindiftive.' Their religion and drefs is dillinft
from the Hindoos, who are mild and paffive in their
temper, faithful, Heady, and good foldiers. The Pa-
riars are inferior to the others, live under different cir-
cumftances, dwell in huts, and affociate not on equal
terms with the reft j they do all menial offices, are fer-
vants to Europeans, and think themfelves happy when
by them employed, though they are equally good Sea¬
poys.
Having thus treated of the company’s Seapoys, we
{hall obferve that they are kindly attentive to their offi¬
cers when often in circumftances requiring their affift-
ance ; are guilty of few vices; and have a ftrong at¬
tachment for thofe who have commanded them. That
acute hiftorian Dr Robertfon has remarked, as a proof
that the ingenuity of man has recourfe in fimilar fitua-
tions to the fame expedients, that the European potvers*
have, in forming the eftabliffiment of thefe native troops,
adopted the fame maxims, and, probably without know¬
ing it, have modelled their battalions of Seapoys upon
the fame principles as Alexander the Great did his pha¬
lanx of Perfians.
SEARCH-WARRANT, in Laiv, a kind of general
warrant iffued by juftices of peace or magiftrates of
towns for fearching all fufpefted places for ftolen goods.
In Scotland this was often done formerly •, and in fome
Engliffi law books there are precedents requiring the
conftable to fearch all fuch fufpefted places as he and
the party complaining fhall think convenient •, but fuch
praftice is condemned by Lord Hale, Mr Hawkins, and
the beft; authorities both among the Engliffi and Scotch
lawyers. However, in cafe of a complaint, and oath
made of goods ftolen, and that the party fufpefts that
thofe goods are in a particular houfe, and (hows the
caufe of fuch fufpicion, the juftice may grant a warrant
to fearch not only that houfe but other fufpefted pla¬
ces ; and to attach the goods, and the party in whofe
cuftody they are found, and bring them before him or
fome other juftice, to give an account how he came by
them, and to abide fuch order as to law lhall appertain j
which.
SEA
[ 99 J
S E B
Search-
warrant
II.
Ssafonmg.
Mofeley
Tropical
Dijeafei.
which warrant fliould be directed to the conftable or
other public officer, who may enter a fufpe&ed houfe
and make fearch.
SEARCHER, an officer in the cuftoms, whole bu-
finefs it is to fearch and examine ffiips outwards bound,
if they have any prohibited goods on board, &c. (i 2
Car. II.). There are alfo fearchers of leather, &c. See
Alnager.
Searcher, in ordnance, is an iron focket with
branches, from four to eight in number, a little bent
outwards, with fmall points at their ends *, to this focket
is fixed a wooden handle, from eight to twelve feet
long, of about an inch and a quarter diameter. After
the gun has been fired, this fearcher is introduced into
it, and turned round, in order to difcover the cavities
within. The diftances of thefe cavities, if any be
found, are then marked on the outfide with chalk, when
another fearcher that has only one point, about which
a mixture of wax and tallow is put, is introduced to take
the impreffion of the holes j and if there be any hole, a
quarter of an ineh deep, or of any confiderable length,
the gun is reje&ed as unferviceable.
SE ARCLOTH, or Cerecloth, in Surgery, a form
of external remedy fomewhat harder than an unguent,
yet fofter than an emplafter, though it is frequently
ufed both for the one and the other. The cerecloth is
always fuppofed to have wax in its compofition, which
diftinguiihes and even denominates it. In effeft, when
a liniment or unguent has wax enough in it, it does not
differ from a cerecloth.
SEASIN, in a (hip, the name of a rope by which
the boat rides by the ftiip’s fide when in harbour, &c.
SEASONING, the fir ft illnefs to which perfons
habituated to colder climates are lubjedl on their arrival
in the Weft Indies. This feafoning, unlefs they live
very temperately, or are in a proper habit of body
(though fome people are unmolefted for many months),
feldotn fuffers them to remain long before it makes its
appearance in fomc mode or other *, particularly if at
fir ft they expofe themfelves in a ffiower of rain, or too
long in the fun, or in the night-air *, or when the body
is much heated, if they drink large draughts of cold li¬
quors, or bathe in cold wrater j or ufe much exercife j
or commit excefs in drinking wine or fpirits ■, or by
heating the body and inflaming the blood ; or by fub-
jedling themfelves to any caufe that may fuddenly check
perfpiration, which at firft is generally exceffive.
Some people, from a favourable ftate of body, have
no feafoning. Thin people, and very young people,
are mod likely to efcape it. Women generally do from
their temperance, and perhaps their menftruation con¬
tributes to their lecunty j indeed hot climates are fa¬
vourable to the delicacy of their habits, and fuitable to
their modes of life. Some efcape by great regularity
of living ; fome by the breaking out of the rafh, called
the prickly heat i fome by a great degree of perfpira¬
tion 5 and fome by obferving a cooling regimen.. The
diforders are various that conftitute this feafoning of
new-comers as they are called j depending on age, con-
ftitution, and habit of body. But all feafoning difenfes
are of the inflammatory kind *, and yield to antiphlo-
giftic treatment proportioned to their violence. When
all precaution to guard againft ficknefs has failed, and
prudence proved abortive to new-comers, they will have
this comfort at leaft for their pains, that their difordets
will feldom be fevere or expenfive, and will generally Seafonltig
have a fpeedy termination ; and that their feafoning, as
it is emphatically called, will be removed by bleeding, .
a dofe of falls, reft, and a cooling regimen.
Seasoning of Timber. See Timber.
SEASONS, in Cofmography, certain portions or
quarters of the year, diftinguUhed by the iigns which
the fun then enters, or by the meridian altitudes of the
fun ; confequent on which are different temperatures
of the air, different works in tillage, &c. See Wea-*
THER.
The year is divided into four feafons, fpring, futn-
mer, autumn, and winter, The beginnings and endings
of each whereof, fee under its proper article. It is to
be obferved, the feafons anciently began differently from
what they now do : witnefs the old verfes,
Dat Clemens hyemem ; dat Petrus ver cathcdratu
JEJluat Urbanus ; autumnal Bartholomceus.
SEAT, in the manege, is the pofture or fituation of
a horfeman upon the faddle.
SEATON, a fmall fiftiing town on the fouth coaft
of Devon, between Lyme and Sidmouth. Rifdon fays
“ our learned antiquarians would have it to be that
Maridunum whereof Antonine fpake, placed between
Dunnovaria and Ifca for Maridunum in Britifti is the
fame with Seaton in Engliffi, “ a town upon a hill by
the fea-fide.” This place is memorable for the Danifti
princes landing there in the year 937*
SEBACIC acid, fo called, becaufe it is procured
from fat. For an account of its preparation and pro¬
perties, fee Chemistry, page 540. and N® 802.
ST SEBASTIAN, a handfome, populous, and ftrong
town of Spain, in the province of Guipufcoa, with a
good and well frequented harbour. It is feated at the
foot of a mountain j and the harbour fecured by two
moles, and a narrow entrance for the ftiips. The town
is furrounded with a double wall, and to the fea-fide is
fortified with baftions and half moons. The ftreets are
long, broad, and ftraight, and paved with white flag-
jftones. At the top of the mountain is a citadel, with
a garrifon well furnilhed with cannon. The town car¬
ries on a confiderable trade, the greateft part of which
confifts of iron and fteel, which fome reckon to be the
heft in Europe. They alfo deal in wood, which comes
from Old Caftile. W. Long. 1. 59. N. Lat. 43. 23.—
The capital of Brafil in South America is likewife call¬
ed Sebajlian.
SEBASTIANO, called Del Piombo, from an office
in the lead mines given him by Pope Clement VII.
was an eminent Venetian painter, born in 1485' He
was firft a difciple of old Giovanni Bellino 5 continued
his ftudies under Giorgione j and having attained an
excellent manner of colouring, went to Rome, where
lie infinuated himfelf into the favour of Michael Ange¬
lo. He has the name of being the firft who invented
the art of preparing plafter-walls for oil-painting 5 but
was fo flow and laiy in his work, that other hands were
often employed to finiffi what he began. He died in
1547.
SEBESTEN. See CordIa, BotaKY Index.
SEBC/EI, a feft among the ancient Samaritans,
whom St Epiphanius accufes of changing the time ex-
preffed in the law, for the celebration of the great an¬
nual feafts of the Jervs.
N 2 SEB UR AT,
Stburai
SEC [ ioo ] SEC
SEBURAI, Sebuiuei, a name which the Jews give
to fuch of their rabbins or doctors as lived and taught
fome time after the finifhing of the Talmud.
SECAC.UL, in the Materia Medica of the ancients,
a name given by Avicenna, Serapion, and others, to a
root which was like ginger, and was brought from the
Eaft Indies, and ufed as a provocative to venery. The
interpreters of their works have rendered this word
iringo ; and hence fome have fuppofed that our eryngium
or et'yngo was the root meant by it : but this does not
appear to be the cafe on a drift inquiry, and there is
fome reafon to believe that the famous root, at this time
called ginfeng, was what they meant.
SECALE, Rye, a genus of plants belonging to the
triandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 4th order, Gramma. See Botany and A-
GRICULTURE Index.
The cereale, or common rye, has glumes with rough
fringes. It is a native of the illand of Candia, was in¬
troduced into England many ages ago, and is the only
fpecies of rye cultivated in this kingdom. There are,
however, two varieties, the winter and fpring rye.
The winter rye, which is larger in the grain than the
fpring rye, is fown in autumn at the fame time with
wheat, and fometimes mixed with it; but as the rye
ripens fooner than the wheat, this method mud be very
exceptionable. The fpring rye is fown along with the
oats, and ufually ripens as foon as the winter rye •, but
the grain produced is lighter, and it is therefore fel-
dom fown except where the autumnal crop has failed.
Rye is commonly fown on poor, dry, limedone, or
fandy foils, where wheat will not thrive^ By continu¬
ing to fow it on fuch a foil for two or three years, it
will at length ripen a month earlier than that which has
been raifed for years on drong cold ground.
Rye is commonly ufed for bread either alone or mix¬
ed with wheat. This mixture is called mejlin, and w’as
formerly a very common crop in fome parts of Britain.
Mr Mardiall tells us, that the farmers in Yorkdiire be¬
lieve that this mixed crop is never affefted by mildew,
and that a fmall quantity of rye fown among wheat will
prevent this dedruftive difeafe. Rye is much ufed for
bread in fome parts of Sweden and Norway by the
poor people. About a century ago rye-bread was alfo
much ufed in England •, but being made of a black
kind of rye, it vras of the fame colour, clammy, very
detergent, and confequently not fo nouridiing as wheat,
Rye is fubjeft to a difeafe which the French call er¬
got, and the Englidi horned rye ; which fometimes hap¬
pens when a very hot dimmer fucceeds a rainy fpring.
According to Tiffot, horned rye is fuch as fuffers an
irregular vegetation in the middle fubdance between
the grain and the leaf, producing an excrefcence of a
brownidi colour, about an inch and a half long, and
two-tenths of an ineli broad. Bread made of this kind
of rye has a naufeous acrid, tade, and produces fpafmo-
dic and grangrenous diforders. In 1596, an epidemic
difeafe prevailed in HefTe, wdiich the phydcians afcribed
to bread made of horned rye. Some, we are told,
were feized with an epilepfy, and thefe feldom ever re¬
covered } others became lunatic, and continued dupid Seeale
the red of their lives : thofe who apparently recovered fl
had annual returns of their diforder in January and Fe- <'ce^trs'
bruary j and the difeafe was faid to be contagious at
lead in a certain degree. The fafts which we have
now mentioned are taken from a wrork of Tiffot, which
was never printed. The fame difeafe was occafioned
by the ufe of this bread in feveral parts of the con¬
tinent in the years 1648, 1675, 1702, 1716, 1722, .
and 1736 j and has been very minuttly defcribed by*
Hoffman, A. O. Goelicke, Vater Burghart, and J. A..
Srink.
In the year 1709, one fourth part of all the rye
raifed in the province of Salonia in France was horn¬
ed, and the furgeon to the hofpital of Orleans had no
lefs than 500 patients under his care that were didem-
pered by eating it : They were called ergots, from er¬
got {a), the French name for horned rye j they confid¬
ed chiefly of men and boys, the number of women and
girls being very fmall. The fird fymptom was a kind
of drunkennefs, then the local diforder began in the toes,,
and thence extended fometimes to the thigh, and the
trunk itfelf, even after amputation, which is a good
argument againd that operation before the gangrene is.
dopped.
In the year 1710, the celebrated Fontenelle defcribes-
a cafe in the Hidory of the Academy of Sciences of
France, wdiich exaftly refembles that of the poor fa¬
mily at Wattidiam. A peafant at Blois, who had eaterv
horned rye in bread, was feized with a mortification
which fird caufed all the toes of one foot to fall off,
then the toes of the other, afterwards the remainder of
the feet, and, ladly, it ate off the dedi of both his legs
and thighs, leaving the bones bare.
Horned rye is not only hurtful to man, but to other
animals 5 it has been known to dedroy even the dies
that fettled upon it j fheep, dogs, deer, geefe, ducks,
fwine, and poultry, that were fed with it for experi¬
ment, died miferably, fome convulfed, others mortified
and ulcerated.
SECANT, in Geometry, a line that cuts another or
divides it into parts. The fecant of a circle is a line
drawn from the circumference on one fide to a point
without the circumference on the other j and it is de-
mondrated by geometers, that of feveral fecants drawn
to the fame point, that is the longed which paffes
through the centre of the circle. The portions, however,
of thefe feveral fecants that are without the circle are fo
much the greater as they recede from the centre, and
the lead external portion is of that fecant which paffes
through it.
Secant, in Trigonometry, denotes a right line drawn
from the centre of a circle, which, cutting the circum¬
ference, proceeds till it meets with a tangent to the fame
circle. See Geometry.
Line of Secants, one of thofe lines or feales which
are ufually put upon feftors. See Sector, N° 12. J
SECEDERS, a numerous body of Prefbyterians inseceders.
Scotland, who have withdrawn from the communion
of the edablidied church. As they take up their
ground
(a) Ergot is French for a cock’s fpur, and horned rye was called ergot from the refemblance of its excrefcence
to that part.
Seceders.
SEC [ 101 ] SEC
around upon the eftablifhment of religion from 1638 to of that warm attachment which the church of Scotland ^cecferv
sjiuuuu. —  o . _ x ,
1 1650, which they hold to be the pureft period ot the
Scottifh church, we fhall introduce our account of them
by a fhort view of ecclefiaftical hiftory from that pe¬
riod to the era of their feceflion. With our ufual can¬
dour and impartiality we mean to give a fair ftatement
of thofe events with which, as they fay, their feceflion
is connefted. # .
James I. having for fome time previous to his death
entertained a with to form the church of Scotland as
much as poflible upon the model of that in England, his
fon Charles, with the afliftance of Archbifliop Laud,
endeavoured to carry the defign into execution, .by efta-
blifhing canons for eeclefialtical difeipline, and introdu¬
cing a liturgy into the public fervice of the church.—
Numbers of the clergy anu laity of all ranks took the
alarm at what they confidered to be a bold and dan¬
gerous innovation ; and after frequent applications. to
the throne, they at laft obtained the royal proclamation
for a free parliament and general aflembly. 1 he aflem-
bly met in 1638, and began their labours with a repeal
of all the ads of the fix preceding parliaments, which
had favoured the defigns of James, ihey condemned
the liturgy, together with every branch of the hierarchy.
They cited all the Scottifh bifliops to their bar j and
after having excommunicated nine of them, and depofed
five from their epifcopal office, they reftored kirk-fef-
fions, prelbyteries, and fynods provincial as wrell as na¬
tional. See Presbyterians.
Thefe proceedings were ratified by the parliament
■which met in 1640. The law of patronage was in full
force for feveral years after this period 5 yet great care
was taken that no minifter ffiould be obtruded on the
Chriftian people contrary to their inclinations 5 and in
1649 it was aboiiffied as an oppreffive grievance.
The reft oration of Charles II. in 1660 changed the
face of affairs in the church of Scotland. All that the
general affembly had done from 1638 to 1650 was ren¬
dered null and void, the covenants were pronounced to
be unlawful, epifcopacy was reftored, and the king was
declared to be the fupreme head of the church in all
caufes civil and ecclefiaftical. During this period the
Prefbyterians were fubjedled to fines and imprifonment,
while numbers of them were publicly executed for their
adherence to their political and religious tenets.
The Revolution in 1688 gave a different turn to the
affairs of the church. The firft parliament which met
after that event, abolifhed prelacy and the king’s fupre-
macy in ecclefiaftical affairs. They ratified the WTeft-
minfter Confeffion of Faith, together with the Prefby-
terian form of church-government and difeipline, “ as
agreeable to the word of God, and molt conducive to
the advancement of true piety and godlintfs, and the
eftabliffiment of peace and tranquillity within thefe
realms.” That fame parliament aboliflied patronage,
and lodged the election of minifters in the hands of
heritors and elders, with the confent of the congre¬
gation.
In the reign of Queen Anne the true Proteftant re¬
ligion was ratified and eftabliffied, together with the
Prelbyterian form of church-government and difeipline j
and the unalterable continuance of both was declared to
be an effential condition of the union of the two king¬
doms in all time coming. In 1712 the law refpeaing
patronage wTas revived, in refentment, it has been faia,
3
difeovered to the family of Hanover} but the feverity
of that law was greatly mitigated by the firft parliament
of George I. flat. 30. by which it is enacted, that, if
the prefentee do not fignify his acceptance, the prefen-
tation ftiall become void and null in law. I he church,
however, did net avail herfelf of this ftatute 5 and an
event which happened not many years afterwards gave
rife to the feccjfion. 2
In 1732 more than 40 minifters prefented an addrefs Origin en
to the general affembly, fpecifying in a variety of in-
ftances what they confidered to be great defections from
the eftablilhed qonftitution of the church, and craving
a redrefs of thefe grievances. A petition to the fame
effedt, fubferibed by feveral hundreds of elders and pri¬
vate Chriftians, was offered at the lame time 5 but the
affembly refufed a hearing to both, and enadted, that
the eledtion of minifters to vacant charges, where an
accepted prefentation did not take place, Ihould be com¬
petent only to a conjundt meeting of elders and heri¬
tors, being Proteftants. To this ad many objections
were made by numbers of minifters and private Chri¬
ftians. They afferted that more than thirty to one in
every pariffi were not poffeffed of landed property, and
were on that account deprived of what they deemed-
their natural right to choofe their owTn pallors. It was
alfo faid, that this aft was extremely prejudicial to the
honour and mtereft of the church, as well as to the edi¬
fication of the people j and, in fine, that it w’as diredtly
contrary to the appointment of Jefus Chrift, and the
pradlice of the apoftles, when they filled up the firft
vacancy in the apoftolic college, and appointed the
eledtion of deacons and elders in the primitive church.
 Many of thofe alfo who were thought to be the
bell friends of the ,ehurch expreffed their fears that
this adt would have a tendency to overturn the ecclefi¬
aftical conftitution which was eftablilhed at the Revo¬
lution.
Mr Ebenezer Erlkine, minifter at Stirling, diftin-They op-
o-uiffied himfelf by a bold and determined oppofition topofe the
the meafures of the affembly in 1732. Being at thatmeafures^o.
time moderator of the fynod of Perth and Stirling, he aprem^iy ;
opened the meeting at Perth with a fermon from Pfalm
cxviii. 22. “ The ftone which the builders rejedled is
become the head ftone of the corner.” In the courfe
of his fermon he remonftrated with no fmall degree , of
freedom again!! the adt of the preceding affembly with
regard to the fettlement of minifters, and alleged that
it was contrary to the word of God and the eftablifti-
ed conftitution of the church. A formal complaint
was lodged again!! him for uttering feveral offenfive ex-
prefhons in his fermon before the fynod. IVIany of
the members declared that they heard him utter no¬
thing but found and feafonable dodtrine ; but his aecu-
fers infilling on their complaint, obtained an appoint¬
ment of a committee of fynod to colled! what were
called the offenfive expreffions, and to lay them before
the next diet in writing. This was done accordingly ;
and Mr Erlkine gave in his anfwers to every article of
the complaint. After three days warm reafoning on
this affair, the fynod by a majority of fix found him 4.
cenfurable 5 again!! which fentence he protefted, and for which
appealed to the next general affembly. When the af-their mini,.
fembly met in May 1733, it affirmed the fentence of
the fynod, and appointed Mr Erlkine to be rebuked
snd
SEC [ 102 ] SEC
Seceder?. and admoniflied from the chair. Upon which he pro-
tefted, that, as the affembly had found him cenfurable,
and had rebuked him for doing what he conceived to
be agreeable to the word of God and the ftandards of
the church, he fhould be at liberty to preach the fame
truths, and to teftify againft the fame or fimilar evils,
on every proper occafion. To this proteft Meffrs Wil¬
liam Wilfon minifter at Perth, Alexander Moncrief
minifter at Abernethy, and James Fither minifter at
Kinclaven, gave in a written adherence, under the form
of inftrument; and thefe four withdrew, intending to
return to their refpedtive charges, and a£t agreeably to-
their proteft whenever they ftiould have an opportuni¬
ty. Had the affair refted here, there never would have
been a feceflion ; but the affembly refolving to carry
on the procefs, cited them by their officer to compear
next day. They obeyed the citation ; and a committee
was appointed to retire with them, in order to perfuade
them to withdraw their proteft. The committee ha¬
ving reported that they ftill adhered to their proteft,
the affembly ordered them to appear before the com-
miffion in Auguft following and retraft their proteft ;
and if they fhould not comply and teftify their for-
row for their condufl, the commiffion rvas empowered
to fufpend them from the exercife of their miniftry,
with certification that if they ffiould aft contrary to faid
fentence, the commiffion ffiould proceed to an higher
2 cenfure.
Sufpended The commiflion met in Auguft accordingly ; and the
From the f0lu- minifters ftill adhering to their proteft, were fuf-
their"office Pen^C(^ ^rom the exercife of their office, and cited to
’ the next meeting of the commiffion in November fol¬
lowing. From this fentence feveral minifters and elders,
members of the commiffion, diffented. The commif¬
fion met in November, and the fufpended minifters
compeared. Addreffes, reprefentations, and letters from
feveral fynods and prelbyteriesj relative to the bufinefs
now before the commiffion, were received and read.
The fynods of Dumfries, Murray, iiofs, Angus and
Mearns, Perth and Stirling, craved that the commif¬
fion would delay proceeding to a higher cenfure. The
fynods of Galloway and Fife, as alfo the prefbytery of
Dornoch,addreffed the commiffion for lenity, tendernefs,
and forbearance, towards the fufpended minifters and
the prefbytery of Aberdeen reprefented, that in their
judgment, the fentence of fufpenfion inffifted on the
forefaid minifters was too high, and that it was a ftretch
of ecclefiaftical authority. Many members of the com¬
miffion reafoned in the fame manner, and alleged that
the aft and fentence of laft affembly did not oblige them
to proceed to an higher cenfure at this meeting of the
commiffion. The queftion, however, was put, Proceed
to an higher cenfure, or not ? and the votes being
numbered, were found equal on both fides : upon which
Mr John Goldie the moderator gave his calling vote
to proceed to a higher cenfure ; which Hands in their
minutes in thefe words : “ The commiffion did and
hereby do loofe the relation of Mr Ebenezer Erfkine
minifter at Stirling, Mr William Wilfon minifter at
Perth, Mr Alexander Moncrief minifter at Abernethy,
6- and Mr James Filher minifter at Kinclaven, to their re-
oeprived of fpeftive charges, and declare them no longer minifters
their !i- of this church 5 and do hereby prohibit all minifters of
VinSs ? this church to employ them, or any of them, in any mi-
niftcrial funftion. And th« commiffion do declare the
churches of the faid minifters vacant from and after the Secede?,
date of this fentence.” v *’v*~
This fentence being intimated to them, they proteft-
ed, that their minifterial office and relation to their re-
fpeftive charges ffiould be held as valid as if no fuch
fentence had paffed 5 and that they were now obliged to
make a feceffion from the prevailing party in the eccle¬
fiaftical courts 5 and that it (hall be lawful and warrant¬
able for them to preach the gofpel, and difeharge every
branch of the paftoral office, according to the word of
God and the eftablifhed principles of the church of Seot^
land. Mr Ralph Erfldne minifter at Dunfermline, Mr
Thomas Mair minifter at Orwel, Mr John M‘Laren
minifter at Edinburgh, Mr John Currie minifter at
Kinglaffie, Mr James Wardlaw minifter at Dunferm¬
line, and Mr Thomas Nairn minifter at Abbotffial, pro-
tefted againft the fentence of the commiffion, and that
it fhould be lawful for them to complain of it to any fub-
fequent general affembly of the church.
The feceffion properly commenced at this date. And
accordingly the ejedied minifters declared in their pro¬
teft that they were laid under the difagreeable neceffity
of feceding, not from the principles and conftitution of
the church of Scotland, to which, they faid, they fted-
faftly adhered, but from the prefent church-courts,
which had thrown them out from minifterial communion.
The affembly, however, which met in May 1734 did fo
far modify the above fentence, that they empowered
the fynod of Perth and Stirling to receive the ejedted
minifters into the communion of the church, and reftore,
them to their refpedlive charges j but with this exprefs
direclion, “ that the faid fynod fhould not take upon
them to judge of the legality or formality of the former
procedure of the church judicatories in relation to this
affair, or either approve or cenfure the fame.” As this
appointment neither condemned the a cl of the prece¬
ding affembly nor the condudf of the commiffion, the
feceding minifters confidered it to be rather an adf of
grace than of juftice, and therefore they faid they could
not return to the church-courts upon this ground } and
they publifhed to the world the reafims of their refufal,
and the terms upon which they were rvilling to return
to the communion of the eftablifhed church. They now
eredfed themfelves into an ecclefiaftical court, which they
called the Affociatcd Prcfpj/terij, and preached occafion-
ally to numbers of the people who joined them in differ¬
ent parts of the country. They alfo publifhed what
they called an Adi, Declaration, and Te/iimony, to the
dodlrine, worffiip, government, and difeipline of the
church of Scotland, and againft feveral inftances, as
they faid, of defedlion from thefe, both in former and in
the prefent times. Some time after this feveral minifters
of the eftabliftied church puned them, and the Affocia-
ted Prefbytery now confifted of eight minifters. But
the general affembly which met in 1738 finding that
the number of Seceders was much increafed, ordered
the eight minifters to be ferved with a libel, and to be
cited to the next meeting of the affembly in 1739.
Jhey now appeared at the bar as a conftituted preffiy-
tery, and having formally declined the affembly’s autbo- ^
rity, they immediately withdrew. The affembly which and degta-
met next year depofed them from the office of the mi- ded.
niftry *, which, however, they continued to exercife in
their refpe&ive congregations, who ftill adhered to them,
and eredled meeting houfes, where they preached till
their
SEC
t
legality of
the burgei's
oath,
S«cet’ers. their'death. Mr James Fiflier, the laft fur v Ivor of tliem,
^^’ was, by an unanimous call in 1741, tranilated from
Kinclaven to Glafgow, where he continued in the exer-
cife of his miniftry among a numerous congregation,
refpefted by all ranks in that large city, and died in
1775 much regretted by his people and friends. In
1745 the feceding minifters were become fo numerous,
that they were crefted into three different prefbyteries,
under one fynod, when a very unprofitable difpute di¬
vided them into two parties.
The burgefs oath in feme of the royal boroughs of
Scotland contains the following claufe : “ I profefs
8 and allow with my heart the true religion prefently
They di- profelfed within this realm, and authorized by the laws
vide among thereof. I will abide at and defend the fame to my
themfelves life’s end, renouncing the Romilh religion called Pa-
about the piflnj. ” Meflfs Ebemzer and Ralph Erikine, James
Fiflier, and others, affirmed that this claufe was no way
contrary to the principles on which the feceffion was
formed, and that therefore every Seceder might lawfully
fvvear it. Meffrs Alexander Moncrief, Thomas Mair,
Adam Gib, and others, contended on the other hand
that the 1 wearing of the above claufe rvas a virtual re¬
nunciation of their teflimony. And this controverfy was
fo keenly agitated, that they fplit into two different
parties, and now met in different fynods. Thofe of
them who affert the lawfulnefs of fwearing the burgefs
oath are called Burghers, and the other party who Con¬
demn it are called Antiburgher SeceJers. Each party
claiming to itfelf the lawful conflitution of the /([fociate
Synod, the Antiburghers after feveral previous fteps,
excommunicated the Burghers on the ground of their
fin and of their contumacy in it. This rupture took
place in 1747, fince which period no attempts to effeft
a reunion have been fuccefsful. They remain under the
jurifdidflion of different fynods, and hold feparate com¬
munion, although much of their former hoftility has
been laid afide. The Antiburghers confider the Burgh¬
ers as too lax and not fufficiently ftedfaft to their tef-
timony. The Burghers on the other hand contend
that the Antiburghers are too rigid, in that they have
introduced new terms of communion into the fociety.
The Antiburghers having adopted ideas with regard to
what they call covenanting, which the Burghers never
approved (a), have been in ufe of renewing in their
feveral congregations the Scottiffi Covenant, by caufing
their people formally fwear to maintain it. In other
refpefts the differences between the two parties are not
material. The Antiburghers are moft numerous on
9
and form
fnparate
communi¬
ons.
03 ] SEC
the north of the Tay, and the Burghers on the fouth Seceders.
What follows in this article is a further account of jj^0 of
thole who are commonly called the Burgher Seceders.
Thefe have a greater number of people in their com-er Seceders.
munion than the Antiburghers, and for fome years
pall they have greatly increafed in the fouthern and
weftern diftri£ts of Scotland. As there rvere among
them from the commencement of their leceffion feveral
Undents who had been educated at one or other of the
univerfities, they appointed one of their minirters to give
leisures in theology, and train up candidates for the
miniftry. Meffrs William Wilfon miniller at Perth,
and Alexander Moncrief minifter at Abernethy, were
their profeffors of theology before their reparation from
the Antiburghers.
Since that period Mr Ebenezer Erikine minifter at
Stirling, Mr James Fiflier minifter at Glafgow, Mr
John Swan ft on minifter at Kinrofs, and Mr John Brown
minifter at Haddington, have fucceeded each other in
this office. At prefent Mr George Lawfon minifter
at Selkirk is their profeffor of theology, and there
are between thirty and forty ftudents who attend his
le.ftures annually. The number of their minifters is
about an hundred, and each of their congregations
contains from two hundred and fifty to three thou-
fand perfons ; and there are among them at prefent
more than twenty vacant charges. Where a congrega¬
tion is very numerous, as in Stirling, Dunfermline, and
Perth, it is formed into a collegiate charge, and provi¬
ded with two minifters. They are erefted into fix dif¬
ferent prelhyteries, united in one general fynod, which
commonly meets at Edinburgh in May and Septem-
ber (b). 'I hey have alfo a fynod in Ireland compofed
of three or four different prejfbyteries. They are legally
tolerated in Ireland ; and government fome years ago
granted 500I. per annum, and of late an additional
500I. which, when divided among them, affords to
each minifter about 20I. over and above the ftipend
which he receives from his hearers. Thefe have belides
a prelbytery in Nova Scotia; and fome years ago, it is
find, that the Burgher and the Antiburgher minifters re-
fiding in the United States formed a coalition, and
joined in a general fynod, which they call the Synod of
New York and Pennfylvania. They all preach the doc¬
trines contained in the Weftminfter Confeffion of Faith
and Catechifms, as they believe thefe to be founded on
the facred feriptures. They catechife their hearers
publicly, and vifit them from houfe to houfe once every
year.
(a) This is the account which the Burghers give of their own notions refpefting the covenant. One of the
moft enlightened of their opponents, however, affures us that they acknowledge covenanting to be a moral duty,
and that the folemn vows of our anceftors are obligatory. But fince the breach in the fynod they have never en¬
gaged in this work ; giving as their reafon, that this is not the proper feafon.
(b) The conftitution of the Antiburgher churcli differs very little from that of the Burghers. The fupreme
court among them is defigned The General AJfociate Synod, having under its jurifdidtion three provincial fynods
in Scotland and one in Ireland. In the former country there are eleven prefbyteries j in the latter, four. They
have a few congregations in England, and a prelbytery in connexion with them in North America. The
number of minifters belonging to the general fynod is a hundred and thirty feven ; and in Scotland there are
nineteen vacancies. They, as well as the Burgher Seceders, have a profeffor of theology, whofe lectures every
candidate for the office of a preacher is obliged to attend, we have been told for no lefe than five or fix feflions I
Surely the feffion mull be of ffiort duration.
Seced«rs.
ii
Their rules
of faith,
SEC [i
year. They will not give the Lord’s {upper to thofe
who are ignorant of the principles of the. gofpel, nor to
fuch as are fcandalous and immoral in their lives.
They condemn private baptifm, nor will they admit
thofe who are grofsly ignorant and profane to be fpon-
fors for their children. Believing that the people have
a natural right to choofe their own paftors, the fettle-
ment of their minifters always proceeds upon a popu¬
lar election ; and the candidate who is elected by the
majority is ordained among them. Convinced that the
charge of fouls is a truft of the greateft importance,
they carefully watch over the morals of their Itudents,
and direct them to fuch a courfe of reading and ftudy
as they judge moft proper to qualify them for the pro¬
fitable difcharge of the paftoral duties. At the ordina¬
tion of their minifters they ufe a formula of the fame
kind with that of the eftablilbed church, which their
minifters are bound to fubfcribe when called to it •, and
if any of them teach doftrines contrary to the Scriptures
or the Weftminfter Confeffion of Faith, they are fure of
being thrown out of their communion. By this means
uniformity of fentiment is preferved among them j nor
has any of their minifters, excepting one, been profecute.d
for error in do&rine fince the commencement of their
feceflion.
They believe that the holy fcriptures are the iole
criterion of truth, and the only rule to direct mankind
to glorify and enjoy God, the chief and eternal good ;
and that “ the Supreme J udge, by which all controver-
fies of religion are to be determined, and all the decrees
of councils, opinions of ancient writers,. doftrines of
men and private fpirits, are to be examined, and in
ivhofe fentence we are to reft, can be no other but the
Holy Spirit fpeaking in the Scriptures.” They are
fully perfuacled, however, that the ftandaids of public
authority in the church of Scotland exhibit a juft and
confident view of the meaning and defign of the holy
fcriptures with regard to do&rine, w'orftiip, government,
and difcipline •, and they in fo far differ from the diffent-
ers in England, in that they hold thefe ftandards to be
not only articles of peace and a teft of orthodoxy, but
as a bond of union and fellowftiip. i hey confider a
fimple declaration of adherence to the fcriptures as too
equivocal a proof of unity in fentiment, becaufe Arians,
Socinians, and Arminians, make fuch a confeffion of
their faith, while they retain fentiments which they
(the Seceders) apprehend are fubverfive of the great
doctrines of the gofpel. They believe that Jefus Chrift
is the only King and Head of the Church, which is
his body 5 that it is his foie prerogative to. enatt laws
for the government of his kingdom, which is not of this
world j and that the church is not pofleffed of a legifla-
tive, but only of an executive power, to be exercifed in
■explaining and applying to their proper objefts and ends
thofe laws which Chrift hath publiftied in the fcriptures.
Thofe do&rines which they teach relative to faith and
praftice are exhibited at great length in an explanation
-of the Weftminfter Affembly’s Shorter Catechifm, by
way of queftion and anfwer, in two volumes, compofed
chiefly by Mr James Either late of Glafgow, and pub-
lilhed by defire of their fynod.
For thefe 50 years paft, the grounds of their feceffion,
they allege, have been greatly enlarged by the public
adminiftrations of the eftabliflied church, and particular¬
ly by the uniform execution of the law refpefhng patro-
04 ] SEC
nage, which, they fay, has obliged many thoufands of Seceders.
private Chriftians to withdraw from the pariffi-churches w—'
and join their fociety.
It is certain, hoivever, that their number has rapidly
increafed of late, efpecially in the large cities of the
kingdom. They have three different congregations in
Edinburgh, two in Glafgow, and two in London, be-
fides feveral others in the north of England. In moft
of their congregations they celebrate the Lord’s fupper
twice in the year, and they catechife their young people
concerning their knowledge of the principles of religion
previoufly to their admiffion to that facrament. When
any of them fall into the fin of fornication or adultery,
the fcandal is regularly purged according to the form of
procefs in the eftablifhed church j and thofe of the de¬
linquents who do not fubmit to adequate cenfure are
publicly declared to be fugitives from difcipline, and
are expelled the fociety. They never accept a fum of
money as a commutation for the offence. Ihey con¬
demn all clandeftine and irregular marriages, nor will
they marry any perfons unlefs they have been proclaimed
in the parith-church on two different Lord’s days at leak. ^
When they feparated from the eftablilhed church, an(^ p0]jt;.
they remained firm in their attachment to the ftate \ and cai princi-
they were not many years formed into a diftinfl fociety, pies,
when they expelled from their communion a Mr Thomas
Nairn minifter at Kirkcaldy, who had taught dodlrines
inimical to the civil government of the nation. In 1745
there was not one of their number who joined the pre¬
tender to the Britiffi crown. They are ftill of the fame
fentiments \ and in their public affemblies they always
pray for our fovereign King George, with the royal fa¬
mily, and for all who are in authority under them. They
are fo far from wifliing the overthrow of the prefent ci¬
vil government, that when the nation was lately in dan¬
ger of being thrown into a fermentation by the circula¬
tion of inflammatory and feditious writings, they warmly
recommended peace and order in fociety. The fame re¬
marks, we believe, are equally applicable to the Anti-
burgher feceders. No legal difqualifications, as in the
cafe of the diffenters in England, exclude them from
any place of public truft in the municipal government
of the country ; and fome of them are frequently in the
magiftracy of the royal boroughs. Ihey are not, how¬
ever, legally tolerated, but are fupported by the mild-
nefs of adminiftration and the liberal fpirit of the times.
Avowing their adherence to the doctrines contained in
the public ftandards of the church of Scotland, together
with the preibyterian form of government, from which
they never intended to fecede, they deny that they are
either fchifmatics or feftaries, as they have been fre¬
quently called : and when they withdrew from the ec-
clefiaftical courts, they did not, they fay,, conftitute a
church of their own, different from the national church,
but profefs to be a part of that church, endeavouring to
hold by her reformed principles, in oppofition to thofe
deviations from them which they have fpecified in their j,
Att and Tejlimony. Moft of them live in habits of'fheir me-
fr lend flu p and intimacy with their brethren of the efta- deration,
blifliment, and they profefs an affedlionate regard for
all thofe of every denomination who love Jefus Chrift;
in fincerity and truth. In the late re-exhibition of their
teftimony, they have declared to the world, that, ivere
the grounds of their feceffion happily removed, they
would account it one of the moft Angular felicities of
their
SEC [i
Seceders their time to return with pleafure to the communion of
II the eftabliihed church.
Seeker. SECHIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the mo-
" N noecia clafs j and in tlie natural method ranking under
'the 34th order, Cucurbitacece. See Botany Index.
SECKENDORF, Guy Lewis de, a very learned
German, defeended from an ancient and noble family,
was born at Aurach in Franconia in i6?6. He was
a good linguift, learned in law, hiftory, and divinity ;
and is faid to have been a tolerable painter and engra¬
ver. He was honourably employed by feveral of the
German princes; and died counfellor of date to Fre¬
deric III. ele&or of Brandenburg, and chancellor of
the univerfity of Halle, in 1692. He wrote many
books, particularly “ A hiftory and defence of the
Lutheran religion,” 2 vols folio, Frankfort, 1602, in
Latin.
SECKER, Thomas, a learned and refpeftable pre¬
late of the church of England, was born, in 1693, at a
village called Sibtkorp, in the vale of Belvoir, in Not-
tinghamfture. His father was a Proteftant diffenter, a
pious, virtuous, and fenfible man ; rvho, having a fmall
paternal fortune, followed no profeftion. His mother
was the daughter of Mr Brough, a fubftantial gentle¬
man farmer of Shelton in the fame county. He recei¬
ved his education at feveral private fchools and acade¬
mies in the country, being obliged, by various accidents,
frequently to change his mailers.
Notwithftanding this difadvantage, he had at the age
of 19 not only made confiderable progrefs in Greek and
Latin, and read the beft writers in both languages, but
had acquired a knowledge of French, Hebrew, Chaldee,
and Syriac ; had learned geography, logic, algebra,
geometry, conic feftions, and gone through a courfe of
leftures on Jewiih antiquities and other points, prepara¬
tory to the critical ftudy of the Bible. He had been
deftined by his father for orders among the Diffenters.
With this view, during the latter years of his education,
his ftudies were chiefly turned towards divinity, in which
he had made fuch quick advances, that by the time he
was 23 he had carefully read over a great part of the
Scriptures, particularly the New Teftament, in the ori-
o-inal, and the beft comments upon it *, Eufebius’s Ec-
clefiaftical Hiftory, The Apoftolical Fathers, Whifton’s
Primitive Chriftianity, and the principal writers for and
againft Minifterial and Lay Conformity.—But though
the refult of thefe inquiries was a well-grounded belief
of the Chriftian revelation, yet not being at that time
able to decide on fome abftrufe fpeculative doctrines,
nor to determine abfolutely what communion he fhould
embrace } he refolved, like a wife and honeft man, to
purfue fome profeftion, which fhould leave him at li¬
berty to weigh thofe things more maturely in his
thoughts, and not oblige him to declare or teach pub¬
licly opinions which were not yet thoroughly fettled in
his own mind.
In 1716, therefore, he applied himfelf to the ftudy of
phyfic, and after gaining all the medical knowledge he
could, by reading the ufual preparatory books, and at¬
tending the beft lectures during that and the following
winter in London, in order to improve himfelf farther,
in January 1718-19 went to Paris. There he lod¬
ged in the fame houfe with the famous anatomift Mr
Window, whofe le£tures he attended, as he did thofe of
the materia medica, chemiftry, and botany, at the king’s
VOL. XIX. Part I.
5 1 « E C
gardens. He faw the operations of forgery at the Ho¬
tel Dieu, and attended alfo for fome time M. Gregoire,
the accoucheur, but without any defign of ever prac-
tifing that or any other branch of forgery. Here he
became acquainted with Mr Martin Benion, afterwards
bifhop of Gloucefier, one of the moft agreeable and vir-
tuou-' men of his time} with whom he quickly became
much connedted, and not many years after was united
to him by the ftridteft bonds of affinity as well as affec¬
tion.
During the whole of Mr Seeker’s continuance at Pa¬
ris, he kept up a conftant correipondence with Mr Jo-
feph Butler, afterwards bifhop of Durham, with whom
he became acquainted at the academy ot one Mi Junes,
kept firft at Gloucefter, and afterward at Tewkfbury.
Mr Butler having been appointed preacher at the bulls
on the recommendation of Dr Clarke and Mr Edward
Talbot, fon to Biihop Talbot, he now took occahon to
mention his friend Mr Seeker, without Seeker’s know¬
ledge, to Mr Talbot, who promiled, in cafe he chofe to
take orders in the church of England, to engage the
biihop his father to provide for him. i his was com¬
municated to Mr Seeker in a letter from Mr Butler
about the beginning of May 1720. He had not at
that time come to any refolution of quitting the ftudy
of phyfic } but he began to forefee many obftacles to
his purfoing that profeflionj and having never diiconti-
nued his application to theology, his former difficulties
both with regard to conformity and fome other doubtful
points had gradually leffened, as his judgment became
ftronger and his reading and knowledge more exten-
five. It appears alfo from two of his letters ftill in be¬
ing, written from Paris to a friend in England, (both
of them prior to the date of Mr Butler’s above mention¬
ed), that he was greatly diffatisfied with the divifions
and difturbances which at that particular period prevail¬
ed among the Diffenters.
In this ft ate of mind Mr Butler’s unexpected propo-
fal found him} which he was therefore very well difpo-
fed to take into confideration •, and after deliberating
on the fobjeCt of foch a change for upwards of two
months, he refolved at length to embrace the offer, and
for that purpofe quitted France about the beginning of
Auguft 1720.
On his arrival in England, he was introduced to Mr
Talbot, with whom he cultivated a clofe acquaintance ;
but it was unfortunately of very Ihort duration •, for in
the month of December that gentleman died of the
fmallpox. This was a great ftiock to all his friends,
who had juftly conceived the higheft expectations of
him } but' efpecially to an amiable lady whom he had
lately married, and who was very near finking under fo
fudden and grievous a ftroke. Mr Seeker, befide (har¬
ing largely in the common grief, had peculiar reafon
to lament an accident that feemed to put an end to all
his hopes } but he had taken his refolution, and he
determined to perfevere. It was fome encouragement
to him to find that Mr Talbot had, on his deathbed,
recommended him, together with Mr Benfon and Mr
Butler, to his father’s notice. Thus did that excellent
young man (for he was but 29 when he died), by his
nice difeernment of charaClers, and his confiderate good
nature, provide moft effectually, in a few folemn mo¬
ments, for the welfare of that church from which he
himfelf was fo prematurely fnatched away j and at the
O fame
Seeker.
SEC [ 106 ] SEC
Seeker, . fame time raifed up, when he leaft thought of it, the
truefl: friend and protestor to his wife and unborn
daughter j who afterwards found in Mr Seeker all that
tender care and affiflance which they could have hoped
for from the neareft relation.
It being judged neceflaryby Mr Seeker’s friends that
he ihould have a degree at Oxford ; and having been
informed, that if he ihould previoufly take the degree of
Dottor in Phyfic at Leyden, it would probably help
him in obtaining the other, he went over and took his
degree there in March 1721 : and, as part of his exer-
cife lor it, he compofed and printed a diflertation de
Medicma Statica, which is ftill extant, and is thought
by the gentlemen of that profeffion to be a fenfibie and
learned performance.
In April the fame year, he entered himfelf a gentle¬
man commoner of Exeter college, Oxford; after which
he obtained the degree of Bachelor of Arts, in confe-
quence of the chancellor’s recommendatory letter to the
convocation.
He now fpent a confiderable part of his time in Lon¬
don, where he quickly gained the efteem of feme of the
moft learned and ingenious men of thofe days, particu¬
larly of Dr Clarke, rector of St James’s, and the cele¬
brated Dean Berkeley, afterwards bilhop of Cloyne,
with whom he every day became more delighted/and
more clofely connected. He paid frequent vifits of gra¬
titude and fi iendlhip to Mrs Talbot, widow of Mr Ed¬
ward I albot, by whom (he had a daughter five months
after his deceafe. With her lived Mrs Catharine Ben-
fon, filler to Bilhop Benfon, whom in many refpetfts fhe
greatly refembled. She had been for feveral years Mrs
1 albot’s inleparable companion, and was of unfpeakable
fervice to her at the time of her hulhand’s death, by ex¬
erting all her courage, a&ivity, and good fenfe (of which
Ihe pofleffed a large (hare), to fupport her friend under
fo great an affliction, and by afterwards attending her
fickly infant with the utmoft care and tendernefs, to
which, under Providence, was owing the prefervation of
a very valuable life.
Bilhop Talbot being in 1721 appointed to the fee of
Durham, Mr Seeker was in 1722 ordained deacon by
him in St James’s church, and prielt not long after in
the fame place, where he preached his firlt fermon
March 28. 1723. The bilhop’s domeftic chaplain at
that time was Dr Bundle, a man of warm fancy and
very brilliant converfation, but apt fometimes to be car¬
ried by the vivacity of his wit into indifereet and ludi¬
crous expreffions, which created him enemies, and, on
one oecafion, produced difagreeable confequences. 
With him Mr Seeker was foon after affociated in the
bilhop’s family, and both taken down by his lordihip to
Durham in July 1723.
In the following year the bilhop gave Mr Seeker the
redlory of Houghton-le-Spring. This preferment put¬
ting it in his power to fix himfelf in the world, in a
manner agreeable to his inclinations, he foon after made
a propofal of marriage to Mrs Benfon ; which being ac¬
cepted, they were married by Bilhop Talbot in 1725.
At the earneft requeft of both, Mrs Talbot and her
daughter confented to live with them, and the two fa¬
milies from that time became one.
About this time Bilhop Talbot alfo gave preferments
to Mr Butler and Mr Benfon, whofe rife and progrefs
io the church are here interwoven with the hiftory of
Mr Seeker.. In the winter of 1725-6, Mr Butler firft Seeker.
publilhed his incomparable ft rmons ; on which, as Dr ' "v—
Beilby Porteous and Dr Stinton inform us, Mr Seeker
took pains to render the llyle more familiar, and the au¬
thor’s meaning more obvious : yet they were at laid by
many called obfeure. Mr Seeker gave his friend the
fame affifiance in that noble work the Analogy of Reli¬
gion, &.C.
He now gave up all the time he poffibly could to his
refidence at Houghton, applying himfelf with alacrity
to all the duties of a country clergyman, and fupport-
ing that ufeful and refpedlable character throughout*
with the firicleft propriety. He omitted nothing which
he thought Would be of ufe to the fouls and bodies of
the people entrulled to his care. Tie brought down
his converfation and his fermons to the level of their
underftandings ; he vifited them in private, he catechi-
fed the young and ignorant, he received his country
neighbours and tenants very kindly and holpitably, and
was of great lervice to the poorer fort of them by his
Ikiil in phylic, which was the only ufe he ever made of
it. 1 hough this place was in a very remote part of the
world, yet the folitude of it perfectly fuited his fiudious
difpofition, and the income arifing from it bounded his
ambition. Here he would have been content to live and
die; here, as he has otten been heard to declare, he
fpent fume of the happieft hours of his life : and it was
no thought or choice of his own that removed him to
a higher and more confpicuous fituation ; but Mrs See¬
ker’s health, which now began to decline, and was
thought to be injured by the dampnefs of the lituation,
obliged him to think of exchanging it for a more heal¬
thy one. Accordingly, an exchange rvas made through
the friendly interpolition of Mr Benfon (who generoully
facrificed his ow n intereft on this occafion, by relin-
quifiling a prebend of his own to ferve his friend) with
Dr Finney, prebendary of Durham, and re&or of By-
ton ; and Mr Seeker was infiituted to Ryton and the
prebend 10063.1727. For the two following years
he lived chiefiy at Durham, going every week "to offi¬
ciate at Ryton, and fpending there two or three months
together in the fummer.
In July 1732 be was appointed chaplain to the king;
for which favour he was indebted to Dr Sherlock, who
having heard him preach at Bath, had conceived the
higheft opinion of his abilities, and thought them well
worthy of being brought forward into public notice.
From that time an intimacy commenced between them
and he received from that great prelate many folid proofs
of efteem and friendfhip.
His month of waiting at St James’s happened to be
Auguft, and on Sunday the 27th of that month he
preached before the queen, the king being then abroad.
A few days after, her majefty fent for him into her
clofet, and held a long converfation with him ; in the
courfe of which he took an opportunity of mentioning
to her his friend Mr Butler. He alfo, not long after
this, on Mr T albot’s being made lord chancellor, found
means to have Mr Butler effectually recommended to
him for his chaplain. Ihe queen alfo appointed him
clerk of her clofet ; from vfflence he rofe, as his talents
became more known, to thofe high dignities which he
afterwards attained.
Mr Seeker now began to have a public character,
and ftood high in the effimation of thoie who were al¬
lowed
SEC [i
Seck«r. lowed to be the beft judges of merit: lie had already
—-v ' given proofs of abilities that plainly indicated the emi¬
nence to which he mull one day rife, as a preacher and
a divine 5 and it was not long before an opportunity of¬
fered of placing him in an advantageous point of view.
Dr Tyrrwhit, who fueceeded Dr Clarke as reftor of
St James’s in 1729, found that preaching in fo large a
church endangered his health. Bilhop Gibfon, there¬
fore, his father-in-law, propofed to the crown that he
fhould be made refidentiary of St Paul’s, and that Mr
Seeker Ihould fucceed him in the reftory. This arrange¬
ment was fo acceptable to thofe in power, that it took
place without any difficulty. Mr Seeker was inftituted
reftor the 18th of May 1733 ; and in the beginning of
July went to Oxford to take his degree of Doftor of
Laws, not being of fufficient Handing for that of divini¬
ty. On this occafion it was that he preached his cele¬
brated Aft Sermon, on the advantages and duties of
academical education, which was univerfally allowed to
be a mafterpiece of found reafoning and juft compoll-
tion : it was printed at the defire of the heads of houfes,
and quickly palled through feveral editions. It is now
to be found in the fecond colleftion of Oecafional Ser¬
mons, publiffied by himfelf in 1766.
.It was thought that the reputation he acquired by
this fermon, contributed not a little toward that promo¬
tion which very foon followed its publication. For in
December 1734, he received a very unexpefted notice
from Biffiop Gibfon, that the king had fixed on him to
be biftiop of Briftol. Dr Benfon was about the fame
time appointed to the fee of Gloucefter, as was Dr Fle¬
ming to that of Carlifte; and the three new biffiops
were all confecraled together in Lambeth Chapel, Jan.
I9- I734'5) confecration-fermon being preached by
Dr Thomas, afterwards biffiop of Winchefter.
The honours to which Dr Seeker was thus raifed in
the prime of life did not in the leaft abate his diligence
and attention to bufinefs; for which, indeed, there was
now more occafion than ever. His learned biographers,
Meffrs Porteous and Stinton, now relate the manner in
which he fet about the vifitation of his diocefe, and the
ceremony of confirmation, which he performed in a
great number of places •, he alfo preached in feveral
churches, fometimes trvice a-day. The affairs of his
parifti of St James’s being likewife in great diforder, he
took extraordinary pains to regulate and adjuft every
thing, particularly the management of the poor ; and
thus even in a temporal view became of fignal fervice
to his pariffiioners. But, fay our authors, “ it was their
fpiritual welfare which engaged, as it ought to do, his
chief attention. As far as the circumftances of the
times, and the populoufnefs of that part of the metro¬
polis allowed, he omitted not even thofe private admo¬
nitions and perfonal applications which are often attend¬
ed with the happieft effefts. He allowed out of his
own income a falary for reading early and late pravers,
which had formerly been paid out of the offertory mo-
nev. Fie held a confirmation once every year, ex¬
amined the candidates feveral weeks before in the veffy,
am* cave them religious trafts, which he alfo diftributed
at other times very liberally to thofe that needed them.
He drew up, for the ufe of his pariffiioners, that admi¬
rable courfe of Leclurcs on the Church Catechifm which
hath been lately publiffied, and not only read them once
every week on the ufual days, but alfo every-Sunday
07 ] SEC
evening, either at the church or one of the chapels be- Seeker,
longing to it.” 1
The fermons which at the fame time, tve are told, he
fet himfelf to compofe, “ were truly excellent and ori¬
ginal. His faculties were nowr in their full vigour, and
he had an audience to fpeak before that rendered the
utmoft exertion of them ueceffary. He did not, how¬
ever, feek to gratify the higher part, by amufing them
wdth refined fpeculations, or ingenious effays, unintelli¬
gible to the lower part, and unprofitable to both •, but
he laid before them all, with equal freedom and plain-
nefs, the great Chriftian duties belonging to their re-
fpeftive ftations, and reproved the follies and vices of
every rank among them, without diftinftion or pallia¬
tion. He ftudied human nature thoroughly in all its
various forms, and knew what fort of arguments would
have moft weight with each clafs of men. He brought
the fubjeft home to their bofoms, and did not feem to
be merely faying ufeful things in their prefence, but ad-
dreffing himfelf perfonally to every one of them. Few
ever poffeffed, in a higher degree, the rare talent of
touching on the moft delicate fubjefts with the niceft
propriety and decorum, of faying the moft familiar
things without being low, the plaineft without being
feeble, the boldeft without giving offence. He could
defeend with fuch fingular eafe and felicity into the mi-
nuteft concerns of common life, could lay open with
fo much addrefs the various workings, artifices, and eva-
fions of the human mind, that his audience often thought
their own particular cafes alluded to, and beard with
furprife their private fentiments and feelings, their ways
of reafoning and principles of afting, exaftly ftated and
deferibed. His preaching was, at the fame time, highly
rational and truly evangelical. He explained with per-
fpicuity, he afferted with dignity, the peculiar charac-
teriftic doftrines of the gofpel. He inculcated the
utility, the neceflity of them, not merely as fpeculative
truths, but as aftual inftruments of moral goodnefs,
tending to purify the hearts and regulate the lives of
men •, and thus, by God’s gracious appointment, as well
as by the infeparable conneftion between true faith and
right praftice, leading them to falvation.
“ Thefe important truths he taught with the autho¬
rity, the tendernefs, the familiarity, of a parent inflruft-
ing his children. Though he neither pofleffed nor af-
fefted the artificial eloquence of an orator who wants
to amufe or to millead, yet he had that of an honeft
man who wants to convince, of a Chriftian preacher
who wants to reform and to fave thofe that hear him.
Solid argument, manly fenfe, ufeful direftions, ftiort,
nervous, linking fentences, arvakening queftions, fre¬
quent and pertinent applications of feripture ; all thefe
following each other in quick fucceffion, and coming
evidentlv from the fpeaker’s heart, enforced by his elo¬
cution, his figure, his aft ion, and above all, by the cor-
refponding fanftity of his example, ftamped conviftion
on the minds of his hearers, and fent them home with
impreffions not eafv to be effac' d. It will readily be
imagined that with thefe powers he quickly became one
of the moft admired and papular preachers of his time.”
In 1737» fucceeded to the fee of Oxford, on the
promotion of Dr Potter to that of Canterbury, then va¬
cant by the death of Archhiftiop Wake.
In the fpring of 1748. Mrs Seeker died of the gout
in her ftomach. She wa= a woman of great fenfe and
O 2 merit,
SEC [ io
merit, but of a weak and fickly conftitution. ^ he bi-
{hop’s affection and tendernefs for her \vere iuited t® his
charafter. In 1750, he was inftalled dean of St Paul’s,
for which he gave in exchange the re£tory of St James’s
and his prebend of Durham. “ It was no wonder (fay
our authors) that, after prefiding over fo extenfive and
populous a pariih for upwards of 17 years, he Ihould
willingly confent to be releafed from a burden which be¬
gan now to grow too great for his ftrength. When he
preached hisfarewel fermon, the whole audience melted
into tears : he was followed with the prayers and good
withes of thofe whom every honeft man would be molt
ambitious to pleafe 5 and there are numbers itill hvmg
who retain a flrong and grateful remembrance of his m-
ceflant and tender folicitude for their welfare. Having
now more leifure both to profecute his own ftudies and
to encourage thofe of others, he gave Dr Church con-
fiderable afliftance in his Fuji and Second Vindication of
the Miraculous Powers, &c. againft Mr Middleton, and
he was of equal ufe to him in his Analyjis of Lord Bo-
fingbroke's Works. About the fame time began the late
Archdeacon Sharp’s controverfy with the followers of
Mr Hutchinfon, which was carried on to the end of
the year 17 55.” Bithop Seeker, we are told, read over
all Dr Sharp’s papers, amounting to three volumes 8vo,
and corre<5led and improved them throughout. But the
eafe which this late change of fituation gave him was
foon dilturbed by a heavy and unexpefted ftroke, the
lofs of his three friends, Bilhops Butler, Benfon, and
Berkeley, who were all cut oft within the fpace of one
year.
Our authors next give an account of the part which
Dr Seeker bore, in the houfe of lords, in refpeft to
the famous repeal of the Jew bill j for which the duke
of Nevvcaftle moved, and was feconded by the Bifhop,
in a fpeech which, we are told, was remarkably well re¬
ceived. At length his diftinguiftied merit prevailed
over all the political obftacles to his advancement, and
placed him, without any efforts or application of his
own, in that important ftation which he had fhown him-
felf fo well qualified to adorn. On the death of Arch-
biftiop Hutton, he was promoted to the fee of Canter¬
bury, and was confirmed at Bow-church, April 21.
1758 ; on which occafion our authors obferve, that in
accepting this high and burdenfome ftation, Dr Seeker
a (Bed on that principle which influenced him thrqugh
life ; that he facrificed his own eafe and comfort to con-
fiderations of public utility 5 that the mere fecular ad¬
vantages of grandeur were objefts below his ambition ;
and were, as he knew and felt, but poor compenfations
for the anxiety and difficulties attending them. He had
never once through his whole life alked preferment for
himfelf, nor Ihown any unbecoming eagernefs for it 5 and
the ufe he made of his newly-acquired dignity very
clearly fhowed, that rank, and wealth, and power, had
in no other light any charms for him, than as they en¬
larged the fphere of his a£live and induftrious benevo¬
lence.
He fought out and encouraged men of real genius
or extenfive knowledge 5 he expended 300I. in arran¬
ging and improving the manufeript library at Lambeth j
3 ] SEC
and obferving with concern, that the library of printed
books in that palace had received no additions fince the
time of Archbiihop Tennifon, he made„ it his bufinefs
to colledl books in all languages from moft parts of Eu¬
rope at a very great expence, with a view of fupplying
that chafm •, which he accordingly did, by leaving them
to the library at his death, and thereby rendered that
collection one of the nobleft and moft ufeful in the king¬
dom.
All defigns and inftitutions which tended to advance
good morals and true religion, he patronized with zeal
and generofity : he contributed largely to the mainte¬
nance of fchools for the poor *, to rebuilding or repair¬
ing parfonage houfes and places of worftiip; and gave
no lefs than 600I. towards ereCting a chapel in the pa-
rifti of Lambeth. To the fociety for promoting Chrif-
tian knowledge he w;as a liberal benefactor ; and to that
for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts, of which he
was the prefident, he paid much attention 5 was con-
ftant at all the meetings of its members, even fometimes
when his health would but ill permit, and fuperintended
their deliberations with confummate prudence and tem¬
per.
Whenever any publications came to his knowledge
that were manifeftly calculated to corrupt good morals,
or fubvert the foundations of Chriftianity, he did his
utmoft to flop the circulation of them •, yet the Avretch-
ed authors themfelves he was fo far from wiftiing to treat
-with any undue rigour, that he has more than once ex¬
tended his bounty to them in diftrefs. And Avhen their
Avritings could not properly be fuppreffed (as was too
often the cafe) by laAvful authority, he engaged men of
abilities to anfwer them, and rewarded them for their
trouble. His attention was everyAvhere. Even the
falfehoods and mifreprefentation of writers in the neAvf-
papers, on religious or ecclqfiaftical fubjedls, he general¬
ly took care to have contradiCled 5 and when they feem-
ed likely to injure, in any material degree, the caufe of
virtue and religion, or the reputation of eminent and
Avorthy men, he would fometimes take the trouble of
anfwering them himfelf. One inftance of this kind,
Avhich does him honour, and deferves mention, was his
defence of Biftiop Butler, Avho, in a pamphlet publifli-
ed in 1 767, Avas accufed of having died a Papift. The
conduft Avhich he obferved toAvards the feveral divifions
and denominations of Chriftians in this kingdom Avas
fuch as ftiowed his way of thinking to be truly liberal
and catholic. The dangerous fpirit of popery, indeed,
he thought ftiould always be kept under proper legal
reftraints, on account of its natural oppofition not only
t© the religious but the civil rights of mankind. He
therefore obferved its movements Avith care, and exhort¬
ed his clergy to do the fame, efpecially thofe who Avere
fituated in the midft of Roman Catholic families j
againft whofe influence they were charged to be upon
their guard, and were furniftied with proper books or
inftrudlions for that purpofe. He took all fit opportu¬
nities of combating the errors of the church of Rome in
his own Avritings (a) j and the beft anfAvers that Avere
publifhed to fome of the late bold apologies for popery
Avere Avritten at his inftance, and under his direftion.
With
(a) See particularly his fermons on the rebellion in 1745 1
on the Proteftant Avorking fchools in Ireland j on the
5th
SEC [ 109 ] SEC
With the Diflenters his Grace was fincerely defirous
of cultivating a good underilanding. He confidered
them, in general, as a confcientious and valuable clafs of
men. With fome of the molt eminent of them, Watts,
Doddridge, Leland, Chandler, Lardner, he maintained
an intercourfe of friendthip or civility. By the moft
candid and confiderate part of them he Avas highly re¬
verenced and edeemed j and to fuch among them as
needed help he fhowed no lefs kindnefs and liberality
than to thofe of his own communion.
Nor was his concern for the Proteftant caufc confined
to his own country. He was avcII known as the great
patron and proteftor of it in various parts of Europe j
from whence he had frequent applications for afliftance,
which never failed of being favourably received. To
feveral foreign Proteftants he alloAved penfions, to others
he gave occafional relief, and to fome of their univerfi-
ties Avas an annual benefaftor.
In public affairs, his Grace afted the part of an honeft
citizen, and a worthy member of the Britifh legifiature.
From his firft entrance into the houfe of peers, his
parliamentary condudt Avas uniformly upright and noble.
He kept equally clear from the extremes of faftious pe¬
tulance and fervile dependence •, never Avantonly tlnvart-
ing adminiftration from motives of party zeal or private
pique, or perfonal attachment, or a paffion for popula¬
rity ; nor yet going every length Avith every minifter
from vieAvs of intereft or ambition. He admired and
loved the conftitution of his country, and Avifhed to
preferve it unaltered and unimpaired. So long as a due
regard to this Avas maintained, he thought it his duty to
fupport the meafures of government •, but AvheneArer they
were evidently inconfiftent Avith the public welfare, he
oppofed them Avith freedom and firmnefs. Yet his op-
pofition Avas always tempered with the utmoft fidelity,
refpeft, and decency, to the excellent prince upon the
throne *, and the moll candid alloAvances for the una¬
voidable errors and infirmities eAren of the very bell mi-
niilers, and the peculiarly difficult fituation of thofe Avho
goArern a free and high-fpirited people. He feldom
fpoke in parliament, except Avhere the interells of re¬
ligion and virtue feemed to require it •, but whenever
he did, he fpoke Avith propriety and ftrength, and was
heard with attention and deference. Though he neArer
attached himfelf blindly to any fet of men, yet his chief
political connedlions Avere Avith the late duke of New-
callle and Lord Chancellor HardAvicke. To thefe he
principally oAved his advancement j and he had the good
fortune to live long enough to IhoAV his gratitude to
them or their defcendants.
For more than ten years, during Avhich Dr Seeker
enjoyed the fee of Canterbury, he refided conllantly at
his archiepifcopal houfe at Lambeth. A few months
before his death, the dreadful pains he felt had compel¬
led him to think of trying the Bath waters : but that
defign Avas flopped by the fatal accident which put an
end to his life.
His Grace had been for many years fubjedl to the
gout, Avhich, in the latter part of his life, returned Avith
more frequency and violence, and did not go off in a
regular manner, but left the parts affected for a long
time very Aveak, and Avas fucceeded by pains in different
parts of the body. About a year and a half before he
died, after a fit of the gout, he was attacked Avith a
pain in the arm, near the fhoulder, Avhich having conti¬
nued about 12 months, a fimilar pain feized the upper
and outer part of the oppofite thigh, and the arm foon
became eafier. This Avas much more grievous than the
former, as it quickly difabled him from walking, and
kept him in almotl continual torment, except when he
was in a reclining pofition. During this time he had
two or three fits of the gout •, but neither the gout nor
the medicines alleviated thefe pains, which, Avith the
want of exercife, brought him into a general bad habit
of body.
On Saturday July 30. 1768, he Avas feized, as he
fat at dinner, with a ficknefs at his flomach. He re¬
covered before night 5 but the next evening, Avhile his
phyficians Avere attending, and his fervants raifing him
on his couch, he fuddenly cried out that his thigh-bone
Avas broken. The fhock Avas fo violent, that the fervants
perceived the couch to ffiake under him, and the pain
fo acute and unexpected, that it overcame the firmnefs
he fo remarkably poffeffed. He lay for fome time in
great agonies j but Avhen the furgeons arrived, and dif-
covered Avith certainty that the bone Avas broken, he
was perfeClly refigned, and never aftenvards alked a
queftion about the event. A fever foon enfued. On
Tuefday he became lethargic, and continued fo till
about five o’clock on Wednefday afternoon, when he
expired Avith great calmnefs, in the 75th year of his
age.
On examination, the thigh-bone Avas found to be ca¬
rious about four inches in length, and at nearly the
fame diltance from its head. The difeafe took its rife
from the internal part of the bone, and had fo entirely
deftroyed its fubllance, that nothing remained at the
patt Avhere it Avas broken but a portion of its outward
integument ; and even this had many perforations, one
of which \vas large enough to admit Iavo fingers, and
was filled Avith a fungous fubflance arifing from Avithin
the bone. There Avas no appearance of matter about
the caries, and the furrounding parts AA^ere in a found
Hate. It Avas apparent that the torture which he un¬
derwent during the gradual corrofion of this bone mull
have been inexpreffibly great. Out of tendernefs to his
family he feldom made any complaints to them, but to
his phyficians he frequently declared his pains were fo
excruciating, that unlefs fome relief could be procured
he thought it Avould be impoffible for human nature to
fupport them long. Yet he bore them for upAvards of
fix months Avith aftoniffiing patience and fortitude ; fat
up generally the greater part of the day, admitted his
particular friends to fee him, mixed with his family at
the ufual hours, fometimes Avith his ufual cheerfulnefs
and, except fome very flight defeCls of memory, retain¬
ed all his faculties and fenfes in their full vigour till
within a feAV days of his death. He was buried, pur-
fuant
5th of November ; and a great number of occafionat paffages to the fame purpofe, in various parts ol his leClures,.
fermons, and other works.
*
SEC r no ] SEC
Seeker, fuant to his own direftions, in a covered paffage, lead-
Sc'orii:^ ing from a private door of the palace to the north door
of Lambeth church ; and he forbade any monument or
epitaph to be placed over him.
By his will he appointed the Rev. Dr Daniel Bur¬
ton, canon of Chrift-church, and Mrs Catherine 'Tal¬
bot, already mentioned in the courfe of thefe memoirs,
his executors 5 and left 13,cool, in trull to the Drs
Forteous and Stinton, his chaplains j to pay the iiiterell
thereof to Mrs Talbot and her daughter during their
joint lives, or the life of the furvivor ; and after the
deceafe of both thofe ladies, ir,oool. of the laid
13,000!. are to be transferred to charitable purpofes j
amongft which are 1000I. to the Society for the Pro¬
pagation of the Gofpel, and loool. to the fame fociety
for a bilhop or bilhops in the king’s dominions in
America.
The following defeription is given of his perfon : He
Was tall and comely ; in the early part of his life {len¬
der, and rather confumptive •, but as he advanced in
years his conftitution gained ftrength, and his fize in-
creafed, yet never to a degree of corpulency that was
difproportionate or trouble fome.
The dignity of his form correfponded with the great-
nefs of his mind, and infpired at all times refpeft and
awe 5 but peculiarly fo when he was engaged in any of
the more folemn fundlions of religion, into which he en¬
tered with fuch devout earneftnefs and warmth, with
fo juft a confcioufnefs of the place he was in, and the
bufinefs he was about, as feemed to raife him above him-
felf, and added new life and fpirit to the natural grace-
fulnels of his appearance.
His countenance was open, ingenuous, and expreffive
of every thing right. It varied eaftly with his fpirits
and his feelings, fo as to be a faithful interpreter of his
mind, which was incapable of the leaf! diffimulation. It
could fpeak deje£lion, and, on occafion, anger, very
ftrongly j but when it meant to ftiow pleafure or appro¬
bation, it foftened into a moft gracious fmile, and dif-
fufed over all his features the moft benevolent and re¬
viving complacency that, can be imagined.
SECOND, in Geotiietry, Chronology, &c. the 60th
part of a prime or minute, whether of a degree or of an
hour.
Second, in Mujic, one of the mufical intervals; being
only the difference between any found and the next
neareft found, whether above or below it.
Second Major, in Mujlc. See Interval.
SECOND Minor, in Mafic. See Interval.
SECOND Sight, in Erfe called Taifch, is a mode of
feeing fuperadded to that which nature generally be-
ftows. This gift or faculty, which is neither voluntary
nor conftant, h in general rather troublefome than agree¬
able to the poffeffurs of it, who are chiefly found among
the inhabitant'- of the highlands of Scotland, thofe of
the Weftern ifles, of the ifle of Man, and of Ireland. It
is an impreflion made either by the mind upon the eye,
or bv theeve upon the mind, by which things diftant or
future are perceived, and feen a^ if they were prefect.
A man on a journey far from home -'alls from his horfe;
another, who is perhaps at work about the houfe, fees
him bleeding on the ground, commonly with a landfeape
of the place where the accident befals him. Another
feet, driving home his cattle, or wandering in idlent fs. or
mufing in the funftiine, is fuddenly furprifed by the ap-
2
pearance of a bridal ceremony, or funeral proceftion, and
counts the mourners or attendants, of whom, if he knows
them, he relates the names; if he knows them not, he
can deferibe the dreiies. Things diftant are feen at the
the inftant they happen.
Of things future, Johnfon fays that he knows no rule
pretended to for determining the time between the fight
and the event; but we are informed by Mr Grofe, that
in general the time of accompliftiment bears fome rela¬
tion to the time of the day in which the impreflions are
received. I hus vifions feen early in the morning (which
feldom happens) will be much fooner accomplilhed than
thofe appearing at noon ; and thole feen at noon will
take place in a much ftiorter time than thofe happening
at night; fometimes the accompliftiment of the laft
does not fall out within a year or more.
Thefe vifions are not confined to folemn or important
events : nor is it true, as is commonly reported, that to
the fecond fight nothing is prefented but phantoms of
evil. The future vifit of a mountebank, or piper ; a
plentiful draught of filh; the arrival of common travel¬
lers ; or, if poffible, ftill more trifling matters than thefe,
—are ferefeen by the feers. A gentleman told Dr John¬
fon, that when he had once gone far from his own ifland,
one of his labouring fervants predidled his return, and
deferibed the livery of his attendant, which he had ne¬
ver worn at home; and which had been, without any
previous defign, oecafionally given him.
As many men eminent for fcience and literature have
admitted the reality of this apparently ufelefs gift, we
{hall, without interpofing our own opinion, give the
refleftions of two of the firft charadlers of the age
upon it, and leave our readers to form their own
judgment. By Dr Beattie of Aberdeen it is thus ac¬
counted for.
The Highlands of Scotland are a pidlurefque but a
melancholy country. Long trafts of mountainous de-
fert, covered with dark heath, and often obfeured by
mifty weather ; narrow valleys, thinly inhabited, and
bounded by precipices refounding with the fall of tor¬
rents ; a foil fo rugged, and a climate fo dreary, as in
many parts to admit neither the amufements of paf-
turage nor the labours of agriculture ; the mournful
dalhing of waves along the friths and lakes that inter-
fe6l the country ; the portentous noifes which every
change of the wind and every increafe or diminution of
the waters is apt to raife in a lonely region full of
echoes and rocks and caverns; the grotefque and
ghaftly appearance of fuch a landfcape by the light of
the moon : objefls like thefe diffule a gloom over the
fancy, which may be compatible enough with occafion-
al and focial merriment, but cannot fail to tinflure the
thoughts of a native in the hour of filence and folitude.
If thefe people, notwithftanding their reformation in
religion, and more frequent intercourfe with ftrangers,
do oill retain many of their old fuperftitions, we need
not,doubt but in former times thev muft have been much
Second.
more er,{laved to the horrors of imagination, when btfet
with the bugbears of Popery and Paganifm. Moft of
their fuperftitions are of a melancholy call. That of
fecondJight, by which fome are ftill fuppofed to be haunt¬
ed, i- confidered by themfelves as a misfortune, on ac¬
count of the many dreadful images it is faid to obtrude
upon the fancy. It is faid that fome of the Alpine re¬
gions do likewife lay claim to a fort of fecond fight.
No?
Second.
SEC [i
Nor is it wonderful, that perfons of a lively imagination,
immured in deep folitude, and furrounded with the ilu-
pendous fcenery of clouds, precipices, and torrents,
Ihould dream (even when they think themfelves awake)
of thofe few ftriking ideas with which their lonely lives
are diverfified : of corpfes, funeral proceffions, and other
fubjedls of terror ; or of marriages, and the arrival of
ftrangers, and fuch like matters of more agreeable cu-
riofity.
Let it be obferved alfo, that the ancient Highlanders
of Scotland had hardly any other way of fupporting
themfelves than by hunt!tig, thhing, or war •, profeffions
that are continually expofed to fatal accidents. And
hence, no doubt, additional horrors would often haunt
their folitude, and a deeper gloom overlhadow the ima¬
gination even of the hardieft native.
A fufficient evidence can hardly be found for the re¬
ality of the fecond fight, or at leall of what is commonly
underftood by that term. A treatife on the fubjeft was
publifhed in the year 1762, in which many tales were
told of perfons whom the author believed to have been
favoured, or haunted, with thefe illuminations 5 but moft
of the tales were triding and ridiculous : and the whole
work betrayed, on the partol the compiler, fuch extreme
credulity, as could not fail to prejudice many readers
again it his fyltem.
That any of thefe vifionaries are apt to be fwayed
in their declarations by linirter viervs, we will not lay :
but this may be faid with confidence, that none but ig¬
norant people pretend to be gifted in this way. And
in them it may be nothing more, perhaps, than fhort
fits of hidden fleep or drowfinefs, attended with lively
dreams, and arifing from fome bodily diforder, the ef-
fefl of idlenefs, low fpirits, or a gloomy imagination.
For it is admitted, even by the moft credulous High¬
landers, that as knowledge and induftry are propaga¬
ted in their country, the fecond fight difappears in pro¬
portion ; and nobody ever laid claim to the faculty who
■was much employed in the intercourfe of focial life (a).
Nor is it at all extraordinary, that one Ihould have the
appearance of being awake, and ftiould even think one’s
felf fo, during thofe fits of dofing ; that they ftiould
come on fuddenly, and while one is engaged in fome
bufinefs. The fame thing happens to perfons much
fatigued, or long kept awake, who frequently fall afleep
for a moment, or for a long fpace, while they are Hand¬
ing, or walking, or riding on horfeback. Add but a
lively dream to this (lumber, and (which is the frequent
e(Fe£l of difeafe) take away the confcioufnefs of having
been afleep, and a fuperftitious man may eafily miftake
his dream for a waking vifion •, which, however, is foon
forgotten when no fubfequent occurrence reeals it to
his memory ; but which, if it (hall be thought to re¬
ferable any future event, exalts the poor dreamer into a
Highland prophet. This conceit makes him more re-
clufe and more melancholy than ever •, and fo feeds his
difeafe, and multiplies his vifions : which, if they are not
diflipated by bufinefs or fociety, may continue to haunt
11 ] SEC
him as long as he lives •, and which, in their progrefs SecorT.
through the neighbourhood, receive fome new tindlurcs*
of the marvellous from every mouth that promotes their
circulation. As to the prophetical nature of this fe¬
cond fight, it cannot be admitted at all. That the
Deity fhould work a miracle in order to give intimation
of the frivolous things that thefe tales are made up of,
the arrival of a ftranger, the nailing of a coffin, or the
colour of a fuit of clothesand that thefe intimations
(hould be given for no end, and to thofe perfons only
who are idle and folitary, who (peak Gaelic, or who live
among mountains and deferts—is like nothing in nature
or providence that we are acquainted with ; and muff;
therefore, unlefs it were confirmed by fatisfaclory proof
(which is not the cafe), be rejefled as abfurd.and in¬
credible.
Thefe vifions, fuch as they are, may reafonably
enough be aferibed to a diffempered fancy. And that
in them, as wrell as in our ordinary dreams, certain ap¬
pearances (hould, on (ome rare occaiions, referable cer¬
tain events, is to be expedled from the law’s of chance $
and feems to have in it nothing more marvellous or fu-
pernatural, than that the parrot, who deals out his feur-
rilities at random, (hould fometimes happen to falute the
paffenger by his right appellation.
To the confidence of thtfe objedlions Dr Johnfon re¬
plies, that by prefuming to determine what is fit. and
what is beneficial, they prefuppofe more knowledge of
the univerfal fyftem than man has attained 5 and there¬
fore depend upon principles too complicated and exten-
five for our comprehenfion ; and that there can be no
fecurity in the confequence when the premifes are not
underftood ; that the fecond fight is only w’onderful be-
caufe it is rare, for, confidered in itfelf, it involves no
more difficulty than dreams, or perhaps than the regu¬
lar exercife of the cogitative faculty ; that a general opi¬
nion of communicative impulfes, or vifionary reprefenia-
tions, has prevailed in all ages and all nations ; that par¬
ticular inftances have been given with fuch evidence, as
neither Bacon nor Bayle has been able to refill: ; that
fudden impreffions, which the event has verified, have
been felt by more than own or publifti them; that the
fecond fight of the Hebrides implies only the local fre¬
quency of a power, which is nowhere totally unknown j
and that where we are unable to decide by antecedent
reafon, we muff be content to yield to the force of tef-
timony. By pretenfion to fecond fight, no profit was
ever fought or gained. It is an involuntary affeflion,
in which neither hope nor fear are known to have any
part. Thofe who profefs to feel it do not boaft of it as
a privilege, nor are confidered by others as advantage-
oufly diftinguilhed. They have no temptation to feign,
and their hearers have no motive to encourage the im-
pofture.
SECOND Terms, in Algebra, thofe where the unknown
quantity has a degree of power lefs than it has in the
term where it is raifed to the higheft. The art of
throwing thefe fecond terms out of an equation, that
is,
(a) This, how’ever, is denied by Johnfon, who affirms that the Iflanders of all degrees, whether of rank or urn
derftanding, univerfally admit it except the minifters, who, according to him, rejefl it, in confequence of a fyftem,
againft conviction. He affirm4-, too, that in 1773, there, was in the Hebrides a fecond-fightcd gentleman, who
complained of the terrors to which he was expofed.
SEC [ii
is, of forming a new equation Avhere they have no place,
is one of the moft ingenious and ufeful inventions in all
algebra.
SECONDARY, in general, fomething that ads as
fecond or in fubordination to another.
SECONDART m Sccundary, an officer who a els as fe¬
cond or next to the chief officer. Such are the feconda-
ries of the courts of king’s bench and common pleas }
the fecondaries of the compters, who are next the Ihe-
riffs of London in each ot the two compters } two fe¬
condaries of the pipe j fecondaries to the remembran¬
cers, &c.
SECONDAR r Circles of the Ecliptic are circles of lon¬
gitude of the liars j or circles which, palling through the
poles of the ecliptic, are at right angles to the ecliptic.
See Circles of Latitude.
Secondare Qualities of Bodies. See Metaphy¬
sics, N° 155.
SECOND AT. See Montesquieu.
SECRETARIES BIRD, the falco ferpentarius and
fagittarius of Linnaeus, but claffed by Latham under the
genus Vultur. See Ornithology Index.
SECRETARY, an officer who, by his mailer’s or¬
ders, writes letters, difpatches, and other inifruments,
which he renders authentic by his fignet. Of thefe
there are feveral kinds •, as, 1. Secretaries of Hate,
who are officers that have under their management and
direction the moll important affairs of the kingdom,
and are obliged conilantly to attend on the king : they
receive and difpatch whatever comes to their nands, ei¬
ther from the crown, the church, the army, private
grants, pardons, difpenfations, &c. as likewife petitions
to the fovereign, which, when read, are returned to
them •, all which they difpatch according to the king’s
dire&ion. They have authority to commit perfons for
treafon, and other offences again!! the Hate, as confer-
vators of the peace at common law7, or as jullices of the
peace throughout the kingdom. 1 hey are members of
the privy-council, which is feldom or never held with¬
out one of them being prefent. As to the bufinefs and
correfpondence in all parts of this kingdom, it is mana¬
ged by either of the fecretaries without any dillindlion ;
but with refpeft to foreign affairs, the bulinefs is divi¬
ded into two provinces or departments, the fouthern
and the northern, comprehending all the kingdoms and
Hates that have any intercourfe with Great Britain ;
each fecretary receiving all letters and addreffes from,
and making all difpatches to, the feveral princes and
Hates comprehended in his province. Ireland and the
Plantations are under the direction of the elder fecreta¬
ry, who has the fouthern province, rvhich alfo compre¬
hends, France, Italy, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, and
Turkey •, the northern province includes the Low Coun¬
tries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Muf-
covy. Each of the fecretaries has an apartment in all
the royal houfes, both for their own accommodation and
their officers; they have alfo a table at the king’s
charge, or elfe board-wages. The two fecretaries for
Britain have each two under fecretaries, and one chief
clerk 5 with an uncertain number of other clerks and
tranflators, all wholly depending on them. To the fe¬
cretaries of Hate belong the cuffody of that feal properly
called the fignet, and the direction of two other offices,
one called the paper-office, and Hie other the fignet-ojfce.
In addition to thefe, there is a fecretary for the war de-
2 ] SEC'
partment, whofe office mufl be temporary. 2. Score- SecrctF.ry
tary of an embaffy, a perfon attending an ambaffador, Se(|or
for writing difpatches relating to the negociation. '1 here 1 1 —
is a great difference between the fecretaries of an em¬
baffy and the ambaffador’s fecretary ; the laff being a
domeHic or menial of the ambaffador, and the firff-a
fervant or minifler of the prince. 3. The fecretary of
war, an officer of the war office, who has two chief
clerks under him, the laff of which is the fecretary’s
meffeneer. There are alfo fecretaries in moil of the
o
other offices.
SECRETION, in the anknal economy. See Phy¬
siology Index.
SECT, a colledlive term, comprehending all fuch as
follow the dodlrines and opinions of feme famous divine,
philofopher, &c.
SECTION, in general, denotes a part of a divided
thing, or the divifion itfelf. Such, particularly, are
the fubdivifions of a chapter 5 called alfo paragraphs
and articles : the mark of a fedlion is §.
Section, in Geometry, denotes a fide or furface of a
body or figure cut off by another ; or the place where
lines, planes, &c. cut each other.
SECTOR, in Geometry, is a part of a circle com¬
prehended between two radii and the arch : or it is a
mixed triangle, formed by tw7o radii and the arch of a
circle. 1
Sector, is alfo a mathematical inffrument, of great-Sedor
ufe in finding the proportion between quantities of the
fame kind : as between lines and lines, furfaces and fur-
faces, &c. whence the French call it the compafs of pro¬
portion. The great advantage of the feftor above the
common feales, &.c. is, that it is made fo as to fit all
radii and all feales. By the lines of chords, fines, &c.
on the fe£lor, we have lines of chords, fines, &c. to any
radius betwixt the length and breadth of the fedtor
when open.
The real inventor of this valuable inflrument is un¬
known ; yet of fo much merit has the invention appear¬
ed, that it was claimed by Galileo, and difputed by na¬
tions.
The fedlor is founded on the fourth propofition of
the fixth book of Euclid j where it is demonffrated,
that fimilar triangles have their homologous fides pro¬
portional. An idea of the theory of its conflrudlion
may be conceived thus. Let the lines AB, AC (Plate plate
CCCCLXXVIII. fig. I.) reprefent the legs'of the fee-cccclxxviii.
tor ; and AD, AE, two equal fedlions from the centre: I*
if, now the points CB and DE be connedled, the lines
CB and DE will be parallel 5 therefore the triangles
ADE, ACB will be fimilar •, and confequently the
fides AD, DE, AB, and BC, proportional 5 that is, as
AD : DE : : AB : BC : whence, if AD be the half,
third, or fourth part of AB •, DE will be a half, third,
or fourth part of CB : and the fame holds of all the reff.
If, therefore, AD be the chord, fine, or tangent, of any
number of degrees to the radius AB $ DE will be the
fame to the radius BC. 2
Defcription of the Seed or. The inflrument confiffs of deferibed.
two rules or legs, of brafs or ivory, or any other mat¬
ter, reprefenting the radii, moveable round an axis or
ioint, the middle of which expreffes the centre •, whence
are drawn on the faces of the rulers feveral feales, which
may be diffinguiffied into fingle and double.
The double feales, or lines graduated upon the faces Fig. 3. Sm-
of 1
Se$or.
3
To read
and efti-
mate the
divifions on
the fedlor
and lines.
SEC [i
of the inftrument, and which are to be ufed as fectoral
lines, proceed from the centre ; and are, i. Two fcales
of equal parts, one on each leg, marked LIN. or L. $
each of thefe fcales, from the great extenfivenefs of its
ufe is called the line of lines. 1. Two lines of chords
marked cho. or c. 3. Two lines of fecants marked
sec. of s. A line of polygons marked POL. Upon the
other face the feftaral lines are, 1. Two lines of fines
marked SIN. or s. 1. Two lines of tangents marked
TAN. or T. 3. Between the line of tangents and fines
there is another line of tangents to a lefier radius, to
fupply the defeft of the former, and extending from 45°
to 750, marked t.
Each pair of thefe lines (except the line of poly¬
gons) is fo adjufted as to make equal angles at the
centre ; and confequently at whatever diltance the fee-
tor be opened, the angles will be always refpeftively
equal. That is, the difiance between 10 and 10 on
the line of lines, will be equal to 60 and 60 on the line
of chords, 90 and 90 on the line of fines, and 45 and
45 on the line of tangents.
Befides the fedloral fcales, there are others on each
face, placed parallel to the outward edges, and ufed as
thofe of the common plane feale. 1. Thefe are a line
of inches. 2. A line of latitudes. 3. A line of hours.
4. A line of inclination of meridians. 5. A line of
chords. Three logarithmic fcales, namely, one of num¬
bers, one of fines, and one of tangents. Thefe are ufed
when the fedtor is fully opened, the legs forming one
line (a).
The value of the divifions on moft of the lines is de¬
termined by the figures adjacent to them ; thefe pro¬
ceed by tens, which conftitute the divifions of the firft:
order, and are numbered accordingly ; but the value of
the divifions on the line of lines, that are diftinguiflied
by figures, is entirely arbitrary, and may reprefent any
value that is given to them j hence the figures, 1, 2, 3,
4, &c. may denote either 10, 20, 30, 40, or 100, 200,
30O, 400, and fo on.
fhe line of lines is divided into ten equal parts, num¬
bered 1, 2, 3, to 10 ; thefe may be called divifions of
the firfil order ; each of thefe is again fubdivided into 10
other equal parts, which may be called divifions of the
fecond order; each of thefe is divided into two equal
parts, iorvaing divfions of the third order. The divifions
on all the fcales are contained between four parallel
lines *, thofe of the firft order extend to the moft di-
ftant •, thofe of the third to the leaft ; thofe of the fe¬
cond to the intermediate parallel.
When the whole line of lines reprefents 100, the di¬
vifions of the firft order, or thofe to which the figures
are annexed, reprefent tens •, thofe of the fecond order
units $ thofe of the third order the halves of thefe units.
If the whole line reprefent ten, then the divifions of the
firft order are units j thofe of the fecond tenths j the
thirds twentieths.
In the line of tangents, the divifions to which the
numbers are affixed, are the degrees expreffed by thofe
numbers. Every fifth degree is denoted by a line fome-
what longer than the reft \ between every number and
each fifth degree, there are four divifions longer than
Vol. XIX. Part I.
13 ] SEC
the intermediate adjacent ones, thefe are whole de- Seiftor.
grees j the fhorter ones, or thofe of the third order, are , JL*"r r—
30 minutes.
From the centre, to 60 degrees, the line of fines is
divided like the line of tangents, from 60 to 70 ; it is
divided only to every degree, from 70 to 80, to every
two degrees, from 80 to 90 5 the divifion muft be efti-
mated by the eye.
The divifions on the line of chords are to be eftima*
ted in the fame manner as the tangents.
The lefTer line of tangents is graduated every two
degrees, from 45 to 50 ; but from 50 to 60 to every
degree $ from 60 to the end, to half degrees.
The line of fecants from o to io is to be eftimated
by the eye ; from 20 to 50, it is divided to every two
degrees ; from 50 to 60, to every degree j from 60 to
the end, to every half degree, 4
Ufe of the Line of Equal Parts on the SECTOR. I. To j^YverTline
divide a given line into any number of equal parts, fup- the"line
pofe feven. Take the given line in yoUr compafles ^ 0f equal
and fetting one foot in a divifion of equal parts, that part:,
may be divided by feven, for example 70, whofe feventh
part is 10, open the feftor till the other point fall ex¬
actly on 70, in the fame line on the other leg. In this
difpofition, applying one point of the compaffes to 10 in’
the fame line; (hut them till the other fall in 10 in the
the fame line on the other leg, and this opening will be
the feventh part of the given line. Note, if the line,
to be divided be too long to be applied to the legs of
the fedftor, divide only one half or one fourth by feven,
and the double or quadruple thereof will be the feventh
part of the whole. 5
2. To meafure the lines of the perimeter of a poly-To mea-
gon, one of which contains a given number of equal *Vre t*ie P?*
parts. Take the given line in your compaffes, and fet a p0iyg0ns
it parallel, upon the line of equal parts, to the numbew
on each leg expreffing its length. The feftor remaining
thus, fet off the length of each of the other lines paral¬
lel to the former, and the number each of them falls on
will exprefs its length. s
4. A right line being given, and the number of parts Subtrac-
it contains, fuppofe 120, to take from it a fhorter line, tion.
containing any number of the fame parts, fuppofe 25.
Take the given line in your compaffes, open the fe&or
till the two feet fall on 120 on each leg ; then will the
diftance between 25 on one leg, and the fame number
on the other, give the line required. ^
4. To multiply by the line of equal parts on the Multiplica*,
fedtor. Take the lateral diftance from the centre of the d00*
line to the given multiplicator ; open the fedtor till
you fit that lateral diftance to the parallel of 1 and 1,
or 10 and 10, and keep the fedtor in that difpofition $
then take in the compaffes the parallel diftance of the
multiplicand, which diftance, meafured laterally on the
fame line, will give the produdt required. Thus, fup¬
pofe it were required to find the produdt of 8 multi¬
plied by 4 : take the lateral diftance from the centre
of the line to 4 in your compaffes, i. e. place one foot
of the compaffes in the beginning of the divifions, and
extend the other along the line to 4. Open the fedtor
till you fit this lateral diftance to the parallel of 1 and
P 1, or
(a) The lines are placed in different orders on different fedtors, but they may eafily be found by thefe general
directions.
'I
Senior.
8
Divifion in
general.
9
Proportion.
to
Line of
chords.
T I
Line of
polygons.
SEC [ 114. ] SEC
I, or xo arul 10. Then take the parallel diftance of 8,
the multiplicand; i. e. extend the compaflls from 8, in
this line, on one leg, to 8 in the fame line on the other;
and that extent, meafured laterally, will give the pro¬
duct required.
5. To divide by the line of equal parts on the fe£tor.
Extend the compafles laterally from the beginning of
the line to 1, and open the fefior till you fit that extent
to the parallel of the divifor; then take the parallel di¬
ftance of the dividend, which extent, meafured in a late¬
ral direction, will give the quotient required. Thus,
fuppofe it was required to divide 36 by 4 : extend the
compalfes laterally, the beginning of the line to 1, and
fit to that extent the parallel of 4, the divifor ; then ex¬
tend the compaffes parallel, from 36 on one leg to 36
en the other, and that extent, meafured laterally, will
give 9, the quotient required.
6. Proportion by the line of equal parts. Make the
lateral diflance of the fecond term the parallel diflance
of the firft term, the parallel diftance of the third term is
the fourth proportional. Example. To find a fourth
proportional to 8, 4, and 6, take the lateral diftance of
4, and make it the parallel diftance of 8 ; then the pa¬
rallel diftance of 6, extended from the centre, ftiall reach
to the fourth proportional 3.
In the fame manner, a third proportional is found to
two numbers. Thus, to find a third proportional to
8 and 4, the fe&or remaining as in the former example,
the parallel diftance of 4, extended from the centre,
ftiall reach to the third proportional 2. In all thefe
cafes, if the number to be made a parallel diftance be
too great for the feftor, fome aliquot part of it is to be
taken, and the anfwer is to be multiplied by the number
by which the firft number was divided.
IJfe of the Line of Chords on the SECTOR. I. To open
the feclor fo as the twro lines of chords may make an
angle or number of degrees, fuppofe 40. Take the di¬
ftance from the joint to 40, the number of the degrees
propofed, on the line of chords ; open the feclor till the
diftance from 60 to 60, on each leg, be equal to the
given diftance of 40 ; then will the two lines on the fee-
tor form an angle of 40 degrees, as was required.
2. The feftor being opened, to find the degrees ox
its aperture. Take the extent from 60 to 60, and lay
it off on the line of chords from the centre ; the num¬
ber whereon it terminates will (how the degrees, &.c.
required.
3. To lay off any number of degrees upon the cir¬
cumference of a circle. Open the fe&or till the di¬
ftance between 60 and 60 be equal to the radius of the
given circle ; then take the parallel extent of the chord
of the number of degrees on each leg of the feftor, and.
lay it off on the circumference of the given circle.——
Hence any regular polygon may be eafily inferibed in
a given circle.
life of the Line of Polygons on the SECTOR. 1. To
inferibe a, regular polygon in a given circle. Take the
femidiameter of the given circle in the compaffes, and
adjuft it to the number 6, on the line of polygons, on
each leg of the fe£tor : then, the feflor remaining thus
opened, take the diftance of the two equal numbers,
exprefling the number of fides the polygon is to have;
e. gr. the diftance from 5 to 5 for a pentagon, from 7
to 7 for a heptagon, &c. Thefe diftances carried about
the circumference of the circle, will divide it into fo Svflor,
many equal parts. v—y—■.
2. To deferibe a regular polygon, e. g. a penta¬
gon, on a given right line. Take the length of the
line in the compaffts, and apply it to the extent of
the number 5, 5, on the lines of polygons. The fee-
tor thus opened, upon the fame lines take the t xtent
from 6 to 6 ; this will be the femidiameter of the circle
the polygon is to be infcribed in. If then, w'ith this
diftance, from the ends of the given line, you deferibe
two arches of a circle, their interfe&ion will be the
centre of the circle.
3. On a right line, to deferibe an ifofceles triangle,
having the angles at the bafe double that at the ver¬
tex. Open the feftor, till the ends of the given line
fall on 10 and 10 on each leg ; then take the diftance
from 6 to 6. This will be the length of the two equal
lides of the triangle.
life of the Lines of Sines, Tangents, and Secants, o«s;r es tan_
the SECTOR, lly the feveral lines difpofed on the fee- germ, and
tor, we have feales to feveral radii; fo that having afecants.
length or radius given, not exceeding the length of the
fedlor when opened, we find the chord, line, &.c.
thereto : e. gr. Suppofe the chord, fine, or tangent of
10 degrees, to a radius of 3 inches required; make 3
inches the aperture between 60 and 60, on the lines of
chords of the two legs ; then will the fame extent reach
from 45 to 45 on the line of tangents, and from 90 to
90 on ^he line of the fines on the other fide ; fo that to
whatever radius the line of chords is fet, to the fame are
all the others fet. In this difpofition, therefore, if the
aperture between 10 and 10, on the lines of chords, be
taken with the compaffes, it will give the chord of 10
degrees. If the aperture of 10 and 10 be in like man¬
ner taken on the lines of fines, it will be the fine of 1 o
degrees. Laftly, if the aperture of 10 and 10 be in
like manner taken on the lines of tangents, it gives the
tangent of 10 degrees. ' < ; , ■
If the chord, or tangent, of 70 degrees were re¬
quired; for the chord, the aperture of half the arch,
viz. 35, muft be taken, as before ; which diftance, re¬
peated twice, gives the chord of 70 degrees. To find
the tangent of 70 degrees to the fame radius, the fmall
line of tangents muft be ufed, the other only reaching
to 45: making, therefore; 3 inches the aperture beuveen
45 and 45 on the fmall line ; the extent between 70 and
70 degrees on the fame, will be the tangent of 70 de¬
grees to 3 inches radius.
To find the fecant of an arch, make the given radius
the aperture between o and o on the. lines of fecants:
then will the aperture of 10 and 10, or 70 and 70, on
the faid lines, give the tangent of io° or 700.
If the converfe of any of thefe things were required,
that is, if the radius be required, to which a given line
is the fine, tangent, or fecant, it is but making the
given line, if a chord, the aperture on the line of chords
between 10 and 10, and then the fedtor will ftand at
the radius required ; that is, the aperture between 60
and 60 on the faid line is the radius. If the given line
were a fine, tangent, or fecant, it is but making it the
aperture of the given number of degrees; then will
the diftance of 90 and 90 on the fines, of 45 and 43 on
the tangents, of o and o on the fecants, be the radius.
SECTOR of an E/hpfe, of an Hyperbola, fa'c. is a part
refenabling
SEC [ ii5 3 SEC
“Seflor, refembllng the circular ft ft nr, being contained by three
Secular. iines> two of which are radii, or lines drawn from the
centre of the figure to the curve, and the intercepted arc
or part of that curve. ,
SECTOR of a Sphere, is the folid generated by the re¬
volution of the feftor of a circle about one of its’radii $
the other radius describing the furface of a cone, and
the circular arc a circular portion of the furface of the
Sphere of the fame radius. So that the fpherical feftor
confifts of a right cone, and of a feg\nent of the Sphere
having the fame common bafe with the cone. Hence
the folid content of it will be found by multiplying the
bafe or fpherical furface by the radius of the fphere, and
taking one third of the produft.
Agronomical Sector. See Astronomical Se&or.
Dialing SECTOR. See DIALING.
SECULAR, that which relates to affairs of the pre¬
fect world, in which fenfe the word Hands oppofed to
fpiritual, ecclejiafical: thus we fay fecular power, &.c.
Secular, is more, peculiarly ufed for a perfon who
lives at liberty in the World, not {hut up in a monaftery,
nor bound by vows, or fubjefted to the particular rules
of any religious community 5 in which fenfe it (lands op-
pofed to regular. The Romifh clergy are divided into
fecular and regular, of which the latter are bound by
monaftic rules, the former not.
SECULAR Games, in antiquity, folemn games held
among the Romans once in an age. Thefe games lail-
ed three days and as many nights ; during which time
facrifices were performed, theatrical (hews exhibited,
with combats, fports, &e. in the circus. The occafion
of thefe games, according to Valerius Maximus, was to
Hop the progrefs of a plague. Valerius Publicola was
the firfi who celebrated them at Rome in the year of
the city, 245. The folemnity was as follows : The
whole world was invited by a herald to a feall which
they had never feen already, nor ever fiiould fee again.
Some days before the games began, the quindecemviri
in the Capitol and the Palatine temple, diilributed to
the people purifying compofitions, of various kinds, as
flambeaus, fulphur, &c. From hence the populace
palfcd to Diana’s temple on the Aventine mount, with
wheat, barley, and oats, as an offering. After this,
whole nights were fpent in devotion to the DeHinies.
When the time of the games was fully come, the people
affembled in the Campus Martins, and facrificed to Ju¬
piter, Juno, Apollo, Latoiia, Diana, the Parc®, Ceres,
Pluto, and Proferpine. On the firfl night of the feafl,
the emperor, with the quindecemviri, caufed three altars
to be erefted on the banks of the Tiber, which they
fprinkled with the blood of three lambs, and then pro¬
ceeded to regular facrifice. A fpace was next marked
out for a theatre, which Was illuminated with innumer¬
able flambeaus and fires. Here they fung hymns, and
celebrated all kinds of fports. On the day after, having
offered viftims at the Capitol, they went to the Campus
Martius, and celebrated fports to the honour of Apollo
and Diana. Thefe lafled till next day, when the noble
matrons, at the hour appointed by the oracle, went to
the Capitol to fing hymns to Jupiter. On the third day,
which concluded the foleiHnity, twenty-feven boys, and
as many girls, fung in the temple of Palatine Apollo
hymns and verfes in Greek and Latin, to recommend
the city to the proteftion of thofe deities whom they
'defigned particularly to honour by their facrifices.
The inimitable Carmen Seculare of Horace was cotft-
pofed for this lafl day, in the Secular Games, held by
AuguHus.
It has been much difputed whether thefe games Were
held every hundred, or every hundred and ten years.
Valerius Antius, Varro, and Livy, are quoted in fup-
port of the former opinion : In favour of the latter
may be produced the quindecemviral regiHers, the
edifts of AuguHus, and the words of Horace in the
Secular poem,
Secular
11
Secundus.
Ccetus undems dccits per annos.
It rvas a general belief, that the girls who bore i
part in the fong fliould be fooneH married and that
the children who did not dance and fing at the coming
of Apollo, fliould die unmarried, and at an early period
of life.
SECULAR Poem, a poem fung or rehearfed at the fe¬
cular games : of which kind we have a very fine piedfe
among the works of Horace, being a fapphic ode at the
end of his epodes.
SECULARIZATION, the aft of converting a re¬
gular per Ion, place, or benefice, into a fecular one. Al-
mofl all the cathedral churches were anciently regular,
that is, the canons were to be religious •, but they have
been fince fecularized. For the fecularization of a rei
gular church, there is requited the authority of the pope,
that of the prince, the bilhop of the place, the patron,
and even the confent of the people. Religious that
want to be releafed from their vow, obtain briefs of fe¬
cularization from the pope.
SECUNDINES, in Anatomy, the feveral coats of
membranes wherein the foetus is wrapped up in thb
mother’s womb j as the chorion and amnios, with the
placenta, &c.
SECUNDUS, Joannes Nicolaius, an elegant wri¬
ter of Latin poetry, was born at the Hague in the year
1511. His defeent was from an ancient and honour¬
able family in the Netherlands ; and his father Nicolaus
EverardUs, who. was born in the neighbourhood of Mid-
dleburg, feems to have been high in the favour of the
emperor Charles V. as he was employed by that monarch
in feveral Hations of confiderable importance. We find
him firfl a member of the grand parliament or council
of Mechelen, afterwards prefident of the ftates of Hol¬
land and Zealand at the Hague, and laftly holding d
fimilar office at Mechelen, where he died, Augufl 5.
2 aged 7°-
Thefe various employments did not occupy the whole
of Everardus’s time. Notwithflanding the multiplicity
of his bufinefs, he found leifufe to cultivate letters with
great fuccefs, and even to aft as preceptor to his own
children, who Were five fons and three daughters. They
all took the name of Nicolaii from their father j but on
what account our author svas called Secundus is not
known. It could not be from the order of his birth,
for he was the youngeft fon. Perhaps the name was
not given him till he became ominent j and then, ac¬
cording to the fafhion of the age, it might have its
rife from fojrue pun, fuch as his being Poetarum netntni
Secundus. Poetry, however, was by no means the pro-
feflion which his father wiflied him to follow. He in¬
tended him for the law, and when he could no longer
direft his ftudies himfelf, placed him under the care of
P 2 Jacobus
SEC. [i
Secupdus. Jacobus Valeardus. This man is faid to have been every
‘"“""V way well qualified to difeharge the important truft
which w'as committed to him \ and he certainly gained
the affeftion of his pupil, who, in one of his poems,
mentions the death of Valeardus with every appearance
of unfeigned forrow. Another tutor was foon provi¬
ded j but it does not appear that Secundus devoted
much of his time to legal purfuits. Poetry and the
filler arts of painting and fculpture had engaged his mind
at a very early period 5 and the imagination, on which
thefe have laid hold, can with difficulty fubmit to the
dry fiudy of muily civilians. Secundus is faid to have
written verfes wrhen but ten years old) and from the
vail quantity which he left behind him, we have reafon
to conclude that fuch writing was his principal employ¬
ment. He found time, however, to carve figures of
all his own family, of his millreffes, of the emperor
Charles V. of feveral eminent perfonages of thofe times,
and of many of his intimate friends j and in the laft
edition of his works publiffied by Scriverius at Leyden,
1631, there is a print of one of his miltreffes with this
infeription round it j Vatis amatoris Julia sculpta
JIANU. ';
Secundus having nearly attained the age of twenty-
®ne, and being determined, a3 it would feem, to comply
as far as poffible with the wiffies of his father, quitted
Mechelen, and went to France, where at Bourges, a city
in the Or/eanois, he lludied the civil law under the cele¬
brated Andreas Alciatus. Alciatus was one of the moll
learned civilians of that age; but what undoubtedly
endeared him much more to our author was his general
acquaintance with polite literature, and more particular¬
ly his talle in poetry. Having lludied a year under
this eminent profeffor, and taken his degrees, Secundus
returned to Mechelen, where he remained only a very
few months. In 1533 he went into Spain with warm
recommendations to the count of Nafiau and other per-
fons of high rank ; and foon afterwards became fecre-
tary to the cardinal archbiffiop of Toledo, in a depart¬
ment of bufinefs which required no other qualifications
than what he poffeffed in a very eminent degree, a faci¬
lity in writing with elegance the Latin language. It
was during his refidence with this cardinal that he wrote
his Bajia, a feries of wanton poems, of which the fifth,
feventh, and ninth carmina of Catullus feem to have
given the hint. Secundus was not, however^ a fervile
imitator of Catullus. His expreffions feem to be bor¬
rowed rather from Tibullus and Propertius ; and in the
warmth of his deferiptions he furpafles every thing that
has been written on fimilar fubjedls by Catullus, Tibullus,
Propertius, C. Gallus, Ovid, or Horace.
In 1535 he accompanied the emperor Charles V. to
the fiege of Tunis, but gained no laurels as a foldier.
The hardffiips which were endured at that memorable
fiege were but little fuited to the foft difpofition of a
votary of Venus and the mufes *, and upon an enterprife
which might have furniffied ample matter for an epic
poem, it is remarkable that Secundus wrote nothing
which has been deemed worthy of prefervation. Hav¬
ing returned from his martial expedition, he was fent
by the cardinal to Rome to congratulate the pope upon
the fuccefs of the emperor’s arms j but was taken fo
ill on the road, that he was not able to complete his
journey. He was advifed to feek, without a moment’s
6 ] SEC
delay, the benefit of his native air j and that happily re- Secnndo*
covered him. II
Having now quitted the fervice of the archbiffiop of [^ecu|ort:j-
Toledo, Secundus was employed in the fame office of
fecretary by the biffiop of Utrecht ; and fo much had
he hitherto diftinguiffied himfelf by the claffical elegance
of his compofitions, that he was foon called upon to fill
the important poll of private Latin fecretary to the em¬
peror, who was then in Italy. This was the molt ho¬
nourable office to which our author was ever appointed j
but before he could enter upon it death put a Hop to his
career of glory. Having arrived at Saint Amand in the
diltrict of Tournay, in order to meet, upon bufinefs, with
the biffiop of Utrecht, he was on the 8th of Odlober
1536 cut off by a violent fever, in the very flower of his
age, not having quite completed his twenty-fifth year.
He was interred in the church of the Benedidlines, of
which his patron, the biffiop, was abbot or pro-abbot;
and his near relations erefted to his memory a marble
monument, wdth a plain Latin infeription.
The works of Secundus have gone through feveral
editions, of which the bell and moll copious is that of
Scriverius already mentioned. It confifts of Julia, Eleg*
lib. j. j Amores, Eleg. lib. ii. j ad Diversos Eleg.
lib. iii. j Basia, flyled by the editor incomparabilis et
divinus prorfus liber ; Epigrammata •, Odarum liber
unus ; Epistolarum liber unus Elegiaca ; Epistola-
Rum liber alter, heroico carmineferiptus; Funerum liber
unus; Sylva: et Carminum fragmenta; Poemata
nonnulla fratrum; Itineraria Secundi tria, &c. j
EpistoLvE totidem,foluta oratione. Of thefe works it
would be fuperfluous in us to give any charadler after
the ample teftimonies prefixed to them of Lelius Greg.
Gyraldus, the elder Scaliger, Theodore Beza, and others
equally celebrated in the republic of letters, who all
fpeak of them with rapture. A French critic, indeed,
after having affirmed that the genius of Secundus never
produced any thing which was not excellent in its kind,
adds, with too much truth, Mais fa mufe ejl un peu trop
lafeive. For this fault our author makes the following
apology in an epigram addreffed to the grammarians :
Carmina cur fpargam cunflis lafeiva libellis,
Queritis ? Infulfos arceo grammaticos.
Fortia magnanimi canerem fi Caefaris arma,
Faflave Divorum religiofa virum :
£)uot mifer exciperemque notas, patererque lituras ?
Quot fierem teneris fuppliciurn pueris ?
At nunc uda mihi didlant cum Basia carmen,
Pruriet et verfu mentula multa meo r
Me leget innuptae juvenis placiturus amicae,
Et placitura nova blanda puella viro :
Et quemeunque juvat lepidorum de grege vatum
Otia fellivis ludere deliciis.
Lufibus et laetis procul hinc abfillite, salvi
Grammatici, injuftas et cohibite manus.
Ne puer, ab malleis caefus lacrymanfque leporis \
Duram forte meis ossibus optet humum.
SECURIDACA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs diadelphia. See Botany Index.
SECUTORES, a fpecies of gladiators among the
Romans, wffiofe arms were a helmet, a ffiield, and a
fword or a leaden bullet. They wrere armed in this man¬
ner, becaufe they had to contend with the retiarii, who
were
4.
S E D [i
Stfcutores were dreffed in a ihort tunic, bore a three- pointed lance
II in their left hand, and a net in their right. The reti-
i Sedition. arjug attempted to caft his net over the head of the fe~
* cutor ; and if he fucceeded, he drew it together and flew
him with his trident: but if he miffed his aim, he im¬
mediately betook himfelf to flight till he could find a
fecond opportunity of entangling his adverfary with his
net. He was purfued by the fecutor, who endeavoured
to difpatch him in his flight.
Secutores was alfo a name given to fuch gladiators as
took the place of thofe killed in the combat, or who
engaged the conqueror. This poll was ufually taken
by lot.
SEDAN is a town in France, in the department of
the Ardennes, in E. Long. 4. 45. N. Eat. 49. 46. This
is the capital of a principality of the fame name, fituated
on the Maefe, fix miles from Bouillon, and fifteen from
Charleville. Its fituation on the frontiers of the territory
of Liege, Namur, and Limburg, formerly rendered it
one of the keys of the kingdom. It is extremely well
fortified, and defended by a ftrong citadel. The caftle
is fituated on a rock, furrounded with large towers and
flrong walls j here you fee a moft beautiful magazine
of ancient arms. The governor’s palace is oppofite
the caftle. From the ramparts you have a moft agree¬
able profpedl of the Maefe and the neighbouring coun¬
try. Though the town is but finall, yet it is full of
tradefmen, as tanners, weavers, dyers, &c. the manu-
facfure of fine cloth in this city employing a great
number of hands. The principality of Sedan former¬
ly belonged to the duke of Bouillon, who was obliged
in the beginning of the laft century to refign it to the
crown.
SEDAN-chair is a covered vehicle for carrying a
Angle perfon, fufpended by two poles, and borne by two
men, hence denominated chairmen. They were firft
introduced in London in 1634, when Sir Sanders Dun-
comb obtained the foie privilege to ufe, let, and hire a
number of the faid covered chairs for fourteen years.
SEDGMOOR, a large and rich traft of land in
Somerfetfliire, memorable for the defeat of the duke of
Monmouth, in 1685. It lies between Somerton and
Bridgewater.
SEDITION, among civilians, is ufed for a facHous
commotion of the people, or an affembly of a number
of citizens without lawful authority, tending to difturb
the peace and order of the fociety. This ofl'enee is of
different kinds : fome feditions more immediately threat¬
ening the fupreme power, and the fubverfion of the
prefent conftitution of the ftate ; others tending only
towards the redrefs of private grievances. Among the
Romans, therefore, it was varioufly puniftied, according
as its end and tendency threatened greater mifehief.
See lib. i. Cod. de Seditiojis, and Mat. de Crimin. lib. ii.
n. 5. deLcefa Majejiate. In the punifhment, the authors
and ringleaders were juftly diftinguiftiedfrom thofe who,
with lefs wicked intention, joined and made part of the
multitude.
The fame diftin&ion holds in the law of England
and in that of Scotland. Some kinds of fedition in
England amount to high treafon, and come within the
Hat. 25 Edw. III. as levying war againft the king.
And feveral feditions are mentioned in the Scotch a61s
ef parliament as treafonable. Bayne's Crim. Law of
Scot/and,, p. 33, 34. The law of Scotland makes riot-
7 ] S E D . ■ -
ous and tumultuous affemblies a fpecies of fedition. Sedition
But the law there, as well as in England, is now chiefly „ |l
regulated by the riot a£t, made x Geo. I. only it is to be ■ e ey'
obferved, that the proper officers in Scotland, to make
the proclamation thereby ena&ed, are flieriffs, ftewards,
and bailies of regalities, or their deputies •, magiftrates
of royal boroughs, and all other inferior judges and ma¬
giftrates $ high and petty conftables, or other officers of
the peace, in any county, ftewartry, city, or town. And
in that part of the ifland, the punifhment of the offence
is any thing Ihort of death which the judges, in their
diferetion, may appoint.
SEDATIVES, in Medicine, a general name for
fuch medicines as weaken the powders of nature, fuch as
blood-letting, cooling falts, purgatives, &c.
SE-DEFENDENDO, in Law, a plea ufed for him
that is charged with the death of another, by alleging
that he was under a neceffity of doing what he did in
his own defence : as that the other affaulted him in fuch
a manner, that if he had not done what he did, he mull
have been in hazard of his own life. See Homicide
and Murder.
SEDIMENT, the fettlement or dregs of any thing,
or that grofs heavy part of a fluid body which finks to
the bottom of the veffel ■when at reft.
SEDLEY, Sir Charees, an Englifh poet and wit,
the fon of Sir John Sedley of Aylesford in Kent, was
born about the year 1639. t^ie federation he came
to London to join the general jubilee ; and commen¬
ced wit, courtier, poet, and gallant. He was fo much
admired, that he became a kind of oracle among the
poets 5 which made King Charles tell him, that Na¬
ture had given him a patent to be Apollo’s viceroy.
The produdlions of his pen were fome plays, and feveral
delicately tender amorous poems, in which the foftnefs
of the verfes was fo exquifite, as to be called by the
duke of Buckingham Scdley's witchcraft. “ There
xvere no marks of genius or true poetry to be deferied,
(fay the authors of the Biographia Britannica) ; the
art wholly confided in raifing loofe thoughts and lewd
defires, without giving any alarm ; and fo the poifon
worked gently and irrefiftibly. Our author, we may
be fure, did not efcape the infe&ion of his own art, or
rather was firft tainted himfelf before he fpread the in-
fedlion to others.”—A very ingenious writer of the pre¬
fent day, however, fpeaks much more favourably of Sir
Charles Sedley’s writings. “ He ftudied human na¬
ture ; and was diftinguilhed for the art of making him¬
felf agreeable, particularly to the ladies ; for the verfes
of Lord Rochefter, beginning with, Sedley has that pre¬
vailing gentle art, &c. fo often quoted, allude not to his
writings, but to his perfonal addrefs." \^Lan^horn's
LLffufions,^^.^—But while he thus grew in reputation
for wit and in favour with the king, he grew poor and
debauched : his eftate was impaired, and his morals were
corrupted. One of his frolics, however, being followed
by an indi61ment and a heavy fine, Sir Charles took a
more ferious turn, applied himfelf to bufinefs, and be¬
came a member of parliament, in which he vras a fre¬
quent fpeaker. We find him in the houfe of com¬
mons in the reign of James II. whofe attempts upon-
the conftitution he vigoroufly withftood ; and he was
very aflive in bringing on the revolution. This was
thought more extraordinary, as he had received favours
from James. But that prince had taken a fancy to Sir
Charles’s
S E D [ I
Secllcy Charles’s daughter (though it feems (he was not very
II handfome), and, in confequence of his intrigues with
^ecu ion. jier^ jie createci Mifs Sedley countefs of Dorchefter.
This honour, fo far from pleafing, greatly fhocked Sir
Charles. However libertine he himfelf had been, yet
he could not bear the thoughts of his daughter’s dif-
honour j and with regard to her exaltation, he only
confidered it as rendering her more confpicuoully in¬
famous. He therefore conceived a hatred for the king;
and from this, as well as other motives, readily joined
to difpofiefs him of the throne, A witty faying of
Sedley’s, on this occafion, is recorded, “ I hate in¬
gratitude, (faid Sir Charles) ; and therefore, as the
king has made my daughter a countefs, I will endeavour
to make his daughter a queen meaning the princefs
Mary, married to the prince of Orange, who difpoflelTed
'James of the throne at the revolution. He lived to the
beginning of Queen Anne’s reign ; and his works were
printed in two vols. 8vo. 171$.
SEDR, or SEDKE, the high-prieft of the feft of All
among the Perfians. The fedre is appointed by the
• emperor of Perfia, who ufually confers the dignity on
his neared relation. The jurifdiftion of the fedre ex¬
tends over all effe£ts deftined for fnous purpofes, over
all mofques, hofpitals, colleges, fepulchres, and mo-
naderies. He difpofes of all ecclefiadical employments,
and nominates all the fuperiors of religious houfes. His
decifions in matters of religion are received as fo many
infallible oracles : he judges of all criminal matters in
'Jus own houfe without appeal. His authority is ba¬
lanced by that of the muddtehid, or fird theologue of
the empire. v ,
SEDUCTION, is the aft of tempting and drawing
afide from the right path, and comprehends every en¬
deavour to corrupt any individual of the human race.
This is the import of the word in its larged and mod
general fenfe ; but it is commonly employed to exprefs
the aft of tempting a virtuous woman to part with her
chadity.
The feducer of female innocence praftifes the fame
ftratagems of fraud to get polfedion of a woman’s per-
fon, that the /windier employs to get poffedion of his
neighbour’s goods or money ; yet the law of honour,
which pretends to abhor deceit, and which impels its
votaries to murder every man who prefumes, however
judly, to fufpeft them of fraud, or to quedion their
veracity, applauds the addrefs of a fuccefsful intrigue,
though it be well known that the feducer could not
have obtained his end without fwearing to the truth of
a thoufand falfehoods, and calling upon God to witnefs
promifes which he never meant to fulfil.
The law of honour is indeed a very capricious rule,
which accommodates itfelf to the pleafures and conve¬
niences of higher life ; but the la\v of the land, which
is enafted for the equal proteflion of high and low,
may be fuppofed to vieiv the guilt of feduffion with a
more impartial eye. Yet for this offence, even the laws
•of this kingdom have provided no other punifhment
than a pecuniary fatisfaftion to the injured family ;
which, in England, can be obtained only by one of the
quainted fictions in the world, by the father’s bringing
his action againd the feducer for the lofs of his daugh¬
ter’s fervice during her pregnancy and nurturing. See
Paley’s Moral PhilofopJiy, Book III. Part iii. Chap. 3.
The moralid, however, who edimates the merit or
8 ] S E D
demerit of addions, not by laws of human appointment, Sedu&M
but by their general confequences as edablithed by the ^ ^
laws of nature, mud condder the feducer as a criminal
of the deeped guilt. In every civilized country, and iq
many countries where civilization has made but fmall
progrefs, the virtue of women is collected as it were in¬
to a fingle point, which they are to guard above all
things, as that on which their happinefs and reputation
wholly depend. At fird fight this may appear a capri¬
cious regulation ; blit a moment’s reflection 'ivill con¬
vince us of the contrary. In the married date fo much
confidence is neceflarily irepofed in the fidelity of wo¬
men to the beds of their hufbands, and evils fo great
redflt from the violation of that fidelity, that whatever
contributes in any degree to its prefervation, mud be
agreeable to him who, in edablidiing the laws of na¬
ture, intended them to be fubfervient to the real happi-
nefs of all his creatures. But nothing contributes fo
much to preferve the fidelity of wives to their hufbands,
as the imprefling upon the minds of women the higheft
veneration for the virtue of chadity. She who, when
unmarried, has been aecudomed to grant favours to dif¬
ferent men, will not find it eufy, if indeed poflible, to
refid afterwards the allurements of variety. It is there¬
fore a wife iriditution, and agreeable to the will of Him
who made us, to train up women fo as that they may
look upon the lofs of their chadity as the mod disgrace¬
ful of all crimes : as that which firiks them in the order
of fociety, and robs them of all their value. In this
light virtuous women actually look upon the lofs of
chadity. The importance of that virtue has been fu
deeply impreffed upon their minds, and is fo clofely af-
fociated with the principle of honour, that they cannot
think but with abhorrence upon the very deed by which
it is lod. He therefore who by fraud and falfehood
perfuades the unfulpe&ing girl to deviate in one indance
from the honour of the fex, weakens in a great degree
her moral principle ; and if he reconcile her to a repe¬
tition ojc her crime, he dedroys that principle entirely^
as die has been taught to condder all other virtues as
inferior to that of chadity. Hence it is that the hearts
of proditutes are generally deeded againd the miferies
of their fellow-creatures; that they lend their aid to
the feducer itl his practices upon other girls; that they
lie and fwear and deal without compunction ; and that
too many *)f them hefitate not to commit murder if it
can ferve any felfilh purpofe c>f their own.
The lofs of virtue, though the greated that man or
woman can fudain, is not the only injury which the
feducer brings on the girl whom he deceives. She
cannot at once reconcile heiftlf to proditution, or even
to the lofs of charadler; and while a fenfe of Ihame re¬
mains in her mind, the mifery which die differs mud be
exquifite. She knows that die has forfeited what in
the female character is mod valued by both fexes; and
fhe mud be under the perpetual dread of a difeovery.
She cannot even confide in the honour of her feducer,
vdio may repeal her fecret in a fit of drunkennefs, and
thus rob her of her fame as well as of her virtue ; and
while die is in this date of anxious uncertainty, the
agony of her mind mud be infupportable. That it is '
fo in fact, the many indances of child murder by unmar¬
ried women of every rank, leave us no room to doubt.
The affection of a mother to her new-born child is one
of the mod tt&equivocal and ftrongeit inftin&s in human
nature
S E D. [ i
Sedu&ion. nature (fee Instinct)-$ and nothing fhort of the ex-
tremity of diftrefs could prompt any one fo far to op-
pofe her nature as to embrue her hands in the blood of
her imploring infant.
Even this deed of horror feldom prevents a detec-
iion of the mother’s frailty, which is indeed commonly
difcovered, though no child has been the confequence
of her intrigue. He who can feduce is bafe enough to
betray ; and no woman can part with her honour, and
retain any well-grounded hope that her amour lhall be
kept fecret. The villain to whom fire furrendered will,
glory in his victory, if it was with difficulty obtained ^
and if fhe furrendered at difcretion, her own behaviour
will reveal her fecret. Her reputation is then irretrie¬
vably loft, and no future circumfpedHon will be of the
fmalleft avail to recover it. She will'be ftmnned by the
virtuous part of her own fex, and treated as a mere in-
ftrument of pleafure by the other. In fuch circum-
ftances (he cannot expedl to be married with advantage.
She may perhaps be able to captivate the heart of a
heedlefs youth, and prevail upon him to unite his fate
to her’s before the delirium of his paffion (hall give him
time for reflection •, the may be addrefled by a man who
is a ftranger to her ftory, and married while he has no
fufpicion of her fecret; or Ihe may be foljcited by one
of a ftation inferior to her own, who, though acquaint¬
ed with every thing that has befallen her, can barter the
delicacy of wedded love for lome pecuniary advantage j
but from none of thefe marriages can ftre look for hap-
pinefs. The delirium which prompted the firft will
foon vanifh, and leave the hufband to the bitternefs of
his own reflexions, which can hardly fail to produce
cruelty to the wife. Of the fecret, to which, ip the
fecond cafe, the lover was a ftranger, the hufband will
foon make a difcovery, or at leaft find room for har¬
bouring ftrong fufpicions; and fufpicions of having been
deceived in a point fo delicate have hitherto been uni¬
formly the parents of mifery. In the third cafe, the
man married her merely for money, of which having
got the poffeflion, he has no farther inducement to treat
her with refpeX. Such are fome of the confequences
of feduclion, even when, the perfon feduced has the good
fortune to get afterwards a bufband ; but this is a for¬
tune which few in her circumftancesxan reafonably ex¬
pect. By far the greater part of thofe who have been
defrauded of their virtue by the arts of the feducer fink
deeper and deeper into guilt, till they become at laft
common proftitutes. The public is then deprived of
their fervice as wives and parents ; and inftead of con¬
tributing to the population of the ftate, and to the fum
of domeftic felicity, thefe outcafts of fociety become fe-
ducers in their turn, corrupting the morals of every
young man whofe appetites they can inflame, and of
every young woman whom they can entice to their own
praXices.
All this complication of evil is produced at firft by
arts, which, if employed to deprive a man of his pro¬
perty, would fubjeX the ofl'ender to the execration of
his fellow-fubjeXs, and to an ignominious death : but
while the forger of a bill is purfued with relentlefs ri¬
gour by the minifters of juftice, and the fwindler load¬
ed with univerfal reproach, the man who by fraud and
forgery has enticed an innocent girl to gratify his, de¬
fires at the expence of her virtue, and thus introduced
fcer into a path which muft infallibly lead to. her own
5
ig ] S E- E
ruin, as well as to repeated injuries to the public at SeduXioa.
large, is not defpifed by his own fex, and is too often II,
careffed even by the virtuous part of the other. Yet ee S* »
the lofs of property may be ealily repaired j the lofs of
honour is irreparable ! It is vain to plead in allevia¬
tion of this guilt, that women ftiould be on their guard
againft the arts of the feducer. Moft unquellionably
they fhould ; but arts have been ufed which hardly any
degree of caution would have been fufficient to coun-
teraX. It may as well be faid that the trader ftiould
be on his guard againft the arts of the forger, and ac¬
cept of no bill without previoufly confulting him in
whofe name it is written. Cafes, indeed, occur in
trade, in which this caution would be impoflible $ but
he muft be little acquainted with the workings’ of the
human heart, who does not know that fituations like-
wife occur in life, in which it is equally impoflible for
a girl of virtue and tendernefs to refill the arts of the
man who has completely gained her affeXions.
The mentioning of this circumftance leads us to con-
ftder another fpecies of feduXion, which, though not fo
highly criminal as the former, is yet far removed from
innocence ; we mean the pjraXice which is too prevalent
among young men of fortune ef employing every art
in their power to gain the hearts of heedlefs girls whom
they refolve neither to marry nor to rob of their ho¬
nour. Should a man adhere to the latter part of this
refolution, which is more than common fortitude can
always promife for itfelf, the injury which he does to
the objeX of his amufement is yet very great, as he
raifes hopes of the moft fanguine kind merely to dilap-
point them, and diverts her affeXions perhaps for ever
from fuch men as, had they been fixed on one of them,
might have rendered her completely happy. Hifap-
pointments of this kind have fometimes been fatal to
the unhappy girl •, and even when they have neither de¬
prived her of life, nor difordered her reafon, they have
often kept her wholly from marriage, which, whatever
it be to a man, is that from which every woman ex-
peXs her chief happinefs. We cannot therefore con¬
clude this article more properly than with warning our
female readers not to give up their Hearts haftily to men
whofe ftation in life, is much, higher than their own 5
and we beg leave to affure every one of them, that the
man who folicits the laft favour under the moft folemn
promife of a fubfequent marriage, is a bafe feducer, who
prefers a momentary gratification qf his own to her
honour and happinefs through life, and has no intention
to fulfil Ins promife. Or, if he Ihould by <any means
He compelled to fulfil it, fhe may depend upon much ill
treatment in return for, her premature compliance with,
his bafe defires.
SEDUM, Orpine, a genus of plants belonging to.
the decandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 13th order, Succulents. See Botany Index.
SEED, in Plujsiology, a fubftance prepared by na¬
ture for the reproduXion and confervation of the fpecies
both in animals and plants. See Botany and Physi¬
ology. .
SEEDLINGS, among, gardeners, denote fuch roots
of gilliflowers, &c. as come from feed fown. Alfo
the young tender ftioots of any plants that are newly
fown.
SEEDS, Preservation of, in a ftate fit for vege¬
tation,, is a matter of great and general importance, be-
caujfe,
SEE
'Seeds caufe, if it be poflible to accomplifh it, we fhall thus be
it enabled to rear many ufeful plants in one country which
t r "s’ ■ are there unknown, being indigenous only in others at
a great diftance from it.
A gentleman informs us, that many years ago he ob~
ferved fome feeds which had got accidentally among rai-
fms, being fuch as are raifed in England with difficulty,
after being fent from abroad in the ufual manner. He
Towed them in pots within a framing; and as every one
of them grew, he fent orders to his fons, who were at
that time abroad, to pack up all kinds of feeds they
could procure, in abforbent paper, and fend fome of
them furrounded by raifins, and others by brown moift
fugar •, concluding, that the prefervation of the former
feeds had been owing to a peculiarly favourable date of
the moifture thus afforded them. He likewife concluded
that, as many of our common feeds, fuch as clover,
charlock, &c. would lie dormant for ages within
the earth, well preferved for vegetatidh whenever they
were thrown to its furface, and expofed to the influence
of the atmofphere, fo likewife might thefe foreign feeds
be equally preferved, at lead for many months, by the
kindly covering and genial moifture afforded them by
fugar or raifins. This opinion was fully verified, as not
one in twenty of them failed to vegetate, while the
fame fpecies of feeds fent home in common parcels along
with them, did not vegetate at all. Having examined
them prior to their being committed to the earth, he ob-
ferved that there was a prevailing drynefs in the latter,
while the former looked healthy and freffi, not being in
the fmalleft degree infefted by infefts, as was the cafe
with the others. It has been repeatedly tried to convey
feeds clofed up in bottles, but this method has failed of
fuccefs, a larger proportion of air, as well as a proper ftate
of moifture, perhaps being neceffary. It maybe requi-
fite to obferve, that no difference wras made in the
package of the feeds, refpe&ing their being kept in
hulks, pods, &c. fo as to give thofe preferved in raifins
or fugar any advantage over the others, the whole being
* Tranfac- fent equally guarded by their natural teguments *.
tions of the SEEDY, in the, brandy trade, a term ufed by the
°J dealers to denote a fault that is found in feveral parcels
■’vol. xvi. of French brandy, which renders them unfaleable. The
French fuppofe that thefe brandies obtain the flavour
which they exprefs by this name, from weeds that grow
among the vines from whence the wine of which this
brandy is preffed was made.
SEEING, the perceiving of external objefts by
means of the eye. For an account of the organs of fight,
and the nature of vifion, fee Anatomy and Optics
index.
SEEKS, a religious fe& fettled at Patna, and fo cal¬
led from a word contained in one of the commandments
of their founder, which fignifies learn thou. In books
giving an account of oriental fefts and oriental cuftoms,
we find mention made both of Seeks and Seeks ; and we
are ftrongly inclined to think that the fame tribe is
meant to be denominated by both words. If fo, differ¬
ent authors write very differently of their principles and
manners. We have already related fomething of the cha¬
racter of the Seiks under the article Hindoos ; but in
the Afiatic Refearches, Mr Wilkins gives a mudli more
amiable account of the Seeks, which we lay before our
readers with pleafure.
The Seeks are a fe£t diftinguifhed both from the
SEE
Muffulmans and the worlhippers of Brahma; and, from
our author’s account of them, muft be an amiable peo¬
ple. He alked leave to enter into their chapel: They
laid it was a place of worlhip, open to all men, but in¬
timated that he muft take off his ftioes. On complying
with this ceremony, he was politely conduced into the
hall, and feated upon a carpet in the midft of the affem-
bly. The whole building forms a fquare of about 40
feet. The hall is in the centre, divided from four other
apartments by wooden arches, upon pillars of the fame
materials. The walls above the arches were hung with
European looking-glaffes in gilt frames, and with pic¬
tures. On the left hand, as one enters, is the chancel,
which is furniffied with an altar covered with cloth of
gold, raifed a little above the ground in a declining po-
fition. About it were feveral flower-pots and rofe-water
bottles, and three urns to receive the donations of the
charitable. On a low delk, near the altar, flood a
great book, of folio fize, from which fome portions are
daily read in the divine fervice. When notice was
given that it was noon, the congregation arranged them-
felves upon the carpet on each fide of the hall. The
great book and delk were brought from the altar, and
placed at the oppofite extremity. An old filver-haired
man kneeled down before the delk, w ith his face to¬
wards the altar, and by him fat a man with a drum,
and two or three with cymbals. The book was now
opened, and the old man began to chant to the time of
the inftruments, and at the conclufion of every verfe
moft of the congregation joined chorus in a refponfe,
with countenances exhibiting great marks of joy. Their
tones were not harlh ; the time was quick ; and Mr Wil¬
kins learned that the fubjefl was a hymn in praife of the
unity, omniprefence, and omnipotence of the Deity.
The hymn concluded, the whole company got up and
prefented their faces, with joined hands, towards the al¬
tar in the attitude of prayer. The prayer was a fort of
litany pronounced by a young man in a loud and dif-
tinfl voice ; the people joining, at certain periods, in
a general refponfe. This prayer was followed by a
Ihort blefling from the old man, and an invitation to the
affembly to partake of a friendly feaft. A fhare was
offered to Mr Wilkins, who was too polite to refufe it.
It was a kind of fweetmeat compofed of fugar and
flower mixed up with clarified butter. They were next
ferved with a few fugar plums j and thus ended the
feaft and ceremony.
In the courfe of converfation Mr Wilkins learned
that the founder of this fefl was Naneek Sah, who lived
about 40O years ago j who left behind him a book,
compofed by himfelf in verfe, containing the doftrines
he had eftablifhed 5 that this book teaches, that there is
but one God, filling all fpace, and pervading all mat¬
ter •, and that there will be a day of retribution, when
virtue will be rewarded, and vice puniftied. (Our au¬
thor forgot to afk in what manner). It forbids murder,
theft, and fuch other deeds as are by the majority of
mankind efteemed crimes, and inculcates the practice
of all the virtues ; but, particularly, a univerfal philan¬
thropy and hofpitality to ftrangers and travellers. It not
otily commands univerfal toleration, but forbids difputes
with thofe of another perfuafion. If any one fliow a
Tincere inclination to be admitted among them, any five
or more Seeks being affembled in any place, even on
the highway, they fend to the firft (hop where fvveet-
. . - meats
r 120 ]
S E G ' [i
Seeks, meats are fold, and procure a very finall quantity of a
Segalien. particular kind called batafd (Mr Wilkins does not tell
' us of what it is compofed), which having diluted in
pure water, they fprinkle fome of it on the body and
eyes of the profelyte, whilil one of the bell inftru£ted
repeats to him the chief canons of their faith, and ex¬
acts from him a folemn promife to abide by them the
reft of his life. They offered to admit Mr Wilkins into
their fociety but he declined the honour, contenting
himfelf with their alphabet, which they told him to
guard as the apple of his eye, as it was a facred charac¬
ter. Mr Wilkins finds it but little different from the
Dewanagari. The language itfelf is a mixture of Per-
fian, Arabic, and Shanfcrit, grafted upon the provincial
dialed: of Punjab, which is a kind of Hindowee, or, as
-we commonly call it, Moors.
SEGALIEN, a large ifland feparated from the coaft
-of Chinefe Tartary by a narrow channel. It is called
Tchoka by the natives, and Oku-Jeffu by the Chinefe.
It is fituated between 46° and 540 N. Lat. •, but its
breadth from eaft to weft is unknown. The frigates un¬
der the command of Peroufe came to anchor in different
bays, to the fineft of which, in 48° 59' N. Lat. and
140° 32' E. Long, from Paris, the French commodore
gave the name of Baie d’Eftaing.
Segalien is well wmoded, and mountainous towards
the centre, but flat and level along the coaft, the foil of
which is peculiarly favourable to agriculture •, and vege¬
tation is extremely vigorous. The whole furface is al-
moft covered with forefts of pine, birch, oak, and wil¬
low trees } and the feas, rivers, and brooks, abound with
■excellent falmon and trout. In general, the weather is
mild and foggy ; and the inhabitants are healthy and
■ftrong, and many of them live to an extreme old age.
The prefents received by the natives from the French,
were only valued in proportion to their utility. They
make ufe of looms, which are complete inftruments,
though fmall. The inhabitants in general do not exceed
five feet in height, although fome of the talleft meafure
about five feet four inches. Their countenances are ani¬
mated and agreeable ; their cheeks are large, their nofe
rounded at the extremity •, they have ftrong voices, and
-rather thick lips, which are of a dull red.
The women are not fo tall as the men, but of a more
rounded and delicate form, with dreffes nearly fimilar;
their upper lip is tattoed all over of a blue colour •, the
hair of their head is black, fmooth, and of a moderate
ftrength, worn about fix inches long behind, and they
-cut it into a brufli on the top of their head and over the
temples. They wear furtouts of Ikin or quilted nankeen,
which reach to the calf of the leg, and fometimes
lower, by which the ufe of drawers is in a great mea¬
fure rendered unneceffary. They all wear girdles, like
the lower orders among the Chinefe, from which a
knife is fufpended as a defence againft the bears, and a
number of fmall pockets for holding their flint and fteel,
pipe and box of tobacco, for they are very great fmok-
ers. Their huts are fmall in proportion to the number
of inhabitants they contain, but fufficient to defend them
againft the rain and other inclemencies of the atmo-
fphere. The roof confifts of two inclined planes, from
10 to 12 feet high at their union, and three or four on
the tides ; the breadth of the roof is 15, and its length
-18 feel. Tbev ufe iron pots in cooking, alfo ftiells,
Vol. XIX. Part I.
i ] S E G
veffels made of wood and birch bark, of different forms Segahe*
and workmanflup. They have two meals a-day, the „ ^ .
one at noon, and the other in the evening. Each fa- ■ _ A
mily has its own hunting and fifliing implements, and
their arms are bows, javelins, and a kind of fpontoon,
which laft is employed in hunting the bear.
The only domeftic animals are dogs, of a middling
fize, with ihaggy hair, pricked ears, and a long lharp
muzzle, with a loud but not favage cry.
The people of Segalien are of a mild and unfufpicious
difpofition, and appear to hold a commercial intercourfe
with the Chinefe through the medium of the Mantchou
Tartars, with the Ruffians to the north of their ifland,
and the Japanefe to the fouth ; but the articles of trade
confift only of a few furs and whale oil.
SEGEBERG, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Hoiftein, and in Wagria j with a caftle Handing on a
high mountain, confiding of limeftone, large quantities
of which are carried to Hamburg and Lubeck. It be¬
longs to Denmark, and is feated on the river Treve, in
E. Long. to. 9. N. Lat. 54. o.
SEGEDIN, a ftrong town of Lower Hungary, in
the county of Czongrad, with a caftle. The Imperia-
lifts took it from the Turks in 1686. It is feated at
the confluence of the rivers Teffe and Mafroch, in E.
Long. 20. 35. N. Lat. 46. 28.
SEGMENT of a Circle, in Geometry, is that part
of the circle contained between a chord and an arch of
the fame circle.
SEGMENTS, Line of, two particular lines on
Gunter’s fector. They lie between the lines of fines
and fuperficies, and are numbered, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.
They reprefent the diameter of a circle, fo divided into
IOO parts, that a right line drawn through thefe parts,
and perpendicular to the diameter, ftiall cut the circle
into two fegments, the greater of which (hall have the
fame proportion to the whole circle, as the parts cut off
have to 100.
SEGNA, a city of Croatia, belonging to the houfe
of Auftria, and feated on the coaft of the gulf of Ve¬
nice. It was formerly a place of ftrength and great
importance $ but it has fuffered many calamities, and
its inhabitants at prefent do not amount to 7000. In
the beginning of this century it fent 50 merchant fhips
to fea ; but the inconveniency of its fituation and badnefs
of its harbour, in which the fea is never calm, difeou-
raged navigation, and Segna has now very few (hips be¬
longing to it. Among the cuftoms of the Segnans, Mr
Fortis mentions one relative to the dead, which for its
Angularity may be worthy of notice.
“ All the relations and friends of the family go to Forth's
kifs the corpfe, by way of taking leave, before burial, travels in-
Each of them uncovers the face, over which a hand- r^{hma-
kerchief is fpread, more or lefs rich according to the
family •, having kiffed the dead perfon, every one throws
another handkerchief over the face all which remain
to the heirs, and fometimes there are 20, 36, and more
at this ceremony. Some throw all thefe handkerchiefs
into the grave with the corpfe ; and this, in former
times, was the general cuftom 5 but then they were rich.
This feems to have been brought into ufe as a fubftitute
for the ancient vqfi lachrymatorii.'n E. Long. 15. 21.
N. Lat. 4 y. 22.
SEGNI, an ancient town of Italy, in thfe Campagna
a of
Segni
II .
Segovia.
Swin¬
burne's
Travels
through
■Spain.
S E G [12
of Rome, with a bhhop’s fee, and the title of duchy.
It is faid that organs were firft invented here. It is
feated on a mountain. E. Long. 13. 15. N. Lat. 41. 50.
SEGO, the metropolis of the kingdom of Bambarra
in Africa, on the banks of the Niger, in N. Lat. 14. 4.
and W. Long. 2. 1. It confifts of four diftinft towns,
two on the northern bank of the river, called Sego
Korro, and Sego Boo j and two on the fouthern bank,
called Sego Soo Korro, and Sego See Korro, all fur-
rounded wuth lofty mud walls, and the houfes are con-
ilru&ed of clay, feveral of them two ftories high, and
even white-walhed. Mofques are to be leen in every
quarter, and the ftreeis, though narrow, are fufficiently
broad for every ufeful purpofe, where wheel-carriages
are wholly unknown. According to Mr Park, the in¬
habitants of Sego amount to 30,000 3 and it is the con-
flant relidence of the king of Bambarra, a conliderable
part of whofe revenue arifes from the fare given by paf-
fengers for croffing the river. The people, however,
are not fo hofpitable as in many other African towns, as
the Moors are here very numerous, whofe bigotry ren¬
ders them the implacable enemies of every white man, if
fufpected of being a Chriflian.
Mr Park being therefore prohibited from living in
Sego, redded for three days in an adjacent village, and
was difmilTed on the fourth, after receiving 5000 kowries
from the king, to enable him to buy provillons in the
courfe of his journey 3 and although it amounted only to
20s. fterling, fo very cheap were the neceffaries of life
in Bambarra, that he found it fufficient to procure pro-
vifions for himfelf, and corn for his horfe, for not fewer
than 50 days.
SEGORBE, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Valencia, with the title of a duchy, and a bilhop’s fee.
It is feated on the fide of a hill, between the mountains,
in a foil very fertile in corn and wine, and where there
are quarries of fine marble. It was taken from the
Moors in 1245 3 and the Romans thought it worth their
while to carry fome of the marble to Rome. W. Long,
o. 3. N. Lat. 39. 48.
SEGOVIA, an ancient city of Spain, of great power
in the time of the Caefars, is built upon two hills near
the banks of the Arayda in Old Caftile. W. Long. 3.
48. N. Lat. 41. o. It is ftill a bilhop’s fee, and is di-
ftinguifhed for fome venerable remains of antiquity. In
the year 1525 the city contained 5000 families, but
now they do not furpafs 2000, a fcanty population for
25 parilhes 3 yet, befide 2rr churches and a cathedral,
there are 21 convents.
The firft objeft in Segovia that attracts the eye is
the aquedudt, which the lingular fituation of the city
renders neceffary. As it is built upon twe hills, and
the valley by which they are feparated, and extends
confiderably in every direction, it was difficult for a
part of the citizens to be fupplied with water. The
difficulty was removed, according to the opinion of the
learned, in the reign of Trajan, by this aqueduct, which
is one of, the moft aftonilhing and the belt preferved of
the Roman works. In the opinion of Mr Swinburne,
who furveyed it in 1776, and who feems to have given
a very accurate account of the curiofities of Segovia, it
is fuperior in elegance of proportion to the Pont du
Card at Nifmes. It is fo perfectly well preferved, that
it does-not feem leaky in any part. From the firft low
arches to the refervoir in the town, its length is 2400
2 ] S E G
Spanilh feet 3 its greateft height (in the Plaza del Azo- Segovia,
bejo at the foot of the walls) is 104 3 it is there compo- ' " v J
fed of a double row of arches, built of large fquare ftones
without mortar, and over them a hollow wall of coarfer
materials for the channel of the water, covered with
large oblong Hags. Of the lower range of arcades,
which are 15 feet wide by 65 high, there are 42. The
upper arches are 119 in number, their height 27 Spaniffi
feet, their breadth feventeen, the tranfverfal thicknefs,
or depth of the piers, eight feet.
The cathedral is a mixture of the Gothic and Moor- Travels in ij
ilh architedlure. The infide is very fpacious, and of ma- Spain by
jeftic fimplicity. The windows are ’well difpofed, and
the great altar has been lately decorated with the fineft soann€,
Grenadan marble. But it is to be regretted, that in'
this cathedral, as w7ell as in moft others of Spain, the
choir is placed in the middle of the nave. The church
is nearly upon the model of the great church of Sala¬
manca, but it is not fo highly finiihed.
The alcazar, or ancient palace of the Moors, Hands
in one of the fineft pofitions poffible, on a rock rifing
above the open country. A fine river waffies the foot of
the precipice, and the city lies admirably well on each
fide on the brow of the hill 3 the declivity is wToody,
and the banks charmingly rural 3 the fnowy mountains
and dark forefts of Saint Ildefonzo compofe an awful
back-ground to the pifture. Towards the town there is
a large court before the great outward tower, which, as
the prifon of Gil Bias, is fo well deferibed by Le Sage,
that the fubjeft requires no farther explanation. The
reft of the buildings form an antique palace, which has
feldom been inhabited by any but prifoners fince the
reign of Ferdinand and Ifabella, who were much at¬
tached to this fituation. There are fome magnificent
halls in it, with much gilding in the ceilings, in a femi-
barbarous tafte. All the kings of Spain are feated in
ftate along the cornice of the great faloon 3 but it is
doubtful whether they are like the princes whofe names
they bear 3 if that refemblance, however, be wanting,
they have no other merit to claim. The royal apart¬
ments are now occupied by a college of young gentle¬
men cadets, educated at the king’s expence in all the
fciences requifite for forming an engineer. The grand-
mafter of the ordnance refides at Segovia, which is the
head eftabliffiment of the Spaniffi artillery.
The mint is below the alcazar, a large building, the
moft ancient place of coinage in the kingdom. The
machines for melting, ftamping, and milling the coin,
are worked by water : but there is reafon to believe
that Seville has at prefent more bufinefs, as being nearer
the fource of riches, the port of Cadiz, -where the ingots
of America are landed.
The unevennefs of the crown of the hill gives a wild
look to this city. Moft of the ftreets are crooked and
dirty, the houfes wooden and very wretched 3 nor do
the inhabitants appear much the richer for their cloth
manufaftory. Indeed, it is not in a very flouriffiing
condition, but what cloth they make is very fine.
The country about Segovia has the reputation of be¬
ing the beft for rearing the kind of ffieep that produces
the beautiful Spaniffi wool 3 but as thofe flocks wander
over many other parts of the kingdom, Segovia feems to
have no exclufive title to this reputation. Segovia (fays
Mr Fownfend, whofe valuable travels will be read with
much pleafure) was once famous for its cloth made on
the
S E J [i
Segovia the king’s account; but other riations have fince become
. II rivals in this branch, and the manufacture in this city
1 SeJanus' , has been gradually declining. When the king gave it
Jonjunfend’s UP to a private company, he left about 3000I. in trade ;
’Journey but now he is no longer a partner in the bufmefs. In
through the year 1612 were made here 2^,500 pieces of cloth,
Spam. which confumed 44,625 quintals of wool, employed
34,189 perfons $ but at prefent they-make only about
4000 pieces. The principal imperfections of this cloth
are, that the thread is not even, and that much greafe
remains in it when it is delivered to the dyer 5 in confe-
quence of which the colour is apt to fail. Yet, inde¬
pendently of imperfeftions, fo many are the difadvanta-
ges under wkich the manufacture labours, that foreign¬
ers can afford to pay 3I. for the aroba of fine wool, for
which the Spaniard gives no more than 20s. and after
all his charges can command the market even in the
ports of Spain.
Segovia, New, a town of North America, in New
Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala 5 feated on the
river Yare, on the confines of the province of Honduras.
W. Long. 84. 30. N. Lat. 13. 25.
Segovia, a town of America, in Terra Firma, and
in the province of Venezuela, feated on a river, near a
very high mountain, where there are mines of gold. W.
Long. 65. 30. N. Lat. 8. 20.
Segovia, a town of Alia, in the ifland of Manila,
and one of the largeft of the Philippines, feated at the
north end of the ifland, 240 miles north of Manila,
and fubjeCt to Spain. E. Long. 1 20. 59. N. Lat. 18.
36- .
SEGRE ANT, is the herald’s word for a griffin when
drawn in a leaping pofture, and difplaying his wings as
if ready to fly.
SEGUE, in the Italian mufic, is often found before
or/a, alleluja, amen, &c. to ffiow that thofe portions or
parts are to be fung immediately after the laft note of
that part over which it is writ •, but if thefe words Ji
placet, or ad libitum, are joined therewith, it fignifies,
that thefe portions may be fung or not at pleafure.
SEGUIERI A, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs polyandria. 1 See Botany Index.
SEJANT, a term ufed in heraldry, when a lion, or
other beaft, is drawn in an efcutcheon fitting like a cat
with his fore-feet flraight.
SEJANUS, ^EliUS, a native of Vulfinum in Tuf-
cany, who diftinguiffied himfelf in the court of Tiberi¬
us- His father’s name was Seius Strabo j a Roman
knight, commander of the pretorian guards. His mo¬
ther was defcended from the Junian family. Sejanus
firft gained the favour of Caius Caefar, the grandfon of
Auguftus, but afterwards he attached himfelf to the in-
tereit and the views of Tiberius, who then fat on the
imperial throne. The emperor, who was naturally of
a fufpicious temper, was free and open with Sejanus,
and while he diftrufled others, he communicated his
lempri- greateft fecrets to this fawning favourite. Sejanus im-
ere's Die- pr0ved this confidence ; and when he had found that he
tionary. p0{Tefl'e(J the efleem of Tiberius, he next endeavoured
to become the favourite of the foldiers, and the darling
of the fenate. As commander of the pretorian guards
he was the fecond man in Rome, and in that important
office he made ufe of infinuations and every mean arti¬
fice to make himfelf beloved and revered. His affability
and condefcenfion gained him the hearts of the common
23 ] S E J
foldiers, and, by appointing his own favourites and ad- Sejanus,
herents to places of truft and honour, all the officers and
centurions of the army became devoted to his intereft.
The views of Sejanus in this were well known 5 yet, to
advance with more fuccefs, he attempted to gain the af-
fedlion of the fenators. In this he met with no oppofi-
tion. A man who has the difpofal of places of ho¬
nour and dignity, and who has the command of the pub¬
lic money, cannot but be the favourite of thofe who are
in need of his affiftance. It is even faid, that Sejanus
gained to his views all the wives of the fenators, by a
private and moil facred promife of marriage to each of
them, whenever he had made himfelf independent and
fovereign of Rome. Yet, however fuccefsful with the
belt and noblelt families in the empire, Sejanus had to
combat numbers in the houfe of the emperor ; but thefe
feeming obftacles were foon removed. All the children
and grandchildren of Tiberius were facrificed to the
ambition of the favourite under various pretences ; and
Drufus the fon of the emperor, by ftriking Sejanus,
made his deftruction fure and inevitable. Livia, the
wife of Drufus, was gained by Sejanus j and, though
the mother of many children, ffie was prevailed upon to
affift her adulterer in the murder of her hufband, and
ffie confented to marry him when Drufus was dead. No
fooner was Drufus poifoned, than Sejanus openly decla¬
red his wiffi to marry Livia. This was ftrongly oppo-
fed by Tiberius •, and the emperor, by recommending
Germanicus to the fenators for his fucceffor, rendered
Sejanus bold and determined. He was more urgent in
his demands ; and, when he could not gain the confent
of the emperor, he perfuaded him to retire to folitude \
from the noife of Rome and the troubles of the govern¬
ment. Tiberius, naturally fond of eafe and luxury, yield*-
ed to his re prefen tations, and retired to Campania, leav¬
ing Sejanus at the head of the empire. This was highly
gratifying to the favourite, but he was not without a ma¬
iler. Prudence and moderation might have made him
what he wiffied to be •, but having offended the emperor
beyond forgivenefs, he refolved to retrieve his lofs, and
by one vigorous effort to decide the fate of the empire.
He called together his friends and followers •, he paid
court to fuch as feemed difaffedled j he held forth re¬
wards and promifes j and, having increafed the number
of his partifans, formed a bold confpiracy, refolved by
any means to feize the fovereign power.
A powerful league was formed with aftoniffiing rapi¬
dity, and great numbers of all deferiptions, fenators as
well as military men, entered into the plot. Among Murphy’s
thefe, Satrius Secundus was the confidential friend and Tacitus,
prime agent of the minifter. Whatever was this man’s Eock
motive, whether fear, or views of intereft, or ingratitude
(for no principle of honour can be imputed to him), he
refolved to betray the fecret to Tiberius. For this pur-
pofe he addreffed himfelf to Antonia, the daughter of
Anthony the triumvir, the widow of Drufus, and the
mother of Germanicus. When this illuftrious woman,
who wras honoured by the court and revered by the
people, heard the particulars, ffie fent difpatches to the
emperor by one of her flaves. Tiberius was aftoniffied,
but not difmayed. The danger preffed ; his habitual
flownefs was out of feafon j the time called for vigour
and deciljve meafures. He fent Macro to Rome, with
a fpecial commiffion to take upon him the command of
the prsetorian guards. He added full inftruclions for
Q 2 his
8 E .1 [ i
Sejanus. his conduft in ail emergencies. Early in the morning
—-V- ’ on the 15th, before the kalends of November, a report
•was fprsad, that letters had arrived at Rome, in which
the emperor fignified his intention to affociate Sejanus
with himfelf in the tribunitian power. .1 he fenate was
fummoned to meet in the temple of Apollo, near the
imperial palace. Sejanus attended without delay. A
party of the praetorians followed him. Macro met
him in the veftibule of the temple. He approached
the minifter with all demonftrations of profound re-
fpefl, and taking him afide, “ Be not furprifed (he faid)
that you have no letter from the prince : it is his plea-
fure to declare you his colleague in the tribunitian
power ; but he thinks that a matter of fo much impor¬
tance fliould be communicated to the fathers by the voice
of the confuls. I am going to deliver the emperor’s
orders.” Sejanus, elated with joy, and flulhed with his
new dignity, entered the fenate-houfe } Macro followed
him. As foon as the confuls arrived, he delivered the
letter from Tiberius, and immediately went forth to
the praetorian guards. He informed them, that by or¬
der of the prince, a large donative was to be diftributed
among the foldiers. He added, that, by a new eom-
miffion, he himfelf was appointed their commanding
officer *, and, if they followed him to the camp, they
would there receive the promifed bounty. 1 he lure
was not thrown out in vain : the praetorian guards quit¬
ted their ftation. Laco, who flood near at hand, im¬
mediately furrounded the fenate-houfe with a body of
the city cohorts.
The letter to the confuls was confufed, obfcure, and
tedious, only glancing at Sejanus, till at lafl the lan¬
guage of inveftive left no room for doubt. Sejanus
kept his feat like a man benumbed, fenfelefs and flupid
with aflonifhment. His friends, who a little before
congratulated him on his new dignity, deferted him on
every fide. He was commanded by the conful to rife
and follow him, and being loaded with irons, rvas con¬
duced to prifon. His downfal filled the city with ex¬
ultation. The populace, who worfhipped him in the
hour of profperity, rejoiced to fee the fad cataftrophe to
which he was now reduced. They followed in crowds,
rending the air with {bouts, and pouring forth a torrent
of abufe and fcurrilous language. The prifoner endea¬
voured to hide his face 5 but the mob delighted to fee
remorfe and fhame and guilt and horror in every fea¬
ture of his diflraCed countenance. They reviled him
for his acts of cruelty *, they laughed at his wild ambi¬
tion ; they tore down his images, and dafhed his ftatues
to pieces. He was doomed by Tiberius to fuffer death
on that very day } but, as he had a powerful faCion in
the fenate, it was not thought advifeable, for the mere
formality of a regular condemnation, to hazard a de¬
bate. Private orders were given to Macro to difpatch
him without delay *, but the conful, feeing the difpofi-
tions of the people, and the calm neutrality of the prae¬
torian guards, judged it belt to re-afiemble the fathers.
They met in the temple of Concord. With one voice
Sejanus was condemned to die, and the fentence was
executed without delay. He was ftrangled in the pri¬
fon. His body was dragged to the Gemoniae, and, af¬
ter every fpecies of infult from the populace, at the end
of three davs was thrown into the Tiber. Such was
the tragic end of that ambitious favourite. He fell a
terrible example to all, who, in any age or country^ may
a
Seifin.
24 i 3 E E.
hereafter endeavour by their vices to rife above their fel- Sejanus-
low-citizens.
SEIGNIOR, is, in its general fignification, the fame
with /on/, but is particularly ufed tor the lord of the fee
or of a manor, as feigneur among the feudilfs is he who
grants a fee or benefit out of the land to another ; and
the reafon is, becaufe having granted away the ufe and
profit of the land, the property or dominion he ftill re¬
tains in himfelf.
SEIGNIORAGE, is a royalty or prerogative of the
king, whereby he claims an allowance of gold and filver
brought in the mafs to be exchanged for coin. As feig-
niorage, out of every pound weight of gold, the king
had for his coin jp’- °f which he paid to the mailer of
the mint fometimes is. and fometimes is. 6d. Upon
every pound weight of filver, the feigniorage allowed
to the king in the time of Edward III. was 18 penny¬
weights, which then amounted to about is. out of which
he fometimes paid 8d. at others pd. to the mafter. In
the reign of King Henry V. the king’s feigniorage of
every pound of filver was ijd. &c.
SEIGNIORY, is borrowed from the French feig-
tieurie, i. e. dominatur, imperium, principutus ; and figni-
fies with us a manor or lordfhip, feigmory de Jokemans.
Seigniory in gt'ojs, feems to be the title of him who 13
not lord by means of any manor, but immediately in Ins
own perfon 5 as tenure in capite, whereby one holds of
the king, as of his crown, is feigmory in grofs.
SE1KS. See Hindostan.
SEISIN, in Law, fignifies pofieffion. In this fenfe
w'e fay, premier feijtn, for the firft poffeffion, &o.
Seifin is divided into that m deed or tnfaSi, and that
in law. A feifm in deed is where a poiTcffion is actually
taken : but a feifin in law is, where lands defeend, and
the party has not entered thereon 5 or, in other words,
it is where a perfon has a right to lands, &c. and is by
wrong diiTeifed of them, A feifin in law is held to be
fufficient to avow on •, though to the bringing of an al-
fize, ablual feifin is required ; and where feifin is alleged,
the perfon pleading it muff Ihow of what eltate he is
feifed, &c.
Seifin of a fuperior fervice is deemed to be a feifin of
all fuperior and cafual fervices that are incident thereto j
and feifin of a lelfee for years, is fuflicient for him in
reverfion.
Livery of SEISIN, in Law, an effential ceremony in
the conveyance of landed property ; being no other
than the pure feodal inveftiture, or delivery of corpo¬
ral pofieffion of the land or tenement. i his was held
abfolutely neceffary to complete the donation ; AW
feudam fne invefitura nullo modo conjlitin potuit: and
an eflate wTas then only perfedl when, as Eleta expreffes
it in our law, ft juris et feifnee conjuntiio. See I1 EOF-
MENT.
Inveftitures, in their original rife, were probably in¬
tended to demonftrate in conquered countries the adlual
poffeflion of the lord *, and that he did not grant a bare
litigious right, which the foldier was ill qualified to pro-
fecute, but a peaceable and firm poffeffion. And, at a
time when writing was feldom prablifed, a mere oral gift,
at a diftance from the fpot that w?as given, was not like¬
ly to be either long or accurately retained in the memo¬
ry of byftanders, who wTere very little interefted in the
grant. Afterwards they were retained as a public and
notorious aft, that the country might take notice of and
teftifv
S E I [i
Seifin. teffify tlie transfer of the eftate; and that fuch as claimed
—V title by other means might know againit whom to bring
their aftions.
In all well-governed nations, fome notoriety of this
kind has been ever held requifite, in order to acquire
and afcertain the property of lands. In the Roman
law, plenum dominium was not faid to fubfift unlefs where
a man had both the right and the corporalpojj'ejjion ;
which poffeffion could not be acquired without both an
actual intention to poiTefs, and an adtual feifm or entry
into the premiffes, or part of them in the name of the
whole. And even in ecelefiaftical promotions, w'here
the freehold paffes to the perfon promoted, corporal
poffeflion is required at this day to veil the property
completely in the new proprietor who, according to
the diftinftion of the canonift, acquires the jus ad rerni
or inchoate and imperfeCl right, by nomination and in-
ftitution ; but not the jus in re, or complete and full
right, unlefs by corporal poffeflion. Therefore in dig¬
nities poffeflion is given by inftalment ; in rectories and
vicarages by induction ; without which no temporal
rights accrue to the minifler, though every ecclefiaftical
power is vefled in him by inftitution. So alfo even in
defcents of lands, by our law, which are call on the heir
by aft of the law itfelf, the heir has not plenum domini¬
um, or full and complete ownerflup, till he has made an
aftual corporal entry into the lands: for if he dies before
entnj made, hh heir fhall not be entitled to take the pof¬
feflion, but the heir of the perfon who wTas lafl: aftualiy
feifed. It is not therefore only a mere right to enter, but
the aftual entry, that makes a man complete owner •, fo
as to tranfmit the inheritance to his own heirs: non jus,
fed feifina, facit Jlipilem.
Yet the corporal tradition of lands being fometimes
inconvenient, a fymbolical delivery of poffeflion was in
many cafes anciently allowed \ by transferring fome-
thing near at hand, in the prefence of credible wit-
neffes, which by agreement fliould ferve to reprefent
the very thing defigned to be conveyed \ and an occu¬
pancy of this fign or fymbol was permitted as equiva¬
lent to occupancy of the land itfelf. Among the Jew7s
we find the evidence of a purchafe thus defined in the
book of Ruth : “ Now this was the manner in former
time in Ifrael, concerning redeeming and concerning
changing, for to confirm all things : a man plucked oft’
his (hoe, and gave it to his neighbour ; and this was a
teftimony in Ifrael.” Among the ancient Goths and
Sw'edes, contrafts for the fale of lands wTere made in
the prefence of witneffes, who extended the cloak of
the buyer, while the feller caft a clod of the land into
it, in order to give poffeflion ; and a ftaff or wrand was
alfo delivered from the vender to the vendee, which
paffed through the hands of the witneffes. With our
Saxon anceftors the delivery of a turf was a neceffary
folemnity to eftablifh the conveyance of lands. And,
to this day, the conveyance of our copyhold eftates is
ufually made from the feller to the lord or his ftew'ard
by delivery of a rod or verge, and then from the lord to
the purchafer by re-delivery of the fame in the prefence
of a jury of tenants.
Conveyances in writing were the lafl: and moft re¬
fined improvement. The mere delivery of poffeflion,
either aftual or fymbolical, depending on the ocular
teftimony and remembrance of the witneffes, wTas liable
to be forgotten or mifreprefented, and became frequent-
5 ] s E l.
ly incapable of proof. Befides, the new occafions and Scifm.
neceflities introduced by the advancement of commerce, 'r““
required means to be devifed of charging and incumber¬
ing eftates, and of making them liable to a multitude of
conditions and minute defignations, for the purpofes of
raifing money, rvithout an abfolute lale of the land j
and fometimes the like proceedings were found ufeful
in order to make a decent and competent provifion for
the numerous branches of a family, and for other do-
meftic views. None of which could be eftefted by a
mere, Ample, corporal transfer of the foil from one man
to another, which was principally calculated for convey¬
ing an abfolute unlimited dominion. Written deeds
were therefore introduced, in order to fpecify and per¬
petuate the peculiar purpofes of the party who convey¬
ed : yet ftill, for a very long feries of years, they wrere
never made ufe of, but in company with the more an¬
cient and notorious method of transfer by delivery of
corporal poffeflion.
Livery of feifin, by the common law7, is neceffary to
be made upon every grant of an eftate of freehold m he¬
reditaments corporeal, whether of inheritance or for life
only. In hereditaments incorporeal it is impoflible to b©
made 5 for they are not the objeft of the fenfes: and in
leafes for years, or other chattel interefts, it is not necef¬
fary. In leafes for years indeed an aftual entry is necef¬
fary, to veil the eftate in the leffee: for a bare leafe gives
him only a right to enter, which is called his intereft in
the term, or interefje termini: and when he enters in pur-
fuance of that right, he is then, and not before, in poffef¬
fion of his term, and complete tenant tor years. This
entry by the tenant himtelf ferves the purpofe of notorie¬
ty, as well as livery of feifin from the granter could
have done 5 which, it would have been improper to
have given in this cafe, becaufe that folemnity is appro¬
priated to the conveyance of a freehold. And this is
one reafon why freeholds cannot be made to commence
in future, becaufe they cannot (at the common law) be
made but by livery of feifin ; which livery, being an
aftual manual tradition of the land, mull take effeft in.
preefenti, or not at all.
Livery of feifin is either in deed or in law.
Livery in deed is thus performed. The feoffor, leffor,
or his attorney, together with the feoffee, leffee, or his
attorney, (for this may as effeftually be done by de¬
puty or attorney as by the principals themfelves in per¬
fon), come to the land or to the houfe ; and there, in
the prefence of witneffes, declare the contents of the
feoffment or leafe on which livery is to be made. And
then the feoffor, if it be of land, doth deliver to the
feoffee, all other perfons being out of the ground, a clod
or turf, or a twig or bough there growing, with words
to this efteft : “ I deliver thefe to you in the name of
feifin of all the lands and tenements contained in this
deed.” But, if it be of a houfe, the feoffor muft take
the ring or latch of the door, the houfe being quite
empty, and deliver it to the feoffee in the fame form ;
and then the feoffee muft enter alone, and ftiut the door,
and then open it, and let in the others. If the convey¬
ance or feoffment be of divers lands, lying fcattered in
one and the fame county, then in the feoffor’s poffeflion,
livery of feifin of any parcel, in the name of the reft,
fufficeth for all ; but if they be in feveral counties, there
muft be as many liveries as there are counties. For, if
the title to thefe lands comes to be difputed, there
mult.
S E L [ 126 ] S E L
Seifm tnuft be as many trials as there are counties, and the
H jury of one county are no judges of the notoriety of a
Se en' . fa£t in another. Befides, anciently, this feifm was ob¬
liged to be delivered coram paribus de vicmeto, before
the peers or freeholders of the neighbourhood, who
attefted fuch delivery in the body or on the back of
the deed ; according to the rule of the feodal law,
Pares debcnt interej/e invejliturce feudi, et non alii:
for which this reafon is exprefsly given •, becaufe the
peers or vaffals of the lord, being bound by their oath
of fealty, will take care that no fraud be committed
to his prejudice, which ftrangers might be apt to con¬
nive at. And though afterwards the ocular attefta-
tion of the pares was held unneceffary, and livery
might be made before any credible witneffes, yet the
trial, in cafe it was difputed, (like that of all other at-
teftations), was Hill referved to the pares or jury of
the county. Alfo, if the lands be out on leafe, though
all lie in the fame county, there muft be as many li¬
veries as there are tenants : becaufe no livery can be
made in this cafe, but by the confent of the particular
tenant j and the confent of one will not bind the reft.
And in all thefe cafes it is prudent, and ufual, to en-
dorfe the livery of feifin on the back of the deed, fpeci-
fying the manner, place, and time of making it; together
with the names of the witneffes. And thus much for
livery in deed.
Livery in law is where the fame is not made on the
land, but in Jight of it only 5 the feoffor faying to the
feoffee, “ I give you yonder land, enter and take pof-
reflion,” Here, if the feoffee enters during the life of
the feoffor, it is a good livery, but not otherwife *, unlefs
he dares not enter through fear of his life or bodily
harm $ and then his continual claim, made yearly in due
form of law, as near as poflible to the lands, will fuffice
without an entry. This livery in law cannot, however,
be given or received by attorney, but only by the parties
themfelves.
SEIZE, in the fea-language, is to make faft or bind,
particularly to fatten two ropes together with rope-yarn.
The feizing of a boat is a rope tied to a ring or little
chain in the fore-lhip of the boat, by which means it is
faftened to the fide of the (hip.
SEIZURE, in commerce, an arreft of fome mer-
chandife, moveable, or other matter, either in con-
fequence of fome law or of fome exprefs order of
the fovereign. Contraband goods, thofe fraudulently
entered, or landed without entering at all, or at
wrong places, are fubjeft to feizure. In feizures among
\is, one half goes to the informer, and the other half to
the king.
SELAGO, a genus of plants belonging to the didy-
namia clafs and in the natural method ranking under
the 48th order, Aggregates. See Botany Index.
SELDEN, John, called by Grotius the glory of
England, was born at Salvington in Suffex in 1584.
He was educated at the free fchool at Chichefter ;
whence he was fent to Hart Hall in the univerfity of
Oxford, where he ftaid four years. In 1612, he enter¬
ed himfelf in Clifford’s Inn, in order to ftudy the law 5
and about two years after removed to the Inner Tem¬
ple, where he foon acquired great reputation by his
learning. He had already publilhed feveral of his -works }
and this year wrote verfes in Latin, Greek, and Eng-
lifti, upon Mr William Browne’s Britannia’s Paftorals.
3
In 1614, he publithed his Titles of Honour; and in SeMen.
1616, his Notes on Sir John Fortefcue’s book De Lau-{—~rmm"
dibus Legum Anglice. In 1618, he publiftied his Hittory
of Tythes ; which gave great offence to the clergy, and
was animadverted upon by feveral writers; and for that
book he was called before the high commiflion court,
and obliged to make a public acknowledgement of his
forrow for having publiftied it. In 1621, being fent for
by the parliament, though he was not then a member
of that houfe, and giving his opinion very ftrongly in
favour of their privileges in oppofttion to the court, he
was committed to the cuftody of the fheriff of Lon¬
don, but was fet at liberty after five weeks confinement.
In 1623, he was chofen burgefs for Lancafter ; but,
amidft all the divifions of the nation, kept himfelf neu¬
ter, profecuting his ftudies with fuch application,
that though he was the next year chofen reader of
Lyon’s Inn, he refufed to perform that office. In 1625,
he was chofen burgefs for Great Bedwin in Wiltfhire,
to ferve in the firft parliament of King Charles I. in
which he declared himfelf warmly againft the duke of
Buckingham ; and on his Grace’s being impeached by
the Houfe of Commons, was appointed one of the ma¬
nagers of the articles againft him. In 1627 an<^ *628,
he oppofed the court party with great vigour. The
parliament being prorogued to January 20. 1629, Mr
Selden retired to the earl of Kent’s houfe at Wreft, in
Bedfordffiire, where he finifhed his Marmora Arunde-
liana. The parliament being met, he, among others,
again diftinguifhed himfelf by his zeal againft the court ;
when the king diffolving the parliament, ordered feveral
of the members to be brought before the King’s Bench
bar, and committed to the Tower. Among thefe was
Mr Selden, who infilling on the benefit of the laws, and
refufing to make his fubmiffion, was removed to the
King’s Bench prifon. Being here in danger of his life
on account of the plague then raging in Southwark, he
petitioned the lord high treafurer, at the end of Trini¬
ty term, to intercede with his Majefty that he might be
removed to the Gate-houfe, Weftminfter, which was
granted : but in Michaelmas term following, the judges
objedling to the lord treafurer’s warrant, by which he
had been removed to the Gate-houfe, an order was made
for conveying him back to the King’s Bench, whence
he was releafed in the latter end of the fame year ; but
fifteen years after, the parliament ordered him 5000I.
for the Ioffes he had fuftained on thisoccafion. He wras
afterwards committed with feveral other gentlemen, for
difperfing a libel ; but the author, who was abroad, be¬
ing difeovered, they were at length fet at liberty. In
1634, a difpute arifing between the Englilh and Dutch
concerning the herring-fifhery on the Britifh coaft, he
was prevailed upon by Archbilhop Laud to draw up his
Mare Claufum, in anfwer to Grotius’s Mare Liberum:
which greatly recommended him to the favour of the
court. In 1640, he w'as chofen member for the uni¬
verfity of Oxford ; when he again oppofed the court,
though he might, by complying, have raifed himfelf to
very confiderable polls. In 1643, ^ie was appointed
one of the lay-members to fit in the affembly of divines
at Weftminfter, and was the fame year appointed keeper
of the records in the Tower. Whilft he attended his
duty in the affembly, a warm debate arofe refpedling
the diftance of Jericho from Jerufalem. The party
which contended for the fhorteft diftance, urged, as a
\
s E L [ 127 ] S E L
Seldea proof of their opinion being well founded, that filhes
II were carried from the one city to the other, and fold in
Se eucus. ^ Their adverfaries were ready to yield to
the force of this conclufive argument, when Selden,
who defpifed both parties, as well as the frivoloufnefs of
their difpute, exclaimed, “ Perhaps the filhes were fak¬
ed !” This unexpected remark left the victory doubt¬
ful, and renewed the debate 5 and our author, who was
fick of fuch trifling, foon found employment more fuit-
ed to his genius j for, in 1645, he was made one of the
commiflioners of the admiralty. The fame year he was
unanimoufly eleCted mafter of Trinity college, Cam¬
bridge 5 but declined accepting. He died in 1654 ;
and was interred in the Temple-church, where a monu¬
ment is ereCted to his memory. Dr Wilkes obferves,
that he was a man of uncommon gravity and greatnefs
of foul, averfe to flattery, liberal to fcholars, charitable to
the poor •, and though he had great latitude in his prin¬
ciples with regard to ecclefiaftical power, yet he had a
fincere regard for the church of England. He wrote
many learned works befides thofe already mentioned j
the principal of which are. 1. De Jure Natura/i et Gen¬
tium juxta Difciplinam Hebrceorum. 2. De Nuptiis et
Divorciis. 3. De Anno Civili veterum Hebrceorum.
4. De Nummis. 5. De Diis Syris. 6. Uxor Hebraica.
7. Jani Anglerum Facies altera, &c. All his works
were printed together in 1726, in 3 vols folio.
SELENITE, in Mineralogy, the cryftallized ful-
phate of lime or gypfum. See Lime, in Mineralogy
Index. Selenite literally fignifies moon-ftone, and is
expreflive of the colour and foft luftre of the mineral.
SELENOGRAPHY, a branch of cofmography,
which deferibes the moon and all the parts and appear¬
ances thereof, as geography does thofe of the earth.
See Moon, and Astronomy Index.
SELEUCIA, in Ancient Geography, furnamed Ba¬
bylonia, becaufe fituated on its confines, at the conflu¬
ence of the Euphrates and Tigris. Ptolemy places it
in Mefopotamia. It is called alfo Seleucia ad Tigrim,
(Polybius, Strabo, Ifidorus Characenus) ; walhed on
the fouth by the Euphrates, on the eafl: by the Tigris,
(TheophylaCtus) ; generally agreed to have been built
or enlarged by Seleucus Nicanor, mafter of the eafl;
after Alexander 5 by means of which Babylon came to
be deferted. It is faid to have been originally called
Cache, (Ammian, Eutropius); though others, as Arrian,
diftinguifh it, as a village, from Seleucia ; and, accord¬
ing to Zofimus, the ancient name of Seleucia was Zocha-
fia. Now called Bagdad. E. Long. 44. 21. N. Lat.
33. 10- There were many other cities of the fame
name, all built by Seleucus Nicanor.
SELEUCIDAt, in Chronology. Era of the Se-
leucidas, or the Syro-Macedonian era, is a computa¬
tion of time, commencing from the eftablifliment of the
Seleucidas, a race of Greek kings, who reigned as fuc-
ceflbrs of Alexander the Great in Syria, as the Ptole¬
mies did in Egypt. This era we find exprefled in the
books of the Maccabees, and on a great number of
Greek medals ftruck by the cities of Syria, &c. The
Rabbins call it the era of contraBs, and the Arabs
therik dilkarnain, that is, the “ era of the two horns.”
According to the beft accounts, the firft year of this era
falls in the year 311 B. C. being 12 years after Alex¬
ander’s death.
SELEUCUS, Nicanor, one of the chief generals
under Alexander the Great, and, after his death, found- Seleucus,
er of the race of princes called Seleucidce. He is equal- Sc‘f'
ly celebrated as a renowned warrior, and as the father y
of his people ; yet his virtues could not proteft him from
the fatal ambition of Ceraunus, one of his courtiers, by
whom he was afl'aflinated 280 B. C.
SELF-Heal, the Prunella Vulgaris, Lin. This
herb was recommended by the older phyficians as a
mild reftringent and vulnerary; but its virtues appear to
be very feeble, and therefore it is now rarely ufed.
SELF-Connnand, is that fteady equanimity which en¬
ables a man in every fituation to exert his reafoning
faculty with coolnefs, and to do ivhat the prefent cir-
cumflances require. It depends much upon the natural
temperament of the body, and much upon the moral cul¬
tivation of the mind. He who enjoys good health,
and has braced his frame by exercife, has always a
greater command of himfelf than a man of equal mental
powers, who has fuffered his conftitution to become re¬
laxed by indolence 5 and he who has from his early
youth been accurtomed to make his paflions fubmit to
his reafon, muft, in any hidden emergency, be more
capable of afting properly than he who has tamely
yielded to his paffion. Hence it is that reclufe and
literary men, when forced into the buftle of public life,
are incapable of acting where promptnefs is requifite ;
and that men who have once or twice yielded to a fenfe
of impending danger feldom acquire afterwards that
command of themfelves which may be neceffary to ex¬
tricate them from fubfequent dangers. In one of the
earlieft battles fought by the late king of Pruflia, the fo-
vereign was among the firft men who quitted the field :
had he behaved in the fame manner a fecond and a third
time, he would never have become that hero whofe ac¬
tions aftonifhed Europe. A celebrated engineer among
ourfelves, who was rvell known to the writer of this
fhort article, had little fcience, and was a ftranger to
the principles of his owm art 5 but being poffefled of a
firm and vigorous frame, and having been accuftomed
to ftruggle with dangers and difficulties, he had fuch a
conftant command of himfelf, as enabled him to employ
with great coolnefs every neceflary refource in the day
of battle.
But it is not only in battle, and in the face of imme¬
diate danger, that felf-command is neceflary to enable a
man to a£t with propriety. There is no fituation in life
where difficulties, greater or lefs, are not to be encoun¬
tered ; and he who would pafs through life with com¬
fort to himfelf, and with utility to the public, muft en¬
deavour to keep his paffions in conftant fubjeftion to his
reafon. No man can enjoy without inquietude what he 7
cannot lofe without pain ; and no man who is overwhelm¬
ed with defpondency under any hidden misfortune can
exert the talents neceflary to retrieve his circumftances..
We ought, therefore, by every means to endeavour to
obtain a conftant command of ourfelves ; and nowhere
fhall we find better leflbns for this purpofe than in an¬
cient Lacedemon. There certain occupations wrere ap¬
pointed for each fex, for every hour, and for every fea-
fon of life. In a life always adlive, the paffions have
no opportunity to deceive, feduce, or corrupt 5 and the
nervous fyftem acquires a firmnefs which makes it a fit
inftrument to a vigorous mind.
SELF-Defence implies not only the prefervation of
one’s life, but alfo the protection of his property, be¬
caufe
S E L [
Self. <caufe mthout property life cannot be preferved in a ci-
—“v vilized nation. The extent of property effential to life
is indeed fmall, and this confideration may enable us to
decide a quellion which fome moralifls have made intri¬
cate. By what means, it has been alked, may a man
proteft his property ? May he kill the perfon who at¬
tacks it, if he cannot otherwife repel the attack ?
That a man, in the date of nature, may kill the per¬
fon who makes an attack on his life, if he cannot other-
wife repel the attack, is a truth which has never been
controverted ; and he may do the fame in civil fociety,
if his danger be fo imminent that it cannot be averted
by the interpofition of the protedHon provided for indi¬
viduals by the date. In all podible fituations, except
the three following, whatever is abfolutely neceffary to
the prefervation of life may be lawfully performed, for
the law of felf-prefervation is the fird and mod facred
-of thofe laws which are imprefled on every mind by the
author of nature.
The three excepted fituations are thofe of a foldier
in the day of battle, of a criminal about to differ by the
laws of his country, and of a man called upon to re¬
nounce his religion. The foldier hazards his life in the
mod honourable of all caufes, and cannot betray his
trud, or play the coward, without incurring a high de¬
gree of moral turpitude. He knows that the very pro-
feffion in which he is engaged neceffarily fubjefts him
to danger j and he voluntarily incurred that danger for
the good of his country, which, with great propriety,
annexes to his profeffion peculiar privileges and much
glory. The criminal under fentence of death cannot,
without adding to his guilt, refid the execution of that
fentence j for the power of infli&ing punilhment is ef¬
fential to fociety, and fociety is the ordinance of God,
(fee Society). The man who is called upon to re¬
nounce his religion ought to fubmit to the cruelled
death rather than comply with that requed, fince reli¬
gion is his only fecurity for future and permanent hap-
pinefs. But in every other fituation, that which is ab¬
folutely neceffary to the prefervation of life is undoubt¬
edly lawful. Hence it is that a perfon finking in wa¬
ter is never thought to be guilty of any crime, though
he drag his neighbour after him by his endeavours to
fave himfelf •, and hence, too, a man in danger of peridi-
ing by fhipwreck may drive another from a plank which
cannot carry them both, for fince one of two lives muft
be lod, no law, human or divine, calls upon either of
them to prefer his neighbour’s life to his own.
But though the rights of felf-defence authorife us
to repel every attack made upon our life, and in cafes
of extremity to fave ourfelves at the expenee of the life
of our innocent neighbour, it is not fo evident that,
rather than give to an unjud demand a few {hillings or
pounds, we mav lawfully deprive a fellow creature of
life, and the public of a citizen. A few pounds lod
may be eafily regained; but life when lod can never be
recovered. If thefe pounds, indeed, be the Whole of a
man’s property *, if they include Iris clothes, his food,
and the houfe where he {belters his head—there cannot
be a doubt but that, rather than part with them, he may
lawfullv kill the aggrefior, for no man can exid with¬
out {belter, food, and raiment. But it isfeldom that an
attempt is made or is indeed practicable, to rob a man
at once of all that he poffeffes. The quedion then of
1 28 ]
S E L
any importance is, May a man put a robber to death
rather than part with a {mail part 01 his property ? Mr *“
Paley doubts whether he could innocently do io in a
date of nature, “ becaufe it cannot be contended to
be for the augmentation of human happinei's, that one
man diould loft his life or limb, rather than another a
pennyworth of his property.” He allows, that in civil
foeiety the life of the aggreffor may be always taken
away by the perfon aggrieved, or meant to be aggriev;. d,
when the crime attempted is fuch as would fubjeft its
perpetrator to death by the laws of his country.
It is not often that we feel ourfclves difpofed to dif¬
fer in opinion from this mod valuable and intelligent
writer 5 but on the prefent occafion we cannot help
thinking that he does not reafon with his ufual preci-
fion. To us he even feems to lofe dght of his own prin¬
ciples. No legifiature can have a right to take away
life in civil fociety, but in fucli cafes as individuals have
the fame right in a date of nature. If therefore a man
in the date of nature, have not a right to protect his
property by killing the aggreffor, when it cannot be
otherwife protedled, it appears to us felf-evident that no
legidature can have a right to inflift the punidnnent ot
death upon fuch offences; but if the laws inflicling
death upon the crime of robbery be morally evil, it is
certain that an individual cannot be innocent when he
prevents robbery by the death of the robber, merely
becaufe he knows that the laws of his country have de¬
creed that punidiment againft thofe convi&ed of that
crime. But we think that the prote&ion of property
by the death of the aggreffor may be completely vindi¬
cated upon more general principles. It is neceffary, in
every Hate, that property be prote£ted, or mankind
could not fubfid ; but in a date of nature every man
mud be the defender of his own property, which in
that date mud neceffarily be fmall: and if he be not al¬
lowed to defend it by every mean in his power, he will
not long be able to proteft it at all. By giving him
fuch liberty, a few individuals may, indeed, occafionally
lofe their lives and limbs for the prefervation of a very
fmall portion of private property } but we believe that
the fum of human happinefs will be more augmented by
cutting off fuch worthlefs wretches than by expofing
property to perpetual depredation •, and therefore, if
general utility be the criterion of moral good, we mud
be of opinion that a man may in every cafe lawfully kill
a robber rather than comply with his unjud demand.
But if a man may without guilt preferve his proper¬
ty by the-death of the aggreffor, when it cannot be pre¬
ferved by any other means, much more may a woman
have recourfe to the lad extremitv to protedl her chaf-
tity from forcible violation. 1 his, indeed, is admitted
by Mr Paley himfelf, and will be controverted by no
man who refiefts on the importance of th(? female cha-
rabler, and the probable eonfequences of the fmalled
deviation from the edablifhed laws of female honour.
See Seduction.
SELF-Knowledge, the knowledge of one’s own cha-
rafter, abiliiie-, opinions, virtues, and vices. 1 his has
always been confidered as a difficult though important
acquifition. It is ditfieult, becanfe it is difagreeable to
invedigate our errors, our faults, and vices •, becaufe we
are apt to be partial to ourfelves. even when we have
dune wrong j and becaufe time and habitual attention
•are
Self.
7
S E I4 - [ 129 ] S E L
Self. are requisite to enable ub to difcover our real character,
—v—But thefe difficulties are more than counterbalanced by
the advantages of felf-knawledge.
By knowing the extent of our abilities, we ffiall ne¬
ver raffily engage in enterprifes where our ineffectual
exertions may be productive of harm : by inveitigating
our opinions, we may difcover thofe which have no
foundation, and thofe alfo which lead us infenfibly into
vice- By examining our virtues and vices, we (hall
learn what principles ought to be ftrengthened, and
what habits ought to be removed.
Man is a rational and intelligent being, capable of
great improvement, and. liable to great vices. It he aCt
without examining his principles, he may be hurried
By blind paffion into crimes. If he afpire at noble and
valuable acquifitions, he mud aCt upon a plan, with de¬
liberation and fore-thought j for he is not like a vege¬
table, which attains perfection by the influence of ex¬
ternal caufes : he has powers within, him felt which mult
be exerted, and exerted with judgment, in order to at¬
tain the perfection of his nature. To enable him to
employ thefe powers aright, he mult know, firit, what
is his duty -r and, fecondly, he mult often review his
principles and conduCt, that he may difcover whether
he is performing his duty, or in what circumltances he
has failed. When he finds that he has fallen into er¬
ror and vice, he will naturally inquire what caufes have
produced this effeCt, that he may avoid the fame for the
time to come. This is the method by which every re¬
formation in religion and fcience has been produced,
and the method by which the arts have been improved.
Before Lord Bacon introduced the new way of philo-
fophizing, he mult firit have conlidered wherein true
philofophy confilted j fecondly, he mult have inquired
in what refpeCts the ancient method of philofophizing
was falfe or ufelefs : and after determining thefe two
points, he was qualified to deferibe the way by which
the Itudy of philofophy could be fuceefsfully purfued
without deviating into hypothecs and error. Luther
found out the errors of the church of Rome by com¬
paring their doCtrines with the Scriptures. But had
this comparifon never been made, the reformation could
never have taken place. Without felf-knowledge, or
without that knowledge of our charaCler which is de¬
rived from a comparifon of our principles and conduCt
with a perfeCl Itandard of morality, we can never form
plans and refolutions, or make any exertion to aban¬
don the vicious habits which we have contracted, and
(Lengthen thofe virtuous principles in which we are
deficient.
As much may be learned from the errors of thofe
who have been in limilar fituations with ourfelves ; fo
many ufeful cautions may be obtained from our own
errors ; and he that ■will remember thefe, will feldom be
twice guilty of the fame vice.
It was evidently the intention of Providence that
man ffiould be guided chiefly by experience. It is by
the obfervations which we make on what we fee palling
around us, or from what we fuffer in our own perfen,
that we form maxims for the conduCl of life. The more
minutely therefore we attend to our principles, and the
more maxims we form, we ffiall be the better fitted to
attain moral perfeClion.
With refpeCl to our underllanding, to mark the
errors which we have fallen into, either by its natural
Vol. XIX. Part I.
defects or by negligence, is alfo of great importance $
for the greatelt genius and molt profound fcholar are
liable to thefe errors, and often commit them as well as
the. weak and illiterate. But by obferving them, and
tracing them to their caufes, they at length acquire an
habitual accuracy. It is true, that men of feeble minds
can never by knowing their own defects exalt themlelvcs
to the rank of genius ; but fuch knowledge will enable
them to improve their underftandings, and fo to appre¬
ciate their own powers, as feldom to attempt what is
beyond their ftrength. They may thus become ulel’ul
members of feciety ) and though they will not probably
be admired for their abiliiies, they will yet elcape the
ridicule which is poured upon vanity.
It is difficult to lay down precife rules for the acqui-
fition of this felf-knowledge, becaufe almoft every man
is blinded by a fallacy peculiar to himfelf. But when
one has got rid of that partiality which arifes from felf-
love, he may ealily form a juft eflimate of his moral im¬
provements, by comparing the general courfe of his
conduCt with the ftandard of his duty •, and if he has
any doubt of the extent of his intellectual attainments,
he will molt readily difcover the truth by comparing
them with the attainments of others who have been molt
fuccefsful in the fame purfuits. Should vanity arife in
his mind from fuch a comparifon', let him then compare
the extent of his knowledge with what is yet to be
known, and he will then be in little danger of thinking
of himfelf more highly than he ought to think. See
Prejudice and SELF-Partiahty.
SELF-Love, is that inftinCtive principle which impels
every animal, rational and irrational, to preferve its life
and promote its own happinefs. It is very generally
confounded with felfillmefs •, but we think that the one
propenfity is diftinCt from the other. Every man loves
himfelf; but every man is not felfilh. The folfilli man
grafps at all immediate advantages, regardlefs of the con-
lequences which his conduCl may have upon his neigh¬
bour.. Self-love only prompts him who is aCluated by
it to procure to himfelf the greateft poffible mm of hap¬
pinefs during the whole of his exillence. In this pur-
fuit the rational felf-lover will often forego a pro font
enjoyment to obtain a greater and more permanent one
in reverlion ; and he will as often fubmit to a prefent
pain to avoid a greater hereafter. Self-love, as diltin-
guitlied from lelfilhnels, always comprehends the whole
of a man’s exiftence, and in that extended fenfe of the
phrafer We hefitate not to fay that every man is a felf-
lover ; for, with eternity in his view, it is finely not
poffible for the moil difinterefted of the human race not
to prefer himfelf to all other men, if their future and
everlafting interefts could come into competition. This
indeed they never can do j for though the introduction
of evil into the world, and the different ranks which it
makes neceffary in fociety, put it in the power of a man
to raife himfelf, in the prefent ftate, by the depreffion of
his neighbour, or by the praClice of injuftice, yet in
the purfuit of a prize which is to be gained only by fo-
bernefs, righteoufnefs, and piety, there can be no rival-
ftiip among the different competitors. The fuccefs of
one is no injury to another; and therefore, in this fenfe
ef the phrafe, felf-love is not only lawful, but abfolutely
unavoidable. It has been a queftion in morals, -whether
it be not likewife the incentive to every aClion, however,
virtuous or apparently difinterefted ?
Thofe
S E L [ 130 ] SEE
Thofe who maintain the affirmative lide of this quef-
tion fay, that the profpeft of immediate pleafure, or the
dread of immediate pain, is the only apparent motive
to a£Hon in the minds of infants, and indeed of all who
look not before them, and infer the future from the paft.
They own, that when a boy has had fume experience,
and is capable of making comparifons, he will often
decline an immediate enjoyment which he has formerly
found productive of future evil more than equivalent to
all its good ; but in doing fo they think, and they think
juftly, that he is ftill aftuated by the principle of felf-
love, purfuing the greateft good of rvhich he knows
hlmfelf to be capable. After experiencing that truth,
equity, and benevolence in all his dealings is the readied,
and indeed the only certain method of fecuring to himfelf
the kindnefs and good offices of his fellow creatures,
and much more when he has learned that they will
recommend him to the Supreme Being, upon whom
depends his exiftence and all his enjoyments, they admit
that he will practice truth, equity, and benevolence 5
but ftill, from the fame principle, purfuing his own
ultimate happinefs as the objeft which he has always in
view. The profpecl of this great objeCl will make him
feel an exquifite pleafure in the performance of the aClions
which he conceives as necellary to its attainment, till at
laft, without attending in each inftance to their confe-
-quences, he will, by the great aflbciating principle which
has been explained elfewhere (fee Metaphysics, Part I.
chap, i.) feel a refined enjoyment in the aCfions them-
felves, and perform them, as occafions offer, without
deliberation or reflection. Such, they think, is the origin
©f benevolence itfelf, and indeed of every virtue.
Thofe who take the other fide of the queftion, can
hardly deny that felf-love thus modified may prompt to
virtuous and apparently difinterefted conduCt ; but they
think it degrading the dignity of a man to fuppofe him
aCtuated folely by motive* which can be traced back to
a defire of his own happinefs. They obferve, that the
Author of our nature has not left the prefervation of the
individual, or the continuance of the fpecies, to the de¬
ductions of our reafon, computing the fum of happinefs
which the aCtions neceffary to thefe ends produce to
ourfelves : on the contrary, He has taken care of both,
by the furer impulfe of inftinCt planted in us for thefe
very purpofes. And is it conceivable, fay they, that He
would leave the care of our fellow-creatures a matter of
indifference, till each man ffiould be able to difcover or
be taught that by loving his neighbour, and doing him
all the good in his power, he would be moft effeClually
promoting his own happinefs ? It is diftionouring virtue,
they continue, to make it proceed in any inftance from a
profpeCI of happinefs, or a dread of mifery ; and they
appeal from theory to fad, as exhibited in the conduft
of favage tribes, who deliberate little on the confequences
of their aftions.
Their antagonifts reply, that the conduCl of favage
tribes is to be confidered as that of children in civilized
nations, regulated entirely by the examples which they
have before them; that their aClions cannot be the
offspring of innate inftinCts, otherwife favage virtues
would, under fimilar circumftances, everywhere be the
fame, which is contrary to faft *, that virtue proceeds
from an interefted motive on either fuppofition *, and
that the motive which the inftindlive fcheme holds up
is the moft felfilh of the two. The other theory fup-
pofes, that the governing motive is the hope of future Self,
happinefs and the dread of future mifery j the inftinc- '■““•"Y'"—*l
tive fcheme fupplies a prefent motive in the felf-compla-
cency arifing in the heart from a confcioufnefs of right
condudl. The former is a rational motive, the latter
has nothing more to do with reafon than the enjoyment
arifing from eating or drinking, or from the intercourfe
between the fexes. But we mean not to purfue the
fubjedf farther, as we have laid enough on it in the
articles Benevolence, Instinct, Passion, and Phi¬
lanthropy. We ffiall therefore conclude with ob-
ferving, that there is certainly a virtuous as well as a
vicious felf-love, and that “ true felf-love and focial are
the fame.”
SELF-Murder. See SuiClDE.
SELF-Partiality, is a phrafe employed by fome philo-
fophers * to exprefs that weaknefs of human nature * See Lori
through which men overvalue themfelves when com-Kaimes’s
pared with others. It is diftinguiffied from general ^t of
partiality, by thofe who make ufe of the expreffion, be- nn
caufe it is thought that a man is led to overrate his owm
accomplilhments, either by a particular inftindl, or by a
procefs of intelledt different from that by which he over¬
rates the accomplilhments of his friends or children.
The former kind of partiality is wholly felfilh j the
latter partakes much of benevolence.
This diftindlion may perhaps be deemed plaufible by
thofe who conlider the human mind as little more than
a bundle of inftin&s •, but it mull appear perfectly ridi¬
culous to fuch as refolve the greater part of apparent
inftindls into early and deep-rooted affociations of ideas.
If the partialities which moft men have to their friends,
their families, and themfelves, be inftindlive, they are
certainly inftindls of different kinds ; but an inftindlive
partiality is a contradiftion in terms. Partiality is
founded on a comparifon between two or more objefts j
but genuine inftinfts form no comparifons. See In¬
stinct. No man can be faid to be partial to the late
Dr Johnfon, merely for thinking highly of his intel-
ledlual powers j nor was the do£lor partial to himfelf,
though bethought in this refpefl with the generality of
his countrymen •, but if, upon a comparifon with Milton,
he was deemed the greater poet of the twTo, fuch a
judgment will be allowed to be partial, whether formed
by himfelf or by any of his admirers. We apprehend,
however, that the procefs of its formation was the fame
in every mind by which it was held.
The origin of felf-partiality is not difficult to be
found ; and our partialities to our friends may be traced
to a fimilar fource. By the conftitution of our nature,
we are impelled to fliun pain and to purfue pleafure;
but remorfe, the fevereft of all pains, is the never-fail¬
ing confequence of vicious condudf. Remorfe arifes
from the dread of that puniftiment which we believe
will in a future ftate be inflidted on vice unrepented of
in this •, and therefore every vicious perfon endeavours
by all poffible means to baniffi that dread from his own
mind. One way of effedling this is to compare his
own life with the lives of others j for he fancies that if
numbers be as wicked as himfelf, the benevolent Lord
of all things will not involve them in one common
ruin. Hence, by magnifying to himfelf the tempta¬
tions which led him aftray, and diminilhing the injuries
which his condudl has done in the world, and by adopt¬
ing a courfe diametrically the reverfe, when eftimating
the
S E L [ i
Self, the morality or immorality of the conduct of his neigh-
Selim. hours, he foon comes to believe that he is at lead not
more wicked than they. Thus is felf-partiality formed
in the mind, and quickly blinds him who is under its
influence fo completely, a* to hide from him the very
faults which he fees and blames in others. Hence the
coward thinks himfelf only cautious, the mifer frugal.
Partiality is formed in the very fame manner to natural
or acquired accomplithments, whether mental or corpo¬
real. Thefe always procure refpeft to him who is pof-
feffed of them ; and as refpedl is accompanied with
many advantages, every man wiflies to obtain it for him¬
felf. If he fails in his attempts, he confoles himfelf with
the perfuafion that it is at leaft due to his merits, and
that it is only withheld by the envy of the public. He
compares the particular branch of fcience or bodily ac-
complifhment in which he himfelf moft excels, with
thofe which have conferred fplendour on his rival j and
eaflly finds that his own excellencies are of the higheft
order, and entitled to the greateft (hare of public efteem.
Hence the polite fcholar defpifes the mathematician ;
the reader of Ariftotle and Plato all the modern dif-
coveries in phyfical and moral fcience ) and the mere
experimentalift holds in the moft fovereign contempt a
critical knowledge of the ancient languages. The pu¬
pil of the ancients denies the merits of the moderns,
whilft the mere modern allows nothing to the ancients j
and thus each becomes partial to his own acquifitions,
and of courfe to himfelf, for having been at the trouble
to make them.
Partiality to our friends and families is generated in
the very fame way. Whenever we acquire fuch an af-
feftion for them as to confider their happinefs as adding
to our own (fee Passion), we magnify their excel¬
lencies and diminifh their defefts, for the fame rea-
fon, and by the fame procefs, that we magnify and di-
minifli our own. All partialities, however, are preju¬
dices, and prejudices of the word kind. They ought
therefore to be guarded againft with the utmoft care,
by the fame means which we have elfewhere recom¬
mended (fee Prejudice, and Metaphysics, N°98.)j
and he who is partial to his own virtue or his own
knowledge, will do well to compare the former, not
with the condudl of his neighbours, but with the exprefs
rule of his duty •, and to confider the latter as no farther
valuable than as it contributes to the fum of human
happinefs.
SELIM I. emperor of the Turks, was the fecond
fon of Bajazet II. He made war upon his father, and
though defeated in 1511, he at laft dethroned him and
took him prifoner, and immediately difpatched him by
poifon, together with his elder brother Achmet, and
his younger Korkud, an amiable and enlightened prince.
Having eftablifhed his throne by thefe crimes, he march¬
ed againfi: Campfon-Guary fovereign of Egypt, gained
a great vidlory at Aleppo, and flew their general. But
though the fultan perifhed in that battle, the Mame-
luks determined to oppofe the emperor. Selim enter¬
ing their country at the head of his army, defeated the
Egyptians in two battles, and ordered Toumonbai, the
new eledled fultan, who had fallen into his hands, to be
hung on a gibbet. He then took Cairo and Alexandria,
and in a fhort time reduced all Egypt to fubjedtion.
Thus ended the dominion of the Mameluks in Egypt,
31 1 s E L
which had continued for more than 260 years. Pie Selun
confirmed the ancient privileges of the Venetians in
Egypt and Syria, by which they carried on their com- 1.., — j
merce with India, and formed a league with them to
deftroy the power of the Portuguefe in that country.
(See India, N° 37.)* Selim had before this gained a
great vidlory over the Perfians, and ftripped them of
Tauris and Keman. He was preparing to attack Chri-
ftendom when he was feized with an ulcerous fore in
the back. Thinking that the air of Adrianople would
reftore his health, he ordered himfelf to be conduced
thither; but he died at Clari in Thrace on his road to
that city, in the year 1520, in the very fpot where he
had poifoned his father. He reigned eight years, and
lived i;4. He was a prince of great courage, fobriety,
and liberality : he was fond of hiftory, and wrote fome
verfes. But thefe good qualities were obfeured by the
moft abominable crimes that ever difgraced human na¬
ture j he made his way to the throne by (bedding the
blood of his father, and fecured it by murdering his bro¬
thers and eight nephews, and every balhaw who had
been faithful to his duty.
SELINUM, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs; and in the natural method ranking under
the 4 ijth order, Umbel lata:. See Botany Index.
SELKIRK, Alexander, whofe adventures gave
rife to a well-known hiftorical romance, was born at
Largo, in Fifefhire in Scotland, about the year 1676,
and was bred a feaman. He went from England, in
1703, in the capacity of failing-mafter of a fmall vefiel
called the Cinque-Ports Galley, Charles Pickering cap¬
tain, burthen about 90 tons, with 16 guns and 63 men ;
and in September the fame year failed from Cork, in
company writh another (hip of 26 guns and 120 men,
called the St George, commanded by that famous na¬
vigator William Dampier, intended to cruife againft the
Spaniards in the South fea. On the coaft of Brazil,
Pickering died, and was fucceeded in his command by
his lieutenant Thomas Stradling. They proceeded on
their voyage round Cape Horn to the ifland of Juan Fer¬
nandes, whence they were driven by the appearance of
two French (hips of 36 guns each, and left five of Strad-
ling’s men there on fhore, who were taken off by the
French. Hence they failed to the coaft of America,
where Dampier and Stradling quarrelled, and feparated
by agreement, on the 19th of May 1704. In Septem¬
ber following, Stradling can e again to the ifland of Juan.
Fernandes, where Selkirk and his captain had a differ¬
ence, which, with the circumftance of the (hip’s being
very leaky, and in bad condition, induced him to deter¬
mine on flaying there alone j but when his companions
were about to depart, his refolution was (haken, and he
defired'to be taken on board again. The captain, how¬
ever, refufed to admit him, and he was obliged to re¬
main, having nothing but his clothes, bedding, a gun,
and a fmall quantity of powder and ball •, a hatchet,
knife, and kettle ; his books, and mathematical and nau¬
tical inftruments. He kept up his fpirits tolerably till
he faw the veffel put off, when (as he afterwards relat¬
ed) his heart yearned within him, and melted at parting
with his comrades and all human fociety at once.
“ —Yet believe me, Areas,
Such is the rooted love we bear mankind,
K 2 •
Ail
S E L f 132 I S E L
All ruffians as they were, I never heard
A found fo difmal as their parting oars/1
Thonifon's Agamemnon.
Thus left foie monarch of the ifland, with plenty of
the neceflaries of life, he found himfelf in a fftuation
hardly fupportable. He had filh, goat’s flefh, turnips
and other vegetables; yet he grew dejected, languid,
and melancholy, to fuch a degree, as to be fcarce able
to refrain from doing violence to himfelf- Eighteen
months paffed before he could, by reafoning, reading
Ins bible, and ftudy, be thoroughly reconciled to his
condition. At length he grew happy, employing him-
felf in decorating his huts, chafing the goats, whom he
equalled in fpeed, and fcarcely ever failed of catching.
He alfo tamed young kids, laming them to prevent
their becoming wild ; and he kept a guard of tame cats
about him, to defend him when afleep from the rats,
who were very troublefome. When his clothes were
worn out, he made others of goats fkins, but could not
fucceed in making finoes, with the ufe of which, how¬
ever, habit, in time, enabled him to difpenle. His on¬
ly liquor was water. He computed that he had caught
1000 goats during his abode in the ifland •, of which
he had let go 500, after marking them by flitting their
ears. Commodore Anfon’s people, who were there
about 30 years after, found the firft goat which they
Ihot upon landing, was thus marked, and as it appeared
to be very old, concluded that it had been under the
power of Selkirk. But it appears by Captain Carteret’s
account of his voyage in the Swallow floop, that other
perfims praftifed this mode of marking, as he found a
goat with his ears thus flit on the neighbouring ifland
of Mas-a-fuera, where Selkirk never was. He made
companions of his tame goats and cats, often dancing
and finging with them. Though he conflantly per¬
formed his devotions at ftated hours, and read aloud ;
yet, when he was taken off the ifland, his language,
from difufe of converfation, had become fcareely intelli¬
gible. In this folitude he continued four years and
four months •, during which time only two incidents
happened which he thought worth relating, the occur¬
rences of every day being in his eircumftances nearly
fimilar. The one was, that, purfuing a goat eagerly,
he caught it juft on the edge of a precipice, which was
covered with bufhes, fo that he did not perceive it, and
he fell over to the bottom, where he lay (according to
Captain Roger’s account) 24 hours fenfelefs } but, as he
related to Sir R. Steele, he computed, by the alteration
of the moon, that he had lain three days. When he
came to himfelf, he found the goat lying under him dead.
It was with great difficulty that he could crawl to his
habitation, whence he was unable to ftir for ten days,
and did not recover of his bruifes for a long time. The
other event was the arrival of a fhip, which he at firft
fuppofed to be French : and fuch is the natural love of
fociety in the human mind, that he was eager to aban¬
don his folkary felicity, and furrender himfelf to them,
although enemies 5 but upon their landing, approach¬
ing them, he found them to be Spaniards, of whom he
had too great a dread to truft himfelf in their hands.
They were by this time fo near that it required all his
agility to efcape, which lie effetted by climbing into a
thick tree, being fliot at feveral times as he ran off.
Fortunately the Spaniards did not difcover him, though
they flayed fome time under the tree where he was hid, Selkirk,
and killed fome goats juft by. In this folitude Selkirk -v^»
remained until the 2d of February 1709, when he faw
two flaps come into the bay, and knew them to be
Engiifti. He immediately lighted a fire as a fignal •,
and on their coming on ftiore, found they were the
Duke Captain Roger's, and the Duchefs Captain Court¬
ney, two privateers from Briftol. He gave them the
beft entertainment he could afford \ and, as they had
been a long time at fea without freflr provilions, the
goats which he caught were highly acceptable. His
habitation confifting of two huts, one to fleep in, the
other to drefs his food in, was fo obfcurely lituated, and
fo difficult of accefs, that only one of the ftiip’s officers
would accompany him to it. Dampier, who was pilot
©n board the Duke, and knew Selkirk very well,
told Captain Rogers, that, when on board the Cinque-
Ports, he was the beft feaman in the vefiel j upon
which Captain Rogers appointed him mafter’s mate of
the Duke. After a fortnight’s flay at Juan Fernandes,
the fliips proceeded on their cruize againft the Spa¬
niards •, plundered a town on the coaft of Peru ; took a
Manilla ftrip off California ; and returned by way of
the Eaft Indies to England, where they arrived tlie iff;
of O&ober 1711 ; Selkirk having been abfent eight
years, more than half ol which time he had fpent alone
in the ifland. The public curiofity being excited refpefl-
ing him, he was induced to put his papers into the
hands of Defoe, to arrange and form them into a re¬
gular narrative. Thefe papers muft have been drawn
up after he left Juan Fernandes, as he had no means of
recording his tranfaflions there. Captain Cooke re¬
marks, as an extraordinary circumftance, that he had
contrived to keep an account of the days of the week
and month 5 but this might be done, as Defoe makes
Robinfon Crufoe do, by cutting notches in a poft, or
many other methods. From this account of Selkirk,
Defoe took the idea of writing a more extenfive work,
the romance of Robinfon Crufoe, and very difhoneftly
defrauded the original proprietor of his ftiare of the
profits. Of the time or place or manner of this extra¬
ordinary man’s death we have received no account j but
in 1798 the cheft and mulket which Selkirk had with
him on the ifland were in the poffeffion of his grand¬
nephew, John Selkirk weaver in Largo.
The circumftances of Selkirk’s feclufion from human
fociety during his flay on Juan Fernandes, and the fen-
timents which that lituation naturally infpired, have
been fo finely and charatfteriftically depifted by Mr
Cowper, that many of our readers, we doubt not,
will be gratified if we give the verfes alluded to a
place here.
I am monarch of all I furvey.
My right there is none to difpute ;
From the centre all round to the fea,
I am lord of the fowl and the brute.
Oh, folitude ! where are the charms
That fages have feen in thy face ?
Better dwell in the midft of alarms,
Than reign in this horrible place.
I am out of humanity’s reach,
I muft finiffi my journey alone,
Never hear the fweet mufic of fpeech j
I ftart at the found of my own*
The
Selkirk.
S E L
f 133 ] SEE
The beafts that roam over the plain,
My form with indifference fee ;
They are fo unacquainted with man,
Their tamenefs is (hocking to me.
Society, friend (hap, and love,
Divinely beftow’d upon man,
Oh, had I the wings of a dove,
How foon would I tafte you again !
My forrows I then might afluage
In the ways of religion and truth,
Might learn from the wifdom of age,
And be cheer’d by the Tallies of youth.
Religion ! what treafure untold
Refides in that heavenly word !
More precious than (ilver and gold,
Or all that this earth can afford.
But the found of the church-going bell
Thefe valleys and rocks never heard,
Ne’er (igh’d at the found of a knell,
Or fmil’d when a Sabbath appear’d.
Ye winds that have made me your fport,
Convey to this defolate Chore
Some cordial endearing report
Of a land I (hall vilit no more.
My friends, do they now and then fend
A wi(h or a thought after me ?
O tell me I yet have a friend,
Though a friend I am never to fee.
How fleet is a glance of the mind !
Compar’d with the fpeed of its flight.
The temped itfelf lags behind,
And the fwift-winged arrow's of light.
When I think of my own native land,
In a moment J feem to be there j
But alas ! recollection at hand
Soon hurries me back to defpair..
But the fea-fowl is gone to her nefl.
The bead is laid down in his lair,
Ev’n here is a feafon of red,
And I to my cabin repair.
There’s mercy in every place •,
And mercy, encouraging thought !
Gives even aflfiftion a grace,
And reconciles man to his lot.
Seek irk, the capital of the county of the fame name,
is a fmall town pleafantly fituated on a rifing ground,
and enjoys an extendve profpefl in all direftions, efpe-
cially in the courfe of the river Ettrick. It is remark¬
able for thofe plaintive airs produced in its neighbour¬
hood, the natural (implicity of which are the pride of
Scotland and the admiration of drangers.
The citizens of this burgh, like the other inhabitants
of the (heriffdom of Ettrick fored, rendered themfelves
famous by adhering to the fortune of their fovereign
James IV. Of too citizens who followed that monarch
to the plains of Flodden, a few returned loaded with
fpoils taken from the Englifli. Of the trophies of that
day, there yet remains in the pofleflion of the corporation
of weavers, a dandard taken by a member of that body.
It may alfo be mentioned, that the fword of William
Brydone, the towm-clerk, who led the citizens to the
battle, and was knighted for his valour, dill remains, it
ss faid, in the pofleflion of a citizen of Selkirk, his 1I»
5
neal defeendent. The defperate valour of the citizens, Selkirk,
however, fo exafperated the Englifli, that they reduced
their defencelefs town to a(hes 5 but their grateful fo- •
vereign, James V. (hewed his fenfe of their fervices by
a grant of an extenfive track of Ettrick fored, the trees
for building their houfes, and the property as a reward
for their heroifm. Selkirk is a royal burgh, uniting
with Lanark, Linlithgow, and Peebles, in fending a
member to parliament. W. Long. 2. 46. N. Lat. 55. 26.
SELKIRKSHIRE, called alfo the Sheriffdom of
Kttrick Foreji, a county of Scotland, extending about
20 miles in length from ead to wed, and about 12 in
breadth from fouth to north. It borders on the north
with part of Tweeddale and Mid-Lothian j on the
fouth and ead with Tiviotdale 5 and on the wed with
Annandale. This county was formerly referved by the
Scottidi princes for the pleafure of the chafe, and where
they had houfes for the reception of their train. At
that time the face of the country wTas covered with
woods, in which there were great numbers of red and
fallow deer, whence it had the name of Ettrick Forejf.
The woods, however, are now almod entirely cut down,
and the county is chiefly fupported by the breed of (heep.
They are generally fold into the fouth, but fometimes
into the Highlands, about the month of March, where
they are kept during dimmer ; and after being improved
by the mountain-grafs-, are returned into the Lowlands
in the beginning of winter.
This county, though not very populous at prefent,
was once the nurfe of heroes, who were juflly account¬
ed the bulwark of their native foil, being ever ready to •
brave danger and death in its defence. Of this we
have a memorable proof in the pathetic lamentations
of their wives and daughters for the difafter of the field
of Flodden, “ where the brave forefters were a’ wed
away.” The rivers Ettrick and Yarrow unite a little Stati/lical
above the town of Selkirk, and terminate in the Tweed, dccount 0/
For five miles above its junftion with the Ettrick, the*®^”^>
Tweed is dill adorned with woods, and leads the pleafed
imagination to contemplate what this country muft
have been in former times. The Yarrow, for about
five miles above its junction with Ettrick, exhibits na¬
ture in a bold and ftriking afpeft. Its native avoods
Kill remain, through which the ftream has cut its turbid
courfe, deeply ingulphed amidft rugged rocks. Here,
certainly in a flood, flood the defcrrptxve Thomfon when
he faw it
“ Work and boil, and foam and thunder through.”
On a peninfula, cut out by the furrounding ftream,
in the middle of this fantaflically wild feene of grandeur
and beauty, (lands the cattle of Newark, which has been
fuppofed by many to be the birthplace of Mary Scot
the flower of Yarrow.
The population of this county in 1801 amounted to
5070, but the following is the population of the differ¬
ent parifties at two different periods, according to the
Statiftical Hiftory.
Farijhes.
Ettrick,
Galaftiiels,
Population
in 1755-
397
998
Population in
17310—1798.
470
9M
Carry fonvard, 1395
Selkirk
S E
M t 134 ] S E M
Parijhes.
Brought over,
Selkirk,
Yarrow,
Population in
1755-
J395
J793
, 1180
4368
43r4
Population in
i7$o—17^8.
I384
1700
I23O
43*4
Decreafe, 54
SELL, or Sill, in building, is of two kinds, viz.
Ground Sell, denoting the lowed; piece of timber in a
wooden building, and that on which the whole fuper-
ftru&ure is railed ; and fell of a window or of a door,
which is the bottom piece in the frame of them on which
they reft.
SELLA turcica, is a deep impreffion between the
clinoid procefs of the fphenoid bone. See Anatomy
Index.
SELTZER WATER, is a mineral water which fprings
up at Lower Seltzer, a village in the deflorate of Triers,
about 10 miles from Frankfort on the Mayne, and 36
from Coblentz.
Seltzer water is brought to this country in ftone bot¬
tles, which are clofely corked and fealed, and contain
about 3 pints each \ and when they are well fecured,
it keeps unchanged for a confiderable time.
Seltzer water, according to the analyfis of Bergman,
contains in an Englifti wine pint,
gru
Carbonate of lime, 3
 of magnefia, 5
——  of foda, 4
Muriate of foda, 17.5
29-5
The fame quantity of water alfo yields 17 cubic inches
of a gafeous fubftance, which is found to be almoft en¬
tirely pure carbonic acid gas.
This water has been long in high repute, on account
of its medical virtues, and we have no doubt that it
may be ufed with conftderable benefit in many of thofe
complaints v'hich arife from a deranged ftate of the fto-
mach and bowels. The ufual dofe of this water is from
half a pint to a pint \ but in moft cafes it may be drunk
freely. From its agreeable tafte, and its exhilarating
effefls on the fpirits, it is extenfively employed at table
as a common drink in Germany and Holland. In this
country alfo, both the real and artificial Seltzer water is
largely ufed for the fame purpofe. Seltzer water may
be artificially imitated, by adding the ingredients dilut¬
ed by analyfis, and in the fame proportion.
SEM, or Shem, the fon of Noah, memorable for his
filial piety in concealing the folly and difgrace of his
father, for which he received a remarkable benediftion,
about 2476 B. C. He lived to the age of 600 years.
Ras SEM. See RAS Sem and PETRIFIED City.
SEMECARPUS, a genus of plants belonging to
the pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
SEMEN, Seed. See Botany Index.
With refpe£t to number, plants are either furnilhed
with one feed, as fea-pink and biftort ; two, as wood-
roof and the umbelliferous plants ; three, as fpurge j
four, as the lip-flowers' of Tournefort and rough-leafed
I
plants of Ray j or many, as ranunculus, anemone, and
poppy.
The form of feeds is likewife extremely various, being
either large or fmall, round, oval, heart-fhaped, kidney-
fhaped, angular, prickly, rough, hairy, wrinkled, fleek
or Ihining, black, white, or brown. Moft feeds have
only one cell or internal cavity ; thofe of lefler burdock,
valerian, lamb’s lettuce, cornelian, cherry, and febeften,
have two.
With refpedl to fubftance, feeds are either foft, mem¬
branaceous, or of a hard bony fubftance ; as in grom-
well, tamarind, and all the nuciferous plants.
In point of magnitude, feeds are either very large, as
in the cocoa-nut; or very fmall, as in campanula, am-
mannia, rampions, and throat-wort.
With refpedt to fituation, they are either difperfed
promifcuoufly through the pulp (femina nidulantia), as
in water-lily j affixed to a future or joining of the valves
of the feed-veflel, as in the crofs-lhaped and pea-bloom
flowers; or placed upon a placenta or receptacle within
the feed-veflel, as in tobacco and thorn-apple.
Seeds are faid to be naked (femina nuda') which are
not contained in a cover or vefiel: fuch are thofe of the
lip and compound flowers, the umbelliferous and rough-
leaved plants. Covered feeds {femina tecla') are con¬
tained in fome veffel, whether of the capfule, pod, ber¬
ry, apple, or cherry kind.
A Ample feed is fuch as bears neither crown, wing,
nor downy pappus ; the varieties in feeds, arifing from
thefe circumftances, are particularly enumerated under
their refpedlive heads.
In affimilating the animal and vegetable kingdoms,
Linnaeus denominates feeds the eggs of plants. The
fecundity of plants is frequently marvellous ; from a
Angle plant or ftalk of Indian Turkey wheat, are pro¬
duced, in one fummer, 2000 feeds 5 of elecampane,
3000 ; of fun-flower, 4000 } of poppy, 32,000 } of a
fpike of cat’s tail, 10,000 and upwards : a Angle fruit,
or feed-veflel, of tobacco, contains I ooo feeds j that of
white poppy, 8000. Mr Ray relates, from experiments
made by himfelf, that 1012 tobacco feeds are equal in
weight to one grain $ and that the weight of the whole
quantum of feeds in a fingle tobacco plant, is fuch as
muft, according to the above proportion, determine their
number to be 360,000. The fame author eftimates the
annual produce of a fingle ftalk of fpleenwort to be up¬
wards of one million of feeds.
The diffemination of plants refpedls the different me¬
thods or vehicles by which nature has contrived to dif-
perfe their feeds for the purpofe of increafe. Thefe by
naturalifts are generally reckoned four.
1. Rivers and running waters. 2. The wind. 3. Ani¬
mals. 4. An elaftic fpring, peculiar to the feeds them-
felves.
1. The feeds which are carried along by rivers and
torrents are frequently conveyed many hundreds of
leagues from their native foil, and caft upon a very dif¬
ferent climate, to which, however, by degrees they ren¬
der tbemfelves familiar.
2. Thofe which are carried by the wind, are either
winged, as in fir-tree, trumpet-flower, tulip tree, birch,
arbor-vitse, meadow rue, and jeffamine, and fome um¬
belliferous plants j furniffied with a pappus, or downy
crown, as in valerian, poplar, reed, fucculeht-fwallow-
wort, cotton-tree, and many of the compound flowers j
placed
Semen.
S E M
[
Sem>
Setaen placed within a winged cahjx or feed-veffel, as in fca-
bious, fea-pink, dock, diofcorea, aih, maple, and elm-
t trees, logwood and woad ; or, laftly, contained within
a fwelled calyx or feed veffel, as in winter cherry, cu~
cubalus, melilot, bladder-nut, fumatory, bladder-fena,
heart-feed, and chick-peafe.
3. Many birds fwallow the feeds of vanelloe, juniper,
niilletoe, oats, millet, and other graffes, and void them
entire. Squirrels, rats, parrots, and other animals, fuf-
fer many of the feeds which they devour to efcape, and
thus in effeft diffeminate them. Moles, ants, earth¬
worms, and other infefts, by ploughing up the earth,
admit a free paffage to thofe feeds which have been fcat-
tered upon its furface. Again, fome feeds attach them-
felves to animals, by means of crotchets, hooks, or hairs,
which are either affixed to the feeds themfelves, as in
hound’s tongue, moufe-ear, vervain, carrot, ballard par-
lley, fanicle, water hemp-agrimony, arttopus, and ver-
bejinas to their calyx, as in burdock, agrimony, rhexia,
fmall wild buglofs, dock, nettle, pellitory, and feed-
wort ; or to their fruit or feed-veffel, as in liquorice, en-
ohanter’s nightfhade, crofswort, cleavers, French honey-
fuckle, and arrow-headed grafs.
4. The feeds which difperfe themfelves by an elaftic
force, have that force refident either in their calyx, as
in oats, and the greater number of ferns ; in their pap¬
pus, as in centaurea crupina 5 or in their capfule, as in
gerannium,herb-bennet, Africanfpiraea,fraxinclla, horfe-
■tail, balfam, Malabar nut, cucumber, elaterium, and
male balfam apple.
Semen, in the animal economy. See Physiology
and Anatomy Index.
SEMEN SanBum, or Santonicum. See Artemisia.
SEMENDRIAH, a town of Turkey in Europe, in
the province of Servia, with a good citadel. It is the
capital of a fangiacate, was taken by the Turks in 1690,
and is feated on the Danube, in E. Long. 21. 45. N.
Lat. 45. o.
SEMENTINA2, FERINE, in antiquity, feafts held an¬
nually among the Romans, to obtain of the gods a plen¬
tiful harveft. They were celebrated in the temple of
Tellus, where folemn facrifices were offered to Tellus
and Ceres. Thefe feafts were held about feed-time,
ufually in the month of January *, for, as Macrobius ob-
ferves, they were moveable feafts.
SEMI, a word borrowed from the Latin, fignifying
half; but only ufed in compofttion with other words, as
in the following articles.
SEMI-Arians, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a branch of the
ancient Arians, confifting, according to Epiphanius, of
fuch as, in appearance, condemned the errors of that
herefiarch, but yet acquiefced in fome of the principles
thereof, only palliating and hiding them under fofter
and more moderate terms. Though they feparated from
the Arian fadtion (fee Arians), theyxould never be
brought to acknowledge that the Son was homooufios,
that is, confubftantial, or of the fame fubftance with
the Father \ they would only allow him to be homo¬
oufios, that is, of a like fubftance with the Father, or
fimilar to the Father in his effence, not by nature, but
by a peculiar privilege.
The femi-arianifm of the moderns conlifts in their
maintaining that the Son was from all eternity begotten
by the will of the Father, contrary to the dodtrine of
35 ] S E M
the orthodox, who feem to teach that the eternal gene- Semi
ration is necejfary. Such at leaft are the refpedtive opi- Jl
nions of Dr Clarke and Bilhop Bull. See Theology. Scrn'nar-’-
Semicircle, in Geometry, half a circle, or that fi¬
gure comprehended between the diameter of the circle
and hair its circumference.
Semicolon, in Grammar, one of the points or flops
ufed to diftinguith the feveral members of a fentence
from each other.
The mark or charadler of the femicolon is (j), and
has its name as being of fomewhat lefs effedt than a co¬
lon •, or as demanding a ftrorter paufe.
The proper ufe of the femicolon is to diftinguifh the
conjundt members of a fentence. Now, by a conjundt
member of a fentence is meant fuch a one as contains
at leaft two Ample members.—Whenever, then, a fen¬
tence can be divided into feveral members of the fame *
degree, which are again divifible into other Ample mem¬
bers, the former are to be feparated by a femicolon.
For inftance : “ If fortune bear a great fway over him,
who has nicely ftated and concerted evfcry circumftance
of an affair-, we muft not commit every thing, without
referve, to fortune, left fhe have too great a hold of us.”
Again : Si quantum in agro locifque defertis audacia po-
tejl, tan turn in foro atque judiciis impudentia va/eret; non
minus in caufa cederet Aulus Ccecinna Sexta /Ebutii im-
pudentue, quam turn in vi facienda cejfit audacia;. An
inftance in a more complex fentence we have in Cicero:
Res familiaris primum bene parta fit, nulloque turpi
qucejlu : turn quam plurimis, modo dignis, fe utilem pne-
beat; deinde augeatur ratione, diligentia, parfimonia ;
nec hbidini potius luxurieeque, quam liberalitati et bene¬
ficent ice parent.
But though the proper ufe of the femicolon be to di¬
ftinguifh conjundt members, it is not neceffary that all
the members thus divided be conjundt. For upon di¬
viding a fentence into great and equal parts, if one of
them be conjundt, all thofe other parts of the fame de¬
gree are to be diftinguiftied by a femicolon.—Sometimes
alfo it happens, that members that are oppofite to each
other, but relate to the fame verb, are feparated by a
femicolon. Thus Cicero : Ex hac parte pudor, illinc
petulantia ; bine fides, illinc fraudatio ; hinc pietas, illinc
fcelus, &c. To this like wife may be referred fuch fen-
tences, where the whole going before, the parts follow :
as “ The parts of oratory are four j invention, difpofi-
tion, elocution, and pronunciation.
Semicubium, in Medicine, anhalf-bath, wherein the
patient is only placed up to the navel.
Semidiameter, half the diameter, or a right line
drawn from the centre of a circle or fphere to its cir¬
cumference : being the fame with what is otherwife
called the radius.
Semiflosculus, in Botany, a term ufed to exprefs
the flowers of the fyngeneiia clafs. Thefe femiflofeuli
are petals, hollow in their lower part, but in their up¬
per flat, and continued in the fliape of a tongue.
Semitone, in Mufic. See Interval.
SEMINAL, fomething belonging to the femen or
feed.
SEMINARY, in' its primary fenfe, the ground
where any thing is fown, to be afterwards tranfplanted.
Seminary, in a figurative fenfe, is frequently ap¬
plied to places of education, whence fcholars are tranf¬
planted
S EM [ 136 1 S E M
S«mina*y planted into life.—In Catholic countries it is particu-
tiernP eh ufcd for a kind of college or fchool, where youth
J<gians.a~ ai’e inftrudled in the ceremonies, &c, of the facred mi-
niftry. Of thefe there are great numbers; it being
ordained by the council of Trent, that there be a fe-
minary belonging to each cathedral, under the direction
* ef the bilhop.
SEMINATION, denotes the manner or aft of
{bedding and difperfing the feeds of plants. See Se¬
men.
SEMIPELAGIANS, in EcelfwjlicalHiJiory: a
name given to fueh as retain fome tinfture of Pelagian-
ifm. See Pelagians.
The doftrines of this- fefl, as well as thofe of their
predecelfors the Pelagians,.have their common fource in
Pelagius, a native of Britain, of whom we have already
taken notice. He is faid to have been but a fimple
monk, and not in. orders. Having gone to Rome about
the end of the fourth century, he lived there for fome
years with reputation, and was confidered both pious
and virtuous, liuinms a prieft of Aquileia, having
come to Rome in the year 397, is affirmed by fome to
have been the perfon who fuggeded to Pelagius his pe¬
culiar doflrines.
In the year 400 Pelagius began to teach his opinions
at Rome, both by fpeech and writing. He was not the
only perfon who taught thefe doflrines, of which we
have elfewhere enumerated the heads. His friend and
companion Celeftius, an abler man than himfelf, main¬
tained them like wife, and with much more addrefsand
fubtlety. After having promulgated them in Rome,
they went into Sicily, where they lived for fome time.
Thence, in the year 4m, they paffed over into Africa.
Pelsgius foon after went into Paleiline, wbilft Celeftius
remained at Carthage, and was preparing himfelf to
take the order of priefthood 5 but it being foon-difcovered
■^Aupjiim, pg taUgljt a new doftrine*, he was accufed by the
l)t Gratia. ^eacon Paulinus in a fynod held at Carthage in 4x2, at
which Aurelius the biihop prefided. Celellius, on being
charged by Paulinus with denying original fin, made an-
fwer, “ That in truth he doubted w hether the fin of Adam
was traufmitted to his pofterity.” He did not however
owa that children had no need of baptifm, although this
was one of the Pelagian tenets: on the contrary, he
wrote a little difcourie, in which he acknowledged, that
children had need of redemption, and that they, could
not obtain it without baptifm. The biffiops at the
oouncii of Carthage condemned the doflrines of Cele-
ilius, and excommunicated him. From this fentence he
appealed to the biihop of Rome •, but he neglefled to
puriue his appeal, and went to Ephefus, where he endea¬
voured to get himfelf ordained prieft. In the mean
time, Pelagius having retired into Paleftxne, was kindly
received by St Jerome’s enemy, John of Jerufalem.
With him lie entered into an engagement to attack the
reputation of that author. St Jerome defended himfelf
from their aifault, and attacked the doflrines of Pela-
T St ye- gjus .f.f and in this undertaking he was foon affifted by
^IVorks an l ^ Auftine, About this time, Qrofius having gone
thedpoiogv bom Spain into Africa and thence into Paleftine, pub-
ofOrofiui'. liilied there the proceedings againft Celeftius at Car¬
thage, and was prevailed upon by the biffiop of Jerufa¬
lem to enter into a conference with Pelagius in his pre¬
fence j but the bithop having fliown teo much partiality
for Pelagius, Qrofius would not acknowledge him for
judge, but demairded that the decifion of that affair, Semipek,
which was among the Latins, might be referred to , Sians.
judges who underftood the language. This happened v J
in the year 415, at which time there were in Paleftine
two French prelates, who, being driven from their dio-
cefes, fled into that country, and having been apprized
of the opinions of Pelagius and Celeftius, drew up an
abridgement from their own books of the errors imputed
to them f. To this they joined the articles condemned 1 St Au-
in the fynod of Carthage, and fome others, which on
lent from Sicily by Hilarius to St Augufiine, and then
prefented the abridgement to the biihop of Cyefarea. againjl the
The matter was referred to a council of 14 brlhops, at Pelagians.
which, when the memoir was read, Pelagius explained
himlelf upon lome articles, and denied that he was the
author of others. He alfo difowned the propofitions
condemned at Carthage, and fome others aferibed to
Celeftius. He did not even hefitate to condemn them 5
upon which the bilhops decided, that, fince Pelagius
approved the doftrine of the church, and rejefled and
condemned what was contrary to its belief, they ac¬
knowledged him to be of the eeclefiaftical and catholic
communion.
Orofius returning to Africa, took with him the me¬
moir againft Pelagius, and prefented it to a meeting of
bifhops * held at Carthage in 416. Having read over * TheEpi.
what had been done at a former meeting againft Cele-/^ °fSt
ftius, they declared that both he and Pelagias ought to All&uyine*
be anathematized pf they did not publicly renounce and
condemn the errors imputed to them. The biffiops of
this meeting, and thofe of Numidia affembled the fame
year at Milivetum, wrote upon the fubjedl to Pope In¬
nocent, who approved of the judgment of the African
prelates, and declared Pelagius, Celeftius, and their fol¬
lowers excommunicated f. Innocent gave an account t Marius
of this judgment to the biftiops of the Eafl, and the Mercator's
matter feemed altogether at an end, when lie died \ but
Celellius having been made prieft; at Ephefus, and hav¬
ing gone to Conftantinople, whence he was driven by
Atticus biffiopiof that city, who alfo wrote againft him
to Alia and to Africa, he came to Rome in the begin¬
ning of the pontificate of Zozimus, and undertook to
purfue the appeal, which he had formerly made from
the judgment of the fynod of Carthage. Having cited
his accufer Paulinus, and offered to juftify himfelf, he
prelented a Confeffion of Faiih, in which he acknowledg¬
ed that children ought to be baptized, in order to inhe¬
rit the kingdom of heaven j but he denied that the fin
of Adam was tranfmitted to his children. He appeared
before the biffiops and clergymen affembled by the pope,
and declared, that he condemned all the errors with
which he had been charged. The pope delayed his
judgment for two months, and in the mean time re¬
ceived a letter and a confeffion of faith from Pelagius,
very artfully drawn up. When the time for judgment
arrived, Zozimus held a fynod, and faid, that he thought
the declarations of Pelagius and Celeftius fufficient for
their juflification. He was difpleafed at the two French
biffiops for not appearing againft them, and wrote two
letters on that head, one to the biffiops of Africa, and
another in particular to Aurelius, bifhop of Carthage.
The African biffiops, to the number of 214, without
regarding the judgment paffed at Rome, affembled at
Carthage, and, having confirmed their former decifions,
•condemned the doctrines of the Pelagians. They w'rote
to
S E M [ 137 ] S E M
Semipela- to the bifhop of Rome to acquaint him, that he had
gians. been deceived by Celeftius, and difcovered to him the
equivocations of his letter and of the Confeflion of Faith
of Pelagius, fending him a memoir of the errors of
•which he fhould require a diitinct and precife revocation
from the two heretics. The pope made anfwer, that,
although his authority was fo great, that none durit
diffent from his judgment, dill that he was willing to
communicate the matter to them, and would let it
remain in the fame ‘late, until a new deliberation
could take place. This letter was prefented to a coun¬
cil held at Carthage 111418, at which eight canons were
drawn up againlt the Pelagian herefy. The bifhop of
Rome, in the mean time, was inclined to examine again
the affair of Celeftius, and to endeavour to draw from
him diftindt and precife anfwers according to the plan
fuggefted by the African bifhops in their memoir ; but
Celeftius would not come forward, and accordingly
withdrew from Rome. From his flight the pope con¬
cluded, that he impofed upon him formerly, and that he
held the new dodtrines ; and, accordingly, changing his
opinion with refpedt to him, he approved of the decrees
of the African prelates, and renewed the condemnations
of his predeceffor, Pope Innocent, againft him and Pela-
*■ See the- gius*. This judgment he publilhed in a letter which
Letters of was fent to all the bilhops. About the fame time an
St Augu- edidt was published by the emperor Honorius againft
dine. Pelagius and Celeftius, ordering, that they fliould be
baniihed from Rome, and that all their followers fliould
be fent into exile.
In.the following year Honorius publiftied another edidt,
by which it was ordered, that the biftiops who would
not fign the pope’s letter, fliould be deprived of their
churches. Accordingly, Julian the bilhop of Eclana,
who was afterwards head of the party, and feventeen
other biftiops, were calhiered \ upon which they wrote a
letter to Rufus, bifliop of Theffalonica, and demanded
a univerfal council from the emperor, which he refufed.
Celeftius returned again to Rome, but was again expel¬
led the city j whilft his followers, being expelled from
Italy, retired to different countries. Some of them came
over into Britain, and others went into the Eaft. At-
ticus baniftied them from Conftantinople, and they were
alfo baniflied from Ephefus. Theodotus, bifliop of An¬
tioch, condemned them in a fynod held at Diofpolis, and
baniflied Pelagius and his followers out of Paleftine,
whither they had returned. Julian the bifliop was
condemned in a provincial fynod of Cilicia, whither he
had retired to Theodorus bifliop of Mopfuefta, who was
obliged to anathematize him. What became of Pela¬
gius is unknown, as hiftory gives no farther account of
him j but Celeftius having returned to Rome, and being
driven thence by Pope Celeftin, went with Julian aiid
fome other biftiops of their party to Conftantinople,
where they endeavoured to prevail upon the emperor
Theodofius to affemble a council, inftead of which he
ordered them to leave the city. After this they joined
f trofper 'with the Neftorians f, and were condemned together
in his Cbro- with them in a general council held at Ephefus in 431 '■>
rude. ant| there now remained but a fmall number of Pela¬
gians difperfed in the Weft. Julian after having endea¬
voured feveral times to get himlelf reinftated in his bi-
ftiopric, was at laft obliged to retire into Sicily, where
he died.
To the Pelagians fucceeded the Semipelagians, who
VOL. XIX. Part I.
rejected the doftrines of the former with refpecl to ori- Semipela-
ginal fln and the power of free will to do good|. They Slatu-
owned, that man had need of the grace of God to perfe- j Hilary's '
vere in well-doing} but they believed, that the begin- tetters to
ning of good will and faith did not neceffarily depend Augujlint.
upon grace 5 for that man, by the mere force of nature,
might defire to do good, and that God feconded that
good will by his afliftance, which depended upon liber¬
ty, and was given to all men. Befides thefe, they main¬
tained fome other peculiar tenets. The origin of fome
of their opinions is founded in this, that fome of the
books which were written by St Auguftine in his laft
years, with refpeft to the controverfies which arofe in
the monaftery of Adrumetum, relative to correftion,
grace, and predeftination, having been carried into
Gaul, happened to give offence to feveral perfons, and
particularly to the monks of Lerins,'who confidered his
dotftrines hoftile to that of free will. This led them to
think and to maintain, that, in order to be faved, it
was neceffary to leave to man the power of knowing and
defiring good by the force of nature, fo that the begin¬
ning might come from man. Several conftderable per¬
fons in Gaul, and even fome biftiops, but particularly
the priefts, were of this opinion. Caffian, deacon of
Conftantinople, and afterwards pried: at Marfeilles, au¬
thorized it in his conferences, and Fauftus, biftiop of
Riez, fupported it very ftrenuoufly. St Auguftine flood
up to oppofe this dodlrine from its very firft appearance,
and was fupported by Profper and Hilarius. Pope Ce¬
leftin complained to the biftiops of Gaul, that they fuf-
fered their priefts to fpeak ill of the dodtrines of St Au¬
guftine 5 and Popes Gelafius and Hormifdas condemned
the books of Fauftus \ and laft of all, the council of
Orange, held in 529, condemned particularly the prin¬
cipal tenets of the Semipelagians, and put an end at
that time to the controverfy, about 1O0 years after the
death of St Auguftine.—See the hiftories of Moflieim,
Dupin, and Fleury, &c. &c.
The Semipelagians were very numerous j and their
dodtrines, though varioufty explained, were received in
many of the mon&ftic fchools in Gaul, whence they
fpread themfelves far and wide through Europe. With
refpedt to the Greeks and other Chriftians of the Eaft,
we may remark, that they had adopted the Semipelagian
tenets, even before they were promulgated in Gaul by
Caflian and Fauftus.
After the period, however, at which the Semipelagian
dodtrines were condemned in the council of Orange, we
find but little notice taken of this fedt by hiftorians.
Although its tenets were maintained by a few in the
fucceeding centuries, the fedl could boaft of no eminent
leaders, and funk intoobfcurity. In the beginning, in¬
deed, of the reformation, fome of the Pelagian tenets
were again brought into circulation. Every one is ac¬
quainted with the hoftility of Luther to the dodtrine of
free will, who went fo far into the oppofite extreme as
to entitle one of his works againft the celebrated Eraf-
mus on this fubjedl, “ De Servo Arbitrto” But not-
withftanding that Luther was their leader, this dodtrine
of his was not adopted by fome of the moft eminent of
the reformers. His learned friend, the mild and worthy
Melandthon, although he at firft (either from not hav¬
ing fufticiently confidered the fubjedt, or becaufe this
dodtrine was fo unpalatable to the great body of the re¬
formers on account of the authority of Luther), joined
S ' witk
S E M t I
Semipela- >vith Luther in his hoftility to thp dofirine of free will,
, S^ans- _ lo far as to fay, that free will could have no efteft, un-
der the influence of grace, ihortly alter changed his
opinion fo as to run into the oppoflte extreme. For al¬
though Luther at his outlet had affirmed, that the pre-
fcience of God annihilated free will in all his creatures,
he was fo foftened down into moderation at the time of
the drawing up of the famous Confeffion of Augfburg,
as to allow Melandfhon, who compofed it, to infert
thefe words, “ that it was neceflary to allow free will
to all who poffefled the ufe of reafon, not however in
fuch things as regarded God, which they could not
commence, or at leaft which theij could not complete,
without his afliftance and grace, but in the affairs, or
works, of the prefent life folely, and in order to perform
their duty towards fociety In this paflage two
truths are clearly admitted : i. That there is free will
in man ; and, 2. That of itfelf it has no efficacy in luch
Ihon's Aj>o- works as are purely Chriftian or religious. But although
See the
i%th ar¬
ticle, ami
Me lane-
cegr- this be evident, and although it would feem as if he at¬
tributed the efficacy of religious works folely to the
grace of God, yet the reffrifting words “ at leajt”
lliow, that he w>as of opinion, that free will, by its own
natural force and efficacy, though it could not complete,
could at leajl commence, Chriitian or religious works,
without the affiftance of grace. To fuch of our readers
as are acquainted wdth ecclefiaftical hiffory, it is unne-
eeflary to remark, that this was one of the leading te¬
nets of the Semipelagians. But Melanflhon did not
flop here. It is true, that, in order to keep well with
the reformers, he was obliged, in thofe public inftru-
ments which he drew up, to infinuate rather than avow
his partiality for the doftrine of free will, the exercife
of which, w’e fee, he confined in the Confefiion of Augf¬
burg to fuch actions merely as regarded civil life and
our duties to fociety. In the Saxon Confeffion of Faith,
however, he proceeds a ftep farther, and fays “ that the
will is free 5 that God neither withes for, nor approves,
nor co-operates in the production of fin ; but that the
free will of man and of the devils is the true caufe of
their fin and of their fall.” Many no doubt will be of
opinion, that Melancthon merits praife for having thus
corrected Luther, and for having more clearly expreffed
his own opinion, than he had done in the Confeffion of
Auglhurg. He even proceeds farther, and extends the
exercife of free will to religious or Chriftian works.
For after having explained in the Saxon Confeffion of
Faith the nature of free will, and the manner in which
it makes a choice, and having alfo ffiown, that it is not
of itfelf fufficient in thofe works, or aCtions, which re¬
gard a future life, he affirms twice “ that the will, even
after having received the influence of the Holy Spirit,
does not remain idle,” that is to fay, it is not merely
paffive under the influence of grace, but can rejeCl it,
or co-operate with it, at pleafure. Neceffity, it is true,
obliged him to expiefs his opinion rather obfeurely.
But what he infinuates only in thefe laft quoted words,
is clearly and fully exprefled in one of his letters to
Calvin. “ I had, fays he, a friend who, in reafoning
. upon predeftination, believed equally the two following
things ; namely, that every thing happens amongft men
as it is ordained by Providence, but that there is, ne-
verthelefs, a contingency in aClions or in events. He
eonfefled, however, that he was unable to reconcile
■thefe two things. For my part, (continues Melanc-
38 ] S E M
thon), who am of opinion, that God neither wiflies for, Semipela-
nor is the caufe of fin, I acknowledge this contingency , giaiis-
in the feeblenefs of our judgment, in order that the ig- ^ J
norant may confefs, that Havid tell of himfelf, and vo¬
luntarily into fin •, that he had it in his power to pre-
ferve the grace of the Holy Spirit which he had within
him, and that in this combat or trial, it is neceflary to
acknowledge fome exercife or aftion of the will *.”
This opinion he confirms and illuftrates by a paflage
from St Bafil, where he fays, “ Have but the will, or
the inclination, and God is with you.” By which
words Melandthon feems to infinuate, that the will is
not only aftive in the works of religion, but even be¬
gins them without grace. This, however, was. not the
meaning of St Bafil, as is evident from feveral other
parts of his writings *, but that it was the opinion of
Melandthon appears fully from this palfage, as well as
from that which we have cited from the Confeffion of
Auglburg, in which he infinuates, that the error is not
in faying, that the will can of itfelf commence, but in
thinking, that it can without grace finiffi or complete,
religious or Chriftian works. I hus it appears, that
he confidered the will capable of rejecting the influence
of grace, fince he declares, that David could preferve
the Holy Spirit when he loft it, as well as he could lofe
it when he kept it within him. But although this was
his decided opinion, he durft not avow it fully in the
Saxon Confeffion of Faith, but was obliged to content
himfelf with infinuating it gently in thefe words, “ d he
will, even after receiving the grace of the Holy Spirit,
is not idle or without aftion.” All this precaution,
however, was infufficient to fave Melandllion from con¬
fute. Francowdtz, better known by the name of Illyri-
cus, being jealous of him and his enemy, by his influ¬
ence with his party procured the condemnation of thefe
words of the Saxon Confeffion, and of the paflfage from
St Bafil, at two fynods held by the Reformers at the
fame time, that one party of the Lutherans were un¬
willing to adopt Melandlhon’s opinion, “ that the will
is not paffive, when under the influence of grace,” we
are at a lofs to think how they could deny it, fince they
almoft unanimoufly confefs, that a perfon under the in¬
fluence of grace may rejedl and loie it. d his opinion
is avowed in the Confeffion of Augfburg and in Me-
landlhon’s Apology. It was even, long after that, de¬
cided upon anew, inculcated ftrongly in their book of
Concord, and was brought frequently againft them by
their opponents as a proof of inconfiftency and contra?
diftion.
Thefe are not the only inftances in which the Luthe?
rans were charged with Semipelagian principles. One
of the ableft and the moft learned of their opponents, we
cannot help thinking, had in more than one inftance
made good the charge againft them, do prove this wT©
need only refer to the remarks that have been made on
the eight celebrated propofitions in the third book of
Concord, relative to the co-operation of the will with
grace. According to the firft: feven of thefe propofi¬
tions, an attentive liftening to the preaching o( the
word of God produceth grace j and according to the
fifth, any man, even a libertine or an infidel, is free, or
has it in his power to liften attentively to the preaching
of the word of God. He has it then in his power to
give to himfelf that which to him is produflive of grace,
and may thus be the foie author of his own converfion
S E M [ 139 ] SEN
S^mipela- or regeneration. In the eighth propofition it is affirm-
gians, that we are not permitted to doubt, but that the
Stmiramis. grace o£ pj0jy. Spirit? even though it may not be
~v felt, does accompany an attentive hearing of the word
of God •, and to do away every doubt about the fpecies
of attention which they mean, we muft obferve, that
they fpeak of attention in as much as it precedes the
grace of the Holy Spirit, and of that attention which,
in confequence of its dependence on free-will, we have
it in our power to beftow upon the word or not, juft as
we pleafe. It is the exercife of this free attention which
they fay operates grace. But here it wTould feem, that
they were in extremes *, for, as theyfaid upon one hand,
that, when the Holy Spirit begins to move us, we act
not at all fo they maintained on the other, that this
operation of the Holy Spirit, which converts us without
any co-operation on our part, is neceffarily attendant
upon an aft of our wills, in which the Holy Spirit has
no (hare, and in which our liberty afts purely by its na¬
tural force or power. Such of our readers as are anxious
to examine the progrefs of the Pelagian and Semipela¬
gian principles after the dawn of the Reformation, we
muft refer to the works of the principal reformers and
to thofe of their adverfaries, as well as to the different
writers upon ecclefiaftical hiftory.
SEMIRAMIS,in fabulous hiftory,acelebratedqueen
of Affyria, daughter of the goddefs Derceto, by a young
Affyrian. She was expofed in a defert; but her life
was preferved by doves for one whole year, till Simmas,
one of the fhepherds of Ninus, found her and brought
her up as his own child. Semiramis, when grown up,
married Menones, the governor of Nineveh, and accom¬
panied him to the fiege of Baftria •, where, by her ad¬
vice and prudent direftions, lire haftened the king’s ope¬
rations, and took the city. Thefe eminent fervices, to¬
gether with her uncommon beauty, endeared her to Ni¬
nus. The monarch alked her of her hulband, and offer¬
ed him his daughter Sofana in her ftead ; but Menones,
who tenderly loved Semiramis, refufed ; and when Ni¬
nus had added threats to entreaties, he hanged himfeif.
No fooner was Menones dead, than Semiramis, who was
of an afpiring foul, married Ninus, by whom (he had a
fon called Nini/as. Ninus was fo fond of Semiramis, that
at her requeft he refigned the crown, and commanded
her to be proclaimed queen and foie emprefs of Affyria.
Of this, however, he had caufe to repent: Semiramis
put him to death, the better to eftablilh herfelf on the
throne ; and when ftie had no enemies to fear at home,
(lie began to repair the capital of her empire, and by
her means Babylon became the moft fuperb and mag¬
nificent city in the world. She vifited every part of
her dominions, and left everywhere immortal monuments
of her greatnefs and benevolence. To render the roads
paffable and communication eafy, {he hollowed moun¬
tains and filled up valleys, and water was conveyed at a
great expence by large and convenient aqueducts to
barren deferts and unfruitful plains. She was not lefs
diftinguiftred as a warrior : Many of the neighbouring
nations were conquered } and when Semiramis was once
told as ftie was drefling her hair, that Babylon had re¬
volted, {he left her toilette with precipitation, and though
only half dreffed, Ihe refufed to have the reft of her
head adorned before the fedition wTas quelled and tran¬
quillity re-eftabliflied. Semiramis has been accufed of
licentioufnefs 5 and fome authors have obferyed that ftie
regularly called the ftrongeft and ftouteft metl in her S emir amis
army to her arms, and afterwards put them to death, SeJ|te
that they might not be living witnefles of her inconti- ■ ‘' ..
nence. Her paflion for her fon was alfo unnatural •, and
it wras this criminal propenfity which induced Ninyas to
deftroy his mother with his owrn hands. Some fay that
Semiramis was changed into a dove after death, and re¬
ceived immortal honours in Affyria. It is fuppofed that
ftie lived about 11 centuries before the Chriftian era*
and that ftie died in the 62d year of her age and the
25th of her reign. Many fabulous reports have been pro¬
pagated about Semiramis, and fome have declared that
for fome time flie difgufted herfelf and paffed for her fon
Ninyas. Lem.priere's Bibliotheca C/aJJica.
SEMPERVIVUM, House leek, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs dodecandria ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 13th order, Succu/entce. See
Botany Index.
SEN AAR, or Sennaar. See Sennaar.
SENATE, in general, is an affembly or council of
fenators j that is, of the principal inhabitants of a ftate,
who have a {hare in the government.
The fenate of ancient Rome is of all others the moft
celebrated. It exercifed no contentious jurifdhftion j
but appointed judges, either from among the fenators
or knights, to determine proceffes : it alfo appointed go¬
vernors of provinces, and difpofed of the revenues of the
commonwealth, &c. Yet did not the whole fovereign
power refide in the fenate, fince it could not eledl ma-
giftrates, make laws, or decide of war and peace 5 in
all which cafes the fenate was obliged to confult the
people.
The fenate, when firft inftituted by Romulus, con¬
fided of IOO members ; to whom he afterwards added
the fame number when the Sabines had migrated to
Rome. Tarquin the ancient made the fenate confift of
300, and this number remained fixed for a long time ;
but aftenvards it fluctuated greatly, and was increafed
firft to 700, and afterwards to 900 by Julius Cmfar, who
filled the fenate with men of every rank and order. Un¬
der Auguftus the fenators amounted to 1000, but this
number was reduced, and fixed to 600. The place of a
fenator was always beftowed upon merit : the monarchs
had the privilege of choofing the members j and after
the expulfion of the Tarquins, it was one of the rights
of the confuls, till the ele&ion of the cenfors, who from
their office feemed moft capable of making choice of
men whofe character was irreproachable, whofe morals
were pure, and relations honourable. Only particular
families were admitted into the fenate ; and when the
plebeians were permitted to (hare the honours of the ftate,
it was then required that they ffiould be born of free
citizens. It tvas alfo required that the candidates ihould
be knights before their admiffion into the fenate. They
were to be above the age of 25, and to have previoufly
paffed through the inferior offices of quaeftor, tribune of
the people, edile, praetor, and conful.
The fenate always met of courfe on the I ft of Janua¬
ry, for the inauguration of the new confuls ; and in all
months, univerfally, there were three days, viz. the ka¬
lends, nones, and ides, on w hich it regularly met: but
it always met on extraordinary occafions, when called
together by conful, tribune, or dictator.
To render their decrees valid and authentic, a cer¬
tain number of members was requilite, and fuch as
S 2 * were
SEN [ Ho ] SEN
Senate were abfent without fome proper cayfe were always
Senitus ^nec^- In t^e re*gn Auguftus, 400 fenators were
US~ 1 requifite to make a fenate. Nothing was tranfafted be¬
fore funrife or after funfet. In their office the fena¬
tors were the guardians of religion 5 they difpofed of the
provinces as they pleafed 5 they prorogued the aifem-
blies of the people ; they appointed thankfgivings ; no¬
minated their ambaffadors 5 diftributed the public mo¬
ney, and in ffiort had the management of every thing
political or civil in the republic, except the creating of
magiilrates, the ena&ing of laws, and the declaration
of war or peace, which were confined to the aifemblies
of the people.
SENATOR, in general, denotes a member of fome
fenate.
The dignity of a Roman fenator could not be fup-
ported without the poffeffion of 80,000 fefterces, or
about 7000I. Engliih money j and therefore fuch as
fquandered away their money, and whofe fortune was
reduced below this fum, were generally ftruck out of
the lift of fenators. This regulation was not made in
the firft ages of the republic, when the Romans boafted
of their poverty. The fenators were not permitted to
be of any trade or profeffion. They were diitinguiffied
from the reft of the people by their drefs j they wore
the laticlave, half-boots of a black colour, with a cref-
cent or filver buckle in the form of a C ; but this laft
honour was confined only to the defcendants of thofe
hundred fenators who had been eledled by Romulus, as
the letter C feems to imply. See the preceding ar¬
ticle.
Among us, fenator is a member of parliament. In
the laws of King Edward the Confeffor, we are told
that the Britons called thofe fenators whom the Saxons
called afterwards aldermen and borough-ttiafers ; though
not for their age, but their wifdom ; for fome of them
were young men, but very well Ikilled in the laws.
Kenulph king of the Mercians granted a charter, which
ran thus, viz. Confilio et confenfu epifcoporum et fenato-
rum gentis face largitus fuit dicio ?nonaferio, &c.
In Scotland, the lords of feffion are called fenators of
the college of juftice.
SENATES auctoritas. See the next article.
SeNATUS-Confultwn, which made part of the Ro¬
man law. When any public matter was introduced
into the fenate, which was always called referre ad fc-
natum, any fenator whofe opinion was afked, was per¬
mitted to {peak upon it as long as he pleafed, and on
that account it was often ufual for the fenators to pro-
tra£t their fpeeches till it Avas too late to determine.
When the queftion was put, they paffed to the fide of
that fpeaker whofe opinion they approved, and a majo¬
rity of votes Avas eafily collefted, Avithout the trouble
of counting the numbers. When the majority Avas
known, the matter Avas determined, and a fenatus conful-
turn Avas immediately Avritten by the clerks of the houfe,
at the feet of the chief magiftrates, and it Avas figned
by all the principal members of the houfe. When
there Avas not a fufficient number of members to make
a fenate, the decifion Avas called fenatus auBoritas, but
it Avas of no force if it did not aftenvards pafs into a fe¬
natus confulturn.
The fenatus confulta were at firft left in the cuftody
of the kings, and aftenvard of the confuls, Avho could
fupprefs or preferve them • but about the year of Rome
3
304, they Avere ahvays depofited in the temple of Ce¬
res, and afterwards in the treafury, by the ediles of the
people.
SENECA, Lucius Annteus, a Stoic philofopher,
was born at Corduba in Spain, about the beginning of
the Chriftian era, of an equeftrian family, Avhich had
probably been tranfplanted thither in a colony from
Rome. He was the fecond fon of Marcus Annaeus Se¬
neca, commonly called the rhetorician, Avhofe remains
are printed under the title of Suaforue et Controverfire,
cum Declamationum Excerptis; and his youngeft bro¬
ther Annaeus Mela (for there Avere three of them) had
the honour of being father to the poet Lucan. He Avas
removed to Rome, together Avith his father and the reft
of his family, Avhile he Avas yet in his infancy. There
he Avas educated in the moft liberal manner, and under
the belt mafters. He learned eloquence from his fa¬
ther ; but his genius rather leading him to philofophy,
he put himfelf under the ftoics Attalus, Sotion, and
Papirius Fabianus ; men famous In their way, and of
whom he has made honourable mention in his Avritings.
It is probable, too, that he travelled Avhen he AAras young,
fince Ave find him, in feveral parts of his Avorks, parti¬
cularly in his ^ucefiiones Naturales, making very exa£t
and curious obfervations upon Egypt and the Nile.—
But this, though entirely agreeable to his OAvn humour,
did not at all correfpond Avith that feheme or plan of
life Avhich his father had draAvn out for him j Avho,
therefore, forced him to the bar, and put him upon foli-
citing for public employments ; fo that he aftenvards
became quaeftor, praetor, and, as Lipfius Aviil have it,
even conful. v
In the firft year of the reign of Claudius, Avhen Ju¬
lia the daughter of Germanicus was accufed of adul¬
tery by Meftalina, and baniffied, Seneca Avas baniffied
too, being charged as one of the adulterers. Corfica
Avas the feat of his exile, Avhere he lived eight years j
“ happy in the midft of thofe things Avhich ufually
make other people miferable inter eas res beatus, qme
folent miferos facere : and here he Avrote his books
of confolation, addrelfed to his mother Helvia, and to
his friend Polybius, and perhaps fome of thofe trage¬
dies Avhich go under his name ; for he fays, modo fe
levioribus, fiudiis ibi obie&ajfe. Agrippina being mar¬
ried to Claudius, upon the death of Meffalina, ftre pre¬
vailed Avith the emperor to recal Seneca from baniffi-
ment; and afterwards procured him to be tutor to her
fon Nero, Avhom {he defigned for the empire. Africa-
nus Burrhus, a praetorian praefeft, Avas joined Avith him
in this important charge: and thefe two preceptors, A?ho
Avere entrufted Avith equal authority, had each hisrefpec-
tive department. By the bounty and generofity of his
royal pupil, Seneca acquired that prodigious Avealth
Avhich rendered him in a manner equal to kings. His
houfes and Avalks Avere the moft magnificent in Rome.
His villas Avere innumerable : and he had imrnenfe fums
of money placed out at intereft in almoft every part of
the Avorld. The hiftorian Dio reports him to have had
250,000!. fterling at intereft in Britain alone 5 and rec¬
kons his calling it in all at a fum, as one of the caufes
of a Avar Avith that nation.
All this Avealth, however, together Avith the luxury
and effeminacy of a court, does not appear to have had
any ill eftetft upon the temper and difpofition of Se¬
neca. He continued abftemious, exa& in his manners,
and
Senato?,
Seneca.
SEN [ 141 ] SEN
Seneca, and, above all, free from the vices fo commonly preva-
—J lent in fuch places, flattery and ambition. “ I had ra¬
ther (faid he to Nero) offend you by fpeaking the truth,
than pleafe you by lying and flattery : maluerim veris
offenderc, quam placere adulando.'n How well he ac¬
quitted himfelf in quality of preceptor to his prince, may
be known from the five firft years of Nero’s reign, which
have always been confidered as a perfed pattern of good
government 5 and if that emperor had but been as ob-
fervant of his mailer through the whole courfe of it, as
he was at the beginning, he would have been the de-
, light, and not, as he afterwards proved, the curfe and
deteftation of mankind. But when Poppgea and Ti-
o-ellinus had got the command of his humour, and hur¬
ried him into the mofl; extravagant and abominable vices,
he foon grew weary of his mailer, whofe life muft indeed
have been a conftant rebuke to him. Seneca, percei¬
ving that his favour declined at court, and that he had
many accufers about the prince, who were perpetually
whifpering in his ear the great riches of Seneca, his
magnificent houfes and fine gardens, and what a favou¬
rite through means of thefe he was grown with the peo¬
ple, made an offer of them all to Nero. Nero refufed
to accept them: which, however, did not hinder Seneca
from changing his way of life ; for, as Tacitus relates,
he “ kept no more levees, declined the ufual civilities
which had been paid to him, and, under a pretence of
indifpofition, or fome engagement or other, avoided as
much as poflible appearing in public.”
Nero, in the mean time, who, as it is fuppofed, had
difpatched Burrhus by poifon, could not be eafy till
he had rid himfelf of Seneca alfo: For Burrhus was
the manager of his military concerns, and Seneca con-
dufted his civil affairs. Accordingly, he attempted, by
means of Cleonicus, a freedman of Seneca, to take him off
by poifon; but this not fucceeding, he ordered him to be
put to death, upon an information that he was privy to Pi-
fo’s confpiracy againft his perfon. Not that he hadany real
proof of Seneca’s being concerned in this plot, but only
that he was glad to lay hold of any pretence for deftroy-
ing him.—He left Seneca, however, at liberty to choofe
his manner of dying; who caufed his veins to be opened
immediately. His wife Paulina, who was very young in
comparifon of himfelf, had yet the refolutionand affeftion
to bear him company, and thereupon ordered her veins
to be opened at the fame time ; But as Nero was not
willing to make his cruelty more odious and infupport-
able than there feemed occafion for, he gave orders to
have her death prevented: upon which her wounds were
bound up, and the blood flopped, in juft time enough
to fave her; though, as Tacitus fays, the looked fo mi-
ferably pale and wan all her life after, that it was eafy
to read the lofs of her blood and fpirits in her counte¬
nance. In the mean time, Seneca, finding his death
flow and lingering, defired Statius Annaeus his phyfi-
cian to give him a dofe of poifon, which had been pre¬
pared fome time before in cafe it fhonld be 'wanted; but
this not having its ufual effect, he was carried to a hot
bath, where he was at length ftifled with the fleams.
He died, as Lipfius conjectures, in the 63d or 64th
year of his age, and in about the 10th or 11th of Ne¬
ro’s reign. Tacitus, on mentioning his death, obferves,
that, as he entered the bath, he took of the water, and
with it fprinkled fome of his neareft domeftics, faying,
ii That he offered thofe libations to Jupiter the Deli¬
verer.” Thefe words are an evident proof that Seneca
was not a Chriftian, as fome have imagined him to have Seneca
been ; and that the 13 epiftles from Seneca to St Paul, H .
and from St Paul to Seneca, are fuppofititious pieces. . .
His philofophical works are well known.—They confift
of 124 epijl/es and diftinCt treatifes ; and, except his
books of phyfical queftions, are chiefly of the moral kind,
treating of anger, confolation, providence, tranquillity
of mind, conftancy, clemency, the fhortnefs of life, a
happy life, retirement, benefits. He has been juftly
cenfured by Quintilian and other critics, as one of the
firft corrupters of the Roman ftyle; but his works are
highly valuable, on account of the vaft erudition which
they difeover, and the beautiful moral fentiments*which
they contain.
SENECIO, Groundsel; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs fyngenefia, and to the order of polyga-
mia fuperflua; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index.
SENEGAL, a part of Negroland in Africa, the
boundaries of which are not known. See Guinea.
Ijh of SENEGAL, fometimes called Saint Louis, is a
fmall ifland in the mouth of the river Senegal, and ac¬
cording to Malkelyne’s tables is fituated in N. Lat. 15.
53. W. Long. 16. 31. The Dutch were the firft Eu¬
ropeans who fettled at Senegal; but their colony was
expelled by the French in i68y. It was taken by the
Englilh in 1692 ; and retaken by the French the year
following. It was a fecond time taken poffeflion of by
the Englilh in 1758; but in 1779 the French recover¬
ed it, and it was ceded to the Britifh crown by the
treaty of 1783.
The bell account of this ifland which we have feen,
is given in the interefting voyage of M. Saugnier to the
coaft of Africa. This adventurer vifited Senegal in
June 1785.
“ The ifland (fays he), properly fpeaking, is only a
bank of fand in the middle of the river. It is 1000
geometrical paces long, and about 60 in its greateft
Avidth ; is almoft on a level Avith the river and with the
fea, being defended from the latter by Barbary point,
which is of greater elevation than the colony. The
eaftern branch of the river is the more confiderable of
the tAvo, being about 400 toifes acrofs ; the Aveftern
branch is only from 50 to 200 toifes Avide. The ifle
confifts entirely of burning fands, on the barren furface
cf Avhich you fometimes meet Avith fcattered flints,
thrown out among their ballaft by veffels coming from
Goree, or Avith the ruins of buildings formerly erected
by Europeans. There is fcarcely fuch a thing as a
garden upon the ifland; European feeds in general not
thriving here. It is not furprifing that the foil is fo un¬
productive ; for the air is ftrongly impregnated Avith fea
fait, Avhich pervades every thing, and confumes even
iron in a very ftiort fpace of time. The heats are excef-
five, and rendered ftill more infupportable by the reflec¬
tion of the fand ; fo that from ten in the morning until
four in the afternoon it is almoft impofiible to do any
Avork. During the months of January, February,
March, and April, the heats are moderated ; but in
Auguft and the following months they become fo op-
preflWe as even to affeft the natives themfelves. What
effeCt then muft they have upon the Europeans, fudden-
ly tranfported into this burning climate ? The nights are
a little lefs fultry; not always, howeArer, but only when
the fea-breeze fets in. It is then that the inhabitants
of the colony breathe a frelher air, for Avhich they have
been
S E N [ 142 ]
Senegal, been longing the whole of the day; but this air in our from 10 to i2.
-“"'V climate would feem a burning vapour. The nights are
neverthelefs troublefome, notwithftanding the comforts
of the fea-breeze. The inllant the fun is fet, we are
affailed by an infinity of gnats, which are called mufqm-
toi ; their itings are very painful, and their multitudes
incredible. The inhabitants find but a poor defence in
their gauze-curtains. For my own part, accuftomed as
T had been to live among the Moors, I was but little
annoyed by thefe infedts. Being half a favage* I felt
no defire to recommend myfelf to the favourable regard
of the fair fex, and I was therefore under no neceffity of
taking care of my perfon. In imitation of my former
mailers, I fmeared myfelf with butter, and this expedF
ent preferved me at all times from thefe impertinent
ftingers, thefe fpiteful enemies to the repofe of the hu*
man kind.
“ If the profpedt of Senegal is tiot agreeable to the
eye, much lefs are its environs, which are covered over
only with fand, and overrun with mangoes. It may be
laid, without exaggeration, that there is not a more for¬
lorn fituation to be found on the face of the inhabited
globe, or a place in which the common neceffaries of
life are procured with greater difficulties. Water, that
indifpenfable aliment of man, is here not potable. Wells
are dug in the fand to the depth of five or fix feet, and
water is obtained by thefe means; but whatever pains
are taken to frelhen it, it ever retains a brackith tafte.
I have diftilled this water myfelf, and obferved that it
always had a difagreeable favour, which cannot fail to
be hurtful to the health : it is true, that when the river
is high, its ftreams are freffi, but the water is only the
more dangerous. It prpyes the caufe of moll of thofe
maladies which carry off the Europeans fo rapidly, that
at the end of every three years the colony has a freffi
fet of inhabitants. The blacks themfelves, although ac¬
cuftomed to the climate, are not in this feafon free from
difeafe.”
The fort of St Louis is a quadrangle, and has two
baftions of confiderable ftrength ; but the greateft fecu-
rity of the fort is its natural fituation. The cannon of
the fort are numerous, and the arfenal well fupplied
with fmall arms and llores. Befides this fort the
French had no other upon the river, except Fort St
Jofeph, which Hands about four leagues below the ca-
taradl at Govina, though they had a few faftories in dif¬
ferent parts.
The principal commodity of this country is that of
gum-Senegal (fee Gum-Senega/'), which is a valuable
branch of commerce, as it is ufed in many arts and ma-
nufaftures, particularly by the painters in water-colours,
the filk-weavers, and dyers.
The French import from the river Senegal not only
gum-arabic, but elephants teeth, hides, bees-wax, gold-
duft, cotton, oftrich feathers, ambergris, indigo, and
civet.
Notwithftanding the barrennefs of the fpot, Senegal
contains more than 6000 negroes, including the cap¬
tives of the Tapades, or negroes born of the black in¬
habitants of the country. They are never put up to
fale, unlefs convidled of fome crime. Their huts, con-
ftrudled in the form of bee-hives, and fupported upon
four flakes, furround the habitations of the negro inha¬
bitants. The entire height of thofe huts may rife to
about 12 feet, the width in every dire&ion is commonly
, 4
S EN
The beds are compofed of hurdles laid Senegal,
upon crofs-bars, fupported by forked flakes at the height
of about a foot from the ground. Here the flaves fleep
promifcuoufly, men, women, girls, and boys. A fire
is made in the middle of the hut, which is filled with
fmoke, fufficient to flifle any man but a negro.
The men are tall, and the women are accounted the
handfomefl negreffes of all Africa. The Senegalians
may be confidered as the moll courageous people of that
part of the world, without even excepting the Moors.
Their courage, however, is more nearly allied to teme¬
rity than to bravery. In the courfe of the voyage to
Galam, they meet the greateft dangers with gaiety and
fong ; they dread neither mufket nor cannon, and are
equally fearlefs of the cayman or crocodile. Should one
of their companions be killed, and devoured by thefe
animals before their face, they are not deterred from
plunging into the water, if the working of the Hup re¬
quire it. Thefe excellent qualifications which diftinguifh
them, and on which they value themfelves fo much, do
not, however, preferve them from the common conta¬
gion of the country, which inclines them all to rapine.
They are emulous to furpafs one another in all the arts
of over-reaching and fraud. The conduft of the Eu¬
ropeans has, no doubt, encouraged thefe vices as much
as the leflbns of the marabous, who inculcate the duty
of plundering the Chriftians to the utmoft of their
power.
The Yolof negroes of Senegal are either Chriftians
or Mahometans, or rather one and the other, or with
more truth neither ; religion being a matter of indiffer¬
ence to them. Thofe on the continent are of the fame
way of thinking, and their religious praftices are kept
up only for the fake of form. A bar of iron, a few
beads, will make them change their opinion at will. By
fuch means are they a£led upon ; a lufficient proof of
their want of all religious principle. The marabous, or
priefts, and the men of their law, are no better than the
reft. “ I have examined the charadter of feveral of this
order of men (fays M. Saugnier), and even among the
nation of the Poules, who are confidered as great fana¬
tics, I difcovered that they were only publicly attached
to their opinions. ‘ This white man (fay they) does fo;
he is better informed than I, and why ffiould not I imi¬
tate his example This way of reafoning is common to
all that tradl of country.
The colony of Senegal is furrounded with iftands,
which, on account of the proximity of the fea, are all
more unhealthy than that on which the town is built.
They are full of Handing pools, that, when dried up by
the fun, exhale a putrid vapour that carries mortality
with it, and defolates thefe iflands. It is doubtlefs the
fame caufe that takes off fo many of the French at Sene¬
gal during the dangerous feafon of the year. 1 his alfo
may be in part occafioned by the bad quality of the wa¬
ter, which flows from the ponds in the neighbourhood
of the colony, and though incorporated with that of the
river, comes down little agitated by the current, and is
eafily diftinguifhed by a vapidnefs of tafte. This parti¬
cular is, in my opinion, effentially worthy of notice, and
if properly attended to by our medical men, might be¬
come the means of preferving many lives.
SENEGAL-River, fee Niger. As fo little is known
refpecling this river, which is one of the greateft in
Africa, any additional information muft be interefting.
We
SEN
Senegal We (hall therefore prefent our readers with the account
—-v-—' contained in the communications prefented to the Affo-
ciation for promoting the difcovery of the Interior
Parts of Africa, which, as far as we know, is the lateft
and moil authentic.
The river known to Europeans by the name of Niger
or Senegal runs on the fouth of the kingdom of Caihna,
in its courfe towards Tombudlou; and if the report
which Ben Alii heard in that town may be credited, it
is afterwards loft in the fands on the fouth of the coun¬
try of Tombuftou. In the map (a), only the known
part of its courfe is marked by a line ; and the fuppofi-
titious part by dots. It may be proper to obferve, that
the Africans have two names for this river ; that is,
Neel il Abeed, or river of the Negroes ; and Neel il Ki-
beer, or the great river. They alfo term the Nile (that
is the Egyptian river) Neel Shern; fo that the term
Neel, from whence our Nile, is nothing more than the
appellative of river ; like Ganges, or Sinde.
Of this river the rife and termination are unknown,
but the courfe is from eaft to aveft. So great is its ra¬
pidity, that no veflel can afcend its ftream ; and fuch
is the want of Ikill, or fuch the abfence of commercial
inducements among the nations who inhabit its borders,
that even with the current, neither veflels nor boats are
feen to navigate. In one place, indeed, the traveller
finds accommodations for the paffage of himfelf and of
his goods ; but even there, though the ferrymen, by
the indulgence of the fultan of Caihna, are exempted
from all taxes, the boat which conveys tlie merchandife
is nothing more than an ill-conftru£ted raft j for the
planks arc faftened to the timbers with ropes, and the
feams are ^lofed both within and without by a pFafter of
tougli clay, of which a large provifion is always carried
on the raft, for the purpofe of excluding the Bream
wherever its entrance is obferved.
The depth of the river at the place of paffage, which
is more than a hundred miles to the fouth of the city of
Caihna, the capital of the empire of that name, is efti-
mated at 23 or 24 feet Englifh. Its depth is from 10
to 12 peeks, each of which is 27 inches.
Its width is fuch, that even at the illand of Gongoo,
where the ferrymen reftde, the found of the loudeft voice
from the northern ftiore is fcarcely heard 5 and at Tom-
budtou, where the name of Gnewa, or black, is given
to the ftream, the width is defcribed as being that of
the Thames at Weftminfter. In the rainy feafon it
fwells above its banks, and not only floods the adja¬
cent lands, but often fweeps before it the cattle and
cottages of the Ihort-lighted or too confidefit inhabi¬
tants.
That the people who live in the neighbourhood of
the Niger Ihould refufe to profit by its navigation, may
juftly furprife the traveller : but much greater is his
aftonilhment, wlren he finds that even the food which
the bounty of the ftream would give, is ufelefsly offered
to their acceptance ; for fuch is the "want of Ikill, or
fuch the fettled dillike of the people to this fort of pro¬
vifion, that the fifh with which the river abounds are
left in undifturbed poffeflion of its waters.
SEN
SENEKA, or Senega, Rattlefnakc-root, Milk-wort. Seneka
See Poly gala, Botany and Materia Medica II
Index. ,_Seiin-
SENESCHAL, (Senefchallin'), derived from the
GermanyE'«, “ a houfe or place,” and fcale, “ an of¬
ficer,” is a fteward, and fignifies one who has the dif-
penfing of juftice in fome particular cafes: As the high
fenefchal or fteward of England ; fenefchal de la hotel
de rot, “ fteward of the king’s houlehold, fenefchal, or
fteward of courts, &c.” Co. Lit. 61. Crake's Jurifd,
102. Kitch. 83. See Steward.
SENN, afort ofitinerant cowT-keeper in Switzerland,
particularly in the canton of Appenzell. Thefe men
do not raife as much hay as is requifite for their cattle
during the winter, and fome of them have no grafs
lands. To fupply this defefl, they employ agents
throughout the canton, whofe province it is to inform
them where good hay may be obtained, when the fenn,
who is in rvant of fodder, agrees with the more opulent
farmers for the winter, to whom he fucceflivelyN drives •
his cattle when they return from the grafs, in confe-
quence of which he often vifits five different places dur¬
ing the winter. The perfon who fells the hay provides
the fenn with ftabling for his beafts, and with board
and lodgings for himfelf and family. The fenn pays
the ftipulated price for the hay, and allows his holt a.-;
much milk, whey, and a kind of lean cheefe, as may
be made ufe of in the family, and alfo leaves him the
manure of his cows. In the middle of April, the fenn
again iffues forth with his herd to the fertile Alps,
which he rents during the fummer.
Fine cattle are the pride of the cow-keeper who inha¬
bits the Alps. He adorns his belt cows with large bells
fufpended from broad thongs, which are manufaftured
and fold by the inhabitants of the Tyrol. Thefe are
faftened round the cow’s neck by means of a large
buckle. The largeft of thefe bells meafure a foot in
diameter, fwell out in the middle, and tapering to-
rvards the end. The whole peal of bells, including the
thongs, is worth 150 guilders, while the apparel of the
fenn himfelf, even in his beft attire, is not worth more
than 20 guilders, Thefe bells are chiefly worn in the
fpring, when driven to the Alps, and in the autumn or
Avinter. It is furprifing to fee Iioav proud and pleafed
the coavs ftalk forth when ornamented Avith their bells.
One would fcarcely imagine how fenfible thefe animals
are of their rank, and even touched with vanity and
jealoufy ! Should the leading coav be deprived of her
honours, Ihe is grieved at the difgrace, which is mani-
fefted by her conftant loAving, abftaining from food,
and growing lean. The rival, on Avhom the badge of
diftindlion has devolved, feels her marked vengeance,
being Avounded and perfecuted by her in the moft furi¬
ous manner, until the former either recovers her bell,
or is removed from the herd. HoAvever lingular this
may appear, it is rendered indifputable by the concur¬
ring tellimony of centuries.
The voice of the fenn brings the cows together, Avhen
difperfed on the Alps, Avho is then faid to allure them.
That the cattle can Avell diftinguilh the note of their
keeper,
[ H3 ]
(a) The map alluded to is that rvhich accompanies the volume Avhich contains the proceedings of the Affocia*
lion,. This Av.ork Avas printed in 1791.
SEN
[ H4 ]
SEN
S-cnn
keeper.
Sennaar.
appears from their haftening to him, though at
a great diftance. He furnifhes that cow which is in the
, habit of flraying fartheft with a fmall bell, and by her
arrival he knows that all the reft are affembled.
SENNA, the leaf of the caflia fenna of Linnaeus.
See Cassia, Botany and Materia Medica Index.
Senna appears to have been cultivated in England in
Woodville' 1 the time of Parkinfon (1640) 5 and Miller tells us, that
Medical by keeping thefe plants in a hotbed all the fummer,
■Botany. ]ie frequently had them in flower ; but adds, it is very
rarely that they perfect their feeds in England. There
-can be little doubt, however, but that feme of the Bri-
tifli pofleflions may be found well enough adapted to
the growth of this vegetable, and that the patriotic
views of the Society for encouraging Arts, &c. which
has offered a reivard to thofe who fucceed in the at¬
tempt, will be ultimately accompliftied.
Senna, which is in common ufe as a purgative, was
firft known to the Arabian phyficians Serapion and
Mefue : the firft among the Greeks who takes any no¬
tice of it is Aftuarius, but he only fpeaks of the fruit,
and not of the leaves. To remove the difagreeable tafte
of this medicine, Dr Cullen recommends coriander feeds j
and, for preventing the gripings with which it is fome-
times attended, he thinks the warmer aromatics, as car¬
damoms or ginger, would be more effeftual.
The Senna Italica, or blunt-leaved fenna, is a variety
of the Alexandrian fpecies 5 which, by its cultivation
in the fouth of France (Provence), has been found to
affume this change. It is lefs purgative than the point¬
ed-leaved fenna, and is therefore to be given in larger
lond Med. d°fes. It was employed as a cathartic by Dr Wright
at Jamaica, where it grows on the fand banks near the
fea.
SENNAAR, a country of Africa, bordering upon
Abyflinia, with the title of a kingdom ; the prefent go¬
vernment of which -was eftablifhed in the 16th century
by a race of negroes named, in their own language,
Shil/ook. This country, together with all the northern
parts, of Africa, had been overrun by the Saracens du¬
ring the rapid conquefts of the caliphs ; but inftead of
erecting any diftinfl principalities here, as in other
parts, they had incorporated themfelves with the old
inhabitants called Shepherds, whom they found at their
arrival 5 had converted them to their religion, and be¬
come one people with them. In 1504 the Shillook, a
people before unknown, came from the weftern banks
of the river Bahiar el Abiad, which empties itfelf into
the Nile, and conquered the country $ allowing the A-
rabs, however, to retain their poffeflions on condition of
paying them a certain tribute. Thefe founded the city
of Sennaar, and have ever fince continued to carry on
an intercourfe with Egypt in the way of merchandife.
At the eftablifhment of their monarchy the whole na¬
tion w'ere Pagans, but foon after became converts to
Mohammedanifm, and took the name of Funge, an ap¬
pellation fignifying w lords or conquerors,” and like-
wife free citizens. Mr Bruce, who paffed through this
country in his return from Abyflinia, gives a lift of 2o
Pings who have reigned in it fince the conqqeft of the
'Shillook.
This country is inhabited By a people fo barbarous
and brutith, that no hiftory of them can be expedled.
One of the moft remarkable of their cuftoms is, that
the king afeends the throne with the expcdlation of be-
Sermaa
your.
vol. viii.
ing murdered whenever the general council of the na¬
tion thinks proper. The dreadful office of executioner
belongs to one Angle officer, ftyled in the language of
the country, Sid el Coom ; and who is always a relation
of the monarch himfelf. It was from his regifters that Bruce's
Mr Bruce took the lift of the kings already mention-
ed, with the number of years they reigned, and which vo
may therefore be received as authentic. T he Sid el
Coom in office at the time that Mr Bruce vifited this
country was named Achmet, and was one of his beft
friends. He had murdered the late king, with three
of his fons, one of whom was an infant at its mother’s
breaft ; he was alfo in daily expedition of performing
the fame office to the reigning fovereign. He was by
no means referved concerning the nature of his office,
but anfwered freely every queftion that was put to him.
When afis.ed by Mr Bruce wffiy he murdered the king’s
young fon in his father’s prefence ? he aniwered, that
he did it from a principle of duty to the king himfelf,
who had a right to fee his ion killed in a lawdul and
regular manner, wfiich w'as by cutting his throat with
a fvvord, and not in a more painful or ignominious way,
which the malice of his enemies might poflibly have in-
flidfed.
The king, he faid, was very little concerned at the
fight of his fon’s death, but he was fo very unwilling to
die himfelf, that he often preffed the executioner to let
him efcapey but finding his intreaties ineffedfual, he
fubmitted at laft without refiftance. On being alked
whether he was not afraid of coming into the prefence of
the king, confidering the office he might poflibly have
to perform ? he replied, that he was not in the leaft afraid
on this account $ that it was his duty to be with the king
every morning, and very late in the evening j that the
king knew he would have no hand in promoting his
death j but that, when the matter was abfolutely deter¬
mined, the reft was only an affair of decency } and it
would undoubtedly be his own choice, rather to fall by
the hand of his own relation in private than by a hired
affaflin, an Arab, or a Chriftian Have, in the fight of the
populace. Baady the king’s father, having the misfor¬
tune to be taken prifoner, was fent to Atbara to Welled
Haffan the governor of that province to be put to death
there. But the king, who was a ftrong man, and always
armed, kept fo much upon his guard, that Welled could
find no opportunity of killing him but by running him
through the back with a lance as he was waffling his
hands. For this Welled himfelf was afterwards put to
death ; not on account of the murder itfelf, but becaufe,
in the firft place, he, who was not the proper execu¬
tioner, had prefumed to put the king to death 5 and, in
the next, becaufe he had done it with a lance, whereas
the only lawful inftrument was a fword.
On the death of any of the fovereigns of this coun¬
try, his eldeft fon fucceeds to the throne of courfe ; on
which as many of his brothers as can be found are ap¬
prehended, and put to death by the.Sid el Coom in
the manner already related. Women are excluded from
the fovereignty here as well as in Abyffinia. the
princeffes of Sennaar, however, are worfe off than thofe
of Abyflinia, having no fettled income, nor being treat¬
ed in any degree better than the daughters of pri¬
vate perfons. The king is obliged, once in his life¬
time, to plough and fow a piece of ground whence
he is named Baady, the “ countryman or peafanta
SEN [ 145 ] SEN
Semrnr. title as common among the monarchs of Sennaar as Cae-
——v mm"-1 far was among the Romans. The royal family were
originally negroes 5 but as the kings frequently marry
Arab women, the white colour of the mother is commu¬
nicated to the child. This, we are told by Mr Bruce,
is invariably the cafe, when a negro man of Sennaar mar¬
ries an Arab woman ; and it holds equally good, when
an Arab man marries a negro woman •, and he likewife
informs us, that he never faw one black Arab all the
time he wras at Sennaar.
The foil and climate of this country are extremely un¬
favourable both to man and beaft. The men are ftrong
and remarkable for their lize, but fhort-lived ; and there
is fuch a mortality among the children, that were it
not for a conftant importation of Haves, the metropolis
would be depopulated. The (hortnefs of their lives,
however, may perhaps be accounted for, from their in¬
dulging themfelves from their infancy in every kind of
excefs. No horfe, mule, or afs, will live at Sennaar
or for many miles round it. The cafe is the fame with
bullocks, fheep, dogs, cats, and poultry •, all of them
muft go to the fands every half-year. It is difficult to
account for this mortality ; though Mr Bruce affures
us it is the cafe everywhere about the metropolis of this
country, where the foil is a fat earth, during the firft
feafon of the rains. Two greyhounds which he brought
along with him from Atbara, and the mules he brought
from Abyffinia, lived only a few weeks after their arri¬
val at Sennaar. Several of the kings of Sennaar have
tried to keep lions, but it was always found impoffible
to preferve them alive after the rains. They will live,
however, as well as other quadrupeds, in the fands, at no
great diftance from the capital. No fpecies of tree ex¬
cept the lemon flowers near this city ; the cultivation of
the rofe has often been attempted, but always without
fuccefs. In other refpeffs, however, the foil of Sennaar
is exceedingly fertile, being faid to yield 30D fold •, but
this is thought bv Mr Bruce to be a great exaggeration.
It is all fown with dora or millet, which is the principal
food of the people 5 wheat and rice are alfo produced
here, which are fold by the pound, even in years of plen¬
ty. The foil all round is ftrongly impregnated with fait,
fo that a fufficient quantity to ferve the inhabitants is ex-
trafted from it.
Sennaar, a city of Africa, the capital of the king
dom of that name. It Hands according to Mr Bruce’s
obfervations, in N. Lat. 130 34' 36", E. Long. 330
30' 30", on the weft: fide, of the Nile, and clofe upon
the banks of it •, the ground on which it ftands being
juft high enough to prevent the inundation. The town
is very populous, and contains a great many houfes. In
Poncet’s time they were all of one ftory ; but now
moft of the officers have houfes of two ftories high.
They are built of clay mixed with a very little ftraw,
and have all flat roofs j which fhows that the rains here
muft be much lefs in quantity than to the fouthward.
During the time of Mr Bruce’s refidence here, however,
there was one week of continual rain, and the Nile, af¬
ter loud thunder and great darknefs to the fouth, in-
creafed violently ; the whole ftream being covered wuth
the wrecks of houfes and their furniture 5 fo that he
fuppofed it had deftroyed many villages to the fouth¬
ward. About 12 miles to the north-weft of Sennaar is a
eolleclion of villages named ShadiUy, from a great faint
of that name, who conftru6ted feveral granaries here.
Vol. XIX. Part I.
Thefe are no other than large pits dug in the ground, Sennaar.
and well plaftered in the infide with clay, then filled —
with grain when it is at its loweft price, and afterwards
covered up and plaftered again at top : thefe pits they
call matamores. On any profpe£t of dearth they are
opened, and the corn fold to the people. About 24
miles north of Shaddly there is another fet of granaries
named Wed-Aboud, ftill greater than Shaddly ; and upon
thefe two the fubfiftence of the Arabs principally de¬
pends : for as thefe people are at continual war with
each other, and direct their fury rather againft the crops
than the perfons of their enemies, the whole of them
would be unavoidably ftarved, were it not for this ex¬
traordinary refource. Small villages of foldiers are Mat¬
tered up and down this country to guard the grain af¬
ter it is fown, which is only that fpecies of millet named
dora ; the foil, it is faid, being incapable of producing
any other. There are great hollows made in the earth
at proper diftances throughout the country, which fill
with water in the rainy feafon, and are afterwards of
great ufe to the Arabs as they pafs from the cultivated
parts to the fands. The fly, which is fuch a dreadful enemy
to the cattle, is never feen to the northward of Shaddly.
To the weftward of thefe granaries the country is
quite full of trees as far as the river Abiad, or El-aice.
In this extenfive plain there arife two ridges of moun¬
tains, one called Jibbel Moira, or the Mountain of water ;
the other Jibbel Segud, or the Cold Mountain. Both of
them enjoy a fine climate, and ferve for a protection to
the farms about Shaddly and Aboud already mentioned.
Here alfo are fortrefles placed in the way of the Arabs,
which ferve to oblige them to pay tribute in their flight
from the cultivated country, during the rains, to the dry
lands of Atbara. Each of thefe diftricts is governed
by a defeendant of their ancient and native princes,
who long refifted all the power of the Arabs. Sacri¬
fices of a horrid nature are faid to have been offered up
on thefe mountains till about the year 1554, when one
of the kings of Sennaar befieged firft one and then the
other of the princes in their mountains ; and having
forced them to furrender, he faftened a chain of gold to
each of their ears, expofed them in the market-place at
Sennaar, and fold them for flaves at lefs than a farthing
each. Soon after this they were circumcifed, convert¬
ed to the Mahometan religion, and reftored to their
kingdoms.
“ Nothing (fays Mr Bruce) is more pleafant than Vol. iv.
the country around Sennaar in the end of Auguft andP- 47Sc
beginning of September. The grain, being now fprung
up, makes the whole of this immenfe plain appear a le¬
vel green land, interfperfed w ith great lakes of water,
and ornamented at certain intervals with groups of vil¬
lages *, the conical tops of the houfes prefenting at a di¬
ftance the appearance of fmall encampments. Through
this very extenfive plain winds the Nile, a delightful ri¬
ver there, above a mile broad, full to the very brim, but
never overflowing. Everywhere on thefe banks are
feen herds of the moft beautiful cattle of various kinds.
The banks of the Nile about Sennaar referable the plea-
fanteft part of Holland in the fummer feafon •, but foon
after, when the rains ceafe, and the fun exerts its utmoft
influence, the dora begins to ripen, the leaves to turn
yelloAV and to rot, the lakes to putrefy, fmell, become
full of vermin, and all its beauty fuddenly difappears;
bare fcorched Nubia returns, and all its terrors of poi-
T fonous
SEN [ 146 ] SEN
Sennaar. fonous winds and'moving fands, glowing and ventilated
"““■"v with fultry blafts, which are followed by a troop of ter¬
rible attendants; epilSpfies, apoplexies, violent fevers,
obftinate agues, and lingering painful dyfenteries, ftill
more obftinate and mortal.
“ War and treafon feem to be the only employment
of this horrid people, whom Heaven has feparated by al-
moft impaffable deferts from the reft of mankind j con¬
fining them to an accurfed fpot, feemingly to give them
an earneft in time of the only other curfe which he has
referved to them for an eternal hereafter.”
With regard to the climate of the country round
Sennaar, Mr Bruce has feveral very curious obferva-
tions. The thermometer rifes in the (hade to 119 de¬
grees 5 but the degree indicated by this inftrument does
not at all eorrfefpond with the fenfations occasioned by
it 5 nor with the colour of the people who live under it.
“ Nations of blacks (fays he) live within latitude 13
and 14 degrees j about 10 degrees fouth of them, nearly
under the line, all the people are white, as we had an
opportunity of obferving daily in the Galla. Sennaar,
which is in latitude 13 degrees, is hotter by the ther¬
mometer* 50 degrees, when the fun ig moft diftant from
it, than Gondar, which is a degree farther fouth, when
the fun is vertical.—Cold and hot (fays our author)
are terms merely relative, not determined by the lati¬
tude, but elevation of the place. When, therefore, we
fay hot, fome other explanation is neceflary concerning
the place where we are, in order to give an adequate idea
of the fenfations of that heat upon the body, and the ef-
fefts of it upon the lungs. The degree of the ther¬
mometer conveys this but very imperfeftly •, 90 degrees
is exceflively hot at Loheia in Arabia Felix j and yet
the latitude of Loheia is but 15 degrees ; whereas 90
degrees at Sennaar is only warm as to fenfe j though
Sennaar, as we have already faid, is in latitude 13 de¬
grees.
“ At Sennaar, then, I call it cold, when one fully
clothed and at reft feels himfelf in want of fire. I call
it cool, when one fully clothed and at reft feels he could
bear more covering all over, or in part, than he has at -
that time. I call it temperate, when a man fo clothed,
and at reft, feels no fuch want, and can take moderate
exercife, fuch as walking about a room without fweat-
ing. I call it warm, when a man, fo clothed, does
not fweat when at reft ; but, on taking moderate exer¬
cife, fweats, and again cools. 1 call it hot, when a man
at reft, or with moderate exercife, fweats exceffively.
I call it very hot, when a man with thin, or little clo¬
thing, fweats much, though at reft. I call it excejjive
hot, when a man, in his ftftrt and at reft, fweats excef¬
fively, when all motion is painful, and the knees feel
feeble, as if after a fever. I call it extreme hot, when
the ftrength fails, a difpofition to faint comes on, a
ftraitnefs is found in the temples, as if a fmall cord was
drawn tight about the head, the voice impaired, the fkin
dry, and the head feems more than ordinarily large and
light. This, I apprehend, denotes death at hand ; bat
this is rarely if ever effected by the fun alone, without
the addition of that poifonous wind which purfued us
through Atbara, where it has, no doubt, contributed to
the total extin&H-n of every thing that hath the breath
of life. A thermometer, graduated upon this fcale,
would exhibit a figure very different from the common
One 5 for I am convinced by experiment, that a web of
2
the fineft muflin, wrapt round the body at Sennaar, will
occafion at mid-day a greater fenfation of heat in the bo¬
dy, than a rife of 5 degrees in the thermometer of Fah¬
renheit.
“ At Sennaar, from 70 to 78 degrees of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer is cool ; from 79 to 92 temperate $ at 92
degrees begins -warmth. Although the degree of the
thermometer marks a greater heat than is felt by the
body of us ftrangers, it feems to me that the fenfations
of the natives bear ftill a lefs proportion to that degree
than ours. On the 2d of Auguft, while I was lying
perfe6tly enervated on a carpet in a room deluged with
water at 12 o’clock, the thermometer at 116, I faw
feveral black labourers pulling down a houfe, working
Avith great vigour, without any fymptoms of being in¬
commoded.”
The drefs of the people of Sennaar confifts only of
a long ftiirt of blue cloth, which wraps them up from
the under part of the neck to the feet. It does not,
hoAvever, conceal the neck in the men, though it does
in the women. The men fometimes have a fafti tied
about their middle ; and both men and women go bare¬
footed in the houfes, whatever their rank may be. The
floors of their apartments, efpecially thofe of the wo¬
men, are covered with Perfian carpets. Both men and
women anoint themfelves, at leaft once a-day, with ca¬
mel’s greafe mixed with civet, which, they imagine,,
foftens their fkins, and preferves them from cutane¬
ous eruptions ; of which they are fo fearful, that they
confine themfelves to the houfe if they obferve the
fmalleft pimple on their fkins. With the fame view
of preferving their fkins, though they have a clean-
fliirt every day, they fleep Avith a greafed one at night,
having no other covering but this. Their bed is a
tanned bull’s hide, Avhich this conftant greafing foftens
very much ; it is alfo very cool, though it gives a fmell
to their bodies from which they cannot be freed by any
Avaffiing.
Our author gives a very curious defeription of the
queens and ladies of the cbttrt at Sennaar. He had
accefs to them as a phyfician, and Avas permitted to pay
his vifit alone. He Avas firft fhoAvn into a large fquare
apartment, AA'here there Avere about 50 black W'omen,
all quite naked excepting a very narroAV piece of cotton
rag about their Avaifts. As he Avas mufing Avhether
thefe Avere all queens, one of them took him by the
hand, and led him into another apartment much better
lighted than the former. Here he faAV three Avomen
fitting upon a bench or fbfa covered Avifh blue Surat
cloth ; they themfelves being clothed from the neck to
the feet with cotton fhirts of the fame colour. Thefe
were three of the king’s wives ; his favourite, Avho Avas
one of the number, appeared to be about fix feet high,
and fo corpulent that our traveller imagined her to be-
the largeft creature he bad feen next to the elephant
and rhinoceros. Her features perfetlly refembled thofe
of a negro 5 a ring of gold palled through her under lip,
and Aveighed it doAvn, till, like a flap, it covered her
chin, leaving her teeth bare, Avbich Avere fmall and very
fine. The infide of her lip Avas made black AA'ith anti¬
mony. Her ears reached down to her fhoulders, and
had the appearance of wings : there Avas a gold ring in
each of them about five inches in diameter, and fome-
what fmaller than a man’s little finger ; the Aveight of
"Which had drawn doAvn the hole where her ear Avas
pierced
Sennaar.
■SEN
Sennaar pierced fo much that three fingers might eafily pafs
II above the ring. She had a gold necklace like that
Senones. ^ capeg Efclavage, of feveral rows, one below another }
to which were hung rows of fequins pierced. She had
two manacles of gold upon her ancles larger than thofe
ufed for chaining felons. Our author could not imagine
how it was pofiible for her to walk with them, till he
was informed that they were hollow. The others were
drefied much in the fame manner j only there was one
who had chains coming from her ears to the outlide of
each nofixil, where they were fafiened. A ring was
alfo put through the griftle of her nofe, and which hung
down to the opening of her mouth j having all together
fomething of the appearance of a horfe’s bridle ; and
Mr Bruce thinks that fire muft have breathed with dif¬
ficulty.
The poorer fort of the people of Sennaar live on the
flour or bread of millet j the rich make puddings of this,
toafting the flour before the fire, and putting milk and
butter into it j befides which they ’ufe beef partly roaft-
ed and partly raw. They have very fine and fat horned
cattle, but the meat commonly fold in the market is
camel’s flelh. The liver and fpare rib of this animal are
always eaten raw ; nor did our author fee one inftance
to the contrary all the time he was in the country.
Hog’s flefli is not fold in the market •, but all the com¬
mon people of Sennaar eat it openly thofe in office,
who pretend to be Mahometans, doing the fame in
fecret.
There are no manufactures in this country, and the
principal article of trade is blue Surat cloth. In for¬
mer times, when caravans could pafs with fafety, Indian
goods were brought in quantities from Jidda to Sen¬
naar, and then difperfed over the country of the blacks.
The returns were made in gold, a powder called tibbar,
civet, rhinocerofes horns, ivory, oftrich feathers, and
above all flaves or glafs, more of thefe being exported
from Sennaar than from all the call of Africa. This
trade, however, as well as that of the gold and ivory, is
almoft deftroyed; though the gold is ftill reputed to be
the bell and pure!! in Africa, and is therefore bought at
Mocha to be carried to India, where it all centres at
laft.
SENi^ERTUS, Daniel, an eminent phyfieian, was
born in 1572 at Breflaw j and in 1593 he was fent to
Wittemberg, where he made great progrefs in philo-
fophy ancj phyfic. He vifited the univerfities of Leip-
fic, Jena, Francfort on the Oder, and Berlin ; but foon
returned to Wittemberg, where he was promoted to the
degree of doftor of phyfic, and foon after to a profeflbr-
Ihip in the fame faculty. He was the firft who intro¬
duced the ftudy of chemiftry into that univerfity •, he
gained a great reputation by his works and practice,
and was very generous to the poor. He died of the
plague at Wittemberg in 1637. He raifed himfelf
enemies by contradi&ing the ancients. He thought the
feed of all living creatures animated, and that the foul
of this feed produces organization. He rras accufed of
impiety for afferting that the fouls of beafts are not ma¬
terial ; for this was affirmed to be the fame thing with
afierting that they are immortal j but he rejected this
confequence, as he well might do. See Metaphysics,
Part III. chap. vi.
SENONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gal¬
lia Celtica, fituated on the Sequana to the fouth of the
SEN
Parifii, near the confluence of the Jeauna or Yonne with
the above mentioned river. Their moil contiderable
exploit was their invafion of Italy, and taking and burn¬
ing Rome, as related under that article. This was done
by a colony of them long before tranfported into Italy,
and fettled on the Adriatic. Their capital Agendicum
in Gaul, was in the lower age called Senones, now Sens.
In Italy the Senones extended themfelves as far as the
river Aefis; but were afterwards driven beyond the
Rubicon, which became the boundary of Gallia Cifal-
pina, (Polybius, Strabo).
SENSATION, in PJulofophy, the perception of
external objefts by means of the fenfes. See Meta¬
physics, Part I. chap. i.
SENSE, a faculty of the fml whereby it perceives
external objects by means of the impreffions they make
on certain organs of the body. See Metaphysics,
Part I. and Anatomy, N° 137, &c.
Common SENSE, is a term that has been varioufly
ufed both by ancient and modern writers. With fome
it has been fynonymous with public fenfe ; with others
it has denoted prudence j in certain inftances, it has been
confounded with fome of the powers of tafte j and, ac¬
cordingly, thofe who commit egregious blunders with
regard to decorum, faying and doing what is offenfive
to their company, and inconfiftent with their own cha¬
racter, have been charged with a defedl in common
fenfe. Some men are diflinguiflied by an uncommon
acutenefs in difcovering the characters of others j and
this talent has been fometimes called common fenfe; fi-
milar to which is that ufe of the term, which makes
it to fignify that experience and knowledge of life
which is acquired by living in fociety. To this mean-
ing Quintilian refers, fpeaking of the advantages of a
public education : Senfum ipfum qui communis dicitur,
ubi difcet, cum fe d congrejfu, qui non hominibus folum,
fed mutis quoque anitnalibus naturalis ejl, fegregarit ?
Lib. i. cap. 2.
But the term common fenfe hath in modern times been
ufed to fignify that power of the mind udiich perceives
truth, or commands belief, not by progreffive argumen¬
tation, but by an inftantaneous, inftinCHve, and irrefift-
ible impulfe ; derived neither from education nor from
habit, but from nature; aCHng independently of our
will, whenever its objeft is prefented, according to ah
eftabliffied law7, and therefore called fenfe ; and aCHng
in a fimilar manner upon all, or at leaft upon a great
majority of mankind, and therefore called common fenfe.
See Metaphysics, NG 127.
Moral SENSE, is a determination of the mind to be
pleafed with the contemplation of thofe affeftions, ac¬
tions, or characters, of rational agents, which we call
good or ’virtuous.
This moral fenfe of beauty in aCHons and affeCHons
may appear ftrange at firft view ; fome of our moralifts
themfelves are offended at it in Lord Shaftefbury, as
being accuftomed to deduce every approbation or aver-
fion from rational views of intereft. It is certain that
his lordfhip has carried the influence of the moral fenfe
very far, and fome of his followers have carried it far¬
ther. The advocates for the felfiih fyftem feem to drive
their opinions to the oppofite extreme, and wTe have elfe-
where endeavoured to ffiow that the truth lies between
the contending parties. See Moral Philosophy,
N° 27—32.
[ 147 1
Public
Senfe,
Scnfes.
SEN [ 148 ] SEN
Public Sense is defined by the noble author of the
Chara&eriftics to be an innate propenfity to be pleafed
'with the happinefs of others, and to be uneafy at their
mifery. It is found, he fays, in a greater or lefs degree
in all men, and was fometimes called Kowomp*, oxfenfus
communis, by ancient wi'iters.
Of the reality of this public fenfe we have great
doubts. The conduft of favages, who are more under
the influence of original inftinft than civilized men,
gives no countenance to it. I heir affections feem all
to be felfifh, or at leaft to fpring from felf-love variouf-
ly modified. For the happinefs of their wives they
have very little regard, confidering them merely as in-
ftruments of their own pleafure, and valuing them for
nothing elfe. Hence they make them toil, while they
themfelves indulge in liftlefs idlenefs. To their children
we believe they exhibit ftrong fymptoms of attachment,
as foon as they derive afliftance from them in war, or in
the bufinefs of the chace ; but during the helplefs years
of infancy, the child is left by the felfilh father wholly
to the care and protection of its wretched mother j
who, impelled by the Jlorge of all females to their
young, cherifhes her offspring with great fondnefs.—
The lavage is, indeed, fufceptible of ftrong attachments,
fimilar to that which we call friendlhip \ but fuch at¬
tachments are not proofs of difinterefted benevolence, or
what his lordlhip calls the public fenfe. Two barbarous
heroes are probably firft linked together by the ob-
fervation of each other’s prowefs in war, or their Ikill
in purfuing their game ; for fuch obfervation cannot fail
to ihoAV them that they may be ufeful to one another ;
and we have elfewhere Ihown how real friendlhip may
fpring from fentiments originally felfilh. The favage is
very much attached to his horde or tribe, and this at¬
tachment refembles patriotifm : but patriotifm itfelf is
not a fentiment of pure benevolence delighting in the
happinefs of others, and grieving at their mifery ; for
the patriot prefers his own country to all others, and is
not very fcrupulous with refpeft to the reftitude of the
means by which he promotes its intereft, or deprefles its
rivals. The favage purfues with relentlefs rigour the
enemies of himfelf or of the tribe to which he belongs j
ihows no mercy to them when in his power, but puts
them to the cruelleft death, and carries their fcalps to
the leader of his party. Thefe fads, which cannot be
controverted, are perfectly irreconcileable with innate
benevolence, or a public fenfe comprehending the whole
race of men *, and Ihow the truth of that theory by
which we have in another place endeavoured to account
for all the paflions, focial as well as ftlfilh. See Pas¬
sion.
SENSES, Pleasures and Pains of. The natural
agreeablenefs, difagreeablenefs, and indifference of our
fenfations and perceptions, prefent to the mind an im¬
portant and extenfive field of inquiry •, and on this fub-
jeCt we lhall here make a few obfervations. All our
fenfes have been certainly bellowed upon us for wife and
beneficent purpofes •, and, accordingly, we find, that all
of them, when properly cultivated, or exercifed and im¬
proved, are capable of affording us much pleafure. The
fenfes of fmell and of tafte feem rather intended for the
prefervation of our animal exiftence, and in this point of
view are properly an objeft of the natural hiftory of man $
whilft the other three feem to be more peculiarly in¬
tended for our mental improvement, and accordingly
form an objeft of intellectual and of moral philofophy.
And agreeably to this we know that we derive a great Vl
deal of very ufeful knowledge, in an eafy and Ample
manner, concerning the objeCts that furround us, in the
early part of life, from all the fenfes, particularly from
fight and touch, and this too without labour or ftudy.
But this is not the only purpofe for which the fenfes
were defigned.
It being thus certain, that the fenfes were beftowed
upon us partly to preferve our animal exiftence, and
partly for our mental improvement, it feems reafonable,
even a priori, to expeCt that nature would attach fome
pleafure to fuch ufe and exercife of them, as are calcu¬
lated to promote thefe ends, and pain to the contrary j
particularly in thofe inftances in which ftie has left the
management of them fubjeCt to our own controul. And
accordingly we cannot but obferve what delight we de¬
rive from our fenfes, efpecially in the morning of life,
by which it would feem, that nature intended thus rvin-
ningly to invite us to the proper exercife and improve¬
ment of them j and as it were unconfcioufly, acquire
much ufeful knoAvledge. It is this fpecies of pleafure
that fupports and excites boys in the conftant and often
immoderate exercife of their organs of voluntary mo¬
tion ; the powers of which are thus increafed and invi¬
gorated.
The exercife and improvement of the fenfes being
fubfervient to our intellectual improvement, nature has
alfo kindly attached much refined and rational pleafure
to the mental exertions ; fo that we are thus feduced, as
it were, to the cultivation of the various extraordinary
poAvers and faculties of the mind.
It is evident that nature has given fuch organs and
faculties to man, as are calculated not only to make him
live, but alfo to render life agreeable. Here too Ave
obtain a flight glimpfe at leaft of fome of the final cau-
fes of the pleafures of fenfe. But if it be afked Iioav it
happens, that there are fuch wide diverfities between
our fenfations, fome being by nature very agreeable to
all men, and fome as difagreeable, Avhilft there are
others fo indifferent, as to give neither pleafure nor pain,
Ave muft confefs, that Ave can give no fatisfaCtory anfvver,
to ftiew how fo many very different fenfations are pro¬
duced by various kinds of impreflions made on certain
organs of the body, and hoiv all thefe different impref-
fions excite fuch fenfations as fuggeft not only corref-
ponding perceptions and external qualities, but at the
fame time affeCt the mind Avith pleafure, pain, trouble,
anxiety, or difguft. To be fuccefsful in thefe inquiries,
we muft prefuppofe fome knoivledge of the nature of the
connection fubfifting bettveen the mind and body, A\7hich
there is reafon to think is placed beyond the limits pre¬
fer ibed by nature to human refearch.
The pleafure or pain Avhich conftantly attends certain
fenfations is not uniform in degree, but varies confider-
ably, not only in different individuals, but even in the
fame perfons at different times. It is not thus Avith the
fenfations themfelves. Thefe are always conftant and
uniform. The fame kind of impreffion, Avhen the or¬
gans, &c. are found, uniformly and invariably produces
fimilar fenfations j and thefe are as invariably folloAved
by the perception of their oAvn peculiar exciting caufes.
For any particular impreffion is never knoAvn to excite
in the fame perfon a new fenfation, or the perceptions of
an external objeCl different from that Avhich it previoufly
fuggefted.
Senfes.
SEN [ U9 1 SEN
Senfes. fuggefted, excepting in cafes of difeafe. And when it
does rarely occur, as in thufe who cannot diiiinguifh a
particular colour, fmell or tafte, from certain others,
we uniformly attribute it to dileafe or malconformation.
Were we hot thus to have uniformly iimilar fenialions
and perceptions of external objedls from limilar impref-
fions, the fenfes would not be at all fubfervient to our
intelledlual improvement 5 fince, by giving different lef-
fons concerning the fame or fimilar objedls at different
times, they would render it impoflible for us to be cer¬
tain of any thing, or to benefit by experience.
The effedls of cuftom, which are at all times fo con-
fiderable and evident with refpetl both to the mind and
body, (as in the cafe of particular organs or faculties
much improved by attention and exercife), have little or
no influence at all in interrupting or modifying this uni¬
formity in our fenfations and perceptions. For no found
or properly organized perfon will, either naturally or
by cuftom, ever miftake hardntfs for foftnefs, red for
green, or fweet for bitter. But the influence of cuftom
in modifying the pains and pleafures of fenfe is well
known and confiderable. For a perfon, who can moil
accurately diftinguifh fweetnefs from fournefs, will at
the fame time, either by particular conformation, or
more frequently in confequence of ufe and habit, prefer
wormwood or tobacco to honey.
But although we may defpair of being ever able to
difcover the phyfical caufe of the pleafures and pains of
the fenfes, we may, however, advance a little by ob-
ferving and regiftering particular fadts. It is, accord¬
ingly, of ufe to remark, that every fpecies of fenfaiion,
if its nature be otherwife unchanged, is agreeable or
difagreeakle in proportion to its ftrength or intenfenefs.
For there is no fenfation, however agreeable, that will
not become difagreeable, and even intolerable, if it be
immoderately intenfe. Whilft on the contrary, thofe,
which by their ftrength and nature are very troublefome,
if rendered more mild and moderate become not only
tolerable, but agreeable. Thus, with refpedl to the
fenfes it would feem, that pain and pleafure are only
different degrees of the fame feeling, and when we con-
fider the great varieties of which the fenfation, not on¬
ly of different organs, but even of any one of them, is
fufceptible, and that each degree of thefe may be ac¬
companied with pleafure or pain, more or lefs, we mult
conclude that the pains and pleafures of fenfe are capa¬
ble of numberlefs modifications both in degree and in
kind.
We frequently obferve, that fenfations which were
at firft agreeable, if often repeated, lofe their relifti,
though the nature and ftrength of the impreflions be
the fame j whilft others from being at firft very difa¬
greeable, as the tafte of tobacco and opium, become
very plcafing, though the nature and ftrength of the
impreflions have fuffered no change. For the explana¬
tion of fuch fafts as thefe we muft have recourfe to the
effe&s of cuftom. Thus, in both thefe oppofite cafes,
the fenfations, from being often repeated, lofe part of
the ftrength, and of the novelty, of courfe, of their firft
impreflions ; and, with refpeft to the former inftance,
being unable to command the attention, become in the
eourfe of time almoft wholly, or altogether neglefled,
whilft in the latter cafe, from being very offenfive, they
become highly agreeable. But if it be afked why
Habit and cuftom produce thefe effects, and in what
manner, we are unable to explain it farther, than by Sente
faying, iince the faft is unqueftionable, that fuch is the
nature of the human conftitulion. Of the effebls them-
felves, no man can entertain a doubt ; and their caufes,
though at prefent unknown, may by time and inquiry
be further developed and fimpliiif d. “ The labyrinth,”
fays Dr Reid, “ may be too intricate, and the thread
too fine, to be traced through all its windings ; but if
we ftop where we can trace it no farther, and fecure the
ground we have gained, there is no harm done j a
quicker eye may in time trace it further.”
Thefe principles are capable of affording us ft ill far¬
ther explanations. Why are new feniations always more
agreeable and variety fo pleafing ? Becaufe they fix the
attention more, and are not as yet blunted by frequent
repetition or by habit. It is becaufe fome fenfations
lofe their wronted effebl by cuftom and by repetition,
that we require ftronger ones, o». at leaft ftronger im¬
preflions on the organs and nerves, to increafe or con¬
tinue our pleafures. It is alfo in confequence of their
becoming lets poignant through habit that we negleft
fo many pleafures, which we hardly know to be fuch,
till they have flown for ever ; and it is becaufe in the
morning of life every thing has more novelty, and be¬
caufe habit has not deftroyed their relilh, that the plea¬
fures of youth are much more intenfe than thofe of age.
The degree of pleafure is fimilar to that which a blind
man would feel on being made to fee, or to that which a
man would enjoy on fuddenly acquiring a new fenfitive
faculty, although by long ufe and habit thefe pleafures
are at prefent for the moil part or wholly blotted away.
Although moft fenfations, when ftrong and lively
enough to make themfelves accurately and eafily diftin-
guiftied, generally pleafe moft, each in its own kind and
manner 5 ftill, as there are different kinds of pleafure,
different fenfations may pleafe the mind in various ways j
and accordingly, it is not from the luftre of the midday
fun, nor from the beautiful and lively appearance of all
nature at noon, folely that the eyes derive pleafure, any
more than grand mufical founds are the only things that
pleafe the ear. For we often contemplate with a very
different and a very confiderable degree of pleafure the
iublime and awful feenes of nature, the twilight darknefs
of the ftiady grove, and even the gloomy horror of
night itfelf. We liften with delight to the tempeft
fliaking the foreft, as well as to the gentle murmurs of
the pafling ftream. There is even a time when nothing
gives fo much pleafure as darknefs, filence, and the ab-
fence of all fenfation.
Amidft the great variety of good and evil with which
we are every where furrounded, it is a matter of the
higheft importance to be able to difeern aright. This
we ftiould be incapable of doing were we not endowed
with agreeable as well as painful fenfations. Thefe ferve
to direbl our choice. Whatever contributes in any de¬
gree to our prefervation and to the improvement of our
organs and faculties, is accompanied with pleafure j and
on the contrary, when we are threatened with danger a
painful fenfation gives us the alarm. It is to the efta-
blilhment of this law that we are indebted for the dura¬
tion of our livesj the improved and vigorous ftate of our
faculties, and the enjoyment of that fmall portion of
happinefs allotted to us by nature. “ God, (fays a French
writer) having endowed man with various faculties, bo¬
dily as well as intellectual, in order to promote his hap-
pinefs,_
/
pinefs, alfo vouclifafes to conduct lum to this noble end,
not only by the deduftions of reafon, but alfo by the
force of in It in ft and fenfation, which are more powerful
and efficacious principles. Thus nature, by a fenfation
of pain, inftantaneoufly apprifes us of what might prove
hurtful to us 5 and, on the contrary, by an agreeable
fenfation, gently leads us to whatever may tend to the
prefervation of our exiftence, and to the perfeft date of
our faculties, thefe being the two points on which our
happinefs depends. Our faculties can neither be of ufe,
nor difplay themfelves farther than as we exercife them *,
motion or aftion is therefore fo necefiary to us, that
without it we mull inevitably fink into a deplorable
ftate of infenfibility and languor. On the other hand,
as we are weak and limited creatures, all exceffive and
violent aftion would impair and deftroy our organs; we
muft therefore ufe only moderate motion or exercife,
fince by thefe means the ufe or perfeftion of our facul¬
ties is reconciled with our chief intereft, which is felf-
prefervation. Now it is to this happy medium, I mean
to a moderate exercife of our faculties, that the author
of our nature has fo wifely annexed pleafure.
The pleafures of fenfe are thus confined within nar¬
row limits j for they cannot be much increafed without
pain, or often repeated without lofing their reliffi, at
leaft in a great meafure j nor can they be long conti¬
nued, partly for the fame reafon, and becaufc they ex-
hauft the mind, or rather the nervous fyllem. Hence
we fee that our animal appetites are confined within a
narrow range% as is evident from the efiefts of excefs in
eating and drinking. All our fenfitive powers are im¬
paired ; whilft, on the contrary, our intelleftual powers
are ftrengthened and improved by ufe and exercife.
And in proportion as we indulge our fenfitive powers,
our defires of indulgence increafe, whilft the pleafures,
which are the objefts of thefe defires, become regularly
lefs poignant. Thefe, indeed, are wife regulations of
nature ; for it would feem as if ffie intended to whifper
gently to us in this way, by means of praftical expe¬
rience, that we are not born folely for the enjoyment of
pleafure, at lead: not for that of the pleafures of the fen-
fes 5 for all of them, as we have already remarked, if
much indulged, lead to liftlefsnefs and difguft, and fome-
times to confiderable pain. And indeed, jufi as plea¬
fure paff^s thus readily into trouble and pain, lb does the
fudden ceffation of pain, at leaf! when this has been
confiderable, produce often extraordinary pleafure. So
that we may here apply the beautiful allegory of the
divine Socrates, “ that although pleafure and pain are
contrary in their nature, and have their faces turned
different ways, yet that Jupiter hath tied them fo to¬
gether, that he who lays hold of the one draws the other
along with it.”
We have juft laid, that the fudden ceffation of pain,
at leaft when this has been confiderable, produces often
extraordinary pleafure. But this opinion feems to be
denied in a late inquiry concerning tafte. “ Among
o ] SEN
the pleafures of fenlc,” fays Mr Knight, “ more parti¬
cularly among thofe belonging to touch, there is a cer¬
tain clafs, which, though anting from negative caufes,
are neverthelefs real and politive pluafures: as when we
gradually fink from any violent or exceffive degree of
aftion or irritation into a ftate of tranquillity and repofe.
I fay gradually ; for if the tranfition be fudden and ab¬
rupt, it will not be pleatant; the pleafure arifing from
the inverted aftion of the nerves, and not from the ut¬
ter ceffation of aftion From this inverted aftion arifes
the gratiiication which wTe receive from a cool breeze,
when the body has been exceffively heated ; or from
the rocking of a cradle, or the gentle motion of a boat,
• or eafy carriage, after having been fatigued with violent
exercife. Such, too, is that which twilight, or the
gloomy fhade of a thicket, affords to the eye after it has
been dazzled by the blaze of the mid-day fun ; and
fuch, likewife, is that which the ear receives from the
gradual diminution of loudnefs of tone in mufic.” That
pleafure follows a gradual ceffation of any violent ac¬
tion or irritation, we mean not to deny ; but we are at
a lofs to comprehend how it follows, that the tranfition
from ftrong pain, if it be fudden and abrupt, will not
be pleafant.
But although the pleafures of fenfe be thus limited,
thefe limits are very different with refpeft to the differ¬
ent fenfes. Some of them are foon exhaufted, and do
not any longer diftinguiffi well the objefts that corre-
fpond to them; nor are they pleafed with thofe objefts
which were at firft very agreeable, and which they di¬
ftinguiffi with fufficient accuracy $ whilft others conti¬
nue to perform their functions longer, and enjoy a more
continued pleafure. Thus the fenfes of fmeli and of
tafte are almoft immediately fatiated ; the fenfe of hear¬
ing more flowly ; but the fight is in this refpeft the laft
of all to be fatigued or fatiated : whilft the pleafures
that arife from the exercife of our mental faculties are
by far the moft durable of all. “ Exercife of the mind
is as neceffary as that of the body to preferve our ex¬
iftence. The fenfes of other animals, being more quick
than ours, are fufficient to direft them to follow what
is agreeable to their nature, or to ffiun whatever is con¬
trary thereto. But we are endowed with reafon in or¬
der to fupply the deficiency of our fenfes •, and pleafure
prefents herfelf as an incitement to exercife, in order to
keep the mind from a ftate of hurtful inaftivity. Plea¬
fure is not only the parent of fports and amufements,
but alfo of arts and feiences: and as the whole univerfe
is, as it were, forced by our induftry to pay tribute to
our wants and defires, we cannot but acknowledge our
obligation to that law of nature, which has annexed a
degree of pleafure to w hatever exercifes without fatiguing
the mind. The pleafure accompanying it is fometimes
fo great that it tranfports the very foul, fo that ffie feems
as it were difengaged from the body. We know what
is recorded in hiftory concerning Archimedes (a), and
feveral other geometricians both ancient and modern. If
we
(a) When Syracufe was taken by the Romans Under Marcellus, Archimedes w'as in his ftudy, fo intent upon
fome geometrical problems, that he neither heard the clamour of the Romans, nor perceived that the city w'as
taken. In this tranfport of ftudy and contemplation a foldier came on him with his drawn fword ; Archimedes, on
feeing him, befought him to hold his hand till he had finilhed the problem he was about. But the foldier, deaf to
his intreaty, ran him through the body, although Marcellus, upon entering the city, had given orders that Archi¬
medes fliould be fpared.
SEN [ i
Senfes. we doubt tbe truths of fuch fuels, we mufl at leaft ac-
*■“ 'v—1 1 knowledge their probability, fmee we meet every day
with a number of fimilar examples. When we fee a
chefs-player fo deeply immerfed in thought as to be in a
manner loft to his outward fenfes, ftiould we not ima¬
gine him to be wholly engroffed with the care of his
own private affairs, or of the public weal ? But the ob¬
ject of all this profound meditation is the pleafure of ex-
ercifing the mind by the movement of a piece of ivory.
From this exercife of the mind alfo arifes the pleafure
we fometimes take in refined and delicate fentiments,
which, after the manner of Virgil’s Ihepherdefs, (Et
fupt adfalices,fedfe cupit ante videri), are fometimes
artfully concealed, but fo as to afford us the pleafure of
*Theorle difeovering them
menuT'rc- ^rom fome of the foregoing remarks we alfo fee that
nature points out to us the fuperiority and excellence of
our mental faculties, thus fuggefting to us that we ought
to cultivate them moft, as being our better and our no¬
bler part, to the cultivation of which that of our fenfi-
tive faculties fhould be merely fubfervient. But, al¬
though our pleafures are thus by nature rendered in a
great degree independent of ourfelves, ftill we have it
in our power to make them all more durable, by vary¬
ing and mixing them with one another, or by interpo-
fing between thofe that are very agreeable others that
are lefs pleafing, fo as that no individual pleafure fhall
be in excefs.
Befides the circumftances already noticed, there are
others of a very different kind, which have alfo confi-
derable influence on the pleafures of the fenfes ; fuch as
different conditions of the whole body, particularly of
the nerves, *or of certain organs or funclions, to which
funflions fome organs of fenfe, and perhaps even the
fenfation of thefe, are in a great meafure fubfervient.
This is one of the caufes why many pleafures, which
we cultivate with all our might, cannot be immortal.
If a perfon be thirfty, fpring water is neftar to him ; if
hungry, any kind of food is agreeable, even the fmell of
food is grateful. To a man in a heat, or in a fever,
cold is pleafing ; and to one in a cold fit nothing is fo
agreeable as heat. To thefe fame perfons, at other
times, fo far are thefe things from being agreeable, that
they are often difgufting. The moft decided glutton
cannot always relilh a fumptuous feaft.
Befides the fenfations excited by external objefls, there
are others alfo which caufe pain and pleafure. If the
aflion of the mufcles be ftrong, eafy, and cheerful, and
not continued fo as to fatigue us, it Caufes pleafure. On
the contrary, when this a£tion is attended with a fenfe
of liftleffnefs, laffitude, difficulty, and debility, it cau-
les pain more or lefs. In fine, various'ftates and affec¬
tions of the mind, fuch as the exercife of memory, ima¬
gination, and judgment, nearly for fimilar reafons, are
fometimes painful, at other times agreeable. “ Animi
afteftus, qui modici grate excitant, vehementes, aut
graves et diuturni, hujus pariter ac corporis vires
frangunt 5 hominem interdum ftatim extinguunt, fae-
puis longa valetudine macerant. Somni etiam, quo
ad exhauftas vires reficiendas egemus, exeeffus, vel de-
fedlus, et animo et corpori nocet.”—“ Defidia, five
animi five corporis, utriufque vires languefcunt : ni-
mia exercitatione baud minus heduntur. Statuit enim
provida rerum parens, ut fingularum partium, et uni-
verfi corporis animique vires ufu roborentur et acuau-
51 3 SEN
tur j et huic iterum certos fines pofuit : ita ut neque Stofes,
quern voluit natura ufus impune omittatur, neque ultra ' ■r—~J
modum intendatur _ * Confpea.
“ Of fuch fenfations and feelings as are agreeable or Median,
difagreeable, we may remark,” fays Dr Reid, “ that
they differ much, not only in degree, but in kind and
in dignity. Some belong to the animal part of our na¬
ture, and are common to us with the brutes ; others be¬
long to the rational and moral part. The firft are
more properly called fenfations, the laft feelings. The
French word fentiment is common to both.”
“ The Author of nature, in the diftribution of agree¬
able and painful feelings, hath wifely and benevolently
confulted the good of the human fpecies \ and hath even
Ihewn us, by the fame means, what tenor of conduct
we ought to hold. For, firfl. The painful fenfations of
the animal kind are admonitions to avoid what would
hurt us j and the agreeable fenfations of this kind in¬
vite us to thofe a£lions that are neceffary to the prefer-
vation of the individual, or of the kind. Secondly, Bjh
the fame means nature invites us to moderate bodily
exercife, and admonilhes us to avoid idlenefs and in-
a6livity on the one hand, and exceffive labour and
fatigue upon the other. ’Thirdly, The moderate exer¬
cife of all our rational powers gives pleafure. Fourthly,
Every fpecies of beauty is beheld with pleafure, and
every fpecies of deformity with difguft ; and we fhall
find all that we call beautiful, to be fomething eftim-
able, or ufeful in itfelf, or a fign of fomething that is
eftimable or ufeful. Fifthly, The benevolent affe&ions
are all accompanied with an agreeable feeling, the
malevolent with the contrary. And, Sixthly, The high-
eft, the nobleft and moft durable pleafure is that of do¬
ing well and afling the part that becomes us ; and the
n*ift bitter and painful fentiment is the anguilh and re-
morfe of a guilty confcience.” Thefe obfervations
with regard to the economy of nature in the diftribu¬
tion of our painful and agreeable fenfations and feelings
are fo well illuftrated by the elegant and judicious au¬
thor of Theorie des Sentiments Agrcables, that we deem
it unneceflary to make.any further remarks on this fub-
jefl. (See Happiness and Pleasure). A little re-
fledlion may fatisfy us, that the number and variety of
our fenlations and feelings are prodigious. For, to
omit all thofe which accompany our appetites, paffions,
and affections, our moral fentiments and fentiments of
tafte, even our external fenfes, furniffi a great variety of
fenfations differing in kind, and almoft in every kind an
endlefs variety of degrees. Every variety we difeern,.
with regard to tafte, fraell, found, colour, heat, and cold,
and in the tangible qualities of bodies, is indicated by a
fenfation correfponding to it.
I he moft general and the moft important divifion of.'
our fenfations and feelings is into the agreeable, the dif¬
agreeable, and the indifferent. Every thing we call
pleafure, happinefs, or enjoyment on the one hand ; and,
on the other, every thing we call mifery, pain, or unea-
finefs, is fenfation or feeling : For no man can for the
prefent be more happy, or more miferable, than he feels
himfeif to be. He cannot be deceived with regard to the
enjoyment or fuffimng of the prefent moment.
But, befides the fenfations that are agreeable or dif-,
agreeable, there is ftill a greater number that are indif¬
ferent. To thefe we give fo little attention, that they
have no name, and are immediately forgotten as if they
had
SEN [15
Senfes had never been j it even requires attention to the opera-
tions of our minds to be convinced of their exiftence.
Senfibility. ror this end we may 0bferve, that to a good ear every
l'"' " ^ human voice is diftinguifliable from all others. Some
voices are pleafant, fome difagreeable j but the far
greater part cannot be laid to be one or the other. J he
fame thing may be faid of other founds, and no lefs of
taftes, fmells, and colours ; and if we conlider, that our
-fenies are in continual exercife while Ave are awake,
that fome fenfation attends every objeft they pretent to
us, and that familiar obje£ts feldom raife any emotion
pleafant or painful j we lhall fee reafon, befides the
agreeable and difagreeable, to admit a third clafs of fen-
fations, that may be called indifferent. But thefe fen-
fations that are indifferent are far from being ufelefs.
They ferve as figns to diftinguifh things that differ ;
and the information we have concerning things external
comes by thefe means. Thus, if a man had not a mu*
lical ear fo as to receive pleafure from the harmony or
melody of founds, he would flill find the fenfe of heal¬
ing of great utility. Though founds gave him neither
pleafure nor pain, of themfelves, they would give him
much ufeful information j and the fame may be faid of
the fenfations we have by all the other fenfes.
SENSIBLE NOTE, in Wufic, is that which confti-
-tutes a third major above the dominant, and a femi-
tone beneath the tonic. SV, or B, is the lenfible note
-in the tone of ut or C fol $ : or G fharp, in the tone of
la or A.
They call it the fenfible note on this account, that it
caufes to be perceived the tone or natural feries of the
key and the tonic itfelf; upon which, after the chord
of the dominant, the fenfible note taking the fhorteft
road, is under a neceffity of rifing •, which has made
fome authors treat this fenfible note as a major dilfo-
nance, for want of obferving, that dilfonance, being a
relation, cannot be conftituted unlefs by ttvo notes be¬
tween Avhich it fublifts. .
It is not meant that the fenfible note is the feventh of
the tone, becaufe, in the minor mode, this fe.venth can¬
not be a fenfible note but in afcending; for, in defend¬
ing, it is at the diftance of a full note from the tonic,
and of a third minor from the dominant.
SENSIBILITY, is a nice and delicate perception of
pleafure or pain, beauty or deformity. It is very near¬
ly allied to tafte \ and, as far as it is natural, feems to
depend upon the organization of the nervous fyftem.
It is capable, hoAvever, of cultivation, and is experien¬
ced in a much higher degree in civilized than in favage
nations, and among perfons liberally educated than
among boors and illiterate mechanics. The man who
has cultivated any of the fine arts has a much quicker
and more exquifite perception of beauty and deformity
in the execution of that art, than another of equal or
even greater natural powers, who has but cafually in-
fpe&ed its produ&ions. He who has been long accuf-
tomed to that decorum of manners which characterizes
the polite part of the world, perceives almoft inftantane-
outly the fmalleft deviation from it, and feels himfelf al¬
moft as much hurt by behaviour harmlefs in itfelf, as by
the groffeft rudenefs; and the man Avho has long. pro¬
ceeded fteadily in the paths of virtue, and often painted
to himfelf the deformity of vice, and the miferies of
■which it is prodmftive, is more quickly alarmed at any
deviation from redlitude, than another Avho, though his
l
2 '] SEN
life has been ftained by no crime, has yet thought lefs Senfibiky^
upon the principles of virtue and confequences ot vice.
^ Every thing Avhich can be called fenfibility, and is
not born Avitb man, may be refolved into afiociation,
and is to be regulated accordingly j for fenfibilities may
be acquired which are inimical to happinefs and to the
praftice of virtue. The man is not to be envied who
has fo aecuftomed himfelf to the forms of polite addrefs
as to be hurt by the unaffeCted language and manners of
the honeft peafant, Avith whom he may have occafion
to tranlact bufinefs •, nor is he likely to acquire much
ufeful knowledge Avho has fo feduloufly ftudied the
beauties of compofition as to be unable to read without
difguft a book of fcienceor of hiftory, of Avhich the ftyle
CQ^rngs not up to his ftandard oi perfection. 1 hat fen-
fibilitv Avhich we either have from nature, or neceflarily
acquire, of the mileries of others, is of the greateft ule
when properly regulated, as it powerfully impels us
to relieve their diftrefs •, but if it by any means become
fo exquifite as to make us fhun the fight of mifery, it
counteracts the end for which it was implanted in our
nature, and only deprives us of happinefs, while it con¬
tributes nothing to the good of others. Indeed there
is reafon to believe that all fuch extreme fenfibilities are
felfifti affeCtations, employed as apologies for Ayithhold-
ing from the miferable that relief which it is in our
power to give •, for there is not a faCt better eftabliflied
in the fcience of human nature, than that paffive per¬
ceptions grow gradually weaker by repetition, Avhile
aCtive habits daily acquire ftrength.
It is of great importance to a literary man to culti¬
vate his tafte, becaufe, it is the fource of much elegant
and refined pleafure, (fee Taste) j but there is a de¬
gree of faftidioufnefs Avhich renders that pleafure impof-
fible to be obtained, and is the certain .indication of ex¬
piring letters. It is neceffary to fubmit to the artificial
rules of politenefs, for they tend to promote the peace
and harmony of fociety, and are fometimes a ufeful fub-
ftitute for moral virtue •, but he Avho with refpeft to
them has fo much fenfibility as to be difgufted with aU
Avhofe manners are not equally polilhed Avith his OAvn, is
a very troublefome member of fociety. It is every man’s
duty to cultivate his moral fenfibilities, fo as to make
them fubfervient to the purpofes for which they were
given to him ; but if he either feel, or pretend to feel,
the miferies of others to fo exquifite a degree as to be
unable to afford them the relief Avhich they have a right
to expeCt, his fenfibilities are of no good tendency.
That the man of true fenfibility has more pains and
more pleafures than the callous wretch, is univerfally ad¬
mitted, as Avell as that his enjoyments and fufferjngs are
more exquifite in their kinds ; and as no man lives for
himfelf alone, no man will acknoivledge his Avant of
fenfibility, or exprefs a wifh that his heart were callous.
It is, however, a matter of fome moment to diftinguifii
real fenfibilities from ridiculous affeCtations; thofe which
tend to increafe the fum of human happinefs from fuch
as have a contrary tendency; and to cultivate them all in
fuch a manner as to make them an fiver the ends for
Avhich they ivere implanted in us by the beneficent Au¬
thor of nature. This can be done only by ivatching
over them as over other affociations, (fee Metaphysics,
N° 98.) ; for exceflive fenfibility, as it is not the gift
of nature, is the bane of human happinefs. “ Too much
tendernefs (as Rouffeau well obferves) proves the bitter-
eft
SEN [ i
Senfibillty, eft curfe inftead of the moft fruitful blefling • vexation
Senlitive. ancl difappointment are its certain confequences. The
temperature of the air, the change of the feafons, the
brilliancy of the fun, or thicknefs of the fogs, are fo
many moving fprings to the unhappy pofleflbr, and he
becomes the Canton fport of their arbitration.”
SENSITIVE-plant. See Mimosa, Dionvea, and
Hedysarum, Botany Index.
The fenfitive plants are well known to poflefs a kind
of motion, by which the leaves and rtalks are contra&ed
and fall down on being (lightly touched, or (haken with
fome degree of violence.
The contraction of the leaves and branches of the
fenfitive plant when touched, is a very lingular pheno¬
menon. Different hypothefes have been formed by bo-
tanifts in order to explain it •, but we are difpofed to be¬
lieve that thefehave generally been'deduced rather from
analogical reafoning than from a collection of fa£ts and
obfervations. We lhall therefore give an account of all
the important fafts which we have been able £0 colled
upon this curious fubjeCt ; and then draw fuch conclu-
(ions as obvioufly refult from them, without, ehowever,
attempting to fupport any old, or to cftablilh a new, hy-
pothefis.
1. It is difficult to touch the leaf of a healthy fenfi¬
tive plant fo delicately that it will not immediately col-
lapfe, the foliola or little leaves moving at their bafe
till they come into centaCt, and then applying them-
felves clofe together. If the leaf be touched with a
little more force, the oppofite leaf will exhibit the fame
appearance. If a little more force be applied, the par¬
tial footftalks bend down towards the common foot-
ftalk from which they iflue, making with it a more acute
angle than before. If the touch be more violent dill,
all the leaves fituated on the fame fide with the one
that has been touched will inftanlly collapfe, and the
partial footftalk will approach the common footftalk to
which it is attached, in the fame manner as the partial
footftalk of the leaf approaches the (tern or branch
from which it iffues ; fo that the whole plant, from ha¬
ving its branches extended, will immediately appear
like a weeping birch.
2. Thefe motions of the plant are performed by means
of three diftinCl and fenfible articulations. The firft,
that of the foliola or lobes to the partial footftalk •, the
fecond, that of the partial footftalk to the common one j
the third, that of the common footftalk to the trunk.
The primary motion of all which is the clofing of the
leaf upon the partial footftalk, which is performed in
a fimilar manner, and by a fimilar articulation. This,
however, is much lefs vifible than the others. Thefe
motions are wholly independent on one another, as may
be proved by experiment. It appears that if the par¬
tial footftalks are moved, and collapfe toward the petioli,
or thefe toward the trunk, the little leaves, whofe
motion is ufually primary to thefe, fhould be affefted
alfo •, yet experiment proves that it is poffible to touch
the footftalks in fuch a manner as to affeft them only,
and make them apply themfelves to the trunk, while
the leaves feel nothing of the touch ; but this cannot
be, unlefs the footftalks are fo difpofed as that they can
fall to the trunk, without fuffering their leaves to touch
any part of the plant in their paffage, bccaufe, if they
do, tjiey are immediately affe&ed.
2. Winds and heavy rains make the leaves of the fen-
Vol. XIX. Part I.
53 ] SEN
fitive plant contrail and clofe j but no fuch effect is Senfitive.
produced from flight (howers. w-—y—«
4. At night, or ivhen expofed to much cold in the
day, the leaves meet and clofe in the fame manner a»
when touched, folding their upper furfaces together^
and in part over each other, like (bales or tiles, fo as to
expofe as little as poffible of the upper furface to the
air. The oppofite fides of the leaves (foliola) do not
come clofe together in the night, for when touched they
apply themfelves clofer together. Dr Darwin kept a
fenfitive plant in a dark place for fome hours after day¬
break 5 the leaves and footftalks were collapfed as in
its moft profound deep 5 and, on expofing it to the light,
above 20 minutes paffed before it was expanded.
5. In the month of Auguft, a fenfitive plant was
carried in a pot out of its ufual place into a dark cave,
the motion that it received in the carriage (hut up its
leaves, and they did not open till 24 hours afterwards j
at this time they became moderately open, but rvere af¬
terwards fubjebl to no changes at night or morning, but
remained three days and nights Avith their leaves in the
fame moderately open date. At the end of this time
they Avere brought out again into the air, and there re¬
covered their natural periodical motions, (hutting every
night, and opening every morning, as naturally and as
ftrongly as if the plant had not been in this forced date j
and Avhile in the cave, it Avas obferved to be very little
lefs affe&ed Avith the touch than Avhen abroad in the
open air.
6. The great heats of fummer, Avhen there is open
funfliine at noon, affebf the plant in fome degree like
cold, caufing it to (hut up its leaves a little, but never
in any very great degree. The plant, however, is lead
of all affefted about nine o’clock in the morning, and
that is confequently the propereft time to make experi¬
ments on it. A branch of the fenfitive plant cut off,
and laid .by, retains yet its property of (hutting up and
opening in the morning for fome days ; and it holds it
longer if kept Avith one end in Avater, than if left to dry
more fuddenly.
_ 7. The leaves only of the fenfitive plant (hut up in the
night, not the branches 5 and if it be touched at this
time, the branches are affetled in the fame manner as
in the day, (hutting up, or approaching to the ftalk or
trunk, in the fame manner, and often Avith more force.
It is of no confequence Avbat the fubftance is Avith Avhich
the plant is touched, it anfwers alike to all ; but there
may be obferved a little fpot, diftinguiffiable by its paler
colour in the articulations of its leaves, Avhere the great-
eft and niceft fenfibility is evidently placed.
8. Duhamel having obferved, about the 15th of
September, in moderate Aveather, the natural motion
of a branch of a fenfitive plant, remarked, that at nine
in the morning it formed with the ftem an angle of 100
degrees ; at noon, 112 degrees; at three afternoon, it
returned to 100; and after touching the branch, the
angle Avas reduced to 90. Three quarters of an hour
after it had mounted to 11 2 ; and, at eight at night, it
defeended again, Avithout being touched, to 90. The
day after, in finer Aveather, the fame branch, at eight
in the morning, made an angle of 135 degrees Avith the
ftem ; after being touched, the angle Avas diminifhed to
80 ; an hour after, it rofe again to 135 ; being touch¬
ed a fecond time, it defeended again to 80 ; an hour
and a half after, it had rifen to 145 j and on being
^ touched
SEN [ 15+ I SEN
touched a third time, defcended to 135 ? anc^ remained
in that petition till five o’clock in the afternoon, when
being touched a fourth time it fell to 110.
9. The parts of the plants which have collapfed af¬
terwards unfold thcmfelves, and return to their former
expanded ftate. The time required for that purpofe
varies, according to the vigour ot the plant, the feafon
of the year, the hour of the day, the date of the at-
mofphere. Sometimes half an hour is requifite, fome-
times only ten minutes. The order in which the parts
recover themfelves varies in like manner: fometimes it
is the common footftalk ; fometimes the rib to which
the leaves are attached *, and fometimes the leaves them¬
felves are expanded, before the other parts have made
any attempt to be reinilated in their former pofition.
10. If, with.out (haking the other fmaller leaves, W'e
cut off the half of a leaf or lobe belonging to the laid
pair, at the extremity or fummit of a wing, the leaf
cut, and its antagonild, that is to fay, the firft pair,
begin to approach each other ; then the fecond, and fo
on fucceffively, till all the leffer leaves, or lobes of that
wing, have collapfed in like manner. Frequently, af¬
ter 12 or 15 feconds, the lobes of the other wings,
which were not immediately affedded by the ftroke, Ihut;
whilld the Idalk and its wing, beginning at the bottom,
and proceeding in order to the top, gradually recover
themfelves. If, inldead of one of the leffer extreme
leaves, we cut off one belonging to the pair that is next
the footftalk, its antagonild Ihuts, as do the other pairs
fucceffively, from the bottom to the top. If all the
leaves of one fide of a wing be cut off, the oppofite
leaves are not affedded, but remain expanded. With
fome addrefe, it is poffible even to cut off a branch
without hurting the leaves, or making them fall. The
common footldalk of the winged leaves being cut as
far as three-fourths of its diameter, all the parts which
hang down collapfe, but quickly recover without ap¬
pearing to have fuffered any conliderable violence by
the fhock. An incifion being made into one of the prin¬
cipal branches to the depth of one half the diameter,
the branches fituated betwixt the feddion and the root
will fall down •, thofe above the incifion remain as be¬
fore, and the leffer leaves continue open ; but this di-
reddion is foon deldroyed, by cutting off one of the
lobes at the extremity, as was obferved above. Laidly,
a whole wing being cut off with precaution near its in-
fertion into the common footldalk, the other wings are
not affedded by it, and its own lobes do not Ihut. No
motion enfues from piercing the branch with a needle
or other fharp inldrument.
11. If the end of one of the leaves be burned with
the flame of a candle, or by a burning glafs, or by
touching it with hot iron, it clofes up in a moment, and
the oppofite leaf does the fame, and after that the
whole feries of leaves on each fide of the partial or
little footilalk ; then the footldalk itfelf; then the branch
' or common footldalk •, all do the fame, if the burning
has been in a fuffieient degree. This proves that there
is a very nice communication between all the parts of
the plant, by means of which the burning, which only
is applied to the extremity of one leaf, diffufes its influ¬
ence through every part of the Ihrub. If a drop of
aquafortis be carefully laid upon a leaf of the fenlitive
plant, fo as not to lhake it in the leald, the leaf does
not begin to move till the acrid liquor corrodes the fub-
5
fiance of it} but at that time, not only that particular Senfitive,
leaf, but all the leaves placed on the fame footftalk, •“'■v—“»*
clofe themfelves up. The vapour of burning fulphur
has alfo this effedd on many leaves at once, according as
they are more or lefs expofed to it; but a bottle of
very acrid and fulphureous fpirit of vitriol, placed
under the branches unldopped, produces no fuch effedd.
Wetting the leaves with fpirit of rvine has been obferved
alfo to have no effedd, nor the rubbing oil of almonds
over them } though this laid application defdroys many
plants.
From the preceding experiments the following con-
clufions may be fairly drawn : 1. The contradlion of
the parts of the fenfitive plant is occafioned by an exter¬
nal force, and the contradlion is in proportion to the
force. 2. All bodies which can exert any force affedd
the fenfitive plant ; fome by the touch or by agitation,
as the wind, rain, &c.; fome by chemical influence, as
heat and cold. 3. Touching or agitating the plant pro¬
duces a greater effedd than an incifion or cutting off a
part, or by applying heat or cold.
Attempts have been made to explain thefe curious
phenomena. Dr Darwin, in the notes to his admired
poem, entitled, The Botanic Garden, lays it down as a
principle, that “ the fleep of animals confifts in a fuf-
penfion of voluntary motion ; and as vegetables are fub-
jedd to fleep as well as animals, there is reafon to con¬
clude (fays lie) that the various adlion of clofing their
petals and foliage may be juftly aferibed to a voluntary
power ; for without the faculty of volition lleep would
not have been neceffary to them.” Whether this defi¬
nition of fleep when applied to animals be juft, we (hall
not inquire *, but it is evident the fuppofed analogy be¬
tween the fleep of animals and the fleep of plants has
led Dr Darwin to admit this aftonifhing conclufion, that
plants have volition. As volition prefuppofes a mind
or foul, it ivere to be wilhed that he had given us fome
information concerning the nature of a vegetable foul,
which can think and will. We fufpedd, however, that
this vegetable foul will turn out to be a mere mechani¬
cal or chemical one ; for it is affedded by external forces
uniformly in the fame way, its volition is merely paffive,
and never makes any fuccefsful refiftance againld thofe
caufes by which it is influenced. All this is a mere
abufe of words. The fleep of plants is a metaphorical
expreffion, and has not the leafd refemblance to the
fleep of animals. Plants are faid to fleep when the
flowers or leaves are contradled or folded together ; but
we never heard that there is any fimilar contraddion in
the body of an animal during fleep.
The fibres of vegetables have been compared with
the mufcles of animals, and the motions of the fenfitive
plant have been fuppofed the fame with mufcular motion.
Between the fibres of vegetables and the mufcles of ani¬
mals, however, there is not the leald fimilarity. If mufeles
be cut through, fo as to be feparated from the joints
to rvhich they are attached, their powers are completely
deftroyed •, but this is not the cafe with vegetable fibres.
The following very ingenious experiment, which was
communicated to us by a refpedtable member of the
Univerfity of Edinburgh, is decifive on this fubjedt.
He feledled a growing poppy at that period of its
growth, before unfolding, wffien the head and neck are
bent down almolt double. He cut the fdalk wh^re it
was curved half through on the under fide, and half
through
Senfitive,
Sentence.
Cicero.
SEN [i
through at a fmall diftance on the upper fide, and half
through in the middle point between the two fedtions,
fo that the ends of the fibres were feparated from the
flalk. Notwithftanding thefe feveral cuttings on the
neck, the poppy railed its head, and afiumed a more
eredt polition. There is, therefore, a complete diftinc-
tion between mufcular motion and the motions of a plant,
for no motion can take place in the limb of an animal
when the mufcles of that limb are cut.
In fine, we look upon .all attempts to explain the
motions of plants as abliird, and all reafoning from lup-
pofed analogy between animals and vegetables as the
fource of wild conjedlure, and not of found philofophy.
We view the contradtion and expanfion of the fenfitive
.plant in the fame light as we do gravitation, chemical
attra&ion, eledlricity, and magnetifm, as a fingular fadf,
-the eircumflances of which we may be fully acquainted
with, but mull defpair of underfianding its caufe.
What has been faid under this article chiefly refers to
the mim fa fenfitiva and pudica. For a full account of
the motions of vegetables in general, fee Vegetable Mo¬
tion, under the article Motion.
SENTENCE, in Law, a judgment pafled in court
by the judge in fome procefs, either civil or criminal.
See Judgment.
Sentence, in Grammar, denotes a period, or a fet
of words comprehending fome perfedt fenfe or fenti-
ment of the mind. The bufinefs of pointing is to di-
ftinguilh the feveral parts and members of fentences, fo
as to render the fenfe thereof as clear, diftindt, and full
as poffible. See Punctuation.
In every fentence there are two parts neceflarily re¬
quired ; a noun for the fubjedl, and a definite verb :
whatever is found more than thefe two, affedts one of
them, either immediately, or by the intervention of fome
other, whereby the firft is affedled.
Again, every fentence is either fimple or compound :
a fimple fentence is that confifting of one fingle fub-
jedl, and one finite verb.—A compound fentence con¬
tains feveral fubjedls and finite verbs, either exprefsly
or implicitly.
A fimple fentence needs no point or difiindtion j only
a period to clofe it : as, “ A good man loves virtue
for itfelf.”—In fuch a fentence, the feveral adjundls af-
fedt either the fubjedl or the verb in a different man¬
ner. Thus the word good expreffes the quality of the
fubjedl, virtue the objedl of the adlion, and for itfelf
the end thereof.—Now none of thefe adjundls can be
feparated from the reft of the fentence : for if one be,
why (hould not all the reft ? and if all be, the fentence
will be minced into almoft as many parts as there are
words.
But if feveral adjundls be attributed in the fame man¬
ner either to the fubjedl or the verb, the fentence be¬
comes compound, and is to be divided into parts.
In every compound fentence, as many fubjedls, or as
many finite verbs as there are, either exprefsly or im¬
plied, fo many diflindlions may there be. Ihus, “ My
hopes, fears, joys, pains, all centre in you.” And thus
Catilina abiit, excejft, evaft, erupit.—The reafon of
which pointing is obvious for as many fubjedls or fi¬
nite verbs as there are in a fentence, fo many members
does it really contain. Whenever, therefore, there oc¬
cur more nouns than verbs, or contrariwife, they are
to be conceived as equal. Since, as every fubjedl re-
55 ] SEN
quires its verbs, fo every verb requires its fubjedl, where¬
with it may agree : excepting, perhaps, in fome figu¬
rative expreflions.
SEN riCOSAL (from fentis, a “ briar or bramble”) j
the name of the 35th order in Linnaeus’s fragments of
a natural method, confifting of rofe, bramble, and other
plants, which refemble them in port and external ftruc-
ture. See Botany, Natural Method.
SENTIMENT, according to Lord Kames, is a term
appropriated to fucli thoughts as are prompted by paf-
fion. It differs from a perception •, for a perception fig-
nifies the adl by which we become confcious of external
objedls. It diftersfrom confcioufntfs of an internal adlion,
fuch as thinking, fufpending thought, inclining, refol-
ving, willing, &c. And it differs from the conception
of a relation among objedls \ a conception of that kind
being termed opinion.
SENTIMEN I'S, in Poetnj. To talk in the lan¬
guage of mafic, each paftion has a certain tone, to
which every fentiment proceeding from it ought to be
tuned with the greateft accuracy : which is no eafy
work, efpecially where fuch harmony ought to be fup-
ported during the courfe of a long theatrical reprefenta-
tion. In order to reach fuch delicacy of execution, it
is neceffary that a writer aflume the precile charadter
and paftion of the perfonage reprefented ; which requires
an uncommon genius. But it is the only difficulty ; for
the writer, who, annihilating himfelf, can thus become
another perfon, need be in no pain about the fentiments
that belong to the affumed charadler : thefe will flotv
without the leaft ftudy, or even preconception ; and
will frequently be as delightfully new to himfelf as to
his reader. But if a lively pidlure even of a fingle
emotion require an effort of genius, how much greater
the effort to compofe a paffionate dialogue with as many
different tones of paffion as there are fpeakers ? With
what dudlility of feeling muft that writer be endued,
who approaches perfedlion in fuch a wrork j when it is
neceffary to affume different and even oppofite charac¬
ters and paffions in the quiekeft fucceffion ? Yet this
work, difficult as it is, yields to that of compofing a
dialogue in gentfcel comedy, exhibiting charadlers with¬
out paffion. d'he reafon is, that the different tones of cha¬
radler are more delicate, and lefs in fight, than thofe of
paffion ; and, accordingly, many writers, who have no
genius for drawing charadlers, make a fiiift to repre-
fent, tolerably well, an ordinary paffion in its fimple
movements. But of all works of this kind, what is
truly the moft difficult, is a charadteriftical, dialogue
upon any philofophical fubjedl ; to interweave charac¬
ters with reafoning, by fuiting to the charadler of each
fpeaker a peculiarity not only of thought but of expref-
fion, requires the perfedlion of genius, tafte, and judge¬
ment.
How difficult dialogue-writing is, will be evident,
even without reafoning, from the miferable comDofitions
of that kind found without number in all languages.
The art of mimicking any fingularity in gefture or in
voice, is a rare talent, though dirtdled by fight and
hearing, the acuteft and moft lively of our external
fenfes : how much more rare muft that talent, of imitat¬
ing charadlers and internal emotions, tracing all their
, different tints, and reprefenting them in a lively manner
by natural fentiments properly expreffed l The truth is,
fuch execution is too delicate for an ordinary genius j
U 2 and
SEN [i.
Sentiments, and for lliat reafon the bulk of writers, inftead of ex-
l' v prefling a paflion as one does who feels it, content
themfelves with deferibing it in the language of a fpcc-
tator. To awake paflion by an internal effort merely,
without any external cauie, requires great fenfibility }
and yet that operation is neceffary, not lefs to the wri¬
ter than to the adtor ; becaufe none but thofe who ac¬
tually feel a paflion can reprcfent it to the life, ihe
writer’s part is the more complicated : he muff add
compofition to paflion : and muff, in the quickeff fuc-
ceflion, adopt every different charafter. But a very
humble flight of imagination may ferve to convert a
Avriter into a fpecfator, fo as to figure, in fome obfcure
manner, an aftion as pafling in his fight and hearing.
In that figured fituation, being led naturally to write
like a fpedtator, he entertains his readers Avith his own
reflexions, Avith cool defcription, and florid declama¬
tion ; inftead of making them eye-Avitneffes, as it were,
to a real event, and to every movement of genuine pal-
fion. Thus moft of our plays appear to be caff in the
fame mould ; perfonages Avithout character, the mere
outlines of paflion, a tirefome monotony, and a pompous
declamatory ftyle.
This defcriptive manner of reprefenting paflion is a
very cold entertainment; our fympathy is not raifed
by defcription ) we muff firft be lulled into a dream of
reality, and every thing muff appear as pafling in our
light. Unhappy is the player of genius Avho aXs a part
in what may be termed a defcriptive tragedy; after af-
fuming the very paflion that is to be reprelented, hoAV
is he cramped in aXion, Avhen he muff utter, not the
fentiments of the paflion he feels, but a cold defcription
in the language of a byftander ? It is that imperfec¬
tion, undoubtedly, in the bulk of our plays, Avhich con¬
fines our ftage almoft entirely to Shakefpeare, notwith-
Jfanding his many irregularities. In our late Englifh
tragedies, avc fometimes find fentiments tolerably well
adapted to a plain paflion : but avc muff not in any of
them expeX a fentiment expreflive of charaXer : and,
upon that very account, our late performances of the
dramatic kind are for the moft part intolerably in-
fipid.
But it may be proper to illuftrate this fubjeX by ex¬
amples. The firit example fliall be of fentiments that
appear the legitimate offspring of paflion j to which
fhall be oppofed Avhat are defcriptive only, and illegiti¬
mate ; and in making this comparifon, the inftances fliall
be borroAved from Shakefpeare and Corneille, Avho for
genius in dramatic compofition ffand uppermoft in the
rolls of fame.
I. Shakefpeare fhall furnifli the firft example, being
of fentiments diXated by a violent and perturbed paf-
fion :
Lear.— Filial ingratitude !
Is it not as if this mouth Ihould tear this hand
For lifting food to’t ?—But I’ll punifti home •,
No, I will Aveep no more. In fuch a night,.
To fhut me out! Pour on, I Avill endure..
In fuch a night as this! O Regan, Gonerill,
Your old kind father, Avhofe frank heart gave all-—
0 ! that Avay madnefs lies \ let me fhun that;
No more of that.—— ———
Kent. Good, my lord, enter here.
Zear. Prithee, go in thyfelf, feek thine OAvn eafe,
;6 ] SEN
This temped Avill not give me leave to ponder Sentiments.
On things ivould hurt me more :—but I’ll go in j
In, boy, go firft. You houfelefs poverty  
Nay, get thee in } I’ll pray, and then I’ll fleep  
Poor naked Avretches, Avherefoe’er you are,
That bide the pelting of this pitilefs Itorm !
Hoav fhall your houielefs heads, and unfed fides,
Your loop’d and windotv’d raggednefs, defend you
From feafons fuch as thefe !■ O I have ta’en
Too little care of this ! take phyfic, Pomp }
Expofe thyfelf to feel what Avretches feel,
That thou may’lt fhake the fuperflux to them,
And fhow the heav’ns more juft.
King Lear, aX iii. fc. 5.
With regard to the French author, truth obliges us
to acknoAvledge, that he defcribes in the ftyle of a fpec-
tator, inftead of exprefling paflion like one who feels
it j which naturally betrays him into a tirefome mono¬
tony, and a pompous declamatory ftyle. It is fcarcely
neceffary to give examples, for he never varies from that
tone. We (hall, hoAvever, take Iavo paffages at a ven¬
ture, in order to be confronted with thofe tranfcribed
above. In the tragedy of Cinna, after the confpiracy
was difcovered, ZEmilia, having nothing in vierv but
racks and death to herfelf and her lover, receives a par¬
don from Auguftus, attended with the brighteft circum-
ftances of magnanimity and tendernefs. T his is a lucky
fituation for reprefenting the paflions of furprife and gra¬
titude in their different ftages, which feem naturally to
be Avhat folloAV. Thefe paflions, raifed at once to the
utmoft pitch, and being at firfl too big for utterance,
muft, for fome moments, be expreffed by violent gef-
tures only : fo foon as there is vent for vvords, the firft
expreflions are broken and interrupted: at laft, avc
ought to expeX a tide of intermingled fentiments, occa-
fioned by the fluXuation of the mind between the tAvo
paflions. ZEmilia is made to behave in a very different
manner: with extreme coolnefs (lie defcribes her OAvn
fituation, as if fhe Avere merely a fpeXator $ or rather
the poet takes the talk off her hands:
Et je me rends, Seigneur, h ces hautes bontes :
Je recouvre la vue aupres de fours clartes.
Je connois mon forfait qui me fembloit juftice y
Et ce que n’avoit pu la terreur du fupplice,
Je fens naitre en mon ame un repentir puiffant,
Et mon cceur en fecret me dit, qu’il y confent.
Le ciel a refolu votre grandeur fupreme j
Et pour preuve, Seigneur, je n’en veux que moi-memei
J’ofe avec vanite me donner cet eclat,
P'uifqu’il change mon coeur, qu’il veut changer 1’etat,
Ma haine va mourir, que j’ai crue immortelle ;
Elle eft morte,. et ce cceur devient fujet fidele $
Et prenant deformais cette haine en horreur,
L’ardeur de v.ous fervir fuccede a fa fureur.
AX v. fc. 3.
So much in general on tlie genuine fentiments of paf-
flon. We proceed to particular obfervations. And,
firft, paflions feldom continue uniform any confiderable
time : they generally fluXuate, fAvelling and fubfiding
by turns, often in a quick fucceflion ; and the fenti¬
ments cannot be juft unlefsthey correfpondto fuch fluc¬
tuation. Accordingly, a climax never (hows better
than in exprefling a (welling paflion : the folloAving paf-
fag es may fuffice for an illuftration, .
Almeria*
SEN [ i
Sentiments. Almeria. How haft thou charm’d
—v*—The wildnefs of the waves and rocks to this ;
That thus relenting they have giv’n thee back.
To earth, to light and life, to love and me ?
Mourning Bride, aft i. fc. 7.
I would not be the villain that thou think’ll
For the whole fpace that’s in the tyrant’s grafp,
And the rich earth to boot.
Macbeth, aft iv. fc. 4.
The following pafiage expreffes finely the progrefs of
conviction.
Let me not llir, nor breathe, left I diffolve
That tender, lovely form, of painted air,
So like Almeria. Ha ! it finks, it falls j
I’ll catch it e’er it goes, and grafp her {hade.
’Tis life ! ’tis warm ! ’tis fire ! ’tis Ihe herfelf!
It is Almeria ! ’tis, it is my wife !
Mourning Bride, aft ii. fc. 6.
7 ] SEN
Va, quitte deformais le dernier des humains, Sentiments.
Paffe pour me venger en de meilleures mains. v
Le Cid, aft i. fc. 7.
Thefe fentiments are certainly not the firll that are
fuggefted by the paffion of refentment. As the firll
movements of refentment are always direfted to its ob-
jeft, the very fame is the cafe of grief. Yet with rela¬
tion to the hidden and fevere dillemper that feized
Alexander bathing in the river Cydnus, Quintus Cur¬
tins defcribes the firll emotions of the army as direfted
to themfelves, lamenting that they were left without a
leader, far from home, and had fcarce any hopes of re¬
turning in fafety : their king’s dillrefs, which mull na¬
turally have been their firll concern, occupies them but
in the fecond place according to that author. In the
Aminta of Taffo, Sylvia, upon a report of her lover’s
death, which Ihe believed certain, inllead of bemoaning
the lofs of her beloved, turns her thoughts upon herfelf,
and wonders her heart does not break :
In the progrefs of thought our refolutions become
more vigorous as wTell as our palfions.
If ever I do yield or give confent,
By any aftion, word, or thought, to wed
Another lord ; may then jult heav’n Ihow’r down, &c.
Mourning Bride, aft i. fc. 1.
And this leads to a fecond obfervation, That the dif¬
ferent llages of a paffion, and its different direftions,
from birth to extinftion, mult be carefully reprefented
in their order ; becaufe otherwife the fentiments, by
being mifplaced, will appear forced and unnatural.—
Refentment, for example, when provoked by an atro¬
cious injury, difcharges itfelf firll upon the author : fen¬
timents therefore of revenge come always firll, and mull
in fome meafure be exhaulled before the perfon injured
think of grieving for himfelf. In the Cid of Corneille,
Don Diegue having been affronted in a cruel manner,
expreffes fcarcely any fentiment of revenge, but is total¬
ly occupied in contemplating the low fituation to which
he is reduced by the affront:
O rage ! 6 defefpoir ! 6 vieilleffe ennemie !
N’ai-je done tant vecu que pour cette infamie ?
Et ne fuis-je blanchi dans les travaux guerriers,
Que pour voir en un jour fletrit tant de lauriers ?
Mon bras, qu’avec refpeft tout 1’Efpagne admire,.
Mon bras qui tant de fois a fauve cet empire,
Tant de fois affermi le trone de fon roi,
Trahit done ma querelle, et ne fait rien pour moi !
O cruel fouvenir de ma gloire paffe !
Oeuvre de tant de jours en un jour effacee !
Nouvelle dignite fatale a mon bonheur !
Precipice eleve d’ou tombe mon honneur !
Faut-il de votre eclat voir triompher le comte,
Et mourir fans vengeance, ou vivre dans la honte ?
Comte, fois de mon prince 5 prefent gouverneur,
Ce haut rang n’admet point un homme fans honneur j
Et ton jaloux orgueil par cet affront infigne,
Malgre le choix du roi, m’en a fu rendre indigne..
Et toi, de mes exploits glorieux inftrument,
Mais d’un corps tout de glace inutile ornement,
Fer jadis tant a craindre, et qui dans cette offenfe,
Mias fervi de parade, et non pas de defenfe,
Ohime, ben fon di faffo,
Poi che quella novella non m’uccide.
Aft iv. 1c. 2.
In the tragedy of Jane Shore, Alicia, in the full pur- *
pofe of deltroying her rival, has the following reflec¬
tion :
O Jealoufy ! thou bane of pleafing friendfhip,
Thou worlt invader of our tender bofoms ;
How does thy rancour poifon all our foftnefs,
And turn our gentle nature into bitternefs !
See where Ihe comes ! Once my heart’s dearelt blefling,
Now my chang’d eyes are blalled with her beauty,
Loathe that known face, and ficken to behold her.
Aft iii. fc. 1.
Thefe are the refleftions of a cool fpeftator. A palfion,
while it has the afeendant, and is freely indulged, fug-
gells not to the perfon who feels it any fentiment to its
own prejudice : refleftions like the foregoing occur not
readily till the paflion has fpent its vigour.
A perfon fometimes is agitated at once by different
pafiions; and the mind in that cafe, vibrating like a
pendulum, vents itfelf in fentiments that partake of the
fame vibration. This we give as a third obfervation :
^iieen. Would I had never trod this Englilh earth, ,
Or felt the flatteries that grow upon it !
Ye’ve angels faces, but heav’n knows your hearts.
What lhall become of me now ? wretched lady !
I am the moll unhappy Avoman living.
Alas ! poor wenches, where are now your fortunes ?
\_To her women,,
Shipwreck’d upon a kingdom, where no pity,
No friends, no hope, no kindred, weep for me :
Almoll no grave allow’d me..
Henry VIII. aft iii. fc. 1.
Othello. Oh devil, devil ! .
If that the earth could teem with woman’s tears,
Each drop Ihe falls would prove a crocodile.
Out of my fight !
Defdemona. I will not Hay t’offend you. . [Going.
Lodovico. Truly, an obedient lady :
I do befeech your lordlhip, call her back.
Oth. Miilrefs—w.
Def.
S E N
.-Sentiments. r Def. My lord.
' »" Oth. What would you with her, Sir ?
Lod. Who, I, my lord ?
Oth. Ay ; you did wifh that I would make her turn.
Sir, Hie can turn and turn, and yet go on ;
And turn again. And (he can weep. Sir, weep j
And (he’s obedient : as you fay, obedient:
Very obedient—proceed you in your tears—
Concerning this, Sir,—oh well painted paffion !—
.1 am commanded home—get you away,
I’ll fend for you anon—Sir, I obey the mandate,
And will return to Venice. Hence, avaunt!
\Kxit Defdemona.
Othello, aft iv. fc. 6.
JEmilia. Oh ! my good lord, I would fpeak a word
with you.
Othello. Yes, ’tis iEmilia—By and by.—She’s dead.
’Tis like {he comes to fpeak of Caffio’s death ;
The noife was high.—Ha ! no more moving ?
Still as the grave. Shall {he come in ? Aver’t good ?
I think Hie llirs again—No—what’s the bell; ?
If Hie come in, {he’ll, fure, fpeak to my wife :
, My wife ! my wife ! what wTife ? I have no wife $
Oh infupportable ! oh heavy hour !
Othello, aft v. fc. 7,
A fourth obfervation is, That nature, which gave us
paflions, and made them extremely beneficial when mo¬
derate, intended undoubtedly that they fliould be fub-
jefted to the government of reafon and confcience. It
is therefore againft the order of nature, that paffion in
•any cafe fhould take the lead in contradiftion to reafon
and confcience : fuch a ftate of mind is a fort of anarchy
which every one is alhamed of and endeavours to hide
or diflemble. Even love, however laudable, is attended
with a confcious Ihame when it becotnes immoderate :
it is covered from the world, and difclofed only to the
beloved objeft:
Et que 1’amour fouvent de remors combattu
Paroiffe une foiblefle, et non une vertu.
Boileau, l'Art. Poet, chant, iii. 1. 101.
O, they love leaf! that let men know they love.
Two Gentlemen of Verona, aft i. fc. 3.
Hence a capital rule in the reprefentation of immoderate
paffions, that they ought to be hid or diflembled as much
as poffible. And this holds in an efpecial manner with
refpeft to criminal palfions : one never counfels the com-
miffion of a crime in plain terms ; guilt muft not appear
in its native colours, even in thought; the propofal muft
be made by hints, and by reprefenting the aftion in fome
favourable light. Of the propriety of fentiment upon
fuch an occafion, Shakefpeare, in the Tempejl, has given
us a beautiful example, in a fpeech by the ufurping duke
of Milan, advifing Sebaftian to murder his brother the
king of Naples:
Antonio    ——What might,
Worthy Sebaftian,—O, what might—no more.
And yet, methinks, I fee-it in thy face
What thou ftiouldft be : the occafion fpeaks thee, and
My ftrong imagination fees a crown
Dropping upon thy head.- Aft ii. fc. 2.
A pifture of this kind, perhaps {till finer, is exhibited
S E N
in King John, where that tyrant folicits (aft iii. fc. 5.) Sentiments,
Hubert to murder the young prince Arthur j but it is k
too long to be inferted here.
II. As things are beft illuftrated by their contraries,
we proceed to faulty fentiments, difdaining to be in¬
debted for examples to any but the moft approved au¬
thors. The firft clafs {hall confift of fentiments that ac¬
cord not with, the paffion •, or, in other words, fenti¬
ments that the paffion does not naturally fuggeft. In
the fecond clafs {hall be ranged fentiments that may be¬
long to an ordinary paffion, but unfuitable to it as tinc¬
tured by a lingular charafter. Thoughts that properly
are not fentiments, but rather defcriptions, make a
third. Sentiments that belong to the paffion repre-
fented, but are faulty as being introduced too early or
too late, make a fourth. Vicious fentiments expofed
in their native drefs, inftead of being concealed or dif-
guifed, make a fifth. And in the laft clafs {ball be col-
lefted fentiments fuited to no charafter nor paffion, and
therefore unnatural.
The firf clafs contains faulty fentiments of various
kinds, which we ffiall endeavour to diftinguifti from eacli
other.
1. Of fentiments that are faulty by being above the
tone of the paffion, the following may ferve as an ex¬
ample :
Othello.  — O tny foul’s joy !
If after every tempeft come fuch calms,
May the winds blow till they have waken’d death :
And let the labouring bark climb hills of feas
Olympus high, and duck again as low
As hell’s from heaven ? Othello, aft ii. fc. 6.
This fentiment may be fuggefted by violent and in¬
flamed paffion •, but is not fuited to the fatisfaftion, how¬
ever great, that one feels upon efcaping danger.
2. Inftance of fentiments below the tone of the paf¬
fion. Ptolemy, by putting Pompey to death, having
incurred-the difpleafure of Caefar, was in the utmoft
dread of being dethroned : in that agitating fituation,
Corneille makes him utter a fpeech full of cool reflec¬
tion, J;hat is in no degree expreffive of the paffion.
Ah i fi je t’avois cru, je n’aurois pas de maitre,
Je ferois dans le trone ou le ciel m’a fait naitre j
Mais c’eft une imprudence aflez commune aux rois,
D’ecouter trop d’avis, et fe tromper au choix.
Le Deftin les aveugle au bord du precipice,
Ou fi quelque lumiere en leur ame fe glifie,
Cette faufle clarte dont il les eblouit,
Le plonge dans une gouffre, et puis s’evanouit.
La Mart de Pompde, aft iv. fc. I.
3. Sentiments that agree not with the tone of the
paffion •, as where a pleafant fentiment is grafted upon
a painful paffion, or the contrary. In the following
inftances, the fentiments are too gay for a ferious paf¬
fion :
No happier talk thefe faded eyes purfue ;
To read and weep is all they now can do.
Eloifa to Abelard, 1. 47.
Again j
Heav’n firft taught letters for fome wretch’s aid,
Some baniffi’d lover, or fome captive maid:
[ 158 1
They
I'Sentiments.
SEN [ 159 ] SEN.
They live, they fpeak, they breathe what love infpires, Yes, yes, I know to mourn : I’ll fluice this heart, Sentiments.
Warm from the loul, and faithful to its fires j The fource of wo, and let the torrent in. »
The virgin’s wiih without her fears impart, A61; v. fei 11.
Excufe the blulli, and pour out all the heart j
Speed the. foft intefcourfe from foul to foul, Pope’s elegy to the memory of an unfortunate lady.
And waft a figh from Indus to the pole. expreffes delicately the moft tender concern and forrow •
E/oifa to Abelard, \. 51. that one can feel for the deplorable fate of a perfon of
worth. Such a poem, deeply ferious and pathetic, re-
Thefe thoughts are pretty : they fuit Pope, but not jefts with difdain all fiaion. Upon that account, the
Eloife. _ following paflage deferves no quarter ; for it is not the
Satan, enraged by a threatening of the angel Gabriel, language of the heart, but of the imagination indulging-
anfwers thus : its flights at eale, and by that means is eminently dif-
. cordant with the fubjea. It would be a Hill more fe-
ihen when I am thy captive, talk of chains, vere cenfure, if it Ihould be aferibed to imitation, copy-
Proud limitary cherub •, but ere then ing indifCreetly what has been faid by others :
Far heavier load thyielf expea to feel
From my prevailing arm, though heaven’s King What though no weeping loves thy afhes grace,
Kide on thy wings, and thou with thy compeers, Nor polilh’d marble emulate thy face ?
Us’d to the yoke, draw’ll his triumphant wheels What though no facred earth allow thee room,
In progrefs thro’ the road of heav’n Jlar pav'd. Nor hallow’d dirge be mutter’d o’er thy tomb ?
Paradife Lojl, book iv. Net fiiall thy grave with rifing flow’rs be dreft,
And the green turf lie lightly on thy breaft:
The concluding epithet forms a grand and delightful There (hall the marn her earlieft tears bellow,
image, which cannot be the genuine offspring of rage. There the firil rofes of the year lhall blow ;
4. Sentiments too artificial for a ferious paflion. The While angels with their filver wings o’erlhade
firil example is a fpeech of Percy expiring. The ground, now facred by thy relics made.
O, Harry, thou hall robb’d me of my growth :
I better brook the lofs of brittle life,
Than thofe proud titles thou haft won of me :
They wound my thoughts worfe than thy fword my
flelh.
But thought’s the Have of life, and life time’s fool j
And time, that takes furvey of all the world,
Mull have d Hop.
Eirjl Part, Henry IV. act v. fc, 9.
The fentiments of the Mourning Bride are for the
moll part no lefs delicate than jull copies of nature : in
the following exception the pidlure is beautiful, but too
artful to be fuggelled by fevere grief.
Almeria. O no ! Time gives increafe to my afflic¬
tions.
The circling hours, that gather all the woes
Which are diffus’d through the revolving year,
Come heavy laden with th’ oppreflive weight
To me ; with me, fueceffively, they leave
The fighs, the tears, the groans, the refllefs cares,
And all the damps of grief, that did retard their flight j
They flxake their downy wings, and featter all
The dire collected dews on my poor head ;
Then fly with joy and fwiftnefs from me. A61 i. fc. 1.
In the fame play, Almeria feeing a dead body, which
the took to be Alphonfo’s, expreffes fentiments drained
and artificial, which nature fuggefts not to any perfon
upon fuch an occafion ;
Had they or hearts or eyes, that did this deed ?
Could eyes endure to guide fuch cruel hands ?
Are not my eyes guilty alike with theirs,
That thus can gaze, and yet not turn to Hone ?
—I do not weep ! The fprings of tears are dry’d,
And of a hidden I am calm, as if
All things were wrell '7 and yet my hufband’s mur¬
der’d !
5. Fanciful or finical fentiments. Sentiments that
degenerate into point or conceit, however they may
amufe in an idle hour, can never be the offspring of any
ferious or important paflion. In the Jerufalem of Taffo,
Tancred, after a fingie combat, fpent with fatigue and
lofs of blood, falls into a fwoon ; in which fituation, un-
derflood to be dead, he is difeovered by Erminia, who
was in love with him to dillra£tion. A more happy
fituation cannot be imagined, to raife grief in an inllant
to its higheft pitch 5 and yet, in venting her forrow, ffie
defeends moft abominably into antithefis and cenceit
even of the lowell kind :
E in lui verso d’inefficabil vena
Lacrime, e voce di fofpiri mifta.
In che mifero punto hor qui me mena
Fortuna ? a che veduta amara e trifta ?
Dopo gran tempo i’ ti ritrovo h pena
Tancredi, e ti riveggio, e non fon villa
Villa non fon da te, benche prefente
T’ trovando ti perdo eternamente.
Canto xix. ft. 105. ,
Armida’s lamentation refpefting her lover Rinaldo is in
the fame vicious tafte. Vid. canto xx. ftan. 124, 125,
126.
Queen. Give me no help in lamentation,
I am not barren to bring forth complaints
All fprings reduce their currents to mine eyes,
That I, being govern’d by the wat’ry moon,
May fend forth plenteous tears to drown the world,.
Ah,.for my hufband, for my dear lord Edward.
King Richard III. a cl ii. fc. 2..
Jane Shore utters her laft breath in a witty conceit:
Then all is well, and I lhall fleep in peace-- .
’Tis very dark, and I have loft you now 
Was there not fomething I would have bequeath’d you ?
1 But
SEN
Sentimefits. But I have nothing left me to beflow,
» ' Nothing but one fad figh. Oh mercy, Heav’n!
[ 16o ] SEN
Font infenfiblement a mon inimitie
[Dies* Succeder Je ferois fenfible h la pitie ?
Aft v. Athalie, a£l ii. fc. 7.
Sentiment!
Guilford to Lady Jane Gray, when both were con¬
demn’d to die:
Thou fland’H unmov’d ‘,
Calm temper fits upon thy beauteous brow’
Thy eyes that flow’d fo fait for Edward’s lofs,
Gaze unconcern’d upon the ruin round thee,
As if thou had’ft refolv’d to brave thy fate,
And triumph in the midft of defolation.
Ha ! fee, it fwells, the liquid cryflal rifes,
It ftarts in fpite of thee but I will catch it,
Nor let the earth be wet with dew fo rich.
Lady Jane Gray, aft iv. near the end.
The concluding fentiment is altogether finical, unfuit-
able to the importance of the occafion, and even to the
dignity of the paflion of love.
Corneille, in his Exavicn of the Cid, anfvvering an ob-
jeftion, That his fentiments are fometimes too much re¬
fined for perfons in deep diftrefs, obferves, that if poets
did not indulge fentiments more ingenious or refined than
are prompted by paflion, their performances would of¬
ten be low, and extreme grief would never fuggell but
exclamations merely. This is in plain language to af-
fert, that forced thoughts are more agreeable than thofe
that are natural, and ought to be preferred.
The fecoml clafs is of fentiments that may belong to
an ordinary paflion, but are not perfeftly concordant
with it, as tinftured by a Angular charafter.
In the laft aft of that excellent comedy The Care/efs
Hujband, Lady Eafy, upon Sir Charles’s reformation,
is made to exprefs more violent and turbulent fenti¬
ments of joy than are confiftent with the mildnefs of her
charafter.
Lady Eafy. O the foft treafure ! O the dear reward
of long-defiring love.—Thus! thus to have you mine,
is fomething more than happinefs j ’tis double life, and
madnefs of abounding joy.
The following inftances are deferiptions rather than
fentiments, which cpmpofe a third clafs.
Of this deferiptive manner of painting the paflions,
there is in the Hippolytus of Euripides, aft v. an illuftri-
ous inftance, viz. the fpeech of Thefeus, upon hearing of
his fon’s difmal exit. In Racine’s tragedy of Efher,
the queen hearing of the decree iffued againft her peo¬
ple, inftead of exprefling fentiments fuitable to the oc¬
cafion, turns her attention upon herfelf, and deferibes
with accuracy her own lituation.
Jufte ciel! tout mon fang dans mes veines fe glace.
Aft i. fc. 3.
Again,
Aman. C’en eft fait. Mon orgueil eft force de plier.
L’inexorable Amen eft reduit a prier.
Efher, aft iii. fc. 5.
Athalie. Quel prodige nouveau me trouble et m’em-
barrafle ?
La douceur de fa voix, fon enfance, fa grace,
Titus. O de ma paflion fureur defefperee !
Brutus of Voltaire, aft iii. fc. 6.
What other are the foregoing inftances but deferibing
the paflion another feels ?
fourth clafs is of fentinaents exprefled too early
or too late.
Some examples mentioned above belong to this clafs.
Add the following from Venice Preferv'd, aft v. at the
clofe of the feene between Belvidera and her father
Priuli. The account given by Belvidera of the danger
file was in, and of her hufband’s threatening to muider
her, ought naturally to have alarmed her relenting fa¬
ther, and to have made him exprefs the moft perturbed
fentiments. Inftead of which, he diflolves into tender-
nefs and love for his daughter, as if he had already de¬
livered her from danger, and as if there were a perfeft
tranquillity :
Canft thou forgive me all my follies paft !
I’ll henceforth be indeed a father *, never,
Never more thus expofe, but cherifh thee,
Dear as the vital w’armth that feeds my life,
Dear as thofe eyes that -weep in fondnefs o’er thee :
Peace to thy heart.
Immoral fentiments expofed in their native colours,
inftead of being concealed or difguifed, compofe the
ffth clafs.
The Lady Macbeth, projeftingthe death of the king,
has the following foliloquy :
  The raven himfelf’s npt hoarfe
That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan
Under my battlements. Come, all you fpirits
That tend on mortal thoughts, unfex me here,
And fill me from the crown to the toe, top full
Of direft cruelty ; make thick my blood,
Stop up th’ accefs and paffage to remorfe,
That no compunftious vifitings of nature
Shake my fell purpofe. Macbeth, aft i. fc. 7.
This fpeech is not natural. A treacherous murder was
never perpetrated even by the moft hardened mifereant
without compunftion : and that the lady here muft have
been in horrible agitation, appears from her invoking
the infernal fpirits to fill her with cruelty, and to flop
up all avenues to remorfe. But in that ftate of mind
it is a never-failing artifice of felf-deceit to draw the
thickeft veil over the rvicked aftion, and to extenuate
it by all the circumftances that imagination can fug-
geft : and if the crime cannot bear difguife, the next
attempt is to thruft it out of mind altogether, and to
ru(h on to aftion without thought. I his laft was the
hufband’s method.
Strange things I have in head, that will to hand •,
Which muft be afted ere they muft be fcann’d.
Aft iii. fc. 5.
The lady follorvs neither of thefe courfes, but in a de¬
liberate manner endeavours to fortify her heart in the
commiflion of an execrable crime, Avithout even attempt¬
ing lo colour it. This, Ave think, is not natural; v'e
hope
SEN [ 161
Sentiments, hope there is no fuch wretch to be found as is here re-
prefented.
The lajl clafs comprehends fentiments that are unna¬
tural, as being fuited to no chara&er or paflion. Thefe
may be fubdivided into three branches : firft, fentiments
unfuitable to the conllitution of man, and to the laws of
his nature ; fecond, inconfiftent fentiments j third, fen-
thnents that are pure rant and extravagance. ♦
When the fable is of human affairs, every event,
every incident, and every circumftance, ought to be
natural, otherwife the imitation is imperfeft. But an
imperfeft imitation is a venial fault, compared with that
of running crofs to nature. In the Hippolytus of Euri¬
pides (aft iv. fc. 5.), Hippolytus, wifhing for another
ieif in his own fituation, “ How much (fays he) fhould
I be touched with his misfortune !” as if it were natural
to grieve more for the misfortune of another than for
one’s own.
Ofmyn. Yet I behold her—yet-'-and now no more.
Turn your lights inward, eyes, and view my thoughts )
So fhall you flill behold her—’twill not be.
O impotence of fight! mechanic fenfe,
Which to exterior objects ow’d; thy faculty,
Not feeing of eleftion, but neceflity.
Thus do our eyes, as do all common mirrors,
Succeffively refleft fuceeeding images.
Nor what they would, but mud } a dar or toad $
Jud as the hand of chance adminiders !
Mourning Bride, aft ii. fc. 8.
No man in his fenfes ever thought of applying his
eyes to difcover what palfes in his mind; far lefs of
blaming his eyes for not feeing a thought or idea. In
Moliere’s I'Avare (aft iv. fc. 7.) Harpagon, being-
robbed of his money, feizes himfelf by the arm, rhidak-
ing it for that of the robber. And again he expreffes
himfelf as follows :
_ .Te veux aller querir la judice, et faire donner la que-
dion a toute ma maifon j a fervantes, a valets, a fils, a
fille, et a moi aufii.
This is fo abfurd -as fcarcely to provoke a fmihs, if it
be not at the author.
Of the fecond branch the following example may
fuffice :
-Now bid me run,
And I will drive with things impojjibie,
Yea, get the better of them.
Julius Ccefar, aft ii. fc. 3.
Of the third branch, take the following famples. Lu¬
can, talking of Pompey’s fepulchre,
 ———Romanum nomen, et omne
Imperium magno ed tumuli modus. Obrue faxa
Crimine plena deum. Si tota ed Herculis Oete,
Et juga tota vacant Bromio Nyfeia ; quare
Unus in Egypto Magno lapis ? Omnia Lagi
Rura tenere poted, fi nullo cefpite nomen
Haeferit. Erremus populi, cinerumque tuorum,
Magne, metu nullas Nili calcemus arenas*
Lib. viii. 1. 798.
Thus, in Rowe’s tranflation :
Where there are feas, or air, or earth, or ikies,
Where’er Rome’s empire dretches, Pompey lies.
Vo-l. XIX. Part I.
] SEN
Far be the vile memorial then convey’d !
Nor let this done the partial gods upbraid.
Shall Hercules all Oeta’s heights demand,
And Nyfa’s hill for Bacchus only dand j
While one poor pebble is the wrarrior’s doom
That fought the caufe of liberty and Rome ?
If Fate decrees he mud in Egypt lie,
Let the whole fertile realm his grave fupply,
Yield the wide country to his aw'ful fliade,
Ner let us dare on any part to tread,
Fearful we violate the mighty dead.
The following pafiages are pure rant. Coriolanus,
fpeaking to his mother,.
What is this ?
Your knees to me ? to your correfted fon ?
Then let the pebbles on the hungry beach
Fillop the dars : then let the mutinous winds
Strike the proud cedars ’gaind the fiery fun :
Murd’ring impodibility, to make
What cannot be, flight work.
Coriolanus. aft
1
fc.
Ccefar.
•Danger knows full well,
Sentiments
11
Sentinel.
That Caefar is more dangerous than he.
We were two lions litter’d in one day,
And I the elder and more terrible.
Julius Ccefar, aft ii. fc. 4.
Ventidius. But you, ere love milled your wand’ring
eyes,
Were fure the chief and bed of human race,
Fram’d in the very pride and boad of nature.
So perfeft, that the gods who form’d you wonder’d
At their own Ikill, and cry’d, A lucky hit
Has mended our defign. Dryden, Allfor Love, aft i.
Not to talk of the impiety of this fentiment, it is ludi¬
crous indead of being lofty.
The famous epitaph on Raphael is not lefs abfurd than
any of the foregoing paffages :
Raphael, timuit, quo fofpite, vinci,
Rerum magna parens, et moriente mori.
Imitated by Pope, in his epitaph on Sir Godfrey Knel-
ler :
Living, great Nature fear’d he might outvie
Her works j and dying, fears berfelf may die.
Such is the force of imitation for Pope of himfelf
would never have been guilty of a thought fo extrava¬
gant.
SENTINEL, or Sentry, in military affairs, a
private foldier placed in fome pod to watch the ap¬
proach of the enemy, to prevent furprifes, to dop fuch
^as would pafs without orders or difeovering who they
are. They are placed before the arms of all guards,
at the tents and doors of general officers, colonels of
regiments, &c.
SENTINEL Perdu, a foldier poded near an enemy, or
in fome very dangerous pod where he is in hazard of
being lod.
All fentinels are to be vigilant on their pods; neither
are they to fing, fmoke tobacco, nor differ any noife to'
be made near them. They are to have a watchful eye
over the things committed to their charge. They are
not to differ any light to remain, or any fire to be
X
Sentinel
il
Sepiariae.
SEP [ 162 ] SEP
made, near their polls in the night-time •, neither is any
fentry to be relieved or removed from his poll but by
the corporal of the guard. They are not to fuffer any
one to touch or handle their arms, or in the night-time
to come within ten yards of their poll.
No perfon is to Unite or abufe a fentry on his pofl ;
but when lie has committed a crime, he is to be relie-
.ved, and then punilhed according to the rules and ar¬
ticles of war. ;
A fentinel, on his poll in the night, is to know no¬
body but by the counter-fign : when he challenges,
and is anfwered Relief, he calls out, Stand, Relief! ad¬
vance, corporal! upon which the corporal halts his men,
and advances alone within a yard of the fentry’s fire¬
lock (firft ordering his party to reft, on which the
fentry does the fame), and gives him the counter-fign,
taking care that no one hear it.
SEPIA, the Cuttle-fish, a genus of animals be-
longing to the clafs of vermes. See Helminthology
Index.
The officinal cuttle affords the cuttle-bone of the
fliops, which was formerly ufed as an abforbent. The
bones are frequently flung on all our fhores •, the animal
very rarely. The conger eels, it is faid, bite off their
arms, or feet : but it is added they grow' again, as does
the lizard’s tail (Plin. ix. 29.). They are preyed upon
by the plaife. This fifh emits (in common with the
other fpecies), when alarmed or purfued, the black li¬
quor which the ancients fuppofed darkened the circum¬
ambient wave, and concealed'it from the enemy.
The endanger’d cuttle thus evades his fears,
And native hoards of fluid fafety bears.
A pitchy ink peculiar glands fupply,
Whofe {hades the fharpeft beam of light defy.
Porfu’d, he bids the fable fountains flow,
And, wrrapt in clouds, eludes th’ impending foe.
The fifh retreats unfeen, while felf-born night,
With pious fhade befriends her parent’s flight.
The ancients fometimes made ufe of it inftead of ink.
Perfius mentions the fpecies in his defcription of the
noble ftudent.
Jam liber, et bicolor pofitis membrana capillis,
Inque Tiianus chartce, nodofaque vcnit arundo.
Turn querimur, craffus catamo quod pendent humor ;
Nigra quod infufa venefcat fepia lympha.
At length, his book he fpreads, his pen lie takes y
His papers here in learned order lays,
And there his parch men’s fmoother fide difplays.
But oh ! what croffes wait on ftudious men !
The cuttle's -juice hangs clotted at our pen.
In all my life fuch fuff I never knew,
So gummij thick—Dilute it, it will do.
Ntty, now 'tis water ! Dryden.
This animal was efteemed a delicacy by the ancients,
and is eaten even at prefent by the Italians. Rondele-
tjus gives us two receipts for the dreflxng, which may
be continued to this day. Athenseus alfo leaves us
the method of making an antique cuttle fifh faufage y
and we learn from Ariftotle, that thofe animals are in
higheft feafon when pregnant.
SEPIARIvfft, (from fepes, “ a hedge”), the name
of the 44th order of Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural
Method, eoufifting of a beautiful collection of woody
plants, fome of which, from their fize ana elegance, Sepiarisc
are very proper furniture for hedges. See Botany H
Index. 1  1
SEPS, a fpecies of Lacerta.
Index.
See ErFETOLOGY
S EPT ARIzE, in Natural Ilifory, an old term for
a variety of iron-ftone, called alfo Indus Helmo?itn. This
mineral is of a round compreffed form, and is internally
divided by fepta or thin partitions of lime fpar or pyri¬
tes y hence the name.
SEPT AS, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs of
Heptandria ; and in the natural fyftem ranged under th#
13th order, Succulentw. See Botany Index.
SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of the year, con¬
fining of thirty days •, it took its name as being the fe-
venth month, reckoning from March, with which the
Romans began their year.
SEPTENNIAL, any thing lafting feven years.
SEPTENNIAL EleBions. Blackftone, in his Com¬
mentaries, vol. i. p. 189. fays, (after obferving that the
utmoft extent of time allowed the fame parliament to
fit by the flat. 6. W. and M. c. 2. was three years).
“ But, by the ftatute 1 Geo. I. ft. 2. c. 38. (in or¬
der profeffedly to prevent the great and continued ex-
pences of frequent elections, and the violent heats and
animofities confequent thereupon, and for the peace and
fecurity of the government, juft then recovering from
the late rebellion), this term was prolonged to feven.
years ; and what alone is an inftance of the vail au¬
thority of parliament, the very fame houfe that was
chofen for three years enafted its own continuance for
feven.”
SEPTENTRIO, in Afroncmy, a conflellation, more
ufually called wfa minor.
In cofmography, the term feptentrio denotes the fame
with north : and hence feptentrional is applied to any,
thing belonging to the north : as feptentrional fgns, pa¬
rallels, &c.
SEPT1CS, are thofe fubftances which promote pu-
trefaftion, chiefly the calcareous earths, magnolia, and
teftaceous powders. From the many curious experi¬
ments made by Sir John Pringle to afcerlain the feptic
and antifeptic virtues of natural bodies, it appears that
there are very few fubftances of a truly feptic nature.
Thofe commonly reputed fuch by authors, as the al¬
kaline and volatile falts, he found to be no wife feptic.
However, he difeovered fome, where it feemed leaf!
likely to find any fuch quality y thefe were chalk, com¬
mon fait, and teftaceous powders. He mixed tw'enty
grains of crabs eyes, prepared with fix drams of ox’s gall,
and an equal quantity of water. Into another phial he
put an equal quantity of gall and water, but no crabs-
eyes. Both thefe mixtures being placed in the furnace,
the putrefaction began much fooner, where the powder
was, than in the other phial. On making a like expe¬
riment with chalk, its feptic virtue vras found to be much
greater than that of the crabs-eyes : nay, what the doc¬
tor never met with before, in a mixture of two drams of
flefli, with two ounces of water and thirty grains of pre¬
pared chalk, the flefh was refolved into a perfeft mucus
in a few days.
To try whether the teftaceous powders would alfo
dlffolve vegetable fubftances, the dodlor mixed them
with barley and water, and compared this mixture with
another of barley and water alone. After a long ma¬
ceration.
SEP [ 163 ] SEP
Septk’s ceration by a fire, the plain water was found to fwell
il . the barley, and turn mucilaginous and four ; but that
S^a^S!nt, with the powder kept the grain to its natural fize, and
though it foftened it, yet made no mucilage, and re¬
mained fweet.
Nothing could be more unexpected, than to find fea
fait a haitener of putrefaction •, but the fait is thus; one
dram of fait prelerves two drams of froth beef in two
ounces of water, above thirty hours, uncorrupted, in a
heat equal to that of the human body ; or, which is
the fame thing, this quantity of fait keeps tleih fweet
twenty hours longer thatr pure water ; but then- half a
dram of fait does not preferve it above two hours long¬
er. Twenty-five grains have little or no antifeptic vir¬
tue, and ten, fifteen, or even twenty grains, manifeitly
both haften and heighten the corruption. The quan¬
tity which had the moil putrefying quality, was found
' to be about ten grains to the above proportion of flefli
and water.
Some inferences have been drawn from this experi¬
ment : one is, that fince fait is never taken in aliment
beyond the proportion of the corrupting quantities, it
would appear that it is fubfervient to digeftion chiefly
by its feptic virtue, that is, by foftening and refolving
meats ; but in making this inference, the powers of the
digeftive organs in modifying chemical adlion are not
taken into account.
It is to be obferved, that the above experiments were
made with the fait kept for domeftic ufes. See Pringle’s
Obferv. on the Difeafes of the Army.
SEPTIZON, or Septizonium, in Roman antiqui¬
ty, a celebrated maufoleum, built by Septimius Severus,
in the ter^th region of the city of Rome : it was fo call¬
ed from feptem and ‘zona, by reafon it confifted of
feven llories, each of which was furrounded by a row of
columns.
SEPTUAGESIMA, in the kalendar, denotes the
third Sunday before Lent, or before Quadragefima Sun¬
day : fuppofed by fome to take its name from its being
about feventy days before Eafter.
SEPTUAGINT, the name given to a Greek ver-
fion of the books of the Old Teftament, from its being
fuppofed to be the work of feventy Jews, who are ufual-
ly called the feventij interpreters^ becaufe feventy is a
round number.
The hiflory of this verfion is exprefsly written by
Ariftieas, an officer of the guards to Ptolemy Philadel-
phus, the fubftanee of whofe account is as follows:—
Ptolemy having eredled a fine library at Alexandria,
which he took care to fill with the mofi: curious and
valuable books from all parts of the world, was inform¬
ed that the Jews had one containing the laws of Mofes,
and the hiftory of that people ; and being delmms of
enriching his library with a Greek tranflation of it, ap¬
plied to the high-prieft of the Jews ; and to engage
him to comply with his requeft, fet at liberty all the
Jews whom his father Ptolemy Soter had reduced to
fiavery. After fuch a ftep, he eafily obtained what he
defired ; Eleazar the Jewiffi high-prieft fent back his
ambaffadors with an exaft copy of the Mofaical law,
written in letters of gold, and fix elders of each tribe,
in all feventy-two ; who were received with marks of
refpeft by the king, and then conduced into the ifle
of Pharos, where they were lodged in a houfe prepared
for their reception, and fupplied with every thing ne~
ceffary. They fet about the tranflation without lofs of^eptuagnp.
time, and finiffied it in feventy-two days; and the whole ^ '
being read in the prefence of the king, he admired the
profound wiidom of the laws of Motes: and tent back
the deputies laden with prel’ents, for themfelves,the high-
priert, and the temple.
Ariftobulus, who was tutor to Ptolemy Phyfcon,
Philo who lived in our Saviour’s time, and was contem¬
porary with the apottles, and Jofephus, fpeak of this
tranflation as made by feventy-two interpreters, by the
care of Demetrius Phalereus in the reign of Ptolemy
Philadelphus. All the Chriftian writers, during the firlt
15 centuries of the Chriilian era, have admitted this ac¬
count of the Septuagint as an undoubted faiffi But
fince the reformation, critics have boldly called it in
queftion, becaufe it was attended with circumfiances
which they think inconfiftent, or, at lead, improbable.
Du Pin has afked, why were feVenty-two interpreters
employed, fince twelve would have been fufficient ? Such
an objection is trifling. We may as well afk, why did
King James I. employ fifty-four tranflators in rendering
the Bible into Englifli, fince Du Pin thinks twelve
would have been fufficient ?
1. Prideaux objects, that the Septuagint is not writ¬
ten in the Jewiffi, but in the Alexandrian, dialeft; and
could not therefore be the work of natives of Paleftme.
But thefe dialefts were probably at that time the fame,
for both Jews and Alexandrians had received the
Greek language from the Macedonians about 50 years
before.
2. Prideaux farther contends, that all the books of
the Old Teftament could not be tranllatcd at the fame
time; for they exhibit great difference offtyle. To this
it is fufficient to reply, that they were the work of
feventy-two men, each of whom had feparate portions
afligned them.
3. The Dean alfo urges, that Ariflaeas, Ariftobulus,
Philo, and Jofephus, all direflly tell us, that the law
was tranflated, without mentioning any of the other fa-
cred books. But nothing was more common among
writers of the Jewiffi nation than to give this name to
the Scriptures as a whole. In the New Teftament, law
is ufed as fynonymous with what we call the Old Tefta¬
ment. Befides, it is exprefsly faid by Ariftobulus, in a
fragment quoted by Eufebius (Preep. EvanA. 1.), that
the whole Sacred Scripture was rightly tranflated through
the means of Demetrius Phalereus, and by the command
of Philadelphus. Jofephus indeed, fays the learned Dean,
afferts, in the preface to his Antiquities, that the Jewifli
interpreters did not tranflate for Ptolemy the whole
Scriptures, but the law only. Here the evidence is con-
tradi&ory, and we have to determine, whether Arifto¬
bulus or Jofephus be moft worthy of credit. We do
not mean, however, to accufe either of forgery, but only
to inquire which had the bell opportunities of knowing
the truth. Ariftobulus was an Alexandrian Jew, tutor
to an Egyptian king, and lived within 100 years after the
tranflation was made, and certainly had accefs to fee it
in the royal library. Jofephus was a native of Paleftine,
and lived not until 300 years or more after the tranila-
tion was made, and many years after it was burnt along
with the whole library of Alexandria in the wars of
Julius Csefar. Suppofingthe veracity of thefe two wri¬
ters equal, as we have no proof of the contrary, which
of them ought we to confider as the bell evidence ? Ari-
X 2 ftobulus
Septuagint.
SEP [ 164 ] SEP
Prideaux, indeed, Teems doubtful whe- dift themfelves in different parts of their works. Some- Septuagint,
limes they tell us, he dedicated his book to Ptolemy '■“""V"-'
Philometer, at other times they fay, it was addreffed
to Philadelphus and his father.
* Blair's
LeElures on
the Canon.
Stilling-
Jieet's Ori-
yines Sa-
frideaux'i
Connec¬
tions, vol.
ul b. 1.
ftobulus furely.
' ther there was ever fuch a man j and Dr Hody fup-
pofes that the Commentaries on the five books of Mofes,
which bear the name of Ariftobulus, were a forgery of
the fecond century. To prove the exiftence of any hu¬
man being, who lived 2000 years before us, and did
not perform fuch works as no mere man ever performed,
is a tafk which we are not difpofed to undertake j and
we believe it wrould not be lefs difficult to prove that
Philo and Jofephus exilted, than that fuch a perfon as
Ariflobulus did not exift. If the writings which have
paffed under his name were a forgery of the fecond cen¬
tury, it is furpsiiing that they ffiould have impofed upon
Clemens Alexa'ndrinus, who lived in the fame century,
and was a man of abilities, learning, and well acquaint¬
ed with the writings of the ancients. Eufebius, too, in
his Prrep. Evan, quotes the Commentaries of Ariftobu¬
lus. But, continues the learned Dean, “ Clemens Alex-
andrinus is the firft author that mentions them. Now,
had any fuch commentaries exifted in the time of Philo
and Jofephus, they would furely have mentioned them.
But is the circumflance of its not being quoted by every
fucceeding author a fufficient reafon to difprove the au¬
thenticity of any book ? Neither Philo nor Jofephus un¬
dertook to give a lift of preceding authors, and it was
by no means the uniform practice of thefe times always
to name the authors from whom they derived their in¬
formation.”
4. Prideaux farther contends, that the fum which
Ptolemy is faid to have given to the interpreters is too
great to be credible. If his computation were juft, it
certainly would be fo. He makes it 2,000,0001. fter-
ling, but other writers* reduce it to 85,421!. and fome
to 56,947!.; neither of which is a fum fo very extra¬
ordinary in fo great and magnificent a prince as Phila¬
delphus, who fpent, according to a paffage in Athemeus
(lib. v.) not lefs than 10,000 talents on the furniture of
one tent; which is fix times more than what was fpent
in the whole of the embaffy and tranflation, which
amounted only to I552talents.
5. Prideaux fays, “ that what convifls the whole ftory
of Ariftgeas of falfity is, that he makes Demetrius Pha-
lereus to be the chief adfor in it, and a great favourite
of the king 5 whereas Philadelphus, as foon as his father
was dead, call: him into prifon, where he foon after died.”
But it may be replied, that Philadelph.us reigned two
years jointly with his father Lagus, and it is not faid
by Hermippus that Demetrius wras out of favour with
Philadelphus during his father’s life. Now, if the Sep-
tui gint was tranfiated in the beginning of the reign of
Philadelphus, as Eufebius and Jerome think, the diffi¬
culty ivill be removed. Demetrius might have been
librarian during the reign of Philadelphus, and yet im-
prifoned on the death of Lagus. Indeed, as the caufe
of Philadelphus’s difpleafure was the advice which De¬
metrius gave to his father, to prefer the Tons of Arfinoe
before the fon of Bernice, he could fcarcely (how it till
his father’s death. The Septuagint tranilation might
therefore be begun while Philadelphus reigned jointly
with his father, but not be finiffied till after his father’s
death.
6. Befides the objections which have been confidered,
there is only one that deferves notice. The ancient
Chriftians not only differ from one another concerning
the time in which Ariftobulus lived, but even contra-
Sometimes they make
him the fame perfon who is mentioned in 2 Maccabees,
chap. 1. and fometimes one of the 72 interpreters 152
years before. It is difficult to explain how authors fall
into fuch inconfiftencies, but it is probably oceafioned
by their quoting from memory. This wras certainly the
practice of almoft all the early Chriftian writers, and
fometimes of the apoftles themfelves. Miftakes were
therefore inevitable. Jofephus has varied in the circum-
ftances of the fame event, in his antiquities and wTars of
the Jews, probably from the fame caufe ; but we do not
hence conclude, that every circumftance of fuch a rela¬
tion is entirely falfe. In the account of the Marquis of
Argyle’s death in the reign of Charles II. wre have a
very remarkable contradiftion. Lord Clarendon re¬
lates, that he was condemned to be hanged, which was
performed the fame day : on the contrary, Burnet,
Woodrow, Heath, Echard, concur in dating, that he
was beheaded ; and that he was condemned upon the
Saturday and executed upon the Monday*. Was any * Biogrxfi
reader of Engliffi hiftory ever fceptic enough to raife Biitan.
from hence a queftion, whether the Marquis of Argyle
was executed or not ? Yet this ought to be left in un¬
certainty according to the way of reafoning in which
the fafts refpefting the tranflation of the Septuagint are
attempted to be difproved.
Such are the objections which the learned and inge¬
nious Prideaux has raifed againft the common account
of the Septuagint tranflation, and fuch are the anfwers
which may be given to them. We have chofen to fup-
port that opinion which is fancftioned by hiftorieal evi¬
dence, in preference to the conjeftures of modern critics*
however ingenious ; being perfuaded, that there are ma¬
ny things recorded in hiftory, which, though perfectly
true, yet, from our imperfeft knowledge of the conco¬
mitant circumftances, may, at a diftant period, feem li¬
able to objections. To thofe who require pofitive evi¬
dence, it may be ftated thus. Ariftseas, Ariftobulus,
Philo, and Jofephus, affure us, that the law wras tranf-
lated. Taking the lawr in the moft reftriCted fenfe, we
have at leaf! fufficient authority to affert, that the Pen¬
tateuch was rendered into Greek under Ptolemy Phila¬
delphus. Ariftobulus affirms, that the whole Scrip¬
tures were tranfiated by the feventy-two. Jofephus
confines their labours to the books of Mofes. He there¬
fore who cannot determine to which of the two the
greateft refpeft is due, may fufpend his opinion. It is
certain, however, that many of the other books were
tranfiated before the age of our Saviour; for they are
quoted both by him and his apoftles : and, perhaps, by
a minute examination of ancient authors, in the fame
way that Dr Lardner has examined the Chriftian fathers
to prove the antiquity of the New Teftament, the pre-
cife period in which the whole books of the Septuagint
were coropofed might, with- confiderable accuracy, be
afcertained.
For 400 years this tranflation w7as in high eftimation
with the Jews. It was read in their fynagogues in pre¬
ference to the Hebrew } not only in thofe places where
Greek was the common language, but in many fyna¬
gogues of Jerufalem and Judea. But when they faw
that it was equally valued by the Chriftians, they be-
cams
SEP [ 165 1 .SEP
fcptuagint. came jealous of it, and at length, in the fecond century,
■ v""^ Aquila, an apoftate Chriftian, attempted to fubftitute
another Greek tranflation in its place. In this work
he was careful to give the ancient prophecies concern¬
ing the Mefliah a different turn from the Septuagint,
that they might not be applicable to Chrift. In the
fame defign he was followed by Symmachus and Theo-
dotion, who alfo, as St Jerome informs us, wrote out of
hatred to Chriftianity.
In the mean time, the Septuagint, from the ignorance,
boldnefs, and careleffnefs of tranfcribers, became full of
errors. To correft thefe, Origen publilhed a new edi¬
tion in the beginning of the third century, in which he
placed the tranflations of Aquila, Symmachus, and The-
odotion. This edition was called Tetrcqj/a, the tranfla¬
tions being arranged oppofite to one another in four
columns. He alfo added one column, containing the
Hebrew text in Hebrew letters, and another exhibiting
it in Greek. In a fecond edition he publifhed two ad¬
ditional Greek verfions; one of which was found at Ni-
copolis, and the other at Jericho j this was called the
Hexapia. By comparing fo many tranflations, Origen
endeavoured to form a correft copy of the Scriptures.
Where they all agreed, he confidered them right. The
paffages which he found in the LXX, but not in the
Hebrew text, he marked with an obelifk : what he
found in the Hebrew, but not in the LXX, he marked
with an afterilk. St Jerome fays, that the additions
which Origen made to the LXX, and marked with an
afterilk, were taken from Theodotion. From this valu¬
able work of Origen the verfion of the LXX was tranf-
cribed in a feparate volume, with the afterilks and obe-
lilks for th£ ufe of the churches •, and from this circum-
ftance the great work itfelf was negletted and loft.
About the year 300 two new editions of the LXX
were publilhed 5 the one by Hefychius an Egyptian bi-
Ihop, and the other by Lucian a preflbyter of Antioch.
But as thefe authors did not mark with any note of di-
ftinftion the alterations which they had made, their edi¬
tion does not poffefs the advantages of Origen’s.
The bell edition of the LXX is that of Dr Grabe,
which was publithed in the beginning of the prefent
century. He had accefs to two MSS. nearly of equal
antiquity, the one found in the Vatican library at Rome,
the other in the royal library at St James’s, which was
prefented to Charles I. by Cyril, patriarch of Alexan¬
dria, and hence is commonly called the Alexandrian
MS. Anxious to difeover which of thefe was accord¬
ing to the edition of Origen, Dr Grabe colkfted the
fragments of the Hexapia, and found they agreed with
the Alexandrian MS. but not with the Vatican where
it dift'ered with the other. Hence he concluded that
the Alexandrian MS. was taken from the edition of
Origen. By comparing the quotations from feripture
in the works of Athanalius and St Cyril (who were pa¬
triarchs of Alexandria at the time St Jerome fays He-
fychius’s edition of the LXX was there ufed) with the
Vatican MS. he found they agreed fo well that he juft-
ly inferred that that MS. was taken from the edition of
Hefychius.
This verfion was in ufe to the time of our bleffed
Saviour, and is that out of which moll of the citations
in the New Teftament, from the Old, are taken. It
was alfo the ordinary and canonical tranflation made
ufe of by the Ghriftian church in the earlieft ages j
3
and it ftill fublifts in the churches both of the eaft and Septuagint
weft. II
I hofe who defire a more particular account of the ^ePa|c^re‘.
Septuagint tranflation may confult Hody de Bibhorum
Textibus, Prideaux’s Connexions, Owen’s Inquiry into
the Septuagint Verfion, Blair’s LeXures on the Canon,
and Miehaelis’s IntroduXion to the New Teftament,
laft edition.
SEPTUAGINT Chronology, the chronology which is
formed from the dates and periods of time mentioned
in the Septuagint tranflation of the Old Teftament. It
reckons 1500 years more from the creation to Abraham
than the Hebrew bible. Dr Kennicot, in the differta-
tion prefixed to his Hebrew bible, has fliown it to be
very probable that the chronology of the Hebrew ferip-
tures, fince the period juft mentioned, was corrupted by
the Jews, between the years 175 and 200, and that the
chronology of the Septuagint is more agreeable to
truth. It is a faX, that during the fecond and third
centuries the Hebrew feriptures were almoft entirely
in the hands of the Jew's, while the Septuagint was con¬
fined to the Chriftians. I he Jews had therefore a
very favourable opportunity for this corruption. The
following is the reafon which is given by oriental writers:
It being a very ancient tradition, that the Mefliah was
to come in the fixth chiliad, becaufe he was to come in-
the laft days (founded on a myftical application of the
fix days creation), the contrivance was to Jhorten the age
of the world from about 5500 to 3760 ; and thence to
prove that Jefus could not be the JVLfJtah. Dr Eenmcot
adds, that fome Hebrew copies having the larger chro¬
nology were extant till the time of Eufebius, and fome
till the year 700.
SEPTUM, in Anatomy, an inclofure or partition ; a
term applied to feveral parts of the body, which ferve to
feparate one part from another; 2&,feptum narium, or
partition between the noftrils, &c.
SEPULCHRAL, fomething belonging to fepul-
chres or tombs: thus a fepulchral column is a column
ereXed over a tomb, with an infeription on its (haft;
and fepulchral lamps, thofe faid to have been found
burning in the tombs of feveral martyrs and others. See
Lamp.
SEPULCHRE, a tomb or place deftined for the in¬
terment of the dead. This term is chiefly ufed in fpeak-
ing of the burying, places of the ancients, thofe of the
moderns being ufually called tombs.
Sepulchres were held facred and inviolable; and the
care taken of them has always been held a religious du¬
ty, grounded on the fear of God, and the belief of the
foul’s immortality. Thofe who have fearehed or viola¬
ted them have been thought odious by all nations, and
were always feverely punilhed.
The Egyptians called fepulehrese^r/za/houfes, in con-
tradiftinXion to their ordinary houfes or palaces, which
they called inns, on account of the fhort ftav in the one
in comparifon of their long abode in the other. See
Tomb.
Regular Canons of St SEPULCHRE, a religious order,
formerly inftituted at Jerufalem, in honour of the holy
fepulehre, or the tomb of Jefus Chrift.
Many of thefe canons were brought from the Holy
Land into Europe, particularly into France, by Louis
the Younger ; into Poland, by Jaxa, a Polifh gentle¬
man: and into Flanders, by the counts thereof;' many
alfo-
S EC) [ 166 ] S E Q
■Sepulchre alio carae into England. This order, was, however, fup-
prefled by Pope Innocent VIII. who gave its revenues
^tiou' " and ehefts to that of our Lady of Bethlehem : which
' 1 alfo becoming extinct, they were bellowed on the knights
of St John of Jerufalem. But the fuppreffion did not
take cited in Poland, where they Hill iubfift, as alfo in
feveral provinces of Germany. Thefe canons follow the
rule of St Augultine.
Knights of the Holy SEPULCHRE, a military order,
■ eltablithed in Paleftine about the year inn.
The knights of this order in Flanders chofe Phi¬
lip II. king of Spain, for their maker, in 1558, and
afterwards his fon ; but the grand-mailer of the order
of Malta prevailed on the laid to refign ; and when
• afterwards the duke of Nevers affumed the fame qua¬
lity in France, the fame grand-mafter, by his intereft
and credit, procured a like renunciation of him, and
a confirmation of the union of this order to that of
Malta.
SEOUANI, a people anciently forming a part of
Gallia Celtica, but annexed to Belgica by Auguilus,
feparated from the Helvetii by Mount Jura, with the
Rhine on the eaft (Strabo), bordering on the iEdui
and Seguftiani to the fouth, and Lingones to the weft
(Tacitus). Now Franche Compte.
SEQUESTRATION, in Common Law, is fetting
slide the thing in controverfy from the poffeffion of
both the parties that contend for it. In which fenfe
its is either voluntary, as when done by the confent of
the parties ) or neceflary, as where it is done by the
judge, of his own authority, whether the parties will or
not.
Sequestration, in the Civil Law, is the act of the
ordinary, difpofing of the goods and chattels of one de-
■ ceafed, whofe eftate no man will meddle with.
A widow is alfo faid to fequeiter, when {he difclaims
having any thing to do with the eftate of her deceafed
hufband.
Among the Romanifts, in queltions of marriage, where
the wife complains of impotency in the hufband, Ihe is
to be fequeftered into a convent, or into the hands of
matrons, till the procefs be determined.
Sequestration is alfo ufed for the a£t of gathering
the fruits of a benefice void, to the ufe of the next in¬
cumbent.
Sometimes a benefice is kept under fequeftration for
many years, when it is of fo fmall value, that no cler¬
gyman fit to ferve the cure will be at the charge of ta¬
king it by inftitution; in which cafe the fequeftration is
committed either to the curate alone, or to the curate and
church-wardens jointly. Sometimes the profits of a liv-
-ing in controverfy, cither by the conlent of the parties,
or the judge’s authority, are fequeftered and placed for
fafety in a third hand, till the fuit is determined, a mi-
nifter being appointed by the judge to ferve the cure,
and allowed a certain falary out of the profits. Some¬
times the profits of a living are fequeftered for negledf of
duty, for dilapidations, or for fatisfying the debts of the
incumbent.
Sequestration, in chancery, is a commiflion ufually
directed to feven perfons therein named, empowering
them to feize the defendant’s perfonal eftate, and the pro¬
fits of his real, and to detain them, fubject to the order
of the court. It iffues on the return of the ferjeant at
2
arms, wherein it is certified, that the defendant had fe- Scqueftra
creted himfelf. tion,
Sequeftrations were firft introduced by Sir Nicholas
Bacon, lord keeper in the reign of Queen Elizabeth j
before which the court found fome ddhculty in enfor¬
cing its procefs and decrees 5 and they do not fetrn to be
in the nature of procefs to bring in the defendant, but
only intended to enforce the. performance of the court’s
decree.
A fequeftration is alfo made, in London, Upon an
a chon of debt ■, the eourfe of proceeding in which cafe
is this : The addon being entered, the officer goes to
the defendant’s ffiop or v/arehoufa, when no perfon is
there, and takes a padlock, and hangs it on the door,
uttering thefe words : “ I do fequefter this warehoufe,
and the goods and merchandife therein, of the defend¬
ant in this action, to the ufe of the plaintiff,” &e. after
which he lets on Ins feal, and makes a return of the le-
queftration in the compter 5 and four days being paffed
after the return made, the plaintiff may, at the next
court, have judgment to open the Ihop or warehoufe,
and to have the goods appraifed by two freemen, who
are to be fworn at the next court held for that comp¬
ter ; and then the ferjeant puts his hand to the bill of
appraifement, and the court grants judgment thereon j
but yet the defendant may put in bail before fatisfac-
tion, and by that means diffolve the fequeftration \ and
after fatisfadlion, may put in bail to difprove the debt,
&c.
In the time of the civil wars, fequeftration was ufed
for a feizing of the eftates of delinquents for the ufe of
the commonwealth.
Sequestration, in Scots Law. See Law Index.
SEQUIN, a gold coin, ftruck at Venice, and in
feveral parts of the Grand Signior’s dominions. In
Turkey, it is called dahob, or piece of gold, and ac¬
cording to Volney is in value about 6s. 3d. fterling.
It varies, however, confiderably in its value in different
countries. At Venice it is equal to about 9s. 2d. fter-
lins'-
The Venetian fequins are in great requeft in Syria,
from the finenefs of their llandard, and the pradlice
they have of employing them for Avomen’s trinkets.
The faihion of thefe trinkets does not require much art;
the piece of gold is limply pierced, in order to lulpend
it by a chain, likewife of gold, which Hows upon the
breaft. The more lequins that are attached to this
chain, and the greater the number of thefe chains, the
more is a woman thought to be ornamented. This is
the favourite luxury, and the emulation of all ranks.
Even the female peafants, for want of gold, wear
piaftres or filver pieces ; but the women of a certain
rank difdain filver ; they will accept of nothing but fe¬
quins of Venice, or large Spanilh pieces, and crufadoes.
Some of them wear 260 or 300, as well lying flat, as
ftrung one on another, and hung near the forehead, at
the edge of the head-drefs. It is a real load : but they
do not think they can pay too dearly for the fatisfac-
tion of exhibiting this treafure at the public bath, be¬
fore a crowd of rivals, to awaken whofe jealoufy confti-
tutes their chief pleafure. The effe<ft of this luxury on
commerce, is the withdrawing confiderable fums from
circulation, which remain dead ; befides, that when any
of thefe pieces return into common ufe, having loft
their
s E R [ 167 ] S E R -
Sequin, their weight by being pierced, it becomes neceffary to
Seraglio. weigh them. The pradlice of weighing money is ge-
1 neral in Syria, Egypt, and all Turkey. No piece,
however effaced, is refufed there ; the merchant draws
out his fcales and weighs it, as in the days of Abra¬
ham, when he purchafed his fepulchre. In confider-
able payments, an agent of exchange is fent for, who
counts paras by thoufands, rejefts a great many pieces
of falfe money, and weighs all the fequins, either fepa-
rately or together.
SERAGLIO, formed from the Perfian Avord feraw,
or Turkifh word farai, which fignifies a houfe, and is
commonly ufed to exprefs the houfe or palace of a
prince. In this fenfe it is frequently ufed at Conitan-
tinople 5 the houfes of foreign ambaffadots are called fe-
raglios. But it is commonly ufed by way of eminence
for the palace of the grand fignior at Conftantinople,
where he keeps his court, and where his concubines are
lodged, and where the youth are trained up for the chief
polls of the empire.
It is a triangle about three Italian miles round, whol¬
ly within the city, at the end of the promontory Chry-
foceras, now called the Seraglio Point. The buildings
run back to the top of the hill, and from thence are
gardens that reach to the edge of the fea. It is inclo-
fed with a very high and flrong Avail, upon which there
are feveral watch towers: and it has many gates, fome
of Avhich open towards the fea fide, and. the reft into the
city *, but the chief gate is one of the latter, which is
conftantly guarded by a company of capoochees, or
porters; and in the night it is well guarded towards
the fea. The outward appearance is not very beautiful,
the archite&ure being irregular, confiding of feparate
edifices in the form of pavilions and domes.
The ladies of the feraglio are a colleclion of beauti¬
ful young women, chiefly fent as prefents from the pro¬
vinces and tne Greek iflands, moft of them the children
of Chriftian parents. The brave prince Heraclius hath
for fome years paft abolifhed the infamous tribute of chil¬
dren of both fexes, Avhich Georgia formerly paid every
year to the Porte. The number of Avomen in the harem
depends on the tafte of the reigning monarch or fultan.
Selim had 2000, Achmet had but 300, and his fuc-
ceffor had nearly 1600. On their admiflion they are
committed to the care of old ladies, taught feAving and
embroidery, mufic, dancing, and other accompliftnnents,
and furnifiied with the richeft clothes and ornaments.
They all fleep in feparate beds, and between ev'ery
fifth there is a preceptrefs. Their chief governefs is
called Katon King a, or governefs of the noble, young
ladies. There is not one fervant among them, for they
are obliged to wait on one another, by rotation ; the
laft that is entered ferves her Avho preceded her and her-
felf. Thefe ladies are fcarcely ever buffered to go a-
broad, except Avhen the grand fignior removes from
one place to another, Avhen a troop of black eunuchs
conveys them to the boats, Avhich are inclofed with lat¬
tices and linen curtains ; and when they go by land
they are put into clofe chariots, and fignals are made
at certain diftances, to give notice that nono approach
the roads through which they march. The boats of
the harem, Avhich carry the grand fignior’s AviA^es, are
manned with 24 rowers, and have white covered tilts,
Ihut alternately by Venetian blinds. Among the em¬
peror’s attendants are a number of mutes, Avho att and
eom'erfe by figns with great quicknefs, and fome
dwarfs, Avho are exhibited for the diverfion of his Ma-
jefty.
When he permits the Avomen to walk in the gardens
of the feraglio, all people are ordered to retire, and on
every fide there is a guard of black eunuchs, with fa-
bres in their hands, Avhile others go their rounds in
order to hinder any perfon from feeing them. If, un¬
fortunately, any one is found in the garden, even through
ignorance or inadvertence, he is undoubtedly killed,
and his head brought to the feet of the grand fignior,
Avho gives a great reward to the guard for their vigi¬
lance. Sometimes the grand fignior paffes into the
gardens to amufe himfelf when the Avomen are there ;
and it is then that they make ufe of their utmoft efforts,,
by dancing, finging, feducinggeftures, and amorous blan-
dithments, to enfnare the affedtions of the monarch. It
is not permitted that the monarch fhould take a virgin
to his bed, except during the folemn feftivals, and on
occafion of fome extraordinary rejoicings, or the arrival
of fome good news. Upon fuch occaiions, if the ful-
tan-choole a new companion to his bed, he enters into
the apartment of the Avomen, Avho are ranged in files
by the governeffes, to whom he .{peaks, and intimates
the perfon he likes beft; the ceremony of the handker¬
chief Avhich the grand fignior is faid to throw to the
girl that he clefts, is an idle tale, Avithout any founda¬
tion. As foon as the grand fignior has chofen the girl
that he has deftined to be the partner of hft bed, all the
others follow her to the bath, Avaflnng and perfuming
her, and drefling her fuperbly, condufting her finging,
dancing, and rejoicing, to the bed chamber of the
grand fignior, Avho is generally, on fuch an occafion, al¬
ready in bed. Scarcely has the new-elefted favourite
entered the chamber, introduced by the grand eunuch
who is upon guard, than Ihe kneels down, and when
the fultan calls her, (lie creeps into bed to him by the
foot of the bed, if the fultan does not order her, by
efpecial grace, to approach by the fide : after a certain
time, upon a fignal given by the fultan, the governefs
of the girls, Avith all her fuite, enters the apartment, and
takes her back again, condufting her Avith the fame ce¬
remony to the women’s apartments ; and if by good
fortune (he becomes pregnant, and is delivered of a boy,
ftie is called afakifultanefs, that is to fay, fultanefs mo¬
ther ; for the firft fon {Ire has the honour to be croAvn-
ed, and ihe has the liberty of forming her court.
Eunuchs are alfo afiigned for her guard, and for her
particular fervice. No other ladies, though delLered
of boys, are either crowned or maintained Avith fuch
coftly diftinftion as the firft ; however, they have
their fervice apart, and handfome appointments. Af¬
ter the death of the fultan, the mothers of the male
children are {hut up in the old feraglio, from whence
they can never come out any more, unlefs any of
their fons afeend the throne. Baron de Tott in¬
forms us, that the female Have who becomes the mo¬
ther of a fultan, and lives long enough to fee her fon
mount the throne, is the only woman Avho at that period
alone acquires the diftinftion ui fultana-mother ; fne is
till then in the interior of her prifon Avith her fon. The
title of bachc karlun, principal Avoman, is the firft dighity
of the grand fignior’s harem ; and ftie has a larger
alloAvance
Serasdio.
V
S E R [ 168 ] S E R
allowance than thofe who have the title of fecond, third,
and fourth woman, which are the four free women the
Koran allows.
This is a defcription of the grand fignior’s feraglio :
we lhall now add an account of the feraglio or harem,
as it is often called, of the emperor of Morocco, from
the very interefting tour of Mr Lempriere. This gen¬
tleman being a furgeon by profeflion, was admitted into
the harem to prefcribe for fome of the ladies who were
indifpofed, and was therefore enabled to give a particu¬
lar account of this female prifon, and, what is ftill more
curious, of the manners and behaviour of its inhabi¬
tants.
The harem forms a part of the palace. The apart¬
ments, which are all on the ground floor, are fquare,
very lofty, and four of them inclofe a fpacious fquare
court, into which they open by means of large folding
doors. In the centre of thefe courts, which are floor¬
ed with blue and white chequered tiling, is a foun¬
tain, fupplied by pipes from a large refervoir on the
butfide of the palace, which ferves for the frequent
ablutions recommended by the Mahometan religion,
as well as for other purpofes. The whole ol the
harem confifts of about twelve of thefe fquare courts,
communicating with each other by narrow paflages,
which afford a free accefs from one part of it to an¬
other, and of which all the women are allowed to avail
themfelves.
The apartments are ornamented on the outfide with
beautiful carved wood. In the infide moft of the rooms
are hung with rich damafk of various colours ; the floors
are covered with beautiful carpets, and there are matref-
fes difpofed at different diflances, for the purpofe of fit¬
ting and fleeping.
Befides thefe, the apartments are furnilhed at each
extremity with an elegant European mahogany bed-
ftead, hung with damalk, having on it feveral mattreffes
placed one over the other, which are covered with va¬
rious coloured filks •, but thefe beds are merely placed
there to ornament the room. In all the apartments,
without exception, the ceiling is wood, carved and
painted. The principal ornaments in fome were large
and valuable looking-glaffes, hung on different parts of
the -walls. In others, clocks and watches of different
lizes, in glafs cafes, were difpofed in the fame manner.
The fultana Lalla Batoom and another favourite were
indulged with a whole fquare to themfelves ; but the
concubines were only each allowed a Angle room.
Each female had a feparate daily allowance from the
emperor, proportioned to the eftimation in which they
were held by him. The late emperor’s allowance was
very trifling : Lalla Douyaw, the favourite fultana, had
very little more than half-a-erown Englilh a-day, and
the others lefs in proportion. It muff be allowed, that
the emperor made them occaflonal prefents of money,
drefs, and trinkets ", but this could never be fuffieient
to fupport the number of domeftics and other expenees
they muff incur. Their greatefl: dependence therefore
■was on the prefents they received from thofe Europeans
and Moors who viflted the court, and who employed
their influence in obtaining fome particular favour from
the emperor. This was the moft fuccefsful mode that
could be adopted. When Mr Lempriere was at Mo¬
rocco, a Jew, deArous of obtaining a very advantage¬
's favour from the emperor, for which he had been a
long time unfuccefsfully foliciting, fent to all the prin- Ser
cipal ladies of the harem prefents of pearls to a very ''“”“
large amount j the confeqaence was, that they all went
in a body to the emperor, and immediately obtained the
wiflied-for conceflion.
The ladies fepavately furnifh their owrn rooms, hire
their own domeftics, and, in fa£l, do what they pleafe
in the harem, but are not permitted to go out without
an exprefs order from the emperor, who very feldom
grants them that favour, except when they are to be re¬
moved from one palace to another. In that cafe, a
party of foldiers is difpatched a little diftance before
them, to difperfe the male paffengers in particular, and
to prevent the poffibility of their being feen. This
previous ftep being taken, a piece of linen cloth is tied
round the lower part of the face, and afterwards thefe
miferable females cover themfelves entirely with their
haicks, and either mount mules, which they ride like
men, or what is more ufual, are put into a fquare car¬
riage or litter, conftrufted for this purpofe, which by
its lattice-work allows them to fee without being feen.
In this manner they fet off, under the charge of a guard
of black eunuchs. This journey, and fometimes a walk
within the bounds of the palace, with which they are,
however, feldom indulged, is the only exercife they are
permitted to take.
The late emperor’s harem conAfted of between 60
and ICO females, beAdes their domeftics and flaves,
which were very numerous. Many of the concubines
were Moorilh women, who had been prefented to the
emperor, as the Moors conAder it an honour-to have
their daughters in the harem •, feveral were European
flaves, who had either been made captives, or purchafed
by the emperor ; and fome were Negroes.
In this group the Europeans, or their defendants,
had by far the greateft claim to the character of hand-
fome. There -was one in particular, who was a native
of Spain, and taken into the harem at about the fame
age as Lalla Douyaw, who was indeed a perfect beauty.
Nor was this lady quite Angular in that refpeft, for
many others were almoft equally handfome.
The eunuchs, who have the entire charge of the -wo¬
men, and who in fa£t live always among them, are the
children of Negro flaves. They are generally either
very Ihort and fat, or elfe tall, deformed, and lame.
Their voices have that particular tone which is obfer-
vable in youths who are juft arriving at manhood ; and
their perfons altogether afford a difgufting image of
weaknefs and effeminacy.
The fame gentleman gives us a very curious account
of the manners and ignorance of thefe immured females,
from his own obfervation, when viAting the prince’s ha¬
rem. “ Attended by an eunuch (fays he), after palling
the gate of the harem, which is always locked, and un¬
der the care of a guard of eunuchs, we entered a nar¬
row and dark paffage, which foon brought us to the
court, into which the women’s chambers open. We
here faw numbers of both black and white women and
children ; fome concubines, fome flaves, and others hi¬
red domeftics.
“ Upon their obferving the unufual Agure of an Eu¬
ropean, the whole multitude in a body iurrounded me,
and expreffed the utmoft aftoniihment at my drefs and
appearance. Some flood motionlefs, with their hands
lifted up, their eyes Axed, and their mouths open, in
s E R [ 169 ] SEE
Seraglio.
the ufual attitude of wonder and furprife. Some burft
into immoderate fits of laughter j while others again
came up, and with uncommon attention eyed me from
head to foot. The parts of my drefs which feemed
mod to attraft their notice were my buckles, buttons,
and dockings’, for neither men nor women in this coun¬
try wear any thing of the kind. With refpedl to the
club of my hair, they feemed utterly at a lofs in what
view to confider it j but the powder which I wore they
conceived to be employed for the purpofe of dedroy-
ing vermin. Mod of the children, when they fawr me,
ran away in the mod perfeft condernation and on the
whole, I appeared as fingular an animal, and I dare fay
had the honour of exciting as much curiofity and at¬
tention, as a lion or man-tiger juft imported from
abroad, and introduced into a country town in England
on a market-day. Every time I vifited the harem, I
was furrounded and laughed at by this curious mob,
who, on my entering the gate, followed me clofe to the
very chamber to which I was proceeding, and on my
return univerfally efcorted me out.
“ The greateft part of the women were uncommonly
fat and unwieldy; had black and full eyes, round faces,
with fmall nofes. They were of different complexions ;
fome very fair, fome fallow', and others again perfeft
Negroes.
“ One of my new patients being ready to receive me,
I was defired to walk into her room ; where, to my
great furprife, I faw' nothing but a curtain drawn quite
acrofs the apartment, fimilar to that of a theatre which
feparates the ftage from the audience. A female do-
meftic brought a very low ftool, placed it near the cur¬
tain, and told me I rvas to fit down there, and feel her
miftrefs’s “pulfe.
“ The lady, who had by this time fummoned up cou¬
rage to fpeak, introduced her hand from the bottom of
the curtain, and defired me to inform her of all her com¬
plaints, which die conceived I might perfeftly do by
merely feeling the pulfe. It Avas in vain to afk her
where her pain was feated, whether in her ftomach,
head, or backthe only anfwer I could procure was a
requeft to feel the pulfe of the other hand, and then
point out the feat of the difeafe, and the nature of the
pain.
“ Having neither fatisfied my curiofity by exhibiting
her face, nor made me acquainted with the nature of
her complaint, I was under the neceflity of informing
her in pofitive terms, that to underftand the difeafe it
Avas abfolutely neceflary to fee the tongue as well as to
feel the pulfe •, and that Avithout it I could do nothing
for her. My eloquence, or rather that of my JeAvifh in¬
terpreter, Avas, however, for along time exerted in vainj
and I am perfuaded die Avould have difmiffed me without
any further inquiry, had not her invention fupplied her
with a happy expedient to remove her embarrafiment.
She contrived at lad to cut a hole through the curtain,
through which die extruded her tongue, and thus com¬
plied with my injundtion as far as it Avas necefiary in a
medical view, but mod effectually difappointed my cu-
riofity.
. “ I was aftenvards ordered to look at another of the
prince’s wives, avIio Avas affedled with a fcrophulous
fivelling in her neck. This lady Avas, in the fame man¬
ner as the other, at firft excluded from my fight ; but
as die was obliged to dioAV me her complaint, I had an
Vol. XIX. Part I.
opportunity of feeing her face, and obferved it to be
very handfome.”
It is curious to obfen'e the ftrange and childidi no¬
tions of perfons Avho have been wholly fecluded from
the Avorld. All the ladies of the harem expedted that
our author diould have indantly difcovered their com¬
plaints upon feeling the pulfe, and that he could cure
every difeafe indantaneoudy. He found them proud
and vain of their perfons, and extremely ignorant. “ A-
mong many ridiculous queftions, they alked my inter¬
preter (fays Mr Lempriere) if I could read and Avrite ;
upon being anfwered in the adirmative, they expreffed
the utmoft furprife and admiration at the abilities of
the Chriftians. There Avas not one among them who
could do either ; thefe rudiments of learning are in¬
deed only the lot of a ferv of their men, Avho on that
account are named Ta/bs, or explainers of the Maho¬
metan law.”
It is melancholy to refiedl on the fituation of thefe
unfortunate Avomen. Being confidered as the mere in-
ftruments of pleafure, no attention is paid to the im¬
provement of their minds. They have no employment
to occupy their time. Their needle-Avork is performed
by Jeweffes ; their food is dreffed, and their chambers
taken care of, by flaves and domeftics. They have no
amufement but a rude and barbarous kind of melan¬
choly mufic, Avithout melody, variety, or tafte ; and
converfation Avith one another, which mud indeed be
very confined, uniform, and inanimate, as they never
fee a neAV objed. Excluded from the enjoyment of
frefh air and exercife, fo neceffary for the fupport of
health and life ; deprived of all fociety but that of their
fellow-fufferers, a foeiety to which mod of them would
prefer folitude itfelf; they are only to be confidered as
the mod abjeCl of Haves—fla\'es to the vices and caprice
of a licentious tyrant, who exa&s even from his Avh'es
themfelves a degree of fubmiffion and refpeft which
borders upon idolatry, and which God and nature never
meant Ihould be paid to a mortal.
SERAI, a building on the high road, or in large
cities in India, ereded for the accommodation of tra¬
vellers.
SERAPH, or Seraphim, fpirits of the higheft rank
in the hierarchy of angels ; who are thus called from
their being fuppofed to be mod inflamed Avith divine
love, by their nearer and more immediate attendance at
the throne of God, and to communicate their fervour to
the remoter and inferior orders. Seraphim is the He-
bre.Av plural of feraph. See Angel.
SERAPHIC, burning or inflamed Avith love or zeal,
like a feraph : thus St Bonaventure is called the /era-
phic doElor, from his abundant zeal and fervour.
SERAPI AS, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs
of gynandria 5 and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the feventh order, Orchidece. See Botany Index.
SERAPION, a phyfician of Alexandria. He and
Philinus of the ifle of Cos, were both fcholars of Hero-
philus, and Avere founders of the empiric fed $ which
happened about 287 B. C.
SERA PIS, in Mythology, an Egyptian deity, Avho
Avas worlhipped under various names and attributes, as
the tutelary god of Egypt in general, and as the patron
of feveral of their principal cities. Tacitus informs us,
that he was worlhipped as a kind of univerfal deity that
reprefented Efculapius, Ofiris, Jupiter, and Pluto j and
Y he
S E R
[ i7° 1
S E R
* Tac. Hijl.
lib. iv.
cap. 3.
Plut. de
IJide et Ofi-
ride. Clem.
Alex in
Protrep.
he was fometxmes taken for Jupiter Ammon, the Sun,
and Neptune: and the honours that were rendered to
him at Alexandria were more folemn and extraordinary
than thofe of any other place.. .
Plutarch and Clemens of Alexandria, as well as Ta¬
citus*, inform us, that while the firft Ptolemy was em¬
ployed in fortifying Alexandria with walls, adorning it
with temples and ilately buildings, there appeared to
him in his ileep a young man of extraordinary beauty,
of a ftature more than human, admonilhing him to dil-
patch into Pontus fame of his moft trufty friends to
bring from thence his ftatue : he affured him, that the
city and kingdom which poffeffed it fhould prove hap¬
py, glorious, and powerful. The young man having
thus fpoken, difappeared, mounting up into heaven in a
blaze of fire.
Ptolemy difcovered his vilion to the prlefts 5 but find-
jng them ignorant of Pontus, he had recouife to an A-
thenian, who informed him that near Sinope, a city of
Pontus, there was a temple much reforted to by the
natives, which was confecrated to Pluto, where he had
a ftatue, near which flood that of a woman. Ptolemy,
neglecting the injunctions of the apparition, it again
appeared to him in a menacing attitude •, and the king
immediately difpatched ambafladors to the Serapian mo¬
narch, loaded with prefents. The king of Sinope con-
fented ; but his fubjefts opp'ofed the removal of the fta¬
tue. The god, however, of his own accord, as we are
informed, conveyed himfelf to the ambaftador’s (hip, and
in three days landed in Alexandria. L he ftatue of Se-
rapis was ereCted in one of the fuburbs of the city, where
a magnificent temple w'as afterwards reared.
The ftatue of Serapis, according to Macrobius, was
of a human form, with a baiket or buftiel on his head,
fio-nifying plenty ^ his right hand leaned on the head
of a ferpent, whofe body wras wound round a figure
with three heads, of a dog, a lion, and a wolf j in his
left hand he held a meafure of a cubit length, as it were
to take the height of the waters of the Nile. The figure
of Serapis is found on many ancient medals.
The famous temple of Serapis at Alexandria was
deftroyed by order of J heodofius } and the celebrated
ftatue of this deity was broken in pieces, and its limbs
carried firft in triumph by the Chriftians through the
city, and then thrown into a fierce fire, kindled for that
purpofe in the amphitheatre. As the Egyptians afcri-
bed the overflowing of the Nile, to which was owing
the fertility of their country, to the benign influence of
their god Serapis, they concluded, that now he was
deftroyed, the river would no longer overflow, and that
a general famine would enfue i but when they obferyed,
on the contrary, that the Nile fwelied to a greater
height than had been known in the memory of man,
and thereby produced an immenfe plenty of all kinds
of provifions, many of the pagans renouncing the wor-
ftiip of idols, adored the God of the Chriftians.
SERENA gutta, the fame as amaurojis. See Me¬
dicine, N° 360.
SERENADE, a kind of concert given in the night
by a lover to his miftrefs, under her window'. Thefe
fometimes only confift of inftrumental mufic, but at
other times voices are added : the mufic and fongscom-
pofed for thefe occafions are alfo called ferenades.
SERENE, a title of honour given to feveral princes,
and to the principal magiftrates of republics. The king
of Britain, the republic and doge of Venice, and the
children of the king of Spain, are called tnqft ferene ;
and when the pope or the facred college write to the
emperor, to kings, or to the doge, they give them no
other title. In like manner, the emperor gives no other
title to any king, except to the king of France.
SERENUS Sammonicus, a celebrated phyfician
in the reigns of the emperors Severus and Caracalla, in
and about the year 200. He wrote feveral treatifes on
hiftory and the works of nature j but there is only one
of them extant, which is a very indifferent poem on the
Remedies of Difeafes. He was murdered at a feitival
by the order of Caracalla. He had a library that con¬
tained 62,000 volumes, which (Quintus Serenus Sam¬
monicus his fon gave to Gordian the Younger, to ■whom
he was preceptor.
SERES (Ptolemy) *, a people of the Farther Afia 5
bounded on the weft by Scythia extra Imaum ; on the
north and eaft, by Terra Incognita ; and on the fouth,
by India extra Gangem. According to thefe limits,
their country anfwers nearly to Cathoy or North China.
Other authors vary greatly in placing them, though the
generality agree in placing them far to the eaft. Mela
places them between the Indi and Scythse •, and perhaps
beyond the Indi, if we diftinguifti the Sinae from them.
The ancients commend them for their cotton manufac¬
tures, different from the produce of the bombyces or
filk-worms, called feres by the Greeks } whence/enba,
“ lilk.”
SERGE, a woollen quilted fluff, manufadhired on a
loom with four treddles, after the manner of rateeus,
and other fluffs that have the whale. The goodnefs of
ferges is known by the quilting, as that of cloths by
the fpinning. Of ferges there are various kinds, deno¬
minated either from the different qualities thereof, or
from the places where they are wrought. The moft:
confiderable is the London ferge, now highly valued
abroad, particularly in France, where a manufadlure is
carried on with confiderable fuccefs, under the title of
ferge fitfon de Londres.
The method of making the London ferge we (hall
now deferibe : For wool, the longeft is chofen for the
warp, and the ftiorteft for the woof. Before either kind
is ufed, it is firft fcoured, by putting it in a copper of
liquor, fomewhat more than lukewarm, compofed of
three parts of fair water and one of urine. After
having flayed long enough therein for the liquor to
diffolve, and take off the greafe, &c. it is ftirred brilkly
about with a wooden peel j taken out of the liquor,
drained, and wafhed in a running water, dried in the
(hade, beaten with flicks on a wooden rack to drive
out the coarfer duff: and filth, and then picked clean
with the hands. Thus far prepared, it is greafed with
oil of olives, and the longeft part, deftined for the warp,
is combed with large combs, heated in a little furnace
for the purpofe. To clear off the oil again, the wool
is put in a liquor compofed of hot water, with foap
melted therein : whence being taken out, wrung, and
dried, it is fpun on the wheel.
As to the fliorter wool, intended for the woof, it
is only carded on the knee with fmall cards, and then
fpun on the wheel, without being fcoured of its oil.
It muft be remarked, that the thread for the warp is al¬
ways to be fpun much finer, and better twilled than
that of the woof. The wool both for the warp and
the
SEE [171] SEE
Serge, the woof being fpun, and the thread divided into Ikains,
Sergeant. tjiat 0f tlie Vvoof is put on fpools (unlefs it have been
fpun upon them) fit for the cavity or eye of the {buttle j
and that for the warp is wound on a kind of wooden
bobbins to fit it for warping. When warped, it is ftiflf-
ened with a kind of fize, whereof that made of the
fhreds of parchment is held the bell j and when dry is
put on the loom.
When mounted on the loom, the workman railing
and lowering the threads (which are palled through a
reed), by means of four treddles placed underneath the
loom, which he makes to aft tranfverfely, equally, and
alternately, one after another with his feet, in propor¬
tion as the threads are raifed and lowered, throws the
Ihuttle acrofs from one fide to the other j and each time
that the Ihuttle is thrown, and the thread of the woof
is croffed between thofe of the warp, llrikes it with the
frame to which the reed is fattened, through thofe teeth
the threads of the warp pafs ; and this ftroke he repeats
twice or thrice, or even more, till he judges the crofs-
ing of the ferge fufficiently clofe : thus he proceeds till
the warp is all filled with woof.
The ferge now taken off the loom is carried to the
fuller, who fcours it in the trough of his mill with a
kind of fat earth, called fuller's earth, firlt purged of
all Hones and filth. After three or four hours fcouring,
the fuller’s earth is walhed out in fair water, brought by
little and little into the trough, out of which it is taken
when all the earth is cleared \ then, with a kind of iron
pincers or plyers, they pull off all the knots, ends,
flraws, &c. flicking out on the furface on either fide j
and then returning it into the fulling trough, where it
is worked with water fomewhat more than lukewarm,
with foap diffolved therein for hear two hours : it is
then walhed out till fuch time as the water becomes
quite clear, and there be no figns of foap left; then it
is taken out of the trough, the knots, &c. again pulled
off, and then put on the tenter to dry, taking care as
faff as it dries to ftretch it out both in length and
breadth till it be brought to its juft dimenfions. When
well dried, it is taken off the tenter, and dyed, Ihorn,
•and preffed.
SERGEANT, or Serjeant at Law, or of the Coif
is the higheft degree taken at the common law, as that
of Doftor is of the civil law ; and as thefe are fuppofed
to be the moft learned and experienced in the praftice
of the courts, there is one court appointed for them to
plead in by themfelves, which is the common pleas,
where the common law of England is moft ftriftly ob-
ferved : but they are not reftrifted from pleading in any
other court, where the judges, who cannot have that
honour till they have taken the degree of ferjeant at law’,
call them brothers.
SERGEANT at Arms, or Mace, an officer appointed
to attend the perfon of the king ; to-arreft traitors, and
fuch perfons of quality as offend ; and to attend the lord
high fteward, when fitting in judgment on a traitor.
Of thefe, by ftatute 13 Richard II. cap. 6. there are
not to be above 30 in the realm. There are now nine
at court at tool, per annum falary each ; they are call¬
ed the kinfs ferqeants at amis, to diftinguilh them from
others : they are created with great ceremony ", the per¬
fon kneeling before the king, his majefty lays the mace
on his right Ihoulder, and fays, Rifeup,fergeant at arms.
and efquire for ever. They have, befides, a patent for Sergeant
the office, which they hold for life. ^ 0
They have their attendance in the prefence-chamber, ,
where the band of gentlemen-penfioners wait j and, re¬
ceiving the king at the door, they carry the maces be¬
fore him to the chapel door, whilft the band of penfioners
Hand foremoft, and make a lane for the king, as they
alfo do when the king goes to the houfe of lords.
There are four other fergeants at arms, created in the
fame manner ; one, who attends the lord chancellor ", a
fecond, the lord treafurer 5 a third, the fpeaker of the
houfe of commons ; and a fourth, the lord mayor of
London on folemn occafions.
They have a confiderable lhare of the fees of honour,
and travelling charges, allowed them when in waiting,
viz. five Ihillings per day when the court is within ten
miles of London, and ten Ihillirgs when twenty miles
from London. The places are in the lord chamberlain’s
gift;
There are alfo fergeants of the mace of an inferior
kind, who attend the mayor or other head officer of a
corporation.
Common SERGEANT, an officer in the city of London,
who attends the lord mayor and court of aldermen on
court days, and is in council with them on all occafions,
within and without the precinfts or liberties of the city.
He is to take care of orphans eftates, either by taking
account of them, or to fign their indentures, before their
palling the lord mayor and court of aldermen : and he
was likewife to let and manage the orphan eftates, ac¬
cording to his judgment to their bell advantage. See
Recorder.
Sergeant, in War, is an uncommiflioned officer in
a company of foot or troop of dragoons, armed with
an halbert, and appointed to fee difcipline obferved, to
teach the foldiers the exercife of their arms, to order,
ftraiten, and form their ranks, files, &c. He receives
the orders from the adjutant, which he communicates
to his officers. Each company generally has two fer¬
geants.
SERGEANTY (Serjeantia), fignifies, in law, a fer-
vice that cannot be due by a tenant to any lord but the
king ; and this is either grand fergeanty, or petit. The
firft is a tenure by which the one holds his lands of the
king by fuch fervices as he ought to do in perfon to the
king at his coronation *, and may alfo concern matters
military, or fervices of honour in peace ", as to be the
king’s butler, carver, &c. Petit fergeanty is where a
man holds lands of the king to furnilh him yearly with
fome fmall thing towards his wars 5 and in effeft pay¬
able as rent. Though all tenures are turned into foccage
by the 12 Car. II. cap. 34. yet the honorary fervices of
grand fergeanty ftill remain, being therein excepted. See
KNIGHT-Service.
SERIES, in general, denotes a continual fucceffion
of things in the fame order, and having the fame rela¬
tion or conneftion with each other : in this fenfe we fay,
a feries of emperors, kings, bilhops, &c.
In natural hiftory, a feries is ufed for an order or fub-
divifion of fome clafs of natural bodies •, comprehending
all fuch as are diftinguilhed from the other bodies of
that clafs, by certain charafters which they poffefs in
common, and which the reft of the bodies of that call
have not.
Y 2 (i„) Series,,
S E R
(i.) Series, in Arithmetic or Algebra, a rank or
progreflion of quantities which fucceed one another ac¬
cording to fome determinate law. For example, the
numbers
3, 5, 7, 9, ii, 13, 15, &c.
conftitute a feries, the law of which is that each term
exceeds that before it by a given number, viz. 2. A-
gain, the numbers
3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, &c.
conflitute a feries of a different kind, each term being
the product of the term before it, and the given num¬
ber 2.
(2.) As the law according to which the terms of a
feries are formed may be infinitely varied, there may be
innumerable kinds of feries j we lhall enumerate a few
of the molt common.
1. Arithmetical Series. The general form of a feries
of this kind is
« -J- d', a-\-2d, 0 -f- 3 0+4 &-c*
and its law is that the difference between any two ad¬
jacent terms is the fame quantity, viz. d. The firft of
the two preceding examples is a feries of this nature.
2. Geometrical Series. Its general form is
a, a r, a r*, 0 rJ, 0 r4, &c.
In this kind of ferics each term is the produft of that
which precedes it and a eonftant number r, which is
called the common ratio of the terms. The fecond of
the above examples is a particular cafe of a geometrical
feries.
3. Harmonic Series is that in which the firft of any
three of its confecutive terms is to the third, as the dif¬
ference between the firft and fecond to the difference
between the fecond and third : hence we readily find
that putting 0 and b for its two firft terms, its general
form will be
a b ab ub Q
0, b, r,  7,  ), 5CC.
’ ’ 2 0—b 3 0—2 b 4 0—3 b
If we fuppofe a—i and b—\, we get
r 1 1 1 1 1 for
as a particular example of a harmonic feries.
4. Recurring Series, Let its terms be denoted by
A, B, C, D, E, F, &c.
Then, we {hall form a recurring feries, if m and « being
put for given quantities, we take
Q—m£v-\-n B, E—C-[-0 D,
T)—m B -{-« C, F:=:»2 D-j-« E.
For example, let us fuppofe Am, B=2#, m^z^x'1,
»—3#,* then Cmow1, 0^:38a;3, E—154X4, F=
614 *s, fo that the firft fix terms of the feries are
1,2#, 10#*, 38 #3, 154 #4, 614**.
We have here fuppofed each term to be formed from
the two which come immediately before it 5 but the
name recurring feries is given to every one in which the
terms are formed in like manner from fome afligned
number of the terms which precede that fought. Thus,
S E R
putting as before A, B, C, D, &c. for the terms of the Series,
feries, and m, n,p,q for given quantities, we (hall have ''“—Y—
another recurring feries, if we fuppofe them fo related
that
m A-f 0 B -J-/> C -f- y Dzro,
B-f-« C-f-p D + y E —:o,
m C-j-n F) -\~P E -}-y F =0.
The two feries of quantities fin. 0, fin. 2 0, fin. 3 0, &e;
and cof. 0, cof. 2 0, cof. 3 a, &c. are both recurring, as
is manifeft from the law which connefts the quantities
one with another. (See Algebra, § 358.).
(3.) As in general it is the fum of the terms of a fe¬
ries which is the obje6l of inveftigation, it is ufual to
conned! them by the fign -{- or —, and to apply the
name feries to the expreflion thus formed. Accord-
ing!y
1+3+ 5 + 7+9 ’ * * + '^I + 2C”—
(where n denotes the number of terms) is called an arith¬
metical feries j and in like manner
i+l+!+i**-+-^rr
is a geometrical feries.
(4.) A feries may either confift of a definite number
of terms, or their number may be fuppofed greater than,
any that can be afligned, and in this cafe the feries is
faid to be infinite. The number of terms of a feries
may be infinite, and yet their fum finite. This is true;
for example, of the feries
4+-T+¥+T5 + 5
which is equivalent to unity, or 1.
(3.) We have already treated of feveral branches of
thedodhrineof feriesin the articles Algebra,Fluxions,
and Logarithms •, and in particular we have given
four different methods for expanding a quantity into a
feries, viz.
1. By Divifion ox Evolution. (See Algebra, § 78,
and § 260.).
2. By the Method of Indeterminate Coefficients. (Al¬
gebra, § 261.).
3. By the Binomial Theorem. (Algebra, $ 263—
§ 269.).
4. By Taylor's Theorem. (Fluxions, § 66—§ 720*
We fhall here treat briefly of another branch of the
theory, namely, how to find the fum of any propofed
number of terms of certain feries, or the fum of their
terms continued ad infinitum, •when that fum is finite.
(6.) There is a great anahigy between the terms of a
feries and the ordinates of a curve which are fuppofed
to ftand upon the axis at equal diftances from one ano¬
ther, the firft ordinate reckoned from the extremity of
the axes being analogous to the firft term of the feries,
the fecond ordinate to the fecond term, and fo on.
From this analogy it follows immediately, that like as
the nature of a curve is indicated by an equation ex-
prefling the value of an indefinite ordinate in terms of
its correfponding abfeiffa, fo alfo the nature of a feries
may be ftiown by an equation which {hall exprefs the
relation between any term 5 and the number that de¬
notes the place or order of that term in the feries. In
conformity
[ i?2 1
S E R
[ >73 1
Series, conformity to this method, putting the fymbols T(i),
■■""V 1"'' T(*>, T( 3), &c. to denote the terms of any feries
•whatever, we may exprefs it generally thus.
TtD, -f- T<»), To), * • * + T(»)
where the charafters (i), (2), are meant to denote the
place or order of the terms to which they are joined,
(the firft term being fuppofed to have the place 1, the
fecond term the place 2, and fo on), and (v) is put for
any indefinite number.
The nature of the arithmetical feries
+ 2^) + (a + 3^)+» &c‘
will be defined by the equation
T (») = a-\-(y—l)r/,
and, in like manner, the nature of the geometrical
feries
a-\-a r-\-a rs-}-a &c.
will be expreffed by the equation
T(«) =: a rv~x.
(7.) As the expreffion for the value of the in¬
definite term T <») becomes identical with all the
terms of the feries in fucceflion, by fubftituting the
numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. one after another for v, that ex-
preflion is called the general term of the feries. In the
feries
a b a b a b . „
a-\-b-j- t -| j -f- 7 -j-, &c.
2 a—b 1 3 a—2 b 1 4 a—3 b 1
the general term is evidently   .  r-r.
& J (v—i)a—(v—2)b
(8.) We {hall now inveftigate the fum of any num¬
ber of terms of fuch feries as have their general terms
expreffed by any one of the following algebraic func¬
tions
t;(^4-i) (?;_{_I)(?>_{_2) ^(<n-f-i)(‘n-f-2)(t>-4-3)
I • 2
1 • 2 • 3
&c.
Problem I. It is propofed to find the fum of n terms
of the feries of which the general term is the firft func¬
tion.
By putting 1, 2, 3, &c, to n fucceflively for u, it
appears that the feries to be fummed is
I+2 + 3+4 ’' ’ +”•
-r ^(^+1) (v—1)^ , , .
Now, as v= —  —  we have, by put-
ting in this formula I, 2, 3, • * * to « fucceflively for v,
I * 2
2
2*3
■O,
I * 2
3=
4=
2
3’4
2
2-3
2
4*5
2
3*4
n—1
S E R
 («—i)n  («—2) («—1)
2 2
(«—l)n
Let the fum of the quantities on each fide of the fign
rr be now taken ; then, obferving that each of the frac¬
tions on the right hand fide, with the exception of
1) . ' .11,. ,
— , occurs twice, once with the hgn -J-, and
again with the fign —, by which it happens that their
aggregate is rzo, it is evident that we have
1 + 2+34-4 ‘ ’ ‘ + ”=-7-" ~ •
Prob. II. It is propofed to fum n terms of the fe¬
ries, having for its general term the fecond fundlion
1 • 2 *
This feries, by fubftituting 1, 2, 3, &c. fucceflively
for v, is found to be
' 113 , 3M ... _,»(»+■)
in laft problem, put the expreflion ———— under this
' I • 2 * 3 1-2-3 ’
to which it is evidently equivalent, and, fubftituting I,
2, 3, &c. fucceflively for v, find
1 • 2
3 • 4
1 • 2
4 * 5
1 • 2
,1*2-3
' 1 • 2 • 3
2*3*4
1-2-3
3 *4 * 5_
1 • 2 • 3 ‘
4-5-6
2*3
1-2-3
2*3*4
X * 2 • 3’
3*4*5
-2-3 1*2-3
«(«-f-l) »(«-|-l)(«4-2) —I)«(/j-f-i)
I • 2 • 3
2 • 3
In this problem, as in the former, it appears that
each quantity on the right fide of the equations, except
«(«4-x) («4-2) A
-2—:——, occurs twice, and with contrary figns j
1 • 2 * 3 .
therefore, taking the aggregate of the terms on each
fide, we have
ill .112 4. ili-illS... , »("+■)
I • 2 ‘ I
+
2 1*2 1*2
”(” + l)(”-f 2)
~ I • 2 • 3 *
(9.) It will be obvious, by a little attention to the
folutions of thefe two problems, that in each the terms of
the feries to be fummed are the differences betwixt the
adjacent
Series.
We now, following the mode of proceeding employed
in laft
form,
Seriet.
S E R t I
adjacent terms of another ferics, namely, that which
has for its general term the function next in order to
the general term of the feries under confideration ; that
is, the terms of the feries whofe general term is v, are
the differences betwixt thofe of the feries having
v (■y-f-1) . .
■—— *or lts general terms j and, again, the te/ms
of this laft are the differences of the terms of the feries
having ————- for its general term* Now as
the fum of the differences of any feries of quantities
■Whatever which begins with o muff heceffarily be the
laft term of that feries*, it follows, that the fum of
all the terms of each of the feries we have confidered
muft be equal to the laft term of the next following fe¬
ries ; and this term is neceffarily the expreflion formed
by fubftituting n for v in its general term, that is, the
fum of the feries i -j-2+3 * * * -J-», which has v for its
general term, is —^ $ and the fum of the feries
1 ‘ 2 , 2 • 3,3 * 4.. . , , «0-M)
2 ' I • 2 ' ' I
is ”(”+0 0+2)
1 . 2- 3
74 ] S E R
for its general term : Hence it will happen, as in the Series,
two foregoing problems, that the fum of all the terms
of the former feries will be equal to the laft term of the
latter ; which conclufion may be expreffed in the form
of a theorem, as follows :
Theorem. T/ie fum of n terms of a fries having
for its general term the funBion,
l) 2) • * * -l)
I * 2' f-p
is equal to
a04-i)(«-f 2) O-f/?
i * 2 • 3 •• • (y>+i)
Or, fetting afide the denominators of the terms, we
may exprefs the theorem thus : The fum of n terms of
a feries, having for its general term the exprejfion
K^+OO-i-2) • • *
is equal to
"O + Offt-H) • • • Q4;j)
T+i
We (hall here give a few particular cafes of this laft;
general formula.
The next feries which has —- 1 ^ 2-- for its ge-
i * 2 • 3 6
neral term, as well as all that fucceed, will be found to
have the very fame property, as may be proved as fol¬
lows. Let p denote any term of the feries of natural
numbers i, 2, 3, &c. Then, becaufe
v-\-p v—1
1=—— ,
T + 1 + i
if we multiply thefe equals by the produdl of all the fac-
-1
—, we get
={:
■y-j-i 1/4-2 0 v + p-
tors v, —4—, —L-, &.c. to -■
2 3 P
i/(i/-f-1) (i/-{- 2) • • • {v-^-p—1)
1 . 2 • 3
M^+t)(D-f.2) ’ (v+p)
_ i • 2 * 3 • • Cy?+i)
} o—Qi/(i> + i) ^ • • (y+p—1)
1 ‘ 2 - 3 •’’OH-1)
Now, if in this identical equation we fubftitute the
numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. to n fucceflively for v, the re-
fults obtained from its firft member
0 (^>+2) • • • (i>4-J9—x)
1 • 2 • 3 ' * * jo
will be a feries having this fun&ion for its general term,
and the terms of which will evidently be the difference
between the terms of another feries having the firft part
of the fecond member of the equation, viz.
i/0-fi)Q4-2) • -■ (1/4-^)
1 • 2'3**;(i>+0 *
I.
I + 2+3+4 * * * -f-«—
^«04-i)
II. 1 • 24-2*34-3 ‘4+4‘5*'*+«0+0
 n (n4-i)(n4-2)
~T~
III. 1 • 2* 34-2'3 • 44-3 ’4' $ '*• +1)(«+2)
^.»(” + i)(;? + 2)(«+3)
4
(to.) By means of the above general theorem wre may
find the fum of any number of terms of a feries com-
pofed of the powers of the terms of an arithmetical pro-
greflion, the general term of which will, in the fimpleft
cafe, be vp, p being a given number. The manner of
doing this will appear from the following problems.
Prob. III. It is propofed to find the fum of n terms
of the feries of fquares 1 4-44.94.164-25+, &c. or
i* + 2*+31+4*+ 5*+, &c.
I he general term of this feries being 1/2, we put it
under this form, 1/f 1/4-1)—1/,• hence we get by fub¬
ftituting I, 2, 3, &c. for i»,
l*~l * 2—t,
2*—2 * 3—2,
3*=3 ‘ 4—3>
4*—4 • 5—4»
«*=«(» 4-I)—
Therefore adding, we find
i* + 2*4-3*4-4* 4.?/*
^V1 • 2 + 2'3 + 3 • 4+4’5'"+«(«+1)
l—(1 + 2+3+4'••+«)*
But
(i—^)0-JXample, 1Ct ^ <luantities beo» c> d> then it is manifeft that («—o) + {b—a) + (V—£) +
S E R [ ,75
Series. But by the general theorem (9.)
1'2 + 2 ’ 3+3 * 4 * ’ * +” (« + x) =”
and, i-J-2 + 3+4 •••
2
therefore is + 2*-f-31+4i * ’ * +«*
_ « («4'I)(W + 2) «(» + i)
3 2
_»(« + !) (2« + l)
~ 6
We might have arrived at the fame conclufion by
confidering that fince v1, the general term of the feries,
is equivalent to (■y-J- 1)—v, the feries muft be the dif¬
ference between two others, one having ‘y('u-f-x) and
the other v for its general term j for the fake of perfpi-
cuity, however, we have put down the terms of all the
three feries.
Prob. IV. It is propofed to find the fum of « terms
of the feries
i? + 2,+35+45 +55 &c-
The general term in this cafe is ■y* $ now to transform
this function, fo as to deduce the fum of the feries from
the general theorem, we aflume
where A and B denote quantities which are to have
fuch values as (hall render the two fides of the equation
identical whatever be the value of v ; taking now the
product of^the factors, we have
DJ—iy5 -f-(A-f-3) (A-j-B-j-l)?/,
Therefore, by the theory of indeterminate coefficients,
(Algebra, § 261.)
A-f-3 = o, A-}-B-f 2=0 :
Hence we find Arr — 3, Err — A—2= 1 ; thus it ap¬
pears that v being any number whatever,
v3—v (ti-f-i) 2)—3 w (^-4-1) + ^.
Now, let S denote the fum of n terms of the feries
under confideration, which has <y3 for its general term,
and put P, Q, R for the like fums of the three feries,
whofe general terms are the functions v (‘y-f-1^ (?>-}-2),
ft (ft-)-1) afid refpeftively •, then, it is evident that
S“P—3^-j-R. But by the theorem, (9.)
p  («-{r2) (^-f-3)
4
«(«+!) (* + 2)
a- -
2 ’
therefore, s=
_„C„+I)(„+2)4+"fctO,
and by proper reduffion, S, or
ij + 2?+33+43>,*+«5=—
] S E R
Corollary. We have found (Prob. I.) that
n (n-4-i')
x + 24-3+4 • * +«_ ^ ,
therefore, comparing this with the refult juft now ob¬
tained, it is evident that
(i + 2 + 3 + 4 • • • +«)*-13 + 2J+33+4S • • • +«* j
this is a very curious and elegant property of numbers.
(11.) It is manifeft that by the mode of proceeding
employed in laft problem we may inveftigate the fum of
n terms of the feries
1TO_j_2OT+3w+4OT+, &c.
vi being any whole pofitive number whatever : and in¬
deed in the very fame way we may find the fum of any
number of terms of a feries, whofe general term is
a + £ft + Cft*+f/ft3+, &c.
where a and b, &c. denote given numbers j namely, by
transforming it into a fundlion of the form
A+Bft+Cft (ft+l) +Dft (ft+ l) ('y4-2) + > &c.
where A, B, and C, Sec. denote conftant quantities.
Our limits, however, will not allow us to go into
particulars.
(12.) The next clafs of feries we (hall confider, com¬
prehends fuch as may be formed by the fucceffive fub-
ftitution of 0, «+i, 0 + 2, &c. (0 being put for any
given quantity whatever) in the feries of fun£tions
__I 1 i &c.
ft(ft + l),ft(ft+l)(ft + 2)’ft(ft + l)(ft + 2)(ft + 3)’
We {hall begin with the ftrft of thefe.
Prob. V. It is propofed to find the fum of n terms
of the feries
1 ,  l + I. 4 &c.
0(0+1 V (0+1) (0+2) (0+2) («+3V ’
which is formed by fubftituting 0, 0 + 1, « + 2, &c.
fucceflively for v in the general term ^^4^).
Whatever be the value of ft, we have
1 _1 1
ft (ft+ 1) ft ft+ i ’
therefore, proceeding as in the foregoing problems, yve
get
1 ~ 1 1
0(0+1) 0 0 + 1’
1 _ 1 T
(0 + 1) ^0 + 2) 0 + 1 0 + 2. ?
1   1 i
(0+2) (0+3) 0 + 2 «+3 ’
1 _ 1 1
(a-j-w—2) (0+0—x)—0 + «—2 0+0—1’
1   1 1
(a+«—1) (0+0) 0+0—I 0 + 0"
Here it is evident that the terms of the feries to be
fummed''
Series*
Series.
S E It [ 176 ]
fummed are the differences betwixt every two adjoining
S E R
terms of this other feries.
1 1
Series.
I
a
a-\-n
(o + «) (fi + «-f" 1) ^
a-J-l a + 2 «+3
Hence it immediately follows, that the fum of all the confequently, the fum of all the terms of the former is
terms of the former is the difference between the two ^a|£ difyerence between the extreme terms of the
extreme terms of the latter 5 that is latter or is =
,I_l 1 1
(13.) From thefe two particular cafes it is eafy to fee
how we may fum the feries when the general term is
I i J X  
-j-I )^ “j” t ^ 2) ^0!-f-W—1) -f-^)
a-\-n
If we fuppofe the feries to be continued ad infinitum.
then, as n will be indefinitely great, and
a-\~n
indefi-
s'0+I)0+2) • • • O+iO’
nitely fmall, the fum will be limply — $ or in other ^ being any whole number whatever : for fince
words, the fraftion — is a limit to the fum of the feries.
viv+p) v V-\-p
Prob. VI. Let it be required to find the fum of n therefore, multiplying the denominators by all the fac-
terms of this feries.
1 X
<a + l)(«+2)~*~(o+i)(o+2) 0+3) +
   L &.C.
(«4-2)(«+3)C«+4) ^
the general term in this cafe being
Becaufe
tors which are intermediate between v and
we have
P
*0+1) 0 + 2) . . . 0+p)
1
K*'+I)0+2) • • • 1)
by
  —- —   —, therefore, multiplying
v(v+Z) V 6
, we have
 =J—1 1_
+ + L (^ + i)(‘y + 2).
and hence, by fubflituting a, a-{-I, a-j-2, &c. fuccef-
fively for v,
20+0
1
(<z; + i)(v + 2)^+3) . . . (v+p)'
Now the latter fide of this equation is a general expref*
lion for the difference between any two adjacent terms
of a feries whofe general term is
(t/-f-2) . . . (v-\-p—1)’
«(a -{-1 ^ (^a 2)
rS 1
^ L afo4-1
(a + I)Ca + 2)Cfl+3)
1 ;}•
0+0
-j-1) [ci -|- 2)
I
}•
0 + 00 + 2)
therefore the difference between the firft and laft terms
of this feries muff be the fum of the feries whofe gene¬
ral term is the function on the other fide of the equa¬
tion, viz.
P
0 + 2)0+3)
I
0+00+3)0+4)
 I l
O+3)0+4) ^
=+r
0 + 00+3)
v(w-f-l)0+2) . . . (v+jo)*
Hence we have the following very general theorem.
Theorem. Let a denote any number whatever, and
let 1, 2, 3, • • • be a feries of numbers, each of which
exceeds that before it by unity ; the fum of n terms of a
feries formed by fubjlituting the numbers a, a-j-i, a-J-2,
&c. to a-f-n—I fuccejfively for v in the fundi ion
0+-7Z—00+00+ w + 0
i 1 1 7
^ L0+”—00+0 0+00+w+0j
Hence it appears that the terms of the feries to be fum¬
med are the halves of the differences of the terms of the P
feries
i)0-f-2) ... 0+jO
is equal to
13 «0 + 00 + 0 • • • 0+p—0
V I 1 
Ca+n)Cw+;*+I)Ca+w‘b2) • • •+(a
+n+p—1)
Corollary.
S E R [I
Si i*es. Corollary. The fame feries continued ad infinitum
7 is equal to
i 5 
p fi (a-|-x) («-{” 2)' ’' i)*
(14.) We flball now give a few examples of the ap»
plication of this theorem.
Example 1. Required the futn of n terms of the feries
—j ■■ ^ Sec#
2 ‘ 3 • 4 ' i' 3 ' 4 ‘ 5 ‘ ^ 4 ‘ 5 ’ ^ ‘ 7
Tlie terms of this feries are evidently produced by the
fucceflive fubftitution of the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, &c.
-for v in the function
2)04-3) ’
therefore, comparing this expreffion with the general
formula, we have a—2,p~^^ and the fum required
r  .1 7
t72'3'4 (2_f-,i)(3+n)(4+n)-t
Ex. 2. Required the fum of the feries
1 + 1
77 ] S E R
(t>^i)04#2)=:A0-f 2)0+3)+BO-f 3)4-C,
and by multiplying get
^* + 3 ^ + 2=A i>*4-(5 A-}-B)^+(6 A-f3 B-j-C) j
therefore, that v may be indeterminate, we mud make
A—1, 5 A-f-Br=3, 6 Aq*3 B-f-C^ra,
from which equations we pet Arri, B7— c Arr; —2,
2—6 A—£ B:z=2, fo that
1 _ (-^42)(i'-f3)—20+3)4-2
^0+3) ^0+00+2)0+3)
  I 2
~ ^0+0 ‘»(‘U+l)(u+2)
+ 1 .
*>0+00+2)0+3)
Thus it appears that the propofed feries is refolvable in.
to three others, the general terms of which all .agree
with the theorem. Now the fum of the infinite feries
whofe general term is —- appears by the theorem
to be -, or 1, becaufe a=zi, and the fum of the infinite
a
~2
+, &c.
feries whofe general term is
i-q-y 4*7’io 7,io,i3 io*I3’x6
continued ad infinitum.
By a little attention it will appear that its terms are
produced by the fubftitution of the numbers + 1+
2j, &c. fqpceflively for v in the fundtion
©0 + I)0+'2)
, is in like
3 K3 t;+3)C3 2’4-6) 27u(u+1)0+2) ?
Bi this cafe then a~:+ p— 2, therefore the fum is
r 1 1
24’
2 2 7 t X 14
manner found to be “ + ^ ’ anc^ ^iBy, the in-
2
finite feries whofe general term is — -7  
©0+1)0+2)0+3)
. " 2 t I
is — -—— =r — ; therefore, colledtin^ thefe into one.
3 1 • 2* 3 9 7
the fum of the propofed feries is I— -4-- = the
1 x 9 18’
anfwer.
Ex. 4. Required the fum of the infinite feries
(15.) When the fundtion from which the feries is
derived has not the very form required in the theorem,
it may be brought to that form by employing fuitable
transformations, as in the two following examples.
Ex. 3. It is propofed to find the fum of the feries
1 r 1 1 0
 f f“”2+ +’
1.4 1 2. ^ 1 3-6 4.7
continued ad infinitum.
This feries is evidently formed by the fubftitution of
the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. fucceflively for v in the func¬
tion ——^—-. This exprefiion, however, does not in
©0+3)
its prefent form agree with the general formula, becaufe
the factors ©+1, © + 2 are wanting •, therefore to tranf-
form it, we multiply its numerator and denominator by
(©+1) 0 + 2), and it becomes
0+00+2)  
©0+00+2)0+3)*
we next aflume its numerator
Vol. XIX. Part I.
+, &c.
2* 3 "4 3 ’4'5 4 s 5 *6 S’6'1
The terms of this feries are evidently formed by the
fubftitution of the numbers 2, 3, 4, fucceftively in the
fundtion
©(©+1) (©+ 2)”
NoW ©—1=:©+2—3 •, therefore,
©—1 1
©O+1)0+ 2) ©(©+1) ©0+OO+2) ’
thus it appears that the propofed feries is reducible to
two others, one having its terms produced by the fub¬
ftitution of 2, 3, &c. for © in the fundtion -—-—
©O+i)
and the other by a like fubftitution in the fundtion
 3
Now, by our theorem, the fum of
©0+0 0+2)
-3
the firft of thefe is -, and that of the fecond is
2 2
* * I '
Serlet
l.
S *E R1 [' 178
1 therefore the fum of the propofed feries is
2 • 3 4
1 1 _1
a"-?
s e n
From thefe examples it is fufficiently evident how the
theorem is to be applied in other caies 5 and it appears
alfo that by means of it we can fum any feries whatever
whofe general term is of the form
A B  _C 
K1 + *0(1(^+1) +1+2)(^+3)
&e.
or admits of being reduced to that form.
(16.) It deferves to be remarked that the feries
I+I + i+I+I+,&c.
1 2 3 4 j
which is of a very Ample form, and in appearance of the
fame nature as thofe we have fummed, does not how¬
ever admit of being treated in the fame manner j and
indeed, if it be continued ad infinitum, its fum is in¬
finite, that is, it exceeds any number which can be af-
figned. The truth of this aflertion will be evident if
a a -f- X a -f- 2 a -j- n-
will be greater than the other feries
11 1
a
"('X) "(‘X) ‘’(,+«)
xxr
Now this laft being evidently a geometrical feries, of
1
which the common ratio is
, i, its fum is
i-f-’
(i
1
l+~
a
('+:)
H —I *
therefore, the fum of the feries
1 1 1  1 
« fl-f-1 a -f- 2 ' <7 3
Cl
will always be greater than this expreffion •, but if we
we can (hew that a certain definite number of its terms, fUppofe n fo great that the quantity f 1 ] is equal
beginning with any propofed term, can always be found, \ u '
the fum of which lliall exceed an unit or x 5 for this to, or exceeds a, which is evidently always pofTible, then
being the cafe, as we can go on continually in afligning
fuch fets of terms, we can conceive as many to be taken
as there are units in any propofed number however great •,
and therefore their fum, and much more the fum of all
the terms of the feries from its beginning to the end of
the laft fets of terms, wTill exceed that number. Now
that this can always be done may be proved as follows:
Let the term of the feries from which wTe are to
the above expreffion for the fum of the geometrical fe¬
ries will be equal to I, or will exceed 1 j therefore, the
fame number of terms of the feries —4.—-— +
a ' tf-f-l
4, &c. will always exceed 1 j now this
reckon be -, then, if the thing be poflible, and if n be
the requiftte number of terms, wTe muft have
11 1 1 1
«*^"«41 +
Now becaufe
«42 «43
is the property of the feries we propofed to demonftrate.
When «=^l > then o*=a^i4^) > but
this quantity is greater than «4W—1 the denominator
of the laft term of the feries
*' * +
. Cl —Tl X
“('X) -“ + 2 + o’
, “('X) =',+3X+X
and in general,
a(I+^)P=“+P ' P P
a a -j- X 2 a 4 3 ^ l
the fum of which, xve have proved, will upon that hy-
pothefis exceed unity j much more then will the fum
exceed unity if we fuppofe the feries continued until the
denominator of its laft term be equal to, or greater than
a1.
Hence, beginning with the term If, it appears that
x * 2
1 &c-
X+T-
T+7
therefore, p being any whole number,
a anc* confe(iuently
25=5
A+A " •+6_6_26>-
“(■X)?i
hence it follows that the feries
&c.
458329=677*'
Although the fum of the feries we have been confider-
ing is infinite, yet it evidently increafes very flowly j
indeed it is a limit to all fuch as have a finite fum $ for
every
S E R [i
Series, every infinite feries, the terms of which decreafe fafter
— vthan the reciprocals of an arithmetical progreflion, is al¬
ways finite.
(17.) We have already explained what is meant by a
recurring feries, (2.) we (hall now treat briefly, firft, of
their origin, next of the way in which they may be
fummed, and laftly, of the manner of determining the
general term of any particular feries.
The feries which is produced by the developement of
a rational algebraic fraction has always the property
which conftitutes the charadleriftic of the clafs called
Recurring, (2.) and on the other hand, any feries hav¬
ing that property being propofed, an algebraic fraftion
may be found by the expanfion of which the feries (hall
be produced.
The fraction ^—-——, for example, by dividing the
numerator by the denominator is converted into the infi¬
nite feries
I -P3 A;-f-4 ^*4.7 -f I I *s-f, Sec.
which is of fuch a nature that if T, T', T", denote any
three of its fucceeding terms, their relation to one ano¬
ther is expreffed by the equation
79 ] S E R
or place j and as whatever number of terms is contained
in the fcale, the manner of fumming the feries is the
fame, we (hall in what follows, for the fake of brevity,
fuppofe that it confifts of three, in which cafe it may be
exprefled thus,
p T("-i>-J-y T(>t-i)-{-7*T(’')rro,
where p, q, r denote certain given quantities.
The fcale of relation affords the following feries o£
equations,
p Tio-f-y Tui-f-^* rf,3)=o,
Tu) -f*y T( j) -J- r T(4)=o,
p T(j)-f-<y T(4)-j-r T(5)=o,
p Ttn-D-j-y T<M—i)-}-r T<n)tro»
Taking now the fum of thefe equations, we get
7?(T(i)-j-T(i)-fT(3) * * • +T<**-a))-j
“f-^( If1)-}- 1 C'(4) • • • -J- 1(11—1)) > ~o.
-j-r(T(j)-(-T(4)-f-T(s) • • • 4- 1 (n)) J
But, putting s for the fum of n terms of the feries, this
equation may manifeftly be expreflfed thus,
Serits
T"=rT x'+V x.
If we employ algebraic divifion to convert the frac¬
tion into a feries, the law of its terms will not appear
fo readily as if we ufe the method of indeterminate co¬
efficients. By this method we affiime the fradtion
nrA + B (v-J-C a;*-{-D a;3 -j-E x4, -f- &e.
■and hence, multiplying by the denominator, and bring¬
ing all the terms to one fide, as explained in Algebra,
§ 261, we have
p(s—T (»).—T(«-1 j) }
T(o—T(»)) t=o.
+r(s—Td)—Tui) j
Hence, after redudlion, we find .rrz:
p(T(i—1 )4-l ;«))-Py(^T(r)-{- r (W)) -j-r(T( r ) 4* T( J))
P' +9+r
From which it appears that in this cafe the fum de¬
pends only on the two firft and the two laft terms of
the feries.
A + B-l +CT +DT
—1—A > x—B > x2—C S-a;3-!-, &c. rso,
_2 3 -a 3 -b3
and hence,
A—1=0, C—B—A=ro,
B—A—2=0, 1)—C—B—o,
&c.
From thefe equations it appears that the law of the fe¬
ries is fuch as we have afligned.
The equation exprefling the relation which fubfifts
among a certain number of fucceeding terms of a recur¬
ring feries, is called its fcale of Relation. The fame
name is alfo fometimes given to the equation exprefling
the connexion of the coefficients of the terms. Thus
the fcale of relation of the foregoing feries is either
T'^Tat+T'a;2,
where T, T', and Tw denote any three fucceeding terms
of the feries, or it is
R=p+&
where P, £) and R denote their numeral coefficients.
(x 8.) We come next to (hew how the fum of any pro¬
pofed number of terms of a recurring feries may be
found. Let the feries continued to n terms be
T(i)-}-T(i)-f.Tm • • • +T(n-z)-fT(,-.,-i-T w,
where the characters Tt»), T(i), &c. denote the fuccef-
five terms, and the numbers (i), (2), 6tc. their order
Example. It is propofed to find from this formula
the fum of n terms of the feries
l-f-2.v-f-3A;1-j-4A;3-f 5.r4-f, &c.
its fcale of relation being
AT2 T(h—2) 2A T(n—t)-»j-T (’!)—O.
Here pzzx', —2A?, rm, therefore, obferving that
the laft two terms of the feries muff: be («—1)#"—1
and nxn~\ we have, after fubftituting and reducing,
 l—(«-j-i)A?"-f-r7 a;"^1
J’-—,——————— ‘ 0 #
I 2 X-\-X
This formula will not apply in the cafe of *rrl, be-
caufe then the numerator and denominator are each :
but in fuch cafes as this we may find the value of the
fundHon which exprefles the fum by what is delivered
at § 90, Fluxions.
(19.) The procefs by which we have determined the
value of n terms of the feries Tiij-f-T^j-J-Tm-f-, &c*.
will alfo apply to the finding the rational fraCtion from
which the feries may be deduced, which is al(b the fum
of the feries continued ad infinitum. For in this cafe
the equation from which we have deduced the fum
being
P(T<i>-f-T(a)-fT<J)-f-, &C.)*1
“F?(T<»>-f-T(j>-j-T(4)-j-, &c<) C=o,
4-r(T(5)-f.T<4)-j-Tun-j-, &c.)3
Z 2
tha!
S E 11
Series.
that is,
ps^-q (j1—-T( o)-j-r [s—T(*)—T(>))=ro,
we have
[
_ (?+r)r-F(I)+rT(u
p+q+r
For example, let it be required to find the fraction,
which being developed produces the feries
I-j-2x-j-3^*+4v3*i“> &:c•
180 ] S E R
+ + &c.
7Z^:=^-+ Qv*+Q.?v+>&c*
Series,
therefore, fince — rr—
I UK fi.X1 I
-px I—qx
it fol¬
lows that the developement of the fradlion a Jt-^x 
I—»X fix1
which proceeds according to the powers of #, is
♦
♦he fcale of relation of which is
x1 T <‘*-2 >— 2#T <«-1 )-}-T(»)-j-o.
Here p—x1, q~—2^, r=:l, Td)=:i,T(»)=:2» j there¬
fore, fubftituting in the formula, we get
i l
I 2X-\-X* ~ (I—x)1
for the fraction required, or for the fum of the feries
continued ad infinitum.
(2o). We come now to the laft branch of the theory
of recurring feries which we propofed toconfider, name¬
ly, how to find in any cafe the general term.
We (hall begin with the molt Ample, and fuppofe the
fraftion to be -——, which being expounded into a fe¬
ries by divifion, is
a-\-apx-\-aplx1-\-ap‘ix' -f, See.
here it is immediately manifeli that the general term is
Next let us fuppofe the fraction to be
a-\-bx
i—ux—fix1
Let the two roots of the quadratic equation I—ax—fix1
rro be # =—, x = —, fo that r—px—O, and i—qx
p q
“o; therefore, i—ax—fix1^ (i—px) (i—qx), thus,
we have
a-^-bx a-\-bx
I—ax—fix1- (i—px)f—qx)'
Let us aifume this expreffion equal to
P , ^
-px
-qx
where P and Q denote quantities which are to be inde¬
pendent of x, then, reducing to a common denominator,
we have
aj-bx —CyP-|-/>Q.)^
(lr—px) (I —qx) (I —px) (I —qx)
(P+Q,)P^+Q,^)«+(P/+Q.<7*)«*
And here it is evident that the general term is (Pp"_I
+ Qqn~l)xn-\
Let us take as a particular example the fra£tion
I*—#
i—x—2x*~’ w^en expanded into a feries, be¬
comes
i -f-ox-f-ix1-}- 2x3-f-6x4+ioxs
-f-22A;<s-J-42X7-{-86x8-f-, &.C.
Here, from the equation I—x—2xz=:o, we get xrr£
and x~—l, fo that i—2x and i-{-x are diviforsof the
fun&ion I—x—2x% that is, I—x—2xI= (i+x)
(i—2x) j hencep——l,q—2, and fince a— I, b——I j
therefore P=: y, and the general term (Py-1 -f-
Qy1) x'!_I becomes by fubftituting
4 —i)n“x4—2n—1 f- xn“ml = a;”-1*.
L3 J ~3 3 3
where the fign -j- is to be taken when n is an odd
number j but the fign — when n is even.
Sometimes the values oip and q will come out ima¬
ginary quantities j thefe, however, will be found always
to deftroy one another when fubftituted in the general
term.
Let us next fuppofe the fraftion which produces a re¬
curring feries to be
a-\-b x-f-rx*
I—ax—/3xE—y X3’
III
Let x ~ X——, x= — be the three roots of the
p q r
cubic equation I—ax—fix1—yx*—o, then the deno¬
minator of the fraftion will be the produft of the three
faftors
i—px, i—qx, i—rx.
We muft now affume the. fraftion equal to the expref¬
fion
Hence, that x may remain indeterminate, we muft
make
p+Q.=ai ? p4-p Q=—b,
and from thefe equations we get
p __ ap+b ^   aq+b
~ p—q ’ ~ p—q *
Now, by the operation of divifion, we find
p , Q , R .
I—px* i—q x* i—rx7
in which P, £), R denote quantities which are indepen¬
dent of x.
The three terms of this expreflion are next to be re¬
duced to a common denominator and collefted into one, .
and the coefficients of the powers of x in the numerator
of the refult are to be put equal to the like powers of x
in the propofed fraftion, we fball then have
P -{*...
S E R
Senes. P -f* Q _f"R—
—v ' (r7+r)p+(/’+OQ.+t/,4-7)R=—^
qrV+prQ+pq¥,=c,
and by thefe equations the valuer of P, £), R may be
found.
Let
Q
R
be now refolved into fe-
x—px i-—qx i—rx
ties by divifion 5 then, adding the like powers of x in
each we have
(P+Q.+R)+(pp+Q.7+Rr)*-KPpl+Qy
4-Rr*)x*4-, &c.
for the feries which is the developement of the fraftion
a-\-b x-\-c x*
l— a x—/3 a;1—y x*
and here the general term is evidently
(P/,“I+Qy-I+Rp,-,>"-1;
and in the very fame manner may the general term be
found in every cafe in which the denominator of the
fradlion admits of being refolved into unequal factors.
(21.) Let us now fuppofe the fra&ion to have the
a-\-bx . ...
lorm ——-—r-^, the denominator being tne produdl of
C1 px)
two equal factors j this fraftion cannot be decompofed
into other fra&ions, the denominators of which are the
lira pie fadtors of its denominator. We may, however,
transform it into two, which (hall have their numerators
conftant quantities by proceeding as follows : A flume
the numerator <7 +£ P-j-0 (1—p x), then, that a?
may remain indeterminate, we mult have P-j-Q—
—-pQj^ib, therefore
Q=—-,
The aflumption of a?—]?-{-£)(1—p x') gives us
therefore
[ 1S1 .] S E R
(22.) In general, whatever be the form of the frac¬
tion from which a recurring feries is derived, to deter¬
mine the general term we muft decompofe the fraclion
into others which may be as Ample aspoffiblej and pro¬
vided it be rational, and the higheft power of at in the
numerator at lead; one degree lefs than the higheft
power in the denominator, it may be always decompofed
into others having one or other of thefe two forms
a-\-b x
(1—pxy~ (1-
&
-px)1 I—p x‘
Now, putting the firft term of the latter fide of tills
equation under the form P(i—px}"1, it is refolved
by the binomial theorem into the feries
P(i-]-2p x-f-sp* x*-{-4p3 x3-l-, &c.)j
the other fraction —— being- expanded into a feries
1—px 6 1
is
Q,+Q.p*+Qy**+>
Therefore, the complete developement of
a-f-b x
(1—p x)*
p+Q.-K2p+Q>*-f(3p+Q)/>i*2+, &c.
and here the general term is manifeftly
P-p Q.)^-1 or, fubftituting for P and Q their
values,
^npa-\-(n—A?”-1
Q.
1—px’ (x—
in which expreffions P, Q, p, and q, denote quantities
independent of x. Each partial fradlion gives a recur¬
ring feries, the general term of which will be fufficient-
ly obvious 5 and as the feries belonging to the original
fraction, is the fum of thefe feries, fo alfo its general
term will be the fum of all their general terms.
We have now. treated of fome of the more general
methods of fumming feries which admit of being ex-
plained by the common principles of algebra ; but the
fubjedl is of great extent, and to treat of it fo as to give
a tolerable notion of its various branches, would require
more room than could with propriety be fpared in fuch
a xvork as ours.
(23.) The fluxionary calculus affords a method, al~
moft the only general one we poffefs, of lumming feries.
The general principles upon which it is applied may¬
be ftated briefly as follows. Since the fluent of any
fluxion containing one variable quantity may always be
expreffed by a feries, on the contrary every feries may
be regarded as the expreflion of a fluent: when any
feries then is propofed, we muft endeavour to find the
ftuxional expreflion of which that feries is the fluent $
and as we can always find the fluent of a fluxion, at
leaft by approximation, within given limits j we may
thence determine, if not the exaft, at leaft the approxi¬
mate value of any infinite feries. We (hall now ftiew how
this principle may be applied in fome particular cafes.
f
, Problem I. It is propofed to find the fum of«terms
of the feries
Ar-J-2 a:*-L3 **-{-4 x4 • • • • -j-n x”.
Let the fum be denoted by j. Then, multiplying all
the terms by — we have
x
x -|-2a; a;-f 3A;*a?-{-4X3a; • •' -\-nxn~xx
Let the fluent of both fides be now taken, and the re»
fult is
J'-^——x-]rxt-\-x3-\-xA • • • -\.xn>
Now the feries on the right-hand fide of this equa¬
tion is a geometrical progreflion, the fum of which is.
1 ^ I
known to be- ,• (Algebra, § 106.). Therefore
P's x a;—a?b + i
J x ~ 1—-as ’
Series.
and
S E R
Series, and, taking the fluxions,
sx x—(«-f-\')xnx-\-n xn+’lx
~X r'^ (x—x)*
Hence we find
 X tf«+*
S~ (l~A?)*
[ 1S2 ]
S E R
X
Serit?,
I—x
and taking the fluents,
szrv—log. (i—
log. (i—*)
log. (x—
^ . . . .,ir To determine the conftant quantity c, let us take
This refult agrees with that formerly found (17.) of x_^ ^ in this cafe aU the terms of the feries va.
this article. nilh fo that j-=o, alfo log. (i—A:) = log. 1—05 and
1 l l.l
I -|— -~ —|—
3 5 7 9
See.
Problem II. It is propofed to fum the infinite feries jn „enera| log- (i —*0 __ J_ / x __
, , , y x ” x a; \ " 2 3
—, —1—~ — , 8z:c. when .v=:o, then
/ 2 3
J°^' ^.1——— — x ; therefore 0 = — I -f-c, and ;
We may confider this feries as a particular cafe of the
more general feries,
„ „ x’f
x-
&c.
3 5 7
namely, that in which ar=: i. Putting, therefore, tlie
fum —s, and taking the fluxions, we have
,r:=:tf(l——a;*5-}-* &c.).
Now the feries in the parenthefis is obvioufly the de-
velopement of the rational fradiion y-^—$ therefore,
hence it appears that
log. (1-—x)
(i—a?) log. (1—*?)
■ log. (I—
f I.
Example. Let then our formula gives
 L   &c»
. X JL 2 • 2 ‘ 2 • 3 • 2* 3 * 4 • 23 4 • 5 • 24
J = __, and taking the fluent -r = arc (tan. rrA?) =I—^ap. log. 2=1.3068528.
Problem IV. Let the feries to be fummed be
-^-c, radius being unity. (Fluxions, § 60.). Now
when X—O, all the terms of the feries vaniih, fo that in
this cafe j-no; and as when a?=:o, arc. (tan. =x~)=:o ;
therefore c, the conftant quantity added to complete the
fluent is o, and we have Amply j-srarc. (tan. =a;), and
when arm, then a quadrant =.7853982.
m w/4-i , w-4-2 , , „
14 —-—.v*-4--*—-—x3 -f-, &c.
' n 1 «4-i r«-J-2
Putting s for this feries, -let all its terms be multiplied
by wn-‘ fo that the exponent of x in each may be iden-
Problem III. Required the fum of the infinite feries tical with its denominator, the refult is
Putting s for the fum, and taking the fluxions, we get an(^ hence taking the fluxions
. x/x* xi X* x* \ ; ^-1 + (w—i) s x Ajfl-*= («—I) X a;”-* +mx xn-'
(2+T+T+T+’ &c-)- +(w+i>,"+(W+2),Vf'+, &c.
Now the feries in the parenthefis is evidently equal to L„et.bo,’1J“” °f thiS eqUati°n be n°W m“It:P1!ed ^
Nap. log. (i-i), (fee Logarithms, pageyfi. * • and 11 becomes
column i.) , therefore
^ X Nap. log. (I—A).
s -j- («—i) s x xm~2=:(n—i)xxm~% 4- m x xm *
l)xxm-{-(tn-{-2)xxm&c.
Putting now the Angle character p for the fluxional ex-
To find the fluent, let us put v for the fun&ion preflion which forms the fuft member of tins equation,
j - we get by taking the fluents of both tides,
— log. (1—-at), then, taking its fluxion, we have
v=z — Xlog.(i—*)-
a;(i—a?) ’
.a„d_^xl„g.
therefore, fubftituting, we get
• • x x
■S —-V 4 7 r- — —
1 .r(x—.r) x
n—I
-1
n—1
771 1
p— —(Vm~I4-A?m4-Arm+,4-Arm+14"» &cc•
-«”-,4-a;”,(i4-.v4-a;*4-^3+» &c0 a
but the feries in the parenthefis is the developement of
therefore
1*—x
Vt-~ X™"1 4 »
fn-±"i ' 1—v
taking
S E R
[
Sene«.
, taking now the fluxions, and fubftituting inflead ofp the
expreflion it was put to reprefent, we get
sxm~l +(«—
nix x”
=(*-.>*— +-_v . {l_xr
and this, after reduftion, becomes
(«—i)af m x xx
x ' i—x. (i—»)s'
This fluxional equation being of the firft degree, and
firft order, its primitive equation may be found (from
the general formula given in Fluxions, § 182.) to be
• n—1 •
S  —SXwl
I pt, , mx x”~x
and this again, by remarking that^/;-
and that
(1-^
rtnxx1"~T   m xn P m xxn
^ I—x —«(l—.v) J n{\—x'
z(l ^)*
may be reduced to
j=i-
w(l—
+
'i f xn x
’J'(i—xY'
x71 X
^^
(1—x)
-maybe found by § 109.
Fluxions, and it muft.be fo taken, that after being
multiplied by it ftiall vanifli when x—o 5 for
then this hypothefis will make the whole function which
exprefles the value of s vanifh, except its firft term i j
as it ought to do.
Example. Let us fuppofe ti~ 2, then
/
' (!—X )
I X
"H 2 log. (1—4,
and
2—m
2JC
f" x* x   ( 2—ni)x
(1-—a;),— 2(1—x)
183 ] S E R
value of one or more terms by means of others which
are given, and which may be either at equal or unequal v“
intervals from one another, the places of the given terms
as well as of thofe fought being fuppofed known.
It is eafy to fee that this problem may be applied to
the conftruftion of logarithmic tables j for we may re¬
gard the logarithms of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,
&c. ad infinitum as the terms of a particular feries of
which the numbers themfelves are then the indices.
Having given the logarithms of fome numbers, we may
by interpolating deduce from them the logarithms of
others.
Again, in aftronomy we may confider the numbers
which exprefs the fucceffive obferved pofitions of a ce-
leftial body as the terms of a feries, their indices being
the intervals of time between the obfervations, and lome
affumed epoch, and the problem we are confidering. will
enable us to determine the pofition at any inilant dif¬
ferent from the times of aftual obfervation, provided the
intervals between the obfervations be fmall, and the in-
ftant for which the pofition is fottght not very remote
from thofe at which the obfervations were made.
(25.) With a view to illufirate the nature of the pro¬
blem to be refolved, let us confider fome particular cafe,.
as for example the arithmetical ferics
a, a-\-d, a-\-ld, o + 3^> «-{-4r/, &c.
Let t and t' be two given terms of the feries, which
are at any diftance from one another, and let n and nl
be their indices, or numbers which denote their places
in the feries. Alfo let y he any term whatever, and X'
its index. Then by the nature of an arithmetical feries,
t~a-\-{n—i)f/, —i)r/,
iV,
Now, as there are here three equations, each involving
the quantities a and d, we may eliminate both thefe
quantities bythe common rules (Algebra, Sedl. VII.),.
and this being done, we get
{x—ri) (;'—/)=(«'—») (y—/') ;
and hence we find this expreflion,
x-
-log. (I—*),
the fluent being here taken as direfled. In this cafe
then, after-collefling the terms, we get s, or
m4-i . , m-i-2 , .
- - x14- #3 4-,
3 4
&c.-.
(2—m)
log- (I—*)-
(24). There is a branch of the doflrine of feries which
is of confiderable importance in pure mathematics as
well as in many phyfical inquiries, and in the fcience
of aftronomy •, it is called the Interpolation of feries.
To interpolate a feries is to interpofe among its terms
others which {hall be fubjeft to the fame law, or which
fhall be formed in the fame manner as the original terms
#f the feries 3 or in other words, it is to find the
5
y-
■n' x-
y=^XI5+|x25=2rJ
the anfwer.
(26.) The mode of inveftigation by which we have
found a formula for the interpolation of an arithmetical
feries will apply alfo to others, if the law according to
which the terms are formed be known 3 in general,
however, the law of a feries to be interpolated is either
not
Series.
which is a general formula for interpolating any arith¬
metical feries, and it is obfervable, that it is entirely in¬
dependent both of the firft term and common difference- .
Example. . The yth term of an arithmetical feries is
15, and the 12th term is 25 : It is required to find the
loth term.
H£re n—*j, n'z=i2, Arrrio ;
1 = 15, /'=:25, y is fought.
Therefore by the formula,
te
vviii.
S E n t iB
tlot known, or it is not taken into account, and we
only confider the abfolute magnitudes of certain terms,
and the numbers expreffing their places in the feries.
To refolve the problem generally with thefe data, it is
ufual to proceed as follows : Let a Kraight line, AB,
and a point A in it, be affumed as given in pofition,
and let there be taken the fegments AD, AD', AD",
AD"', &c. proportional to the numbers denoting the
places of the terms of a feries reckoned from any term
affumed as a fixed origin, and at the points D, D'. D",
let there be erefted perpendiculars proportional to the
terms themfelves. Let us now fuppofe a curve to pafs
through C, C', C", C"', &e. then, if it be fo ehofen
that its curvature may vary gradually in its progrefs
from point to point, without any very abrupt changes
of inflection, and moreover, if the terms (which we may
fuppofe to be either at equal or unequal diflances) are
pretty near to one another, it is eafy to conceive, that
if AP be taken equal to the number exprefling the
place of a term between C"D", CAD"' any two others,
the term itfelf will, if not exactly, at leaft be nearly ex-
preffed by PQ, the ordinate to the curve.
As an infinite variety of curves may be found that
{hall pafs through the fame given points ; in this refpefl
the problem is unlimited ; it is, however, convenient to
affume fuch as are Ample and tractable. The parabolic
clafs poffefs thefe properties, and accordingly they are
Commonly employed.
Let us then exprefs the ordinates CD, C'D', C"D",
C'"D"', &c. which are the. given terms of the feries by
t, t\ A, P", Stc.
Wnd the abfeiffee AD, ADA, AD", AD'", or the numbers
denoting the order of the terms by
n, n' n", &c.
Put ?/ for Pp, a term to be interpolated, and x for
AP its place. Then, confidering x and y as indefinite
Co-ordinates, a parabolic curve that {ball pafs through
the points C, C', C", C'", &c. will have for its equa¬
tion
^rr:A-f-B w-f C ^*4-0 .v?, Stc.
the number of terms on the right-hand fide being fup-
pofed equal to that of the given points, and A, B, C,
&c. being put to denote conftant quantities. To de¬
termine thefe we mufi: confider that when x~n, then.
y—t, and that when x-Zzn', then and fo on, there¬
fore, fubftituting the fucceflive correfponding values of
x and y we get
t :rr A^-B n -f-C //* -j-D -{-, Sec.
^ rr A-j-B/z' C «'* -j-D «'3 &c.
/"=A-f B «" -f C -f-D «"3 -f, Sec.
d"—B w'"1-}-D «'"3 +, See.
Sec. See.
this feries of equations muff be continued until their
number be the fame as that of the coefficient, A, B, C,
D, See. If we now-confidef t, t\ t". Sec. and n, »',
Sec. as known, and A, B, C, See. as-unknown quan¬
tities, we may determine thefe laft by eliminating them
one after another from the above equations, as is taught
in Algebra, SeSi. XVII. And the values of A, B,
C, Sec. being thus determined and fubftituted in the ge¬
neral equation, we (hall have a general expreffion for y
in terms of x the number denoting its place and known
4 ] S E R
quantities ; and this is in fubftance the folution original¬
ly given of the problem by Sir Ifaac Newton, who pro-
pofed it in the third book of his Principia with a view
to its application in aflxonomy.
A celebrated foreign mathematician (Lagrange) has,
in the Cahiers de P Ecole Normal?, given a different
form to the expreffion for y. He has obferved that
finefe, when x becomes /?, n", n”\ Sec. fucceflively,
then ?/ becomes t, t', t", Sec. It follows that the ex-
preffion for y muff have this form.
y~ct /-f-/3 /'-fy f"-{-■) &c.
where the quantities «, /3, y, &c. muff be fuch func¬
tions of x, that if we put X~n, then «r= I and /3=o,
y—Q, See. and if Are put xzzn', then «—o, ji~\y
y—C, Sec. ; and again, if we make x^=n", then xz=oi
fi—o, y —i, &c. and fo on. Hence it is eafy to con¬
clude that the values of x, y, Stc. muff have the
form
 (v—;/ ) (r—n")(x—7/"') ^
* (>7—7/') (77 7/")(77—T/'")’
(it-—7?) (X 7/")(.V 77'") e
~ 'TRTT'i ^c*
Ss*h«,
7—
(77' 77) (77' 77") (tz'—7z'") *
(a 7/) (a 77') (a 77'")
(„"_„ ) (/A—//'")
(a 77) (a 77') (a 77'")
: («'"_«) («"'_,7>)(«'"_/Z")
Stc.
, Stc.
, Stc.
and here the number of fa£lors in the numerator and de*
nominator muff be each equal to the number of given
points in the curve. This formula would be found to
be identical with that which may be obtained by the
method indicated in laft article, if we were to take tbe,
aflual produtff of the faftors and arrange the whole ex-
preffion according to powers of a. It poffeffes however
one advantage over the other, viz. that of admitting of
the application of logarithms.
We ffiall now filew the application of this formula.
Ex. I. Having given the logarithms of 101, 102,
104, and 105, it is required to find the logarithm of
103.
In this cafe we may reckon the terms of the feries
forward from the firft given term, viz. log. 101, fo that
we have
t =log- 101 = 2.0043214,
t' = log. 102=2.0086002,
?/ = log. 103= term fought,
7"= log. 104=2.0170333,
d"= log. 105=2.02x1893,
77 =0,
n' =1,
Sc =2,
72" =3,
77'" =4.
Subffituting now in the general formula we get
XX—IX—2 X 2 X I X —2 2
7= —
X      s,
—IX—3X—4 6
2 X — X x—2
T X—2X—3
3 X 2 X—i
2x1 X—i
= -, 3=
3 4X3X1
t 2 /' 2 /" tm
Therefore ?/= y- 4 4   —
6 3 1 3 6
=2.0128372 the anfwer.
Ex.
S E R [ !
Senes, Ex. 2. Given a comet’s diftance from tlie fun on the
Seriogapa- following days at I 2 at night, to find its diftance De-
t*m’ , cember 20th.
December 12. dxftance 301, Dec. 24. diftance 715,
21. 629, 26. 772.
Here we {hall eftimate the places of the terms from
the time of the firft pofition, viz. December 12. There¬
fore
t ==_30I> n == o,
y is fought, x — 8,
/ = 620, 71' — 9,
l" ~ 715> «" =12,
/'/f = 772, 14.
In this cafe the general formula gives us
therefore
8/"
IF*
r: 5B6.3 the anfwer.
We fliall conclude this article with a brief enumera¬
tion of the beft works on the fubjeift which we have
been treating of.
Ars Conjeflandi, (Jac. Bernoulli). Methodus Dif-
ferentialis, (Newton). Methodus Incrementorum, (Tay¬
lor). Methodius Differ entialis. Jive Traci at us de Sum-
mat ion e et Interpolatione Serierum, (Stirling). Injiitu-
tiones Ca/ciil. Dff. (Euler). Emerfon's Method of In¬
crements. The differential method, (fame author). Mif-
cellanea Ana/yttca, (De Moivre). The various writings
of Landen and Simpfon. Theorie des Fonchons Anahj-
ti’/ucs, (Lagrange). Du Calcul des Derivation, (Arbo,-
gart). Trade dcs differences et des Series, (a fequel
to Lacroix’s work on the Calcul Differential, &e.).
Dr Hutton’s Mathematical and Philosophical Trails.
An Effay on the Theory of the various orders of Lo¬
garithmic Tranfcendents, with an Inquiry into their
applications to the Integral Calculus, and the Summa¬
tion of Series, by W. Spence, &c. &c.
SEEING APATAM, the capital of My fore, former¬
ly the dominions of Tippoo Sultan, is fituated in an iiland
of the Cavery river, about 290 or 300 miles from Ma¬
dras, and in N. Lat. 12° 32' and E. Long. 96° 47',
about four miles in length, by one and a half in breadth,
acrofs the middle, where it is likewife higheft, whence
it gradually falls and narrows towards the extremities.
The iveft end of the ifland, on which there is a fort of
confiderable ftrength, Hopes more, efpecially towards
the north ; and the ground rifing on the oppofite fide
of the river commands a diftinft view of every part of
the fort. The fort and outworks occupy about a mile
of the weft end of the ifland, and are diftinguilhed by
magnificent buildings, and ancient Hindoo pagodas,
contrafted with the more lofty and fplendid monuments
lately raifed in honour of the Mahometan faith. I he
great garden, called the haul Bang, covers about, as
much of the eaft end of the ifland as the fort and out-
works do of the w'eft ; and the whole intermediate fpace,
except a fmall inclofure on the north bank near the fort,
VOL. XIX. Part I.
S5 1 S E R
was, before the laft war, filled with houfes, and formed Serirgapa-
an extenfive fuburb, of which the greateft part was de- .tam>
ftroyed by Tippoo to make room for batteries to de- Scnnjftiam;
fend the ifland, when attacked by the combined forces v
of Earl Cornwallis and the Mahratta chiefs in Februa¬
ry 1792. This fuburb, or town of modern ftruilure,
is about half a mile fquare, divided into regular crofa
ftreets, all wide, and {haded on each fide by trees. It
is furrounded by a ftrong mud wall, contains many good
houfes, and feems to have been preferved by the Sultan
for the accommodation of merchants, and for the con¬
venience of troops ftationed on that part of the ifland
for its defence. A little to the eaftward of the tow'n
is the entrance to the great garden, which was laid out
in regular ftrady walks of large cyprefs trees, and
abounding with fruit-trees, flowers, and vegetables of
every defeription. It poffefled all the beauty and ele¬
gance of a country retirement, and was dignified by the
maufoleum of Plyder, and a fuperb new palace built by
his fon. This noble garden was devoted to deftruflion ;
and the trees which had fhaded their proud mafter, and
contributed to his pleafures, were formed into the means
of protecting his enemies in fubverting his empire. “ Be¬
fore that event, fo glorious to the arms of England, this
infulated metropolis (fays Major Dirom) muft have
been the richeft, molt convenient, and beautiful fpot
poffcffed in the prefent age by any native prince in In¬
dia *, but when the allies left it, the Sultan’s fort and
city only remained in repair amidft all the wrecks of his
former grandeur, the iiland prefenting nothing but the
appearance of wretched barrennefs. Tippoo is a man
of talents, enterprife, and great wealth ; but, in the opi¬
nion of our author, the remaining years of his ill-fated
life will be unequal to renew the beauties of his ter-
reftrial paradife.” 'This predidion was more than veri¬
fied in the fate of Tippoo ; for he loft his life in brave¬
ly defending Ins capital, which was taken by affault in
1799 by the Britifh troops under General Baird. See
India, N° 183.
SERINGHAM, an ifland of Indoftan, formed about
fix miles north-weft of Trinchinopoly by the river Ca¬
very, which divides itfelf into two branches : that to
the northward takes the name of Coleroon, but the
fouthern branch preferves its old name the Cavery,
Each of thefe rivers, after a courfe of about 90 miles,
empty themfelves into the fea •, the Coleroon at Devi-
cottah, and the Cavery near Tranquebar, at about 20
miles diftance from one another. In this ifland, facing
Trinchinopoly, flood a famous pagoda furrounded by
feven fquare walls of ftone, 25 feet high and four feet
thick. The fpace between the outward and fecond
walls meafured 310 feet, and fo proportion ably of the
reft. Each inclofure had four large gates, with a high
tower *, which were placed, one in the middle of each
fide of the inclofure, and oppofite to the four cardinal
points. The outward wall was about four miles in cir¬
cumference, and its gateway to the fouth was ornament¬
ed with pillars, feme of which were Angle ftones 33 feet
in.length and five in diameter ; while thofe that formed
the roof were ftill larger ; and in the inmoft inclofure
were the chapels.—About half a mile to the eaft was
another large pagoda called Jumhihijlna, which had but
one inclofure.
The pagoda of Seringham was held in great venera¬
tion, from a belief that it contained the identical image
A a of
S E II [ 186 ] S E R
* Seringham of the god Wiftnou worthipped by Brama •, and pilgrims
II came here from all parts of India with offerings of mo-
■ Serpens. nev to proCLire abfolution. A large part of the reve-
nue of the illand was allotted for the maintenance of
the Bramins who inhabited the pagoda 5 and thei'e, with
their families, formerly amounted to no fewer than
40,000 perfons, all maintained by the fuperllitious li¬
berality of the adjacent country.
SERIOLA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs
fyngenefia, and in the natural fyftem ranged under
the 49th order, Compofine. See Botany Index.
SERIPHIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs fyngenefia. See Botany Index.
SERI PH US, in Ancient Geography, one of the Cy¬
clades or i(lands in the Aigean lea, called Saxum Sen-
phium by Tacitus, as if all a rock 5 one of the ulual
places of banifhment among the Romans. The people,
Seriphii; who, together with the Siphnii, joined Greece
againft Xerxes, were almoft the only itlanders who re-
fufed to give him earth and water in token of (ubmif-
(ion, (Herodotus). Seriphia Rana, a proverbial faying
concerning a perfon who can neither ling nor fay $ frogs
in this iiland being faid to be dumb, (Pliny).
SERMON, a difcourfe delivered in public, for the
purpofe of religious inllrudion and improvement.
Funeral SF.RMON. See FUNERAL Orations.
SERON OF xVLMONDS, is the quantity of two hun¬
dred weight j of anile feed, it is from three to lour hun¬
dred j of Cadile foap, from two hundred and a half to
three hundred and three quarters.
SEROSITY, in Medicine, the watery part of the
blood.
SERPENS, in AJlronomy, a conftellation in the
northern hemifphere, called more particularly Serpens
Ophiuchi. The ftars in the conftellation Serpens, in
Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 18 ; in Tycho’s, 13 ^ in He-
velius’s, 22 } and in the Britannic catalogue, 64.
SERPENS Biceps, or Double-headed Snake ; a monfter
of the ferpent kind, of which feme individuals are de-
feribed by naturalifts.
SerpentES, Serpents, in the Linnaean fyftem of zoo¬
logy, an order of animals belonging to the clafs of am¬
phibia. See Ophiology.
The ferpent has been always confidered the enemy
of man ; and it has hitherto continued to terrify and
annoy him, notwithftanding all the arts which have
been praftifed to deftroy it. Formidable in itfelf, it
deters the invader from the purfuit j and from its fi¬
gure, capable of finding (belter in a little fpace, it is
not eafily difeovered by thofe who would venture to
encounter it. Thus poflViTed at- once of potent arms,
and inacceffible or fecure retreats, it baffles all the
arts of man, though, ever fo earneftly bent upon its
deftruftion. For this reafon, there is fcarcely a country
in the world that does not ftill give birth to this poi-
fonous brood, that feems formed to quell human pride,
and reprefs the boafts of fecurity. Mankind have
driven the lion, the tiger, and the wolf, from their
vicinity 5 but the fnake and the viper ftill defy their
power.
Their numbers, however, are thinned by human af-
fiduity *, and it is poffible fome of the kinds are wholly
deftroyed. In none of the countries of Europe are they
fufficiently numerous to be truly terrible. The various
malignity that has been aferibed to European ferpents
I
of old is now utterly unknown ; there are not above three Set
or four kinds that are dangerou-*, and their poilon ope¬
rates in all in the fame manner. The drowfy death,
the ftarting of the blood from every pore, the inlatiable
and burning thirft, the melting down the folid mafs of
the whole form into one heap of putrefaction, laid to be
occafioned by the bites of Alrican lerpents, are horrors
with which wre are entirely unacquainted, and are per¬
haps only the creatures of fancy.
But though we have thus reduced thefe dangers, ha¬
ving been incapable of wholly removing them, in other
parts of the world they ftill rage with all their ancient
malignity. In the warm countries that lie within the
tropics, as well as in the cold regions of the north,
where the inhabitants are few, the ferpents propagate
in equal proportion. But of all countries thole re¬
gions have them in the greateft abundance where the
fields are unpeopled and fertile, and where the climate
fupplies warmth and humidity. All along the fwampy
banks of the river Niger or Oroonoko, where the fun
is hot, the forefts thick, and the men but lew, the fer¬
pents cling among the branches of the trees in infinite
numbers, and carry on an unceafing war againft all
other animals in their vicinity. Travellers have allured
us, that they have often feen large fnakes twining
round the trunk of a tall tree, encompaffing it like a
wreath, and thus rifing and defeending at pleafure.—
We are not, therefore, to reject as wholly fabulous the
accounts left us by the ancients of the terrible devafta-
tions committed by a fingle ferpent. It is probable, in
early times, when the arts were little known, and man¬
kind were but thinly fcattered over the earth, that fer¬
pents, continuing undiilurbed poffelfors of the foreft,
grew to an amazing magnitude j and every other tribe
of animals fell before them. It then might have hap¬
pened, that ferpents reigned the tyrants of a diftrift
for centuries together. To animals of this kind, grown
by time and rapacity to 100 or 150 feet in length, the
lion, the tiger, and even the elephant itfelf, were but
feeble opponents. That horrible foetor, which even the
commoneft and the moft harmlefs fnakes are ftill found
to diffufe, might, in thefe larger ones, become too
powerful for any living being to withftand 5 and while
they preyed without diftinftion, they might thus alfo
have poifoned the atmofphere around them. In this
manner, having for ages lived in the hidden and un¬
peopled foreft, and finding, as their appetites were more
powerful, the quantity of their prey decreafing, it is
poffible they might venture boldly from their retreats
into the more cultivated parts of the country, and carry
confternation among mankind, as they had before de¬
flation among the lower ranks of nature. We have
many hiftories of antiquity, prefenting us fuch a pic¬
ture, and exhibiting a whole nation finking under the
ravages of a fingle ferpent. At that time man had not
learned the art of uniting the efforts of many to effeft
one great purpofe. Oppofing multitudes only added
new viftims to the general calamity, and increafed mu¬
tual embarrafl'ment and terror. The animal was there¬
fore to be fingly oppofed by him who had the greateft
ftrength, the bell armour, and the moft undaunted cou¬
rage. In fuch an encounter, hundreds mull have fal¬
len j till one, more lucky than the reft, by a fortunate
blow, or by taking the monfter in its torpid interval,
and furcharged with fpoil, might kill, and thus rid his
country
SEE. [ 187 ] SEE
Serpens, country of the deftroyer. Such was the original oc-
Serpent. CUpation of heroes ; and thofe who firft obtained that
name, from their deftroying the ravagers of the earth,
gained it much more defervedly than their fucceffors,
who acquired their reputation only for their ikill in de¬
ftroying each other. But as we defcend into more en¬
lightened antiquity, we find thefe animals lefs formi¬
dable, as being attacked in a more luccefsful manner.
We are told, that while Regulus led his army along the
banks of the river Bagrada in Africa, an enormous fer-
pent difputed his paffage over. We are allured by Pliny,
that it was l 20 feet long, and that it had deftroyed many
of the armv. At laft, however, the battering engines
were brought out againft it j and thefe aflailing it at a
diftance, it was foon deftroyed. Its fpoils were car¬
ried to Rome, and the general was decreed an ovation
for his fuccefs. There are, perhaps, few fatts better
afcertained in hiftory than this : an ovation was a re¬
markable honour ; and was given only for fome fignal
exploit that did not deferve a triumph : no hiftorian
would offer to invent that part of the ftory at leaft,
without being fubjeft to the molt Ihameful detection.
The Ikin was kept for feveral years after in the Capi¬
tol ; and Pliny fays he faw it there. At prefent, in¬
deed, fuch ravages from ferpents are fcarcely feen in any
part of the world ; not but that, in Africa and Ame-
' rica, fome of them are powerful enough to brave the
affaults of men to this day.
—Nequeunt expleri corda tuendo
Terribiles oculos, vultum villofaque fetis
Pe&ora.— Virgil.
We have given a place to the preceding remarks,
not fo much for their accuracy, as to fhow what were
formerly the fentiments of mankind concerning this tribe
of animals.
SERPENT, a mufical inftrument, ferving as a bafs
to the cornet, or fma// Jhawm, to fuftain a chorus of
fingers in a large edifice. It has its name ferpent from
its figure, as confifting of feveral folds or wreaths, which
ferve to reduce its length, which would otherwife be fix
or feven feet.
It is ufually covered with leather, and confifts of
three parts, a mouth-piece, a neck, and a tail. It has
fix holes, by means whereof it takes in the compafs of
two oftaves.
Merfennus, who has particularly defcribed this in¬
ftrument, mentions fome peculiar properties of it,
e. gr. that the found of it is ftrong enough to drown
20 robuft voices, being animated merely by the breath
of a boy, and yet the found of it may be attempered
to the foftnefs of the fweeteft voice. Another^ pecu¬
liarity of this inftrument is, that great as the diftance
between the third and fourth hole appears, yet whe¬
ther the third hole be open or ftiut, the difference is but
a tone.
Serpent, in Mythology, was a very common fymbol
of the fun, and he is reprefented biting his tail, and
with his body formed into a circle, in order to indicate
the ordinary courfe of this luminary, and under this
form it was an emblem of time and eternity. The fer¬
pent was alfo the fymbol of medicine, and of the gods
which prefided over it, as of Apollo and iEfculapius :
and this animal was the object of very ancient and gene¬
ral worlhip, under various appellations and chara£ters.
In moft of the ancient rites we find fome allufion to ,
the ferpent, under the feveral titles of Ob, Ops, Py¬
thon, &c. This idolatry is alluded to by Mofes, (Lev.
xx. 27.). The woman at Endor who had a familiar fpi-
rit is called Oub, or Ob, and it is interpreted Pythonif-
fa. The place where (he refided, fays the learned Mr
Bryant, feems to have been named from the worftiip
then inftituted •, for Endor is compounded of Kn adov,
and fignifies fans Pythonis, “ the fountain of light, the
oracle of the god Ador, which oracle was probably
founded by the Canaanites, and had never been totally
fuppreffed. Plis pillar was alfo called Abbadir, or Ab-
adir, compounded of ab and a dir, and meaning the
ferpent deity Addir, the fame as Adorus.
In the orgies of Bacchus, the perfons who partook
of the ceremony ufed to carry ferpents in their hands,
and with horrid fcreams call upon Eva ! Eva ! Eva !
being, according to the writer juft mentioned, the fame
as epha, or opha, which the Greeks rendered ophis,
and by it denoted a ferpent. Thefe ceremonies and
this fymbolic worfhip began among the Magi, who were
the fons of Chus ; and by them they were propagated
in various parts. Wherever the Ammonians founded any
places of worfhip, and introduced their rites, there was
generally fome ftory of a ferpent. There was a legend
about a ferpent at Colchis, at Thebes, and at Delphi ;
and likewife in other places. The Greeks called A-
pollo himfelf Python, which is the fame as Opis, Oupis,
and Oub.
In Egypt there was a ferpent named Thermuthis,
which was looked upon as very facred ; and the natives
are faid to have made ufe of it as a royal tiara, with
which they ornamented the ftatues of Ifis. The kings
of Egypt wore high bonnets, terminating in a round
ball, and furrounded with figures of afps 5 and the
priefts likewife had the reprefentation of ferpents upon
their bonnets.
Abadon, or Abaddon, mentioned in the Revelations
xx. 2. is fuppofed by Mr Bryant to have been the name
of the Ophite god, with whofe worfhip the world had
been fo long infe&ed. This worftiip began among the
people of Chaldea, who built the city of Ophis upon
the Tigris, and were greatly addi&ed to divination, and
to the worfhip of the ferpent. From Chaldea the wor¬
fhip paffed into Egypt, where the ferpent deity was
called Canoph, Can-eph, and C’neph. It had alfo the
name of Ob or Oub, and was the fame as the Bafilifcus
or royal ferpent, the fame as the Thermuthis, and made
ufe of by way of ornament to the ftatues of their gods.
The chief deity of Egypt is faid to have been Vulcan,
who was ftyled Opas. He was the fame as Ofiris, the
Sun, and hence was often called Ob-el, or Pytho-fol \
and there were pillars facred to him, with curious hie-
roglyphical inferiptions bearing the fame name ; whence
among the Greeks, who copied from the Egyptians,
every thing gradually tapering to a point was ftyled
obelos, or obelifeus.
As the worftiip of the ferpent began among the fons
of Chus, Mr Bryant conjedtures, that from thence they'
were denominated Ethiopians and Aithiopians, from
Ath-ope, or Ath-opes, the god whom they worfhipped,
and not from their complexion : the Ethiopes brought
thefe rites into Greece, and called the ifland where they
firft eftabliftied them, Ellopia, Solis Serpents infu/a, the
fame with Euboea, or Oubaia, i. e. “ the ferpent ifiand.”
A a a The
S E R [ 188 ] S E R
Serpent Tke fame' learned writer difeovers traces of the ferpent
S err in us v'or^1!P among the Hyperboreans, at Rhodes, named
  Opbiufa, in Phrygia, and upon the Hellefpont, in the
ifiand Cyprus, in Crete, among the Athenians, in the
name of Cecrops, among the natives of Thebes in Boeo-
tia, among the Lacedsemonians, in Italy, in Syria, &c.
and in the names of many places, as well as of the peo¬
ple where the Ophites lettled. One of the molt early
jherelies introduced into the Chriftian church was that
«>f the Ophitae. Bryant’s Analyfis of Ancient Mytho¬
logy, vol. i. p. 43, &c. p. 473, &c.
SERF ENT Stones. See CORNU Ammonis, and SNAKE-
Stones.
Sea-SERPENT. See SEA-Serpent.
SERPENT ARIA, Snake-root ; a fpecies of
Artstolochia. See Botany and Materia Medi-
c,a Index.
SERPENT ARIUS, in AJfrottomtf, a cnnflellation
of the northern hemilpbere, called alfo Ophiuchus, and
anciently Aifculapius. The liars in the confleilation
Serpentarius, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 29 •, in Tycho’s
15 ; in Hcvelius’s 40 j in the Britannic catalogue they
are 74.
SERPENTINE, in general, denotes any thing that
refembles a rerpent *, hence the worm or pipe of a Hill,
twilled in a fpiral manner, is termed a ferpeniine worm.
SERFENTINE-Slone, a fpecies of mineral belonging
to the magnefian genus. See Mineralogy Index.
Serpentine verfes, are fuch as begin and end with
the fame word. As,
Attibo Jlorentes atatibus. Arcades ambo.
Serpentine, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to
have a ferpeniine tongue, if it is always frifking and
moving, and fometimes paffing over the bit, inftead of
keeping in the void fpace, called the liberty of the
tongue.
SERPICULA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs monoecia. See Botany Index.
SERPIGO, in Surgery, a kind of herpes, popularly
called a tetter or ringworm. See Surgery.
SERPUL A, a genus belonging to the clafs of vermes,
and to the order of tellacea. See Conchology Index.
SERRANUS, Joannes, or John de Setres, a learn¬
ed French Proteftant, was born about the middle of the
j6th century. He'acquired the Greek and Latin lan¬
guages at Laufanne, and devoted himfelf to the lludy of
the philofophy of Ariilotle and Plato. On his return
to France he lludied divinity. He began to dilllnguifh
himfelf in 1572 by his Writings, but was obliged to fot-
fake his country after the dreadful maffaefe of St Bar¬
tholomew. He became miniller of Nifmes in 1382, but
was never regarded as a very zealous Calvinilt: he has
even been fufpfe61ed, though without reafon, of having
aftually abjured the Protedant religion. He was one
of the four clergymen whom Plenry IV. confulted about
the Romifh religion, and who returned for anfvver, that
Catholics might be faved. He wrote afterwards a trea-
tife in order to reconcile the two communions, entitled
De fide Catholic a. Jive de principiis religionis Chriftiance,
communi omnium Chrijlianorum confenfu,femper et ubique
ratis. This work was difliked by the Catholics, and
received with fuch indignation by the Calvinilfs of Ge¬
neva, that many writers have affirmed that they poifon-
ed the author. It is certain at lead that he died at
5
Geneva in 1598, at the age of 50. His principal Sen-arms
w-orks are, 1. A Latin tranflatidn of Plato, publifhtd II
by Henry Stephens, which owes much of its reputation T ’a”
to the elegance of the Greek copy -which accohipanie'.
it. 2. A Treatiffe oh the Immortality of the Souk
3. De Jlatu religionis et reipublicee in Francia. 4. Me-
tyoire de la yne guerre civile et derniers troubles de
France foils Charles IX. (h’c. 5. Inventaire general de
CHJloire de France, illujlre par la conference de C Eg life
et dc CEmpire, Ivc. 6. Recueil de chofe memorable ave¬
nue en France fous Henri II. Franpois II. Charles IX.
Henri III. Tbefe three hiflorical treatifes have been
juftly accufed of partiality and paffion 5 faults which it
is next to impoflible for a contemporary wwiter to avoid,
efpecially if he bore any part in the tranfaftiohs which
he deferibes. His ftyle is exceedingly incorreft and
inelegant; his miftakes too and misliatements of faids
are very numerous.
SERRATED, in general, fometbing indented or
notched in the manner of a faw j a term much ufed in
the defeription of the leaves of plants. See Botany
Index.
SERRATULA, Saw-wort, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural fyftem
ranged under the 49th order, Compojitw. See Botany
Index.
SERRATUS, in Anatomy, a name given to Seve¬
ral mufcles, from their refemblance to a faw. See A-
N ATOMY, Table of the Mufcles.
SERRISHTEHDAR, in Bengal, keeper of records
or accounts.
SERTORIUS, Quintus, an eminent Roman ge¬
neral \ (fee Spain), under the hiitory of which his ex¬
ploits are related.
SERTULARIA, a genus belonging to the clafs of
vermes, and to the order of zoophyta. See Helmin¬
thology Index.
SERVAL, Mountain Cat. See Felis, Mamma¬
lia Index.
SERVANDONI, John Nicolas, a celebrated ar¬
chitect, was born at Florence in 1695. He rendered
himfelf famous by hisexquifite tafte in architecture, and
by his genius for decorations, fetes, and building. He
was emplpyed and rt-Avarded by moft of the princes in
Europe. He was honoured in Portugal tvith the order
of Chrift : In France he was architect and painter to
the king, and member of the different academies efta-
blithed for the advance'ment of thefe arts; He received
the fame titles from the kings of Britain, Spain, Poland,
and from the duke of Wirfemberg. Notwithftanding
thefe advantages, his want of economy Was fo great,
that he left nothing behind him. Hfe died at Paris in
1766. Pafis is indebted to him for many of iti orna¬
ments. He made decorations for the theatres of London
end Drefden. The French kiftg’s the&lirC, called la
falle des Machines, was under his management for fome
time. He was periiiitted to exhibit fome fhoWs confin¬
ing of fimple decorations : Some of thefe were altonith-
ingly fablime ■, his “ Defcent of ./Eneas into Hell” in
particular, and his “Enchanted Foreft,” are well known.
He built and embellithed a theatre at Chamber for
Marefchal Saxe ; and furnifhed the plan and the model
of the theatre royal at Drefden. His genius for fetes
was remarkable ; he had the management of a great
number m Paris, and even in London. He conducted
one
s E R [ 189 1 S E R
gelvamlon!, one at Lifbon given on account of a viftory gained by
Servant. t}ie duke of Cumberland. He was employed frequently
by the king of Portugal, to whom he prefented feveral
elegant plans and models. The prince of Wales, too,
father to the prefent king, engaged him in his fervice ;
but the death of that prince prevented the execution of
the defigns which had been projected. He prefided at
the magnificent fete given at Vienna on account of the
marriage of the archduke Jofeph and the Infanta of
, Parma But it would be endlefs to attempt an enume¬
ration of all his performances and exhibitions.
SERVANT, a term of relation, fignifying a perfon
who owes and pays obedience for a certain time to an¬
other in quality of a mailer.
As to the feveral fotts of fervants : It was obferved,
under the article Liberty, that pure and proper llavery
does not, nay cannot, fubfilt in Britain : fuch we mean
whereby an abfolute and unlimited power is given to
the mailer over the life and fortune of the Have. And
indeed it is repugnant to reafon, and the principles of
natural law, that fuch a Hate Ihould fubfitt anywhere.
See Slavery.
The law of England therefore abhors, and will not
endure, the exilic nee of llavery within this nation : fo
that when an attempt w'as made to introduce it, by
Hatute 1 Edw. VI. c. 3. which ordained, that all idle
vagabonds Ihould be made Haves, and fed upon bread,
water, or fmall drink, and refuffc-meat; fhould wear a
ring of iron round their necks, arms, or legs ; and fhould
be compelled, by beating, chaining, or otherwife, to
perform the work affigned them, Were it ever 17) vile *,
the fpirit of the nation could not brook this conditi; ri,
even in theymoft abandoned rogues •, and therefore this
ilatute was repealed in two years afterwards. And
now it is laid down, that a Have or negro, the inllant
he lands in Britain, becomes a freeman \ that is, the
law will protfeft him in the enjoyment of his perfon
and his propefty. Yet, with regard to any right
which the mailer rhay have lawfully acquired to the
perpetual fervice of John or Thomas, this will remain
exactly in thfe fame Hate as before : for this is no
more than the fame Hate of fubjedliOn for life which
every apprentice fubmits to for the fpace of feven years',
or fometimes for a longer term. Hence, too, it follows,
that the infamous and unchriflian praflice of withhold*
ing baptifm from negro-fervants, leH they fhould there¬
by gain their liberty, is totally without foundation, as
well as without exCufe. The ]a\^ o'f England a<Hs
upon general and extenfive principles : it gives liberty,
rightly underHood, that is, proteflion, to a Jew, a
Turk, or a Heathen, as Well as to thofe who profefs
the true religion of ChtiH ; and it will H6t diffolvfe a
civil obligation between maHer and f< rVant, on account
of the alteration of faith in either of the parties; but
the Have is entitled to the fame protefliOh in England
before as after baptifm ; add, whatever fervice,the Hea¬
then negro owed of right to his American mailer, by
general, not by local law, the fame (whatever it be) is
he bound to render when brought to England and made
a Chriftian.
1. The firH fort of fervants, therefore, acknowledged
by the laws of England, are menial fervants ; fo called
from being intra tticenia, or domeHics. The contract
between them and their maflers arifes upon the hiring.
If the hiring be general, without any particular time
limited, the law conflrues it to be a hiring for a year ;
upon a principle of natural equity, that the fervant Hiall
ferve and the maHer maintain him, throughout all the
revolutions of the refpeftive feafons ; as well when there
is work to be done, as when there is not : but the con-
tracl may be made for any larger or fmaller term. All
fingle men between 1 2 years old and 60, and married
ones under 30 years of age, and all fingle women between
I 2 and 40, not having any viiible livelihood, are com¬
pellable by two jufiices to go out to fervice in huf-
bandry or certain fpecific trades, for the promotion of
honefi indufiry ; and no maHer can put away his fer¬
vant, or fervant leave his mafler, after being fo retained,
either before or at the end of his term, without a quar¬
ter’s warning ; unlefs upon reafonable caufe, to be allow¬
ed by a juflice of the peace : but they may part by con-
fent, or make a fpecial bargain.
2. Another fpecies of fervants are called apprentices9
(from apprendre, to learn) ; and are ufually bound for
a term of years, by deed indented or indentures, to
ferve their matters, and be maintained and inflrudled
by them. This is ufually done to perfons of trade, in
order to learn their art and myHery ; and fometimes
very large fums are given with them as a premium for
fuch their inHrudlion : but it may be done to hulband-
raen, nay, to gentlemen and others. And children of
poor perfons may be apprenticed out by the overfeers,
with ctinfent of two juflices, till 24 years of age, to
fuch perfons as are thought fitting ; who are alfo com¬
pellable to take them : and it is held, that gentlemen
of fortune, and clergymen, are equally liable with
others to fuch compulfion : for which purpofes our
ftatutes have made the indentures obligatory, even
though fuch parilh-apprentice be a minor. Apprentices
to trades may be difcliarged on reafonable caufe, either
at the requeH of themfelves or mafiers, at the quarter-
feflions, or by one jufiice, with appeal to the feHions ;
who may, by the equity of the Hatute, if they think it
reafonable, difefl reHitution of a rateable fiiare of the
money given with the apprentice : and parifh-appren-
tiefes may be difchargCd in the fame manner by two
juHices. But if an apprentice, with whom lefs than 10
pounds hath been given, runs away from his maHer, he
is compellable to ierve out his time of abfemfe, or make
fatisfaflion for the fame, at any time within feven years
after the expiration of his original contraff. See Ap¬
prentice and Apprenticeship.
3. A third fpeCies of fervants afe iaboirrers, who are
only hired by the day of the week, and do not life irttnt
mcehi'a, as part of the fattfily ; concefnin’g whom the fta¬
tutes before cited hdOe made rfiany very good regulations;
I. Directing that all perfons Vthti have no vrfible tftefls
may .be compelled to work ; 2. Defining hoW long they
muft continue at work ift fuiHfrfer and in winfOr : 3. Pu-
nifiiing fuch as leave or defert their Work : 4. Empower¬
ing the juftrees at feffrons, or the Hieriff of the county,
to fettle their wfages : and, 5. InHitling penalties on
fuch as either give or exadl more wages than are fo fet¬
tled.
4. There is yet a fourth fpecies of fervants, if they may
be ib called, being rather in a fuperior, a minifterial, ca¬
pacity ; fuch as fezvards, faliors, and bailiffs ; whotri,
however, the law confiders as fervants pro tehipore, with
regard to fuch of their a6Is as affedl theif maftei’s or em¬
ployer’s property.
Servant.
Servant
11
Servetus.
S E R [
As to the manner in which this relation affe&s
mailer, the fervant himfelf, or third parties, fee the ar¬
ticle Master and Servant.
For the condition of fervants by the law of Scotland,
fee Law.
SERVETISTS, a name given to the modern Anti-
trinitarians, from their being fuppofed to be the follow¬
ers of Michael Servetus’, who, in the year I553> vvas
burnt at Geneva, together with his books.
SERVETUS, Michael, a learned Spaniih phyfi-
cian, was born at Villanueva, in Arragon, in I5°9’
was fent to the univerfity of Touloufe to iludy the civil
law. The Reformation, which had awakened the moil
poliihed nations of Europe, dire£led the attention of
thinking men to the errors of the Romifh church and
to the itudy of the Scriptures. Among the reft Ser¬
vetus applied to this ftudy. From the love of novelty,
or the love of truth, he carried his inquiries far beyond
the other reformers, and not only renounced the falfe
opinions of the Roman Catholics, but went fo far as to
queftion the doftrine of the Trinity. Accordingly,
after fpending two or three years at Touloufe, he deter¬
mined to go into Germany to propagate his new opi¬
nions, where he could do it with moil fafety. At Ba-
fil he had fome conferences with Oecolampadius. He
went next to Stralburg to vifit Bucer and Capito,
two eminent reformers of that town. From Strafburg
he went to Hugenau, where he printed a book, intitled
De Trinit atis Err or thus, in 1531. The enfuing year
he publilhed two other treatifes on the fame fubjedl: in
an advertifement to which, he informs the reader that
it was not his intention to retrafl; any of his former fen-
timents, but only to ftate them in a more difthrxfl and
accurate manner. To thefe two publications he had the
courage to put his name, not fufpefting that in an age
when liberty of opinion was granted, the exercife of
that liberty would be attended with danger. After
publilhing thefe books, he left Germany, probably find¬
ing his do&rines not fo cordially received as he expedl-
ed. He went firft to Bafil, and thence to Lyons, where
he lived two or three years. He then removed to Pa¬
ris, where he ftudied medicine under Sylvius, Fernelius,
and other profeffbrs, and obtained the degree of mafter
of . arts and doflor of medicine. His love of controverfy
involved him in a ferious difpute with the phyfieians of
Paris j and he wrote an Apology, which was fupprefled
by an edidt of the Parliament. The mifunderftanding
which this difpute produced with his colleagues, and the
chagrin which fo unfavourable a termination occafioned,
made him leave Paris in difguft. He fettled two or
three years in Lyons, and engaged with the Frellons,
eminent printers of that age, as a corredtor to their
prefs. At Lyons he met with Pierre Palmier, the
archbifliop of Vienne, with whom he had been ac¬
quainted at Paris. That prelate, who was a great en¬
courages of learned men, prefled him to accompany him
to Vienne, offering him at the fame time an apartment
in his palace. Servetus accepted the offer, and might
have lived a tranquil and happy life at Vienne, if he
could have confined his attention to medicine and lite¬
rature. But the love of controverfy, and an eagernefs
to eftablilh his opinions, always poffeffed him. At this
time Calvin wa» at the head of the reformed church at
Geneva. With Servetus he had been acquainted at Pa-
6, and had there oppofed his opinions. For 16 yea rs
195 ] S E R
the Calvin kept up a correfpondtnce with him, endeavour-
ing to reclaim him from his errors. Servetus had read
the works of Calvin, but did not think they merited the
high eulogies of the reformers, nor were they fufficient
to convince him of his errors. Fie continued, however,
to confult him ; and for this purpofe fent from Lyons to
Geneva three queftions, which refpedted the divinity of
Jefus Chrift, regeneration, and the neceffity of baptil’m.
To thefe Calvin returned a civil anfwer. Servetus treat¬
ed the anfwer with contempt, and Calvin replied with
warmth. From reafoning he had recourfe to abufive
language •, and this produced a polemical hatred, the
moll implacable difpofition in the world. Calvin having
obtained fome of Servetus’s papers, by means, it is faid,
not very honourable, fent them to Vienne along with
the private letters which he had received in the courfe
of their correfpondence. The confequence was, that
Servetus was arrefted j but having efcaped from prifon,
he refolved to retire to Naples, where he hoped to
pradtife medicine with the fame reputation which he had
fo long enjoyed at Vienne. He imprudently took his
route through Geneva, though he could not but know
that Calvin was his mortal enemy. Calvin informed the
magiftrates of his arrival •, Servetus was apprehended,
and appointed to Hand trial for herefy and blafphemy.
It was a law at Geneva, that every accufer Ihould fur-
render himfelf a prifoner, that if the charge ftiould be
found falfe, the accufet Ihould fuffer the punilhment in
which he meant to involve the accufed. Calvin not choo-
fing to go to prifon himfelf, fent one of his domeftics to
prefent the impeachment againft Servetus. The articles
brought againft him were colle6led from his writings
wdth great care *, an employment which took up three
days. One of thefe articles rvas, “ that Servetus had
denied that Judaea was a beautiful, rich, and fertile
country ; and affirmed, on the authority of travellers,
that it was poor, barren, and difagreeable.” He was
alfo charged with “ corrupting the Latin Bible, which
he was employed to corre£t at Lyons, by introducing
impertinent, trifling, whimfical, and impious notes of
his own through every page.” But the main article,
which wras certainly fatal to him, was, “ that in the
perfon of Mr Calvin, minifter of the word of God in
the church of Geneva, he had defamed the doctrine that
is preached, uttering all imaginable injurious, blafphe-
mous words againft it.”
Calvin vifited Servetus in prifon, and had frequent
conferences with him : but finding that, in oppofition
to all the arguments he could employ, the prifoner re¬
mained inflexible in his opinions, he left him to his fate.
Before fentence was pafled, the magiftrates of Geneva
confulted the minifters of Bale, of Bern, and Zurich $
and, as another account informs us, the magiftrates of
the Proteftant Cantons of Switzerland. And to ena¬
ble them to form a judgment of the criminality of Ser¬
vetus, they tranfmitted the writings of Calvin, with his
anfwers. The general opinion was, that Servetus ought
to be condemned to death for blafphemy. He was ac¬
cordingly fentenced to be burnt alive on the 27th of
Oftober 1553. As he continued alive in the midft of
the flames more than two hours, it is faid, finding his
torment thus protrafted, he exclaimed, “ Unhappy
wretch that I am ! Will the flames be infufficient to
terminate my mifery ! What then ! Will the hundred
pieces of gold, and the rich collar which they took from
me,
Servetus.
S E R [ I
Servetus me, not purchaie wood enough to confume me more
II quickly !” “ ThpiUgh the fintenee of death was paiTed
Servire , again It Servetus by the magidrates of Geneva, with the
^ approbation of a great number of the magiftrates and
m'inifters of Switzerland, yet it is the opinion of moft
Tiiitorians that this dreadful fentence was impofed at the
inlfigation of Calvin. This a£t of feverityfor holding a
fpeculative opinion, however erroneous and abfurd, has
left a dam on the character of this illuftrious reformer,
which will attend the name of Calvin as long as hiftory
fliall preferve it from oblivion. The addrefs and art
which he ufed in apprehending Servetus, his inhuma¬
nity to him during his trial, his diffimulation and ma¬
levolence after Ins condemnation, prove that he was as
much influenced by perfonal hatred as by a defire to
fupport the intereft of religion, though probably, du¬
ring the trial, Calvin believed he was performing a very
pious aftion. This intolerant fpirit of Calvin and the
magiftrates of Geneva gave the Homan Catholics a fa¬
vourable opportunity to accufe the Proteftants of incon-
fiftency in their principles, which they did not fail to
embrace. “ flow could the magiftrates (fays the au¬
thor of the DiRionnaire des Herejies'), who acknowledged
no infallible interpretation of the Scriptures, condemn
Servetus to death becaufe he explained them differently
from Calvin •, fince every man has the privilege to ex¬
pound the Scripture, according to his own judgment,
without having recourfe to the church ? It is a great
injuftice to condemn a man becaufe he will not fubmit
to the judgment of an enthufiaft, who may be wrong as
well as himfelf.”
Servetus was a man of great acutenefs and learning,
and well vprfed in the arts and fciences. In his own
profeflion his genius exerted itfelf with fuccefs. In his
traft intitled Chrijlinnifmi Re/litutio, publilhed in 1553,
he remarks, that the whole mafs of blood paffes
through the lungs by the pulmonary artery and vein,
in oppofition to the opinion which was then univerfally
entertained, that the blood paffes through the partition
which divides the two ventricles. This was an impor¬
tant ftep towards the difcovery of the circulation of the
blood.
His works confift of Controverfial Writings concern¬
ing the Trinity •, an edition of Pagninus’s Verfion of
the Bible, with a preface and notes, publilhed under
the name of Michael Villanevanus 5 an Apology to
the Phylicians of Paris j and a book intitled Ratio
Syruporum. Molheim has written in Latin a Hiftory
of the Herefy and Misfortunes of Servetus, which was
publilhed at Helmftadt, in 410, in 1728. From the
curious details which it gives it is extremely interefting.
SERVIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, bound¬
ed on the north by the rivers Danube and Save, which
feparate it from Hungary •, on the eaft, by Bulgaria j
on the weft, by Bofnia : and on the fouth, by Albania
and Macedonia. It is about 190 miles in length from
eaft to weft } 95 in breadth from north to fouth •, and
is divided into four fangiacates. Two of thefe were
ceded to the Chriftians in 1718, who united them into
one. This continued till 1739, when the Turks were
vi&orious; and then they were abandoned to the
Turks by the treaty of Belgrade. Belgrade is the ca¬
pital town.
SERVICE, in Laxv, is a duty which a tenant, on
account of his fee, owes to Jus lord.
91 ] S E R
There are many divifions of fervicesj as, 1. Intoper- Service,
fonal, where fomething is to be done by the tenant
in perfon, as homage and fealty. 2. Heal, fuch as
wards, marriages, &c. 3. Accidental, including he-
riots, reliefs, and the litce. 4. Entire, where, on the
alienation of any part of the lands by a tenant, the fer-
vices become multiplied. 5. Frank-fervice, which was
performed by freemen, who were not obliged to perform
any bafe fervice, but only to find a man and horle to at¬
tend the lord into the army or to court. 6. Knight’s
fervice, by which lands were anciently held of the king,
on paying homage, fervice in war, &c.
As in every free and well regulated fociety there
muft be a diverfity of ranks, there muft be a great
number of perfons employed in fervice, both in agri¬
culture and domeftic affairs. In this country, fervice is
a contract into which the fervant voluntarily enters*, and
the mailer’s authority extends no farther than to the per¬
formance of that fpecies of labour for which the agree¬
ment was made.
“ The treatment of fervants (fays that refpeflable Paley's
moralift Mr Paley), as to diet, difcipline, and accom- Moral and,
modation, the kind and quantity of work to be re- Political
quired of them, the intermiftion, liberty, and indulgence Pf}‘ioJ°Ph'*
to be allowed them, muft be determined in a great mea-I'^'
fure by cuftom 5 for where the contraft involves fo ma¬
ny particulars, the contradling parties exprefs a few per¬
haps of the principal, and by mutual Underftanding
refer the reft to the known cuftom of the country in like
cafes.
“ A fervant is not bound to obey the unlawful com¬
mands of his matter; to minifter, for inftance, to his un¬
lawful pleafuresj or to affift him in unlawful praftices in
his profeflion ; as in fmuggling or adulterating the ar¬
ticles which he deals in. For the fervant is bound by
nothing but his own promife ; and the obligation of a
promife extends not to things unlawful.
“ For the fame reafon, the mafter’s authority does not
juftify the fervant in doing wrong; for the fervant’s own
promife, upon which that authority is founded, would be
none.
“ Clerks and apprentices ought to be employed entire¬
ly in the profeflion or trade which they are intended to
learn. Inftruffion is their wages; and to deprive them
of the opportunities of inftruftion, by taking up their
time with occupations foreign to their bufinefs, is to de¬
fraud them of their w’ages.
“ The mailer is refponfible for what a fervant does inf
the ordinary courfe of his employment ; for it is done
under a general authority committed to him, which is
in juftice equivalent to a fpecific direction. Thus, if
I pay money to a banker’s clerk, the banker is ac¬
countable : but not if I had paid it to his butler or his
footman, whofe bufinefs it is not to receive money.
Upon the fame principle, if I once fend a fervant to
take up goods upon credit, whatever goods he after¬
wards takes up at the fame (hop, fo long as he conti¬
nues in my fervice, are juftly chargeable to my ac¬
count.
“ The law of this country goes great lengths in in¬
tending a kind of concurrence in the matter, fo as to
charge him with the confequences of his fervants con-
du<ft. If an innkeeper’s fervant rob his guefts, the
innkeeper muft make reftitution ; if a farrier’s fervant
lams your horfej the farrier muft anfwer for the da¬
mage ^
S E R [ I
'Service, niagc j and {till farther, if your coachman or carter
''“'“‘N drive over a paffenger on the road, the paffenger may
recover from you a fatisfaftion for the hurt he 1'uffers.
But thefe determinations ifand, I think, rather upon
the authority of the law, than any principle of natural
juftice.”
There is a grievance which has long and juftly
been complained of, the giving of good characters to bad
fervants. This is perhaps owing to careleffnefs, to a de-
lire of getting rid of a bad fervant, or to miftaken com-
paffion. But fuch careleffnefs is inexcufable. When a
man gives his fanCtion to the character of a bad fervant,
he ought to reflefl; on the nature and confequences of
what he is doing. He is giving his name to a faltehoodj
he is deceiving the honeft man who confides in his vera¬
city ; and he is deliberately giving a knave an opportu¬
nity of cheating an honeft man. lo endeavour to get
quit of a bad fervant in this way, is furely not lefs cri¬
minal than concealing the faults and difadvantages of
an eftate which is advertifed for fale, and afcribing to it
advantages which it does not poffefs. In this cafe, we
know the fale would be reduced, and the advertifer dif-
graced. Many matters give characters to fervants out
of companion ; but it is to this miftaken compaflion diat
the diforderly behaviour of fervants is perhaps principal¬
ly owing : for if the punifhment of difhonefty be only a
change of place (which may be a reward fnftead of a
punilhment), it ceafes to be a fervant’s intereft to be true
to his truft.
We have faid above that a mailer’s authority over
his fervant extends no farther than the terms of contraCt}
by which we meant, that a matter could give no unrea-
fonable orders to his fervant, or fuch as was inconfittent
with the terms of contraCt. But the relation between
a matter and fervant is certainly cloler than the mere
terms of a contract: it is a moral as well as a legal
relation. A matter of a family ought to fuperintend
the morals of his fervants, and to reftrain them from
vices. This he may do by his example, by his influ¬
ence, and authority. Indeed every man poffeffed of
authority is guilty of criminal negligence if he does not
exert his authority for promoting virtue in his inferiors j
and no authority is fo well adapted for this purpofe as
that of matters of families, becaufe none operates with
tin influence fo immediate and conftant. . It is wonder¬
ful how much good a nobleman or gentleman of for¬
tune can Jo to his domeftics by attending to their mo-
'Salsq and every matter may be a bleffing to individuals
and to fociety, by exerting prudently that influence
which his fituation gives him over the conduct of his
fervant.
Choral Service, in church hiftory, denotes that part
of religious worftiip which confifts in chanting and ling-
ing. The advocates for the high antiquity of tinging,
as a part of church-mufic, urge the authority of St
Paul in its favour (Ephef. chap. v. ver. 19. and Co-
lof. chap. iii. ver. 16.). On the authority of which paf-
fages it’is afferted, that fongsand hymns were, from the
eitablifhment of the church, fung in the aflemblies of
the faithful •, and it appears from undoubted ttjftimony,
that tinging, which was praCtifed as a facred rite among
the Egyptians and Hebrews, at a very early period, and
which likewife Conftituted a confiderable part of the re¬
ligious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans, made a
part of the religious worftiip of Chriftians, not only be.
92 ] S E R
fore churches were built, and theirreligion eftabliftied by ^
law, but from the firft profeflion of Chriftianity. How¬
ever, the era from whence others have dated the intro¬
duction of mufic into the fervice of the church, is that
period during which Leontius governed the church of
Antioch, i. e. between the year of Chrift 347 and 356.
See Antiphony.
From Antioch the practice foon fpread through the
other churches of the Eaft ; and in a few ages after its
firft introduction into divine fervice, it not only re¬
ceived the fanction of public authority, but thofe were
forbid to join in \t who were ignorant of mufic. A
canon to this purpofe was made by the council ot Lao-
dicea, which was held about the year 372-, and Zona-
ras informs us, that thefe canonical fingers were rec¬
koned a part of the clergy. Singing was introduced
into the weftern churches by St Ambrofe about the
year 374, who was the inftitutor of the Ambrofian
chant" eftablilhed at Milan about the year 386; and
Eufebius (lib. ii. cap. 17.) tells us, that a regular choir,
and method of finging the fejvice, were firft eftabliftied,
and hymns ufed, in the church at Antioch, during the
reign'of Conftantine, and that St Ambrofe, who had
long refided there, had his melodies thence. This was
about 230 years afterwards amended by Pope Gregory
the Great, who eftabliftied the Gregorian chant; a
plain, unifonous kind of melody, which he thought
confident with the gravity and dignity of the fervice to
which it was to be applied. This prevails in the Ro¬
man church even at this day : it is known in Italy by
the name of canto fermo / in France by that oi ji/am
chant; and in Germany and molt other countries by
that of the cantus Gregortanus. Although no fatisfac-
tory account has been given of the fpecific difference
between the Ambrofian and Gregorian chants, yet all
writers on this fubjea agree in faying, that St Am¬
brofe only ufed the four authentic modes, and that
the four plagal were afterwards added by St Gre-
orory. Each of thefe had the lame final, 01 key-note,
as its relative authentic } from which there is no other
difference, than that the melodies in the four authen¬
tic or principal modes are generally confined within
the compafs of the eight notes above the key-note,
apd thofe in the four plagal or relative modes, with¬
in the compafs of eight notes below the fifth of the key.
See Mode.
Ecclefiaftical writers feem unanimous in allowing that
Pope Gregory, who began his pontificate in 590, col¬
lected the mufical fragments of fuch ancient pfalms
and hymns as the firft fathers of tbe^ church had appro¬
ved and recommended to the firft Chriftians and that
he felefted, methodized, and arranged them in the or¬
der which was long continued at Rome, and foon adop¬
ted by the chief part of the weftern church. Giegory
Is alfo faid to have banilhed from the church the canto
flgurato, as too light and ciiEolute; and it is added, that
liis own chant was culled canto fcraw, from its giavity
and fnnplicity.
It has been long a received opinion, that the eccle¬
fiaftical tones were taken from the reformed modes of
Ptolemy ^ but Hr Burney obfcrves, that it is difficult
to difeover any connection between them, except in
their names •, for their number, upon examination, is
not the fam,e: thofe of Ptolemy being feven, the ec~
ttlefiaftical eight; and indeed the Greek names given to
1 Vif*
Service.
S E R [ 193 1 SE E.
the ecclefiaftical modes do not agree with thofe of Pto¬
lemy in the Angle inftance of key, but with thofe of
higher antiquity. From the time of Gregory to that
of Guido, there was no other diftlnflion of keys than
that of authentic and plagal •, nor were any femitones
ufed but thofe from E to F, B to C, and occafionally A
to B
With refpeft to the mufic of the primitive church, it
may be obferved, that though it confided in the finging
of pfalms and hymns, yet it was performed in many dif¬
ferent ways •, fometimes the pfalms were fung by one
perfon alone, whilft the reft attended in filence •, fome¬
times they were fung by the whole afl'embly } fometimes
alternately, the congregation being divided into fepa-
rate choirs ; and fometimes by one perfon, who repeated
the fir ft part of the verfe, the reft joining in the clofe of
it. Of the four different methods of finging now reci¬
ted, the fecond and third were properly diftinguilhed by
the names of fjmphony and antiphony ; and the latter
was fometimes called refponfaria, in which women were
allowed to join. St Ignatius, who, according to So¬
crates (lib. vi. cap. 8.), converfed with the apoftles, is
generally fuppofed to have been the firft who fuggefted
to the primitive Chriftians in the Eaft the method of
filming hymns and pfalms alternately, or in dialogues *,
and the cuftom foon prevailed in every place where Chri-
ftianity was eftabliftied; though Theodoret in his hiftory
(lib. ii. cap. 24.) tells us, that this manner of finging was
firft pra£hfed at Antioch. It likewife appears, that al-
moft from the time when mufic was firft introduced into
the fervice of the church, it was of two kinds, and con-
fifted in a gentle inflexion of the voice, which they ter m¬
ed plain ,long, and a more elaborate and artificial kind
of mufic*adapted to the hymns and folemn offices con¬
tained in its ritual; and this diftin&ion has been main¬
tained even to the prefent day.
Although we find a very early diftimftion made be-
tween the manner of finging the hymns and chanting
the pfalms, it is, however, the opinion of the learned
Martini, that the mufic of the firft five or fix ages of
the church confifted chiefly in a plain and Ample chant
of unifons and oftaves, of which many fragments are
ftill remaining in the canto fermo of the Romiffi miffals.
For with refpeft to mufic in parts, as it does not ap¬
pear, in thefe early ages, that either the Greeks or Ro¬
mans were in poffeffion of harmony or counterpoint,
which has been generally aferibed to Guido, a monk of
Arezzo in Tufcany, about the year 1022, though others
have traced the origin of it to the eighth century, it is
in vain to feek it in the church. • Fhe choral mufic,
which had its rife in the church of x\ntioch, and fiom
thence fpread through Greece, Italy, France, Spain, and
Germany, was brought into Britain by the fingers w io
accompanied Auftin the monk, when he came over, in
the vear 596, charged with a commiffion to convert the
inhabitants of this country to Chriftianity. Bede tells
us, that when Auftin and the companions of his mil¬
lion had their firft audience of King Ethelbert, m the
ifle of Thanet, they approached him in proceffion, fing-
inglitanies ; and that afterwards, when they entered the
city of Canterbury, they fung a litany, and at the end
of it Allelujah. But though this was the firft time the
Anglo-Saxons had heard the Gregorian chant, yet Bede
likewife tells us, that our Britiffi anceftors had been in-
dlrufted in the rites and ceremonies of the Galucan
Vol. XIX. Part I.
church by St Germanus, and heard him fing Allelujah Sen-
many years before the arrival of St Auftin. In 680,
John, praecentor of St Peter’s in Rome, was fent over
by Pope Agatho to inftruft the monks of Weremouth
in the art of finging; and he wras prevailed upon to open
fchools for teaching mufic in other places in Northum¬
berland. Benedict Bifcop, the preceptor of Bede, Adrian
the monk, and many others, contributed to diffeminate
the knowledge of the Roman chant. At length thefuc-
ceffors of St Gregory, and of Auftin his miffionar'y,
having eftabliftied a fchool for ecclefiaftical mufic at
Canterbury, the reft of the ifland was furniftied with
mafters from that feminary. The choral fervice v'as firft
introduced in the cathedral church of Canterbury ; and
till the arrival of Theodore, and his fettlement in that
fee, the practice of it feems to have been confined to the
churches of Kent; but after that, it fpread over the
whole kingdom ; and we meet with records of very
ample endowments for the fupport of this part of public
worftiip. This mode of religious worftiip prevailed in
all the European churches till the time of the Reforma¬
tion n the firft deviation from it is that which followed
the Reformation by Luther, who, being himfelf a lover
of mufic, formed a liturgy, which was a mufical fervice,
contained in a work entitled Pfalmodia, h. e. Cantica
facra Vcieris Ecclejice feleBa, printed at Norimberg in
1553, and at Wittemberg in 1561. But Calvin, in his
eftablifhment of a church at Geneva, reduced the whole
of divine fervice to prayer, preaching, and finging •, the
latter of which he reftrained. He excluded the offices
of the antiphon, hymn, and motet, of the Romiffi fer¬
vice, with that artificial and elaborate mufic to which
they were fung *, and adopted only that plain metrical
pfalmody, which is now in general ufe among the re¬
formed churches, and in the parochial churches of our
own country. For this purpofe he made ufe of Marot’s
verfion of the Pfalms, and employed a mufician to fet
them to eafy tunes only of one part. In 1553, he di¬
vided the Pfalms into paufes or fmall portions, and ap¬
pointed them to be fung in churches. Soon after they
Avere bound up with -the Geneva catechifm ; from which
time the Catholics, who had been accuftomed to fing
them, were forbid the ufe of them, under a fevere pe¬
nalty. Soon after the Reformation commenced in Eng¬
land, complaints were made by many of the dignified
clergy and others, of the intricacy and difficulty of the
church-mufic of thofe times : in confequence of which
it was once propofed, that organs and curious finging
fnould be removed from our churches. Latimer, in his
diocefe of Worcefter, went ftill farther, and iffued in-
junftions to the prior and convent of St Mary, foibid-
ding in their fervice all manner of finging. In the reign
of Edward VI. a commiffion was granted to eight bi-
Ihops, eight divines, eight civilians, and eight common
lawyers, to compile a body of fuch ecclefiaftical laws as
ftiould in future be obferved throughout the realm. The
refult of this compilation was a work firft publiffied in
j ^71 by Fox the martyrologift, and afterwards in 1640,
under the title of Reformatio Legum Ecclejtqflicarum.
Thefe 32 commiffioners, inftead of reprobating church-
mufic, merely condemned figurative- and operofe mu¬
fic, or that kind of finging which abounded with
fugues, refponfive paffages, and a commixture of vari¬
ous and intricate proportions; which, whether extempo¬
rary or written, is by muficians termed defcaut. How-
B b ever,
S E R [ 194 ] S E S
ever, not withftanding the objections againft choral xnu-
fic, and the praCtice of fome of the reformed churches,
the compilers of the Engliih liturgy in 1548, and the
king himfelf, determined to retain mufical fervice. Ac¬
cordingly the ftatute 2 and 3 Edw. VL cap. 1. though
it contains no formal obligation on the clergy, or
others, to ufe or join in either vocal or inftrumental mu-
iic in the common prayer, does clearly recognife the
praClice of finging ; and in lefs than two years after the
compiling of King Edward’s liturgy, a formula was com-
pofed, which continues, with fcarce any variation, to be
the rule for choral fervice even at this day. The author
of this work was John Marbecke, or Marbeike ; and it
■was printed by Richard Grafton, in 1 ^50 under the title
of the Book of Common Prayer, noted. Queen Mary
laboured to re-eftablilh the Romilh choral fervice •, but
the acceffion of Elizabeth was followed by the aCl of uni¬
formity •, in confequence of which, and of the queen’s
injunctions, the Book of Common Prayer, noted by Mar¬
becke, was confidered as the general formula of choral
jervice. In 1560, another mufical fervice, with fome
additions and improvements, was printed by John Day •,
and in 1565, another collection of offices, with mufical
notes. Many objections were urged by Cartwright and
other Puritans againft the form and manner of cathe¬
dral fervice, to which Hooker replied in his Ecclefiafti-
cal Polity. In 1664, the ftatutes of Edward VI. and
Elizabeth, for uniformity in the Common Prayer, were
repealed ; and the Directory for Public Worfhip, which
allows only of the finging of pfalms, eftabliflred. But
upon the reftoration of Charles II. choral fervice wfas
again revived, and has fince uniformly continued. See
on this fubjeCt Hawkins’s Hiftory of Mufic. vol. i.
p. 404. vol. ii. p. 264. vol. iii. p. 58—468, &c. vol. iv.
p. 44—347-
SERVICE-Tree. See Sorbus, Botany Index.
SERVITES, a religious order in the church of Rome,
founded about the year I 233, by feven Florentine mer¬
chants, who, with the approbation of the biftiop of Flo¬
rence, renounced the world, and lived together in a re¬
ligious community on Mount Senar, two leagues from
that city.
SERVITOR, in the univerfity of Oxford, a ftudent
who attends on another for his maintenance and learn¬
ing. See Sizar.
SERVITUDE, the condition of a fervant, or rather
Have.
Under the declenfion of the Roman empire, a new
kind of fervitude was introduced, different from that of
the ancient Romans : it confifted in leaving the lands of
fubjugated nations to the firft owners, upon condition
of certain rents, and fervile offices, to be paid in ac-
knowledgement. Hence the names of fervi cenjiti, a-
feriptitn, and addiRiglebce ; fome whereof were taxable
at the reafonable diferetion of the lord ; others at a cer¬
tain rate agreed on ; and others were mainmortable,
■who, having no legitimate children, could not make a
will to above the value of fivepenee, the lord being heir
of all the reft and others were prohibited marrying, or
going to live out of the lordftnp. Moft of thefe fervices
exifted lately in France; but they were long ago abo-
liftied in England. Such, however, was the original of
our tenures, &c. See Slave.
Servitude, in Scots Law. See Law, Part III.
8e&,,ix.„ .
SERVIUS, Maurus Honoratus, a celebrated Serviiij
grammarian and critic of antiquity, who flouriftied about II
the time of Arcadius and Honorius ; now chiefly known Se^on-
by his Commentaries on Virgil. Thefe is alfo extant
a piece of Servius upon the feet of verfes and the quan¬
tity of fyllables, called Centimetrum.
SERUM, a thin, tranfparent, faltifh liquor, which
makes a confiderable part of the mafis of blood. See
Anatomy and Chemistry Index.
SESAMOIDE A ossa, certain fmall bones fome-
what refembling the feeds of fefamum, whence their
name. They are placed at the under part of the bones
of the laft joints of the fingers and toes.
SESAMUM, Oily Grain •, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs didynamia ; and in the natural fyf-
tem ranging under the 20th order, Luridee. See Bo¬
tany Index.
SESELI, Meadow Saxifrage ; a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs pentandria j and in. the natural
fyftem ranging under the 45th order, Umbellatce. See
Botany Index.
SESOSTRIS, king of Egypt. See Egypt, p. 591.
SESQUI, a Latin particle, fignifying a whole and
a half j which, joined with altera, ter%a, quanta, &c. is
much ufed in the Italian mufic to exprefs a kind of ra¬
tios, particularly feveral fpecies of triples.
Se S ^ UI -Alt dr ate, in Geometry and Arithmetic, is a
ratio between two lines, two numbers, or the like, w'here
one of them contains the other once, with the addition,
of a half.
Thus 6 and 9 are in a fefqui-alterate ratio ; fince 9
contains 6 once, and 3, which is half of 6, over ; and
20 and 30 are in the fame j as 30 contains 20, and half
20 or 10.
SES^UI-Dup/icate ratio, is when of two terms the
greater contains the lefs twice, and half the lefs remains ;
as 15 and 6 ; 50 and 20.
SESQUI-Tertional proportion, is when any number or
quantity contains another once and one third.
SESSILE, among botanifts. See Botany.
SESSION, in general, denotes each fitting or affem-
bly of a council, &c.
SESSION of Parliament, is the feafon or fpace from
its meeting to its prorogation. See Parliament.
Kirk-SESSION, the name of a petty ecclefiaftical court
in Scotland. See KlRK-Seffion.
Sessions for weights and meafures. In London,
four juftices from among the mayor, recorder, and al¬
dermen (of whom the mayor and recorder is to be one),
may hold a feflion to inquire into the offences of felling
by falfe weights and meafures, contrary to the ftatutes j
and to receive indictments, punilh offenders, &c. Char..
King Charles I.
Court of Session. See Law, Part III. Se£t. ii.
Court of ^uarter-SESSIONS, an Engliffi court that
muft be held in every county once in every quarter of a
year j which by ftatute 2 Henry V. c. 4. is appointed
to be in the firft vreek after Michaelmas-day, the firft
week after the Epiphany, the firft w'eek after the clofe of
Eafter, and in the week after the tranflation of St Tho¬
mas the martyr, or the 7th of July. It is held before
twm or more juftices of the peace, one of which muft be
of the quorum. The jurifdiCtion of this court, by 34
Edward III. c. 1. extends to the trying and determining
all felonies and trefpaffes whatfoever : though they fel-
doxn, ,
S E S [ I
Scffion, dom, it ever, try any greater offence than fmall felonies
Sefterce. within the benefit of clergy ; their coinmiffion provid-
—Y—-J ing? that if any cafe of difficulty arifes, they (hall not
proceed to judgment, but in the prefence of one of the
jultices of .the courts of king’s-bench or common-pleas,
or one of the judges of affize : and therefore murders,
and other capital felonies, are ufually remitted for a
more folemn trial to the affizes. They cannot alfo try
any new-created offence, without exprefs power given
them by the ftatute which creates it. But there are
many offences and particular matters which, by parti¬
cular ftatutes, belong properly to this jurifdidlion, and
ought to be profecuted in this court 5 as, the fmaller
mifdemeanors againff the public or commonwealth, not
amounting to felony j and efpecially offences relating to
the game, highways, alehoufes, baftard children, the
fettlement and provifion for the poor, vagrants, fervants
wages, and Popifli recufants. Some of thefe are pro¬
ceeded upon by indictment : others in a fummary way,
by motion, and order thereupon ; which order may for
the moft part, unlefs guarded againft by particular fta¬
tutes, be removed into the court of king’s-bench by
writ of certiorari facias, and be there either quaftied
or confirmed. The records or rolls of the feffions are
committed to the cuftody of a fpecial officer, denomi¬
nated cuflos rotulorum, who is always a juftice of the
quorum ; and among them of the quorum (faith Lam-
bard) a man for the moft part efpecially picked out,
either for wifdom, countenance, or credit. The nomi¬
nation of the cufos rotulorum (who is the principal offi¬
cer in the county, as the lord-lieutenant is chief in
military command) is by the king’s fign manual: and
to him the nomination of the clerk of the peace be¬
longs 5 which office he is exprefsly forbidden to fell
for money.
In moft corporation-towns there are quarter-feffions
kept before juftices of their own, within their refpeftive
limits ; which have exaCtly the fame authority as the
general quarter-feftions of the county, except in a very
few inftances 5 one of the moft confiderable of which is
the matter of appeals from orders of removal of the poor,
■which, though they be from the orders of corporation-
juftices, muft be to the feffions of the county, by fta¬
tute 8 and 9 William III. c. 30. In both corporations
and counties at large, there is fometimes kept a fpecial
or petty feffion, by a few juftices, for difpatching fmaller
bufinefs in the neighbourhood between the times of the
general feffions ; as for licenfing alehoufes, pafling the
account of pariffi-officers, and the like.
SESTERCE, Sestertius, a filver coin, in ufe
among the ancient Romans, called alfo limply nummus,
and fometimes nummus fe/Iertius. The feftertius was
the fourth part of the denarius, and originally contained
two affes and a half. It Avas at firft denoted by LLS ;
the two L’s fignifying two librae, and the S half. But
the librarii, afterwards converting the two L’s into an
H, expreffed the feftertius by HS. The word fejlertius
was firft: introduced by way of abbreviation for femifer-
tius, which fignifies two, and a half of a third, or, lite¬
rally, only half a third \ for in expreffing half a third, it
was underftood that there were two before.
Some authors make two kinds of fefterces j the lefs
called in the mafeuline gender; and the great
one, called fejlertium, in the neuter : the firft, that we
‘ have already defgribed } the latter containing a thoufand
95 1 s E s
of the other. Others will have any fuch diftiuclion of
great and little fefterces unknown to the Romans : fef
tertius, fay they, was an adjective, and iignified, asfefler-
tius, or two affes and a half; and when ufed in the plu¬
ral, as in quinquaginta fejlertium, or fefertia, it was only
by way of abbreviation, and there wras always under¬
ftood centena, millia, &c.
This matter has been accurately ftated by Mr Raper,
in the following manner. The fubftantive to which
feftertius referred is either as, or pondus ; and fef ertius
as is two affes and a half; fefertiwn pondus, two pon-
dera and a half, or two hundred and fifty denarii. When
the denarius paffed for ten affes, the feftertius of two afles
and a half was a quarter of it; and the Romans conti¬
nued to keep their accounts in thefe fefterces long after
the denarius paffed for fixteen afles ; till, growing rich,
they found it more convenient to reckon by quarters of
the denarius, which they called nummi, and ufed the
words nummus and fef er tius indifferently, as fynonymous
terms, and fometimes both together, as fefertius mini¬
mus ; in which cafe the word fefertius, having loft its
original fignification, was ufed as a fubftantive ; for fef¬
tertius minimus was not two nummi and a half, but a
Angle nummus of four affes. They called any firm un¬
der two thoufand fefterces fo many fefertii in the maf¬
euline gender j two thoufand fefterces they called duo or
bmafefertia, in the neuter ^ fo many quarters making
five hundred denarii, which was twice the feftertium ;
and they faid dena, vicena, &c. fefertia, till the firm
amounted to a thoufand feftertia, which was a million of
fefterces. But, to avoid ambiguity, they did not ufe the
neuter fefertium in the Angular number, when the whole,
firm amounted to no more than a thoufand fefterces, or
one feftertium. They called a million of fefterces decies
nummum, or decies fefertium, for decies centena milliit
nummorum, or fefertiorum (in the malculine gender),
omitting centena millia for the fake of brevity. They
likewife called the fame firm decies fefertium (in the
neuter gender) for decies centies fefertium, omitting
centies for the fame reafon ; or Amply decies, omitting
centena millia fefertium, or centies fefertium ; and with
the numeral adverbs decies, vicies, centies, mil lies, and
the like, either centena millia or centies was always un¬
derftood. Thefe were their moft ufual forms of ex-
preflion ; though for bina, dena, vicena fefertia, they
frequently faid bina, dena, vicena millia nummum. If
the confular denarius contained 60 troy grains of fine
filver, it was worth fomething more than eight-pence
farthing and a half fterling ; and the as, of 16 to the
denarius, a little more than a half-penny. To reduce
the ancient fefterces of two affes and a half, when the
denarius palled for 16, to pounds fterling, multiply the
given number by 5454, and cut off fix figures on the
right hand for decimals. To reduce nummi fefertii, or
quarters of the denarius, to pounds fterling ; if the given
fum be confular money, multiply it by 8727, and cut
off fix figures on the right hand for decimals but for
imperial money diminiffi the faid produft by one-eighth
of itfelf. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixi. part ii. art. 48.
To be qualified for a Roman knight, an eftate of
400,000 fef trees was required 3 and for a fenator, of
800,000.
Authors alfo mention a copper fferce, worth about
one-third of a penny Engliffi.
SESTERCE, or fefertius, was alfo ufed bv the ancients
B b 2 for
Seftefe^*
Seth.
SET [ J96
Sefterce for a tiling containing two wholes and an half of ano¬
ther, as ns was taken for any whole or integer.
SESTOS, a noted fortrefs of European Turkey,
fituated at the entrance of the Hellefpont or Darda¬
nelles, 24 miles fouth-weft of Gallipoli. This place is
famous for the loves of Hero and Leander, fung by
the poet Mufaeus.
SESUVIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs icofandria. See Botany Index.
SET, or Sets, a term ufed by the farmers and gar¬
deners to exprefs the young plants of the white thorn
and other fhrubs, with which they ufe to raife their
quick or quick-fet hedges. The white thorn is the beft
of all trees- for this purpofe 5 and, under proper regula¬
tions, its fets feldom fail of anfwering the farmer’s utmoft
expectations.
SET-off, in Law, is an aft whereby the defendant ac¬
knowledges the juftice of the plaintiff’s demand on the
one hand ; but, on the other, fets-up a demand of his
own, to counterbalance that of the plaintiff, either in
the whole, or in part : as, if the plaintiff fues for lol.
due on a note of hand, the defendant may fet off 9I.
due to himfelf for merchandife fold to the plaintiff 5
and, in cafe he pleads fuch fet-of, muff pay the remain¬
ing balance into court. This anfwers very nearly to
the compenfatio or ftoppage of the civil law, and depends
upon the ftatutes 2 Geo. II. cap. 22. and 8 Geo. II.
cap. 24.
SETACEOUS worm, in Natural Hijlory, a name
given by Dr Lifter to that long and flender water-
worm, which fo much refembles a horfe-hair, that it
has been fuppofed by the vulgar to be an animated hair
of that creature. Thefe creatures, fuppofed to be living
hairs, are a peculiar fort of infefts, which are bred and
nourifhed within the bodies of other infefts, as the worms
of the ichneumon flies are in the bodies of the cater¬
pillars.
Aldrovand deferibes the creature, and tells us it wfas
unknown to the ancients •, but called feta aquation, and
vermis fetarius, by the moderns, either from its figure
refembling that of a hair, or from the fuppofition of its
once having been the hair of fome animal. We gene¬
rally fuppofe it, in the imaginary ftate of the hair, to
have belonged to a horfe ; but the Germans fay it was
once the hair of a calf, and call it by a name fignifying
vita las aquations., or the “ water calf.”
Albertus, an author much reverenced by the common
people, has declared that this animal is generated of
a hair \ and adds, that any hair thrown into Handing
water, will, in a very little time, obtain life and motion.
Other authors have diffented from this opinion, and fup¬
pofed them generated of the fibrous roots of water-
plants •, and others, of the parts of grafshoppers fallen
into the water. This laft opinion is rejected by Al¬
drovand as the moft improbable of all. Standing and
foul waters are moft plentifully ftored with them ; but
they are fometimes found in the cleareft and pureft
fprings, and fometimes out of the water, on the leaves
of trees and plants, as on the fruit-trees in our gardens,
and the elms in hedges. They are from three to five
inches long, of the thicknefs of a large hair *, and are
brown upon the back, and white under the belly, and
the tail is white on every part.
SETH, the third fon of Adam, the father of Enos,
was born 3874 B, C. and lived 912 years.
] s e V
SETHI ANS, in church hiftory, Chriftian heretics j SetlAns
fo called becaufe they paid divine worlhip to Seth, H
whom they looked upon to be Jefus Chrift the fon of \ ^anc^
God, but who wras made by a third divinity, and fub-
ftituted in the room of the two families of Abel and
Cain, which had been deftroyed by the deluge. Thefe
heretics appeared in Egypt in the fecond century ; and
as they were addidted to all forts of debauchery, they
did not wyant followers j and continued in Egypt above
200 years.
SETIMO, a town of Italy, in the province of Pied¬
mont, fituated on the river Po, eight miles north of
Turin.
SET ON, in Surgery, a few horfe hairs, fmall threads,
or large packthread, drawn through the fldn, chiefly the
neck, by means of a large needle or probe, with a view
to reftore or preferve health.
Experience fhews that fetons are ufeful in catarrhs,
inflammations, and other diforders, and particularly thofe
of the eyes 5 to thefe may be added fevere headachs,
with ftupor, drowfinefs, epilepfies, and even apoplexy
itfelf. See Surgery.
SETTEE, in fea-language, a veffel very common in
the Mediterranean with one deck and a very long and
{harp prow. They carry fome two marts, fome three,
without top-mafts. They have generally two marts,
equipped with triangular fails, commonly called lateen
fails. The leaf! of them are of 60 tons burden. They
ferve to tranfport cannon and provifions for (hips of war
and the like. Thefe veffels are peculiar to the Medi¬
terranean fea, and are ufually navigated by Italians,
Greeks, or Mahometans.
SETTING, in AJlronomy, the withdrawing of a ftar
or planet, or its finking below the horizon. Aftrono-
mers and poets make three different kinds of fetting of
the ftars, viz. the Cosmicae, Acronycal, and Heli¬
acal. See thefe articles.
Setting, in the fea-language. To fet the land or
the fun by the compafs, is to obferve how the land bears
on any point of the compafs, or on what point of the
compafs the fun is. Alfo when twTo {hips fail in fight of
one another, to mark on wdiat point the chafed bears, is
termed fetting the chace by the compafs.
Setting, among fportfmen, a term ufed to exprefs
the manner of taking partridges by means of a dog pe¬
culiarly trained to that purpoie. See SHOOTING.
Act of SETTLEMENT, in Britifti hiftory, a
name given to the ftatute 12 and 13 Wfll. III. cap. 2.
whereby the crown was limited to his prefent majefty’s
illuftrious houfe •, and fome'new provifions were added,
at the fame fortunate era, for better fecuring our reli¬
gion, laws, and liberties : which the ftatute declares to
be the birthright of the people of England, according
to the ancient dodtrine of the common law.
SEVEN Stars, a common denomination given to
the clufter of ftars in the neck of the fign ’laurus, the
bull ; properly called the Pleiades. I hey are fo called
from their number feven, which appear to the naked
eye, though fome eyes can dilcover only fix of them j
but by the aid of telefcopes there appears to be a great
multitude of them.
SEVENTH, in Mufc, an interval called by the
Greeks heptachordon. See Interval.
SEVERANCE, in Law, the Angling or fevering two
or more that join or are joined in the fame writ or ac¬
tion.
S E V [ 197 ] S E V
Severance tion. As if two join in a writ de libertate probanda,
II and the one be afterwards nonfuited 5 here feverance is
I Severn' , permitted, fo as notwithftanding the nonfuit of the one,
v the other may feverally proceed.
There is alfo feverance of the tenants in aflize ; when
one, two, or more diffeifees appear upon the writ, and
not the other. And feverance in debt, where two exe¬
cutors are named plaintiffs, and the one refufes to pro-
fecute. We alfo meet with feverance of fummons, fe¬
verance in attaints, &c. An eftate in joint tenancy may
be fevered and deftroyed by deftroying any of its unities.
1. That of time, which refpefts only the original com¬
mencement of the joint eftate, cannot indeed (being now
part) be affected by any fubfequent tranfaftion. Eut,
2. The joint-tenants eftate may be deftroyed without any
alienation; by merely difuniting their poffeffion. 3. The
jointure may be deftroyed, by deftroying the unity of
title. And, 4. By deftroying the unity of intereft.
SEVER I A, a province of the Ruffian empire, with
the title of a duchy, bounded on the north by Smo-
lenlko and Mufcovy, on the eaft by Vorotinfbi and the
country of the Coffacks, on the fouth by the fame,
and on the weft by Zernegovia. It is a country over¬
run with woods, and on the fouth part is a foreft of
great length. Novogrodec, or Novogorod, is the capi¬
tal town.
St SEVER1NA, a town of Italy, is the kingdom
of Naples, in the Lower Calabria, with an archbiihop’s
fee. It is very well fortified, and feated on a craggy
rock, on the river Neeto j in E. Long. 17. 14. N. Lat.
39. 15.
SEVERING, a town of Italy, in the territory of
the church, and in the Marche of Ancona, with a bi-
fhop’s fee. It has fine vineyards, and is feated between
two hills on the river Petenza, in E. Long. 13. 6.
N. Lat. 43. 16.
SEVERN, a river of England which rifes near
Plimlimmon Hill in Montgomeryfhire, and before it
enters Shropffiire receives about 30 flreams, and paffes
down to Laudring, where it receives the Morda, that
flows from Ofweftry. When it arrives at Monford, it
receives the river Mon, paffing on to Shrewfbury, which
it almoft furrounds, then to Bridgeworth j afterwards
it runs through the fkirts of Staffordfhire, enters Wor-
Mcombe's cefterfiiire, and paffes by Worcefter; then it runs to
'7-ngliJb Tewkefbury, where it joins the Avon, and from thence
■mettecr. to Gloucefter, keeping a north wefterly courfe, till it
falls into the Brillol Channel. It begins to be naviga¬
ble for boats at Welchpool, in Montgomerylhire, and
takes in feveral other rivers in its' courfe, befides thofe
already mentioned, and is the fecond in England. By
means of inland navigation, it has communication with
the rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Derwent,
Humber, Thames, Avon, &c. •, which navigation, includ¬
ing its windings, extends above 500 miles in the counties
of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lancaller, Wellmore-
land, Chefter, Stafford, Wanvick, Leicelter, Oxford,
Worcefter, &c. A canal from Stroud-Water, a branch
of the Severn, to join the Thames, was projected and
executed for the purpofe of conveying a tunnel 16 feet
high and 16 feet wide, under Sapperton Hill and Hay-
ley-Wood (very high ground), for two miles and a
quarter in length, through a very hard rock, which was
lined and arched with brick. This llupendous under¬
taking was completed, and boats paffed through it the
3
2ift of May 1789. By this opening, a communication is Severn
made between the river Severn at Framiload and the ^ Vgrus
Thames near Lechlade, and is continued over the, t V^rus-
Thames near Inglelham, into deep water in the Thames
below St John-Bridge, and fo to Oxford, &c. and Lon¬
don, for conveyance of coals, goods, &c.
SEVERNDROOG, a fea-port town and fortrefs of
Hindoftan, which was taken by the Englilh in 1756.
It is 68 miles fouth from Bombay, and in N. Lat. 17.
55. E. Long. 72. 50.
SEVERUS, Cornelius, an ancient Latin poet of
the Augullan age 5 whofe JEtna, together with a frag¬
ment De morte Ciceronis, were publilhed, with notes
and a profe interpretation, by Le Clerc, 12mo, Amlter-
dam, 1703. They were before inferted among the Ca-
taleEla Virgilii publifhed by Scaliger; whofe notes, with
others, Le Clerc has received among his own.
Severus, Septimius, a Roman emperor, tv ho has been
fo much admired for his military talents, that fome have
called him the molt warlike of the Roman emperors.
As a monarch he w'as cruel, and it has been obferved.
that he never did an aft of humanity or forgave a fault*.
In h is diet he was temperate, and he always ftiowed
himfelf an open enemy to pomp and fplendour. He loved
the appellation of a man of letters, and he even com-
pofed an hiftory of his own reign, which fome have
praifed for its correftnefs and veracity. However cruel
Severus may appear in his punifhments and in his re¬
venge, many have endeavoured to exculpate him, and
obferved that there was need of feverity in an empire
where the morals were fo corrupted, and where no lefs
than 3000 perfons were accufed of adultery during the
fpace of 17 years. Of him, as of Auguftus, fome were
difpofed to fay, that it would have been better for the
world if he had never been born, or had never died. See
Rome, N° 372.
SEVEBUS'S Wall, in Britifli topography, the fourth
and laft barrier erefted by the Romans againll the in-
curfions of the North Britons. See the articles A-
dr i an, and Antoninus's Wall.
We learn from feveral hints in the Roman hiflorians,
that the country between the walls of Hadrian and An¬
toninus continued to be a fcene of perpetual war and fub-
jeft of contention between the Romans and Britons,
from the beginning of the reign of Commodus to the ar¬
rival of the emperor Septimius Severus in Britain, A. D.
206. This laft emperor having fubdued the Meeatse,
and repulfed the Caledonians, determined to erect a
ftronger and more impenetrable barrier than any of the
former, againft their future incurfions.
Though neither Dio nor Herodian make any men¬
tion of a wall built by Severus in Britain for the pro-
teftion of the Roman province, yet we have abundant
evidence from other writers of equal authority, that he
really built fuch a wall. “ He fortified Britain (fays
Spartian) with a wrall drawn crofs the ifland from fea
to fea ; which is the greateft glory of his reign. After
the wall was finiflied, he retired to the next ftation
(York), not only a conqueror, but the founder of an
eternal peace.” To the fame purpofe, Aurelius Viftor
and Orofius, to fay nothing of Eutropius and Cafilodo-
rus : “ Having repelled the enemy in Britain, he for¬
tified the country, which was fuited to that purpofe,.
with a wall drawn crofs the ifland from fea to fea.”—
“ Severus drew a great ditch, and built a ftrong wall„
fortified
S E V [ 19S S E V
Severus. fortified •uith feveral turrets, from fea to fea, to protect
v ' ' that part of the ifiand which he had recovered from
the yet unconquered nations.” As the refidcnce of the
emperor Severus in Britain was not quite four years, it
is probable that the two lalt of them were employed in
building this wrall j according to which account, it was
begun A. D. 209, and finithed A. D. 211.
This wall of Severus was built nearly on the fame
tradt with Hadrian’s rampart, at the diitance only of a
few paces north. The length of this wall, from Cou-
fin’s houfe near the mouth of the river Tyne on the eaft,
to Boulnefs on the Solway frith on the weft, has been
found, from two adtual menfurations, to be a little more
than 68 Englifti miles, and a little lefs than 74 Roman
miles. To the nortli of the wall wTas a broad and deep
ditch, the original dimenfions of which cannot now be
afeertained, only it feems to have been larger than that
of Hadrian. The wall itfelf, which flood on the fouth
brink of the ditch, wras built of freeftone, and where
the foundation was not good, it is built on piles of
oak *, the interftices between the two faces of this wall
is filled with broad thin Hones, placed not perpendicu¬
larly, but obliquely on their edges •, the running mortar
or cement was then poured upon them, which, by its
great ftrength and tenacity, bound the whole together,
and made it firm as a rock. But though thefe mate¬
rials are fufficiently known, it is not eafy to guefs where
they were procured, for many parts of the wall are at
a great diftance from any quarry of freeftone ; and,
though ftone of another kind was within reach, yet it
does not appear to have been anywhere ufed. The
height of this wall was 12 feet befides the parapet, and
its breadth 8 feet, according to Bede, who lived only
at a fmall diftance from the eaft end of it, and in whole
time it was in many places almoft quite entire. Such
was the wallere&ed by the command and under the di-
/ reftion of the emperor Severus in the north of England ;
and, confidering the length, breadth, height, and fcli-
dity, it wTas certainly a work of great magnificence and
prodigious labour. But the wall itfelf rvas but a part,
and not the moft extraordinary part, of this work. The
great number and different kinds of fortrefles which
■were built along the line of it for its defence, and the
military ways with which it was attended, are ftill more
worthy of our admiration, and come now to be de-
feribed.
’ The fortrelfes which were ere£ted along the line of
Severus’s wall for its defence, were of three different
kinds, and three different degrees of ftrength and
were called by three different Latin words, which may
be tranflated J/ations, cajlles, and turrets. Of each of
thefe in their order.
TXwJlationes, ftations, were fo called from their lia¬
bility and the ftated refidence of garrifons. They were
alfo calledcaflra, which hath been converted into chejlres,
a name which many of them ftill bear. Thefe were by
far the largeft, ftrongeft, and moft magnificent of the
fortreffes which were built upon the wall, and were de-
figned for the head-quarters of the cohorts of troops
which were placed there in garrifon, and from whence
detachments were fent into the adjoining cattles and tur¬
rets. Thefe ftations, as appears from the veftiges of
them which are ftill vifible, were not all exadtly of the
fame figure nor of the fame dimenfions j fome of them
■ being exadtly fquares, and others oblong, and fome of
4
them a little larger than others. Thefe variations were Sevens,
no doubt occalioned by the difference of fituation and l—
other circumftances. The ftations were fortified with
deep ditches and ftrong walls, the wall itfelf coinciding
with E2:d forming the north wall of each ftation. With¬
in the ftations were lodgings for the officers and foldiera
in garrifon ; the fmalleft of them being fufficient to con¬
tain a cohort, or 6co men. Without the walls of each
ftation w^as a town, inhabited by labourers, artificers,
and others, both Romans and Britons, who chofe to
dwell under the protection of thefe fortreffes. The num¬
ber of the ftations upon the wall was exaftly 18 5 and
if they had been placed at equal diftances,' the interval
between every two of them would have been four miles
and a few paces : but the interventioft of rivers, marfhes,
and , mountains 5 the conveniency of fituations for
ftrength, profpedl, and water ; and many other circum¬
ftances to us unknown, determined them to place thefe
ftations at unequal diflances. The fituation which was
always chofen by the Romans, both here and everywhere
elfe in Britain where they could obtain it, was the gen¬
tle declivity of a hill, near a river, and facing the me¬
ridian fun. Such was the fituation of the far greateft
part of the ftations on this wall. In general, we may
obferve, that the ftations flood thickeft near the two
ends and in the middle, probably becaufe the danger of
invafion was greateft in thefe places. But the reader
will form a clearer idea of the number of thefe ftations,
their Latin and Englifti names, their fituation and dii¬
tance from one another, by infpedling the following
table, than we can give him with equal brevity in any
other way. The firft column contains the number of
the ftation, reckoning from eaft to weft ; the fecond
contains its Latin, and the third its Englifh name 5 and
the three laft its diftance from the next ftation to the
weft of it, in miles, furlongs, and chains.
N°
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
T3
M
16
l1
18
Latin Name.
Segedunum
Pons Aclii
Condercum
Vindobala
Hunnum
Cilurnum
Procolitia
Borcovicus
Vindolana
Aiifica
Magna
Amboglana
Petriana
Aballaba
Congavata
Axelodunum
Gabrofentum
Tunnoeelum
Englifh Name.
Coufin’s-houfe
New'caftle
Benwell hill
Rutchefter
Halton-chefters
Walwick-chefter;
Carrawbrugh
Houfefteeds
Little-cheflers
Great-chefters
Carrvoran
Burdofwald
Cambeck
Watchcrofs
Stanwix
Brugh
Brumbrugh
Boulnefs
M.
Length of the wall 68
F.
C.
The cajlel/a, or caftles, were the fecond kind of for¬
tifications which were built along the line of this wall
for its defence. Thefe caftles were neither fo large nor
ftrong
S E V
Severus.
r
. ftrong as the ftatlons, but much more numerous, being
“'no fewer than 81. The (hape and dimenfions of the
cables, as appears from the foundations of many of them
which are itilLvifible, were exact fquares of 66 feet every
way. They were fortified on every fide with thick and
lofty walls, but without any ditch, except on the north
fide ; on which the wall itfelf, raifed much above its
ufual height, with the ditch attending it, formed the
fortification. The caftles were fituated in the intervals
between the ftations, at the diftance of about feven fur¬
longs from each other; though particular circumftances
fometimes occafioned a little variation. In thefecaftles,
guards were conftantly kept by a competent number of
men detached from the neareft ftations.
The lurres, or turrets, were the third and laft kind
of fortifications on the wall. Thefe were ftill much
fmaller than the caftles, and formed only a fquare of
about 12 feet, Handing out of the wall on its fouth
fide. Being fo final], they are more entirely ruined
than the ftations and caftles, which makes it difficult
to difcover their exaft number. They flood in the in¬
tervals between the caftles •, and from the faint veftiges
of a few of them, it is conjeftured that there were four
of them between every two caftles, at the diftance of
about 300 yards from one another. According to this
conje&ure the number of the turrets amounted to 324.
They were defigned for watch-towers and places for
fentinels, who, being within hearing of one another,
could convey an alarm or piece of intelligence to all
parts of the wall in a very little time.
Such were the ftations, caftles, and turrets, on the
wall of Severus \ and a very confiderable body of troops
was conftantfy quartered in them for its defence.
The ufual complement allowed for this fervice was as
follows :
1. Twelve cohorts of foot, confifting of 600
men each, - _ _ ^ 2oo
2. One cohort of mariners in theftation at Boul-
nefs, - - . . 600
3. One detachment of Moors, probably equal to
a cohort, - - . 600
4. Four alae or wings of horfe, confifting, at the
loweft computation, of 400 each, - 1600
10,000
For the conveniency of marching thefe troops from
one part of the wall to another, with the greater eafe
and expedition, on any fervice, it was attended with two
military ways, paved with fquare ftones, in the moft fo-
lid and beautiful manner. One of thefe ways was fmall¬
er, and the other larger. The fmaller military way run
elofe along the fouth fide of the wall, from turret to
turret, and caftle to caftle, for the ufe of the foldiers in
relieving their guards and fentinels, and fuch fervices.
I he larger way did not keep fo near the wall, nor
touch at the turrets or caftles, but purfued the moft di-
ref! courfe from one ftation to another, and was defign¬
ed for the conveniency of marching larger bodies of
troops.
It is to be regretted, that we cannot gratify the read¬
er’s curiofity, by informing him by what particular bo¬
dies of Roman troops the feveral parts of this great work
were executed 3 as we were enabled to do with regard
99 j s e v
to the wall of Antoninus Pius from infcriptions. For Severus.
though it is probable that there were ftones with infcrip- v—-
tions of the fame kind, mentioning the feveral bodies of
troops, and the quantity of work performed by each of
them, originally inferted in the face of this wall, yet
none of them are now to be found. T here have indeed
been difcovered, in or near the ruins of this wall, a
great number of fmall fquare ftones, with very ftiort,
and generally imperfeft, infcriptions upon them ; men¬
tioning particular legions, cohorts, and centuries 3 but
without direflly aflerting that they had built any part
of the wall, or naming any number of paces. Of thefe
infcriptions, the reader may fee no fewer than tw'enty-
nine among the Northumberland and Cumberland in¬
fcriptions in Mr Horfley’s Britannia Romana. As the
ftones on which thefe infcriptions are cut are of the fame
ffiape and fize with the other facing-ftones of this Avail,
it is aim oft certain that they have been originally placed
in the face of it. It is equally certain, from the unifor¬
mity of thefe inferiptions, that they Avere all intended to
intimate fume one thing, and nothing fo probable as
that the adjacent Avail was built by the troops mention¬
ed in them. X his Avas, perhaps, fo well underftood,
that it was not thought neceflary to be expreffed ; and
the diftance of thefe infcriptions from one another fhoA\r~
ed the quantity of Avork performed. If this Avas really
the cafe, avc knoAv in general, that this great work Avas
executed by the fecond and fixth legions, thefe being
the only legions mentioned in thefe infcriptions. Nowq
if this prodigious wall, with all its appendages of ditches,
ftations, caftles, turrets, and military Avays, was execu¬
ted in the fpace of Iavo years by tivo legions only, Avhich,
Avhen moft complete, made no more than 1 2,000 men,
hoAv greatly muft avc admire the Ikill, the induftry,
and excellent difeipline of the Roman foldiers, avIio Avere
not only the valiant guardians of the empire in times of
Avar, but its moft aftivc and ufcful members in times of
jieace ?
I. his wall of Severus, and its fortrefles, proA’ed an
impenetrable barrier to the Roman territories for near
200 years. But about the beginning of the ^th cen¬
tury, the Roman empire being aflaulted on all fides, .
and the bulk of their forces Avithdrawn from Britain,
the Mseatae and Caledonians, uoav called Scots and Pi£isy
became more daring 3 and fomeof them breaking through
the wall, and others failing round the ends of it, they
carried their ravages into the very heart of Provincial
Britain. Thefe invaders Avere indeed feveral times re-
pulfed after this by the Roman legions fent to the relief
of the Britons. The laft of thefe legions, under the
command of Gallio of Ravenna, haAung, Avith the affift-
ance of the Britons, thoroughly repaired the breaches of
Severus’s wall and its fortrefles, and exhorted the Bri¬
tons to make a brave defence, took their final fareAvell
of Britain. It foon appeared, that the ftrongeft walls
and ramparts are no fecurity to an undifeiplined and daf-
tardly rabble, as the unhappy Britons then Avere. The
Scots and Pifts met Avith little refiftance in breaking
through the wall, while the toAvns and caftles Avere
tamely abandoned to their deftruflive rage. In many
places they levelled it Avith the ground, that it might
prove no obftruflion to their future inroads From this
time no attempts Avere ever made to repair this noble
Avork. Its beauty and grandeur procured it no refpedl
in the dark and taftelefs ages which fucceeded. It be¬
came
S E V
[ 200 ]
S E V
Sevcrns.
Sevigne
came the common quarry for more than a thoufand
years, out of which all the towns and villages around
' were built •, and is now fo entirely rumed, that the pe¬
netrating eyes of the moil poring and patient antiqua¬
rian can hardly trace its vamlhing foundations.
SEVIGNE/, Marie de Rabutin, Marquise de,
a French lady, was born in 1626. When only a year
old fhe loft her father, who was killed m the delcent ot
the Eno-lifti on the ifte of Rhe, where he commanded a
company of volunteers. In 1644 (he married the mar¬
quis of Sevigme, who was ftain in a duel by the cheva¬
lier d’Albret, in 1651. She had by him a fon and a
daughter, to the education of whom Ihe afterwards re-
liaioufly devoted herfelf. Her daughter was married
in 1669 to the count of Grignan, who amdufted her
to Provence. Madame de Sevignd confoled herfelf by
writing frequent letters to her daughter. She fell at
laft the viaim to her maternal tendernefs. In one ot
her vifits to Grignan, the fatigued herfelf fo much du¬
ring the ficknefs of her daughter, that flie was feized
with a fever, which carried her off on the 14th ot Ja¬
nuary 1696. We have two portraits of Madame de
Sevigne ; the one by the compte de Bufli, the other by
Madame de la Fayette. The firft exhibits her defeds 5
the fecond her excellencies. Bufli defcnbes her as a
lively gay coquette, a lover of flattery, fond of titles, ho¬
nour, and diftindion : M. de la Fayette as a woman
of wit and good fenfe, as poffeffed of a noble foul, form¬
ed for difpenfing benefits, incapable of debafing herieli
by avarice, and bleffed with a generous, obliging, and
faithful heart. Both thefe portraits are in fome mea-
fure iuft. That flie was vain-glorious, appears evident
from her own letters, which, on the other hand, ex¬
hibit undoubted proofs of her virtue and goodneis ot
'K This illuftrious lady was acquainted with all the wits
of her age. It is faid that ftie decided the famous dii-
pute between Perrault and Boileau concerning the pre¬
ference of the ancients to the moderns, thus, “ | he an¬
cients are the fineft, and we are the prettied. She
left behind her a moft valuable colledion of letters, the
beft edition of which is that of 1775, in 8 vols 1 2mo.
Siecle de “ Thefe letters (fays Voltaire) are filled with anecdotes,
Louis XIV. with freedom, and in a natural and animated
ftyle ; are an excellent criticifm on ftudied letters oi
wit, and ftill more on thofe fiaitious letters which aim
at the epiftolary ftyle, by a recital of fake fentiments
and feigned adventures to an imaginary correlpondent.
It wmre to be wiftied that a proper feleaion had been
made of thefe letters. It is difficult to read eight vo¬
lumes of letters, which, though inimitably written, pre-
fent frequent repetitions, and are often filled with trifles.
What makes them in general perhaps fo intereftmg is,
that they are in part hiftorical. They may be looked
on as a'relation of the manners, the ton, die genius, the
faftiions, the etiquette, which reigned m the-court of
Louis XIV They contain many curious anecdotes no¬
where elfe to be found : But thefe excellencies would
be ftill more ftriking, were they fometimes ftripped ot
that multitude of domeftic affairs and minute incidents
which ought naturally to have died ivith the mother and
the daughter. A volume entitled Sevigntana was pub-
SevigMj
Seville
£om. 11.
me uauguvci.    y -
liftied at Paris in 1756, which is nothing more than a
llineu at 1 ana 1** * t   o .
collection of the fine fentiments, literary and hiftorical
anecdotes, and moral apophthegms, fcattered throughout
thefe letters. . u-
SEVILLE, a large and populous city ot Spam,
Hands on the banks of the Guadalquiver, in. the.midft
of a rich, and to the eye a boundlefs, plain in W.
Lono- s° S', N. Lat. 370 20'. This city is fuppoled
to have been founded by the Phoenicians, who gave it
the name of Hifpa/is. When it fell under the power
of the Romans, it was called Ju/ia; and at laft, alter a
variety of corruptions, was. called Sebil/a or irW/fl ;
both of Avhich names are retained by the Spaniards. 1 he
Romans embelliffied it with many magnificent edifices, j
of which fcarce any veftige now remains. 1 he Gothic
kings for fome time made it their refidence : but m
procefs of time they removed their court to ioledoj
and Seville was taken by ftorm foon after the viftory
obtained at Xeres over the Gothic king Rodrigo.
In 1027, Seville became an independent monarchy-,
but was conquered 70 years afterwards by V ulel A -
moravides, an African prince. At laft it was taken
by Ferdinand III. after a year’s fiege j and 300,000
Moors were then obliged to leave the place. Not-
withftanding this prodigious emigration, Seville conti¬
nued to be a great and populous city, and foon after it
was enlarged and adorned with many magnificent build¬
ings, the chief of which is the cathedral. Seville arri¬
ved at its utmoft pitch of grandeur a. little after the dif-
covery of America, the reafon of which was, that all the
valuable nroduaions of the Welt Indies were earned
thither. Its court Avas then the moft fplendid m Eu¬
rope ; but in the courfe of a few years all this grandeur
difappeared, owing to the impediments m navigating the
Guadalquiver. The fuperior excellence of the port oi
Cadiz induced government to order the galeons to be
ftationed there in time to come.
Seville is of a circular form, and is furrounded by a
wall about five miles and a half in circumference, con¬
taining 176 towers. The ditch in many places is filled
up The ftreets of Seville are crooked and dirty, and
moft of them fo narrow that two carriages can icarcely
pafs one another abreaft. r 1 j •
Seville is faid to contain 80,268 fouls, and is divi¬
ded into 30 parifties. It has 84 convents, with 24 hoi-
P1,0f the public edifices of this city the cathedral is the Tm.)
moft magnificent. Its dimenfions are 420 feet m length Tr*M
262 in breadth within the walls, and 126 feet in height.
It has nine doors, 80 altars, at which joo mafles are
daily celebrated, and 80 windows of painted glais, each
of which coil 1000 ducats.. At one angle a
to Aver of Moorifti workmanftnp 350 feet high. Unthe
top of it is the giralda, or large brazen image which
with its palm branch, weighs near one ton and a. halt,
yet turns as a weather cock with the flighteft variation
of the wind. The whole work is brick and mortar.
The paffage to the top is an inclined plane,, which winds
about in the infide in the manner of a fpiral ftaircafe,
fo eafy of afeent that a horfe might trot from the bot¬
tom to the top -, at the fame time it is fo wide that two
horfemen may ride abreaft. What appears very unac¬
countable, the folid mafonry in the upper half is juft as
thick again as that in the lower, though on the outhde
the tower is all the way of the fame dimenfions. In the
opinion of Mr Swinburne, this cathedral is inferior to
S E V [ 201 ] S E V
Seville.
Bourgo-
anne's Tra¬
vels, vol. ii
# Vol. ii.
P- 3l8-
Swin¬
burne’s
Travels,
p. 283.
Town fend
Travels,
vol. ii.
i>- 326.
York minftcr. Its treafares are ineftimable •, one altar
with all its ornaments is folid tilver j of the fame metal
are the images of St ifidore and St Leander, which are
as large as the life ; and a tabernacle for the holt more
than four yards high, adorned with 48 columns. Be¬
fore the choir of the cathedral is the tomb of the cele¬
brated Cbriitopher Columbus, the difcoverer of Ame¬
rica. His monument confiits of one Hone only, on
which thefe words are infcribed, A Cajhlla y Arragon
olro inundo dio Colon ; that is, “ To Caftile and Arra-
■gon Columbus gave another world an infcription
dimple and exprelTive, the jultnefs of which will be ac¬
knowledged by thofe who have read the adventures of
this illultrious but unfortunate man. The cathedral was
begun by Don Sancho the Brave, about the clofe of the
i^th century, and finilhed by John II. about an hundred
years after. To the cathedral belongs a library of
20,000 volumes, collefled by Hernando the fon of Co¬
lumbus -y but, to the difgrace of the Spaniards, it has
fcarcely received any addition fince the death of the
founder. The organ in this cathedral is a very inge¬
nious piece of meehanifm *. “ I was much pleafed (fays
Mr Townfend in his interefting travels) with the con-
ftruftion of a new organ, containing 5300 pipes, with
110 Hops, which latter, as the builder told me, is 50
more than are in the famous one of Haerlem ; yet, fo
ample are the bellows, that when ftretched they fupply
the full organ 15 minutes. The mode of filling them
with air is Angular j for, inftead of working with his
hands, a man walks backwards and forwards along an
inclined plane of about 15 feet in length, which is ba¬
lanced in the middle on its axis ; under each end is a
pair of bellows, of about fix feet by three and a half.
Thefe communicate with five other pairs united by a
bar -y and the latter are fo contrived, that Avhen they are
in danger of being overltrained, a valve is lifted up, and
gives them relief. Palling 10 times along the inclined
plane fills all thefe veffels.”
The Canos de Carmone, or great aqueduft of Se¬
ville, is reckoned by the hiftorians of this city one of
the moft wonderful works of antiquity. Mr Swinburne,
however, remarks, that it is ugly, crooked, the arches
unequal, and the architedlure neglefted. I he conduit
is fo leaky, that a rivulet is formed by the wafte water.
Neverthelefs, it Hill conveys to the city an ample fup¬
ply of water, fufficient to turn feveral mills, and to give
almoft every houfe in town the benefit of it.
Many of the convents are remarkable for the beauty
of their architecture ; but in Seville the eye covets only
pictures, of which there is a wonderful profufion. Among
thefe are the works of the famous painter Murillo, with
many others univerfally admired.
The convent of the Francifcans contains 15 cloifters,
with apartments for 200 monks, though, when Mr
Townfend vifited them, they amounted only to 140.
j-The annual expenditure of thefe, who are all fed on
charity, is. about 4000I. Iterling. “ In the principal
cloifier (fays the fame intelligent traveller), which is
entirely inelofed by a multitude of little chapels, are re-
prefented, in 14 pidures, each called & Jlation, all the
Vol. XIX. Part I.
fufferings of the Redeemer. Thefe are fo arranged as Sev
to mark given diftances by walking round the cloifter
from the firit to the fecond, and to in order to the reit.
o ver them is mentioned the number of fteps taken by
our Lord between the feveral incidents of his paffion in
his way to Calvary *, and tlrefe precifely are the paces
meafured for the penitents in their progrefs from one
ftation to another. Over one is the following infcrip¬
tion : ‘ This ftation confifts of 1087 fteps. Here the
blefied Redeemer fell a fecond time under the weight of
his crofs, and here is to be gained the indulgence of
feven years and forty quarantines. Mental prayer, the
Paternofter, and the Ave Maria.’ This may ferve as
an example for the reft.”
The principal manufacture of Seville is fnuff. Mr
Townfend, who paid particular attention to it, informs
us, that the building in which it is carried on is elegant
and fimple in its form, and is about 600 feet by 480,
and not lefs than 60 feet in height, with four regular
fronts, inclofing 28 quadrangles. It coft 37,000,000 of
reals, or about 370,000!. At prefent (1787), no more
than 1700 workmen are employed, and 100 horfes or
mules*, but formerly 3000 men were engaged, and near
400 horfes. This falling off is attributed by Mr Swin¬
burne to a praClice which the direClors followed, of
adulterating the tobacco with the red earth of Alma-
zarron. When Mr Townfend vifited this manufachire,
they had changed their fyftem. From the year 1780,
he informs us, the annual fale of tobacco from Brazil
has been 1,500,000 pounds, purchafed from the Portu-
guefe at three reals a pound 5 and of fnuff from the pro¬
duce of their own colonies 1,600,000 pounds, befide
cigars (a) to a very confiderable amount. They have
lying by them more than 5,000,000 pounds of fnuff un¬
fold ; but as it will not fuffer by age, they are not un-
eafy at this accumulation. Befides the peculiar kind of
fnuff with which Spain was accuftomed to fupply the
market, they have lately introduced the manufacture of
rappee. In this branch alone are employed 220 perfons,
old and young, with 16 mules. *
“ All the Avorkmen (continues Mr ToAvnfend) depofit
their cloaks at the door *, and Avhen they go out are fo
ftriCtly examined, that they haA'e little chance of being
able to conceal tobacco; yet they fometimes venture to
hide it about their perfons. An officer and a guard is
always attending to take delinquents into cuftody j and
that they may prevent refiilanee, no Avorkman is per¬
mitted to enter Avith a knife. Were it not for this pre¬
caution. the confequence of a deteftion might be fatal.
The Avhole bufinefs is conduCled by a direCJor, with a
falary of 40,000 reals a-year, and 54 fuperior officers,
affifted by as many fubordinate to them. For grinding
their fnuff, they have 40 mills, each confifting of a ftone
roller, moved by a large horfe or mule, Avith the traces
faftened to a beam of eight feet in length, in the angle
of 45 degrees, confequently lofing precifely half his
force.”
Before Mr ToAvnfend left Seville, according to his
ufual praClice, which was truly laudable, he enquired
into the prices of labour and provifions. As a piece of
C c curious
(a) Thefe are little rolls of tobacco which the Spaniards fmoke without a pipe.
SEW [ 202 ] s E W
curious and ufeful information, and as an example to
other travellers, -vve prefent them to our readers. They
are as follows :
Day-labourers 4§- reals, about L.o
Carpenters from J to 11 ——
Joiners, if good work¬
men, 24  or o
Weavers, if good workmen, 15 reals,
about 0
Bread, for 3Tb. of 16 oz. 16 quar¬
tos, or O
 — fometimes 28 quartos, or o
Beef, 30 quartos for 32 oz. per lb. about o
Mutton, 38 do. do.
Kid, 24 do.
Pork from 36 to 42 quartos, do.
o
o
or o
to o
O 10!
4 9
3 °
o 4I
° 7i
o 4t
° 5tt
° 3i
0 5tV
o 5ff
The price of wheat has at different periods been very
remarkable. In 1652, it fold at the rate of 15s. 3^d.
the bufliel *, and in 1657, it fell fo low as is. 4^3. per
bufhel, reckoning the fancga at 109! lb. and the bulhel
at 70.
SEVUM MTNERALE, mineral tallow ; a fubftance
fomewhat refembling tallow, found on the fea coafts of
Finland in the year 1736. It burns with a blue flame,
and fmell of greafe, leaving a black vifcid matter which
cannot eafily be confumed. It is extremely light ; be¬
ing only of the fpecific gravity of 0.770 ; whereas tal¬
low is not lefs than 0.969, It is partly foluble in high¬
ly reflified fpirit of wine •, but entirely fo in expreffed
oils when boiling. It is met with in fome of the rocky
parts of Perfia, but there it appears to be mixed with
petrolgeum. Dr Herman of Strafburg mentions a fpring
in the neighbourhood of that city which contains a fub¬
ftance of this fort diffufed through it, feparating, and
capable of being collefted on ebullition.— A fat mineral
matter refembling butter or tallow has lately been ex¬
tracted from peat in Lancafhire. See Peat.
SEWAURY, a Hindoo word ufed in Bengal, and
flgsifying the train of attendants that accompany a na¬
bob or great man.
SEWER, in the Houfehold, an officer who arranged
on the table the diflies of a king or nobleman.
Sewer is alfo a paffage or gutter made to carry wa¬
ter into the fea or a river, whereby to preferve the land,
&c. from inundations and other annoyances.
Court ofComtnifJioners of SEWERS in England, a tem¬
porary tribunal, ereCled by virtue of a commiffion un¬
der the great feal; which formerly ufed to be granted
2)ro re nata at the pleafure of the crown, but now at
the difcretion and nomination of the lord chancellor,
lord treafurer, and chief juftices, purfuant to the ftatute
23 Hen. VIII. c. 5. Their jurifdiClion is to overlook
the repairs of fea-banks and fea-walls, and the cleanfing
»f rivers, public ftreams, ditches, and other conduits,
whereby any waters are carried off •, and is confined to
fuch county or particular diftrhft as the commiffion {hall
exprefsly name. The commiffioners are a court of re¬
cord, and may fine and imprifon for contempts 5 and in
the execution of their duty may proceed by jury, or up¬
on their own view, and may take order for the removal
cf any annoyances, or the fafeguard and confervation of
the fewers within, their commiffion, either according to
the laws and cuftoms of Romney-marfti, or otherwife at Sewer,
their own difcretion. They may alfo affefs fuch rates
or foots upon the owners of lands within their diftrift as
they ffiall judge neceffary : and if any perfon refufes to
pay tlrem, the commiffioners may levy the fame by dif-
trefs of his goods and chattels $ or they may, by flatute
23 Hen. VIII. c. 5. fell his freehold lands (and by the
7 Ann. c. 10. his copyhold alfo), in order to pay fuch
fcots or affeffments. But their conduft is under the
controul of the court of King’s-bench, which will pre¬
vent or punifh any illegal or tyrannical proceeding*.
And yet in the reign of King.Tames I. (8th Nov. 1616),
the privy-council took upon them to order, that no ac¬
tion or complaint fhould be profecuted againft the com¬
miffioners unlefs before that board •, and committed fe-
veral to prifon who had brought fuch adlions at commosi
law, till they fhould releafe the fame : and one of the
Teafons for difcharging Sir Edward Coke from his office
of lord chief-juftice, was for countenancing thofe legal
proceedings. The pretence for thefe arbitrary meafures
■was no other than the tyrant’s plea of the necejfitij of
unlimited powers in works, of evident utility to the pub¬
lic, “ the fupreme reafon above all reafons, which is the
falvation of the king’s lands and people.” But now it
is clearly held, that this (as well as all other inferior
jurifdidlion) is fubjedl to the difcretionary coercion of
his majefty’s court of King’s-bench.
Cojnmon Sewers, in Rome, were executed at a great Fergufinx \
expence. It was propofed that they fihould be of fuffi- Roman
cient dimenfions to admit a waggon loaded with hay.
When thefe common fewers eame to be obftru&ed, or
out of repair, under the republic, the cenfors contraft-
ed to pay a thoufand talents, or about 193,000!. for
clearing and repairing them. They were again in dif-
reoair at the acceffion of Auguftus Caefar, and the re-
inftating them is mentioned among the great works of
Agrippa. He is faid to have turned the courfe of
feven rivers into thefe fubterraneous paffages, to have
made them navigable, and to have a£!ually paffed in
barges under the ftreets and buildings of Rome. Thefe
works are ftill fuppofed to remain •, but as they exceed
the power and refources of the prefent city to keep them
in repair, they are quite concealed, except at one or two
places. They were in the midft of the Roman great-
nefs, and ftill are, reckoned among the wonders of the
world *, and yet they are faid to have been works of the
elder Tarquin, a prince whofe territory did not extend,
in any dire&ion, above 16 miles 5 and, on this fuppofi-
tion, they mull have been made to accommodate a city
that wras calculated chiefly for the reception of cattle,
herdfmen, and banditti.. Rude nations fometimes execute
works of great magnificence, as fortreffes and temples*
for the purpofes of war and fuperflition ; but feldom
palaces, and ftill more feldom works of mere convenience
and cleanlinefs, in which for the moft part they are long
defective. It is not unreafonable, therefore, to queftion
the authority of tradition in refpeft to this Angular mo¬
nument of antiquity, which fo greatly exceeds what the
beft accommodated city of modern Europe could un¬
dertake for its own conveniency. And as thofe works
are ftill entire, and may continue fo for thoufands of
years, it may be fufpefted that they w-ere even prior to
the fettlement of Romulus, and may have been the re¬
mains of a more ancient city, on the ruins of which the
followers of Romulus fettled, as the Arabs now hut or
• encamp
SEX { 203 ] SEX
Sewer, encamp on the ruins of Palmyra and Balbeck. Livy
Sex. owns, that the common fewers were not accommodated
to the plan of Rome, as it was laid out in his time ; they
were carried in dirediions acrofs the ftreets, and palled
tinder buildings of the greatell antiquity. This derange¬
ment indeed he imputes to the halty rebuilding of the
city after its deftruction by the Gauls •, but hafte, it is
probable, would have determined the people to build on
their old foundations, or at leaft not to change them fo
much as to crofs the direction of former flreets.
SEX, the property by which any animal is male or
female.
Lavater has drawn the following charaCteriftic di-
ftinCtions between the male and female of the human
fpecies.
“ The primary matter of which women are conftitu-
ted appears to be more flexible, irritable, and elaftic,
than that of man. They are formed to maternal mild-
-nefs and affeCtion 3 all their organs are tender, yielding,
eafily w'ounded, fenfible, and receptible. Among a
thoufand females there is fcarcely one without the ge-
■nerie feminine figns 5 the flexible, the circular, and the
irritable.
“ They are the counterpart of man, taken out of
man, to be fubjeft to man 5 to comfort him like angels,
and to lighten his cares. ‘ She lhall be faved in child¬
bearing, if they continue in faith, and charity, and holi-
mefs, with fobriety’ (1 Tim. ii. 15.). This tendernefs,
this fenfibility, this light texture of their fibres and or¬
gans, this volatility of feeling, render them fo eafy to
conduCl and to tempt ; fo ready of fubmiflion to the
enterprife and power of the man •, but more powerful
through the aid of their charms than man with all his
Itrength. 'The man was not firft tempted, but the wo¬
man, afterward the man by the woman. And, not on¬
ly eafy to be tempted, the is capable of being formed
to the pureft, nobleft, moll feraphic virtue ; to every
-thing which can deferve praife or affeCtion. Highly
fenfible of purity, beauty, and fymmetry, the does not
always take time to refleCl on internal life, internal death,
internal corruption. ‘ The woman faw that the tree
was good for food, and that it was pleafant to the eyes,
and a tree to be defired to make one wife, and tire took
of the fruit thereof.’ (Gen. iii. 6.).
“The female thinks not profoundly, profound thought
is the power of the man. Women feel more. Senfibi-
lity is the power of woman. They often rule more ef¬
fectually, more fovereignly, than man. I hey rule with
tender looks, tears, and fighs : but not with pafiion and
threats } for if, or when, they fo rule, they are no longer
women, but abortions. They are capable of the fweeteft
fenfibility, the molt profound emotion, the utmoft humi¬
lity, and the excefs of enthufiafm. In their countenance
are the figns of fanClity and inviolability, which every
feeling man honours, and the effeCts of which are often
miraculous. Therefore, by the irritability of their nerves,
their incapacity for deep inquiry and firm decifion, they
may eafily from their extreme fenfibility become the
molt irreclaimable, the molt rapturous enthufiafts. Their
love, ftrong and rooted as it is, is very changeable } their
hatred almoft incurable, and only to be effaced by con¬
tinued and artful flattery. Men are molt profound $
women are more fublime.
“ Men moft embrace the whole 5 women remark in¬
dividually, and take more delight in feleCting the mi¬
nutiae which form the whole. Man hears the burfting
thunder, views the deftruCtive bolt with ferene afpeCt, v~~“
and flands ereCt amidfl: the fearful majefty of the ftream-
ing clouds. Woman trembles at the lightning, and the
voice of diftant thunder j and (brinks into herfelf, or
finks into the arms of man. Man receives a ray of light
fingle, woman delights to view it through a prifm in all
its dazzling colours. She contemplates the rainbow as
the promife of peace ; he extends his inquiring eye over
the whole horizon. Woman laughs, man fmiles j wo¬
man -weeps, man remains filent. Woman is in anguilh
when man weeps, and in defpair when man is in anguifli j
yet has (he often more faith than man. Man without
religion, is a difeafed creature, who would perfuade him-
felf he is well, and needs not a phyfician j but woman
without religion, is raging and monftrous. A woman
with a beard is not fo difgufting as a woman who aCls
the freethinker ; her fex is formed to piety and religion j
to them Chrift firfl: appeared •, but he was obliged to
prevent them from too ardently, and too haftily, em¬
bracing him : ‘ Touch me not.’ They are prompt to
receive and feize novelty, and become its enthufiafts.
The whole world is forgotten in the emotion caufed by
Tie prefence and proximity of him they love. They
fink into the moft incurable melancholy, as they alfo
rife to the moft enraptured heights.
“ Male fenfation is more imagination, female more
lieart. When communicative, they are more communi¬
cative than man ; when fecret, more fecret. In gene¬
ral they are more patient, long-fuffering, credulous, be¬
nevolent, and modeft. Woman is not a foundation on
which to build. She is the gold, filver, precious ftones,
wood, hay, ftubble (1 Cor. iii. 12.); the materials for
building on the male foundation. She is the leaven, or
more expreflively the oil to the vinegar of man : the fe-
cond part of the book of man.
“ Man fingly is but half man ; at leaft but half hu¬
man j a king without a kingdom. Woman, who feels
properly what !he is, whether ftill or in motion, refts
upon the man 5 nor is man what he may and ought to
be, but in conjun&ion with woman 5 therefore, ‘ it is
not good that man iliould be alone, but that he ftiould
leave father and mother, and cleave to his wife, and
they two fliall be one fleftn”
They differ alfo in their exterior form and appear¬
ance.
“ Man is the moft firm y woman the moft flexible.
Man is the ftraighteft ; Woman the moft bending. Man
Hands ftedfaft ; woman gently retreats. Man furveys
and obferves 5 woman glances and feels. Man is fe-
rious 5 woman is gay. Man is the talleft and broadeft j
woman the fmalleft and weakeft. Man is rough and
hard; -woman fmooth and foft. Man is brown ; wo¬
man is fair. Man is wrinkly; woman is not. The
hair of man is more ftrong and lliort; of woman more
long and pliant. The eyebrows of man arecompreffed ;
of woman lefs frowning. Man has moft convex lines ;
woman moft concave. Man has moft ftraight lines
woman moft curved. The countenance of man taken
in profile is more feldom perpendicular than that of the
woman. Man is moft angular ; woman moft round.”
In determining the comparative merit of the two Fitxof-
fexes, it is no derogation from female excellency that it borne's
differs in kind from that which diftinguiihes the male Letters,
part of our fpecies: and if, in general, it ftiould be
C c 2 found
S E X
found (what upon an impartial inquiry will moll: cer¬
tainly be found) that women fill up their appointed
circle of action with greater regularity than men, the
claim of preference cannot iuftly be decided in our fa¬
vour. In the prudential and economical parts of life,
it is undeniable that they rife far above us : and if true
fortitude of mind is bell difcovtred by a cheerful refig-
nation to the meafures of Providence, we lhall not find
reafon, perhaps, to claim that molt lingular of the hu¬
man virtues as our peculiar privilege. There are num¬
bers of the other fex who, from the natural delicacy of
their condilution, pafs through one continued fcene of
fullering from their cradles to their graves, with a firm-
nefs of refolution that would deferve fo many lialues to
be eredled to their memories, if heroifm were not elleem-
ed more by the fplendour than the merit of adlions.
But whatever real difference there may be between
the moral or intelledlual powers of the male and fe¬
male mind, Nature does not feem to have marked the
diftinftion fo ftrongly as our vanity is willing to ima¬
gine 5 and after all, perhaps, education will be found to
conliitute the principal fuperiority. It mud be acknow¬
ledged, at lead, that in this article we have every ad¬
vantage over the fofter fex that art and indudry can
poflibly fecure to us. The mod animating examples
of Greece and Rome are fet before us, as early as we
are capable of any obfervation ; and the nobleli compo-
fitions of the ancients are given into our hands almoft
as foon as we have drength to hold them ; while the
employments of the other fex, at the fame period of
life, are generally the reverfe of every thing that can
open and enlarge their minds, or fill them with jutl and
rational notions. The truth of it is, female education
is fo much worfe than none, as it is better to leave the
mind to its natural and unindrufted fuggedions, than
to lead it into falfc purfuits, and contraft its view's, by
turning them upon the kweft and mod trifling objefts.
We feem, indeed, by the manner in which we fuffer the
youth of that fex to be trained, to confider women
agreeably to the opinion of certain Mahometan dodlors,
and treat them as if we believed they had no fouls: why
elfe are they
P>red only,, and completed to the tafte
Of ludful appetence, to fing, to dance,
To drefs, and troul the tongue, and roll the eye.
Milton.
This ftrange negleft of cultivating the female mind
«an hardly be allowed as good policy, when it is con-
lidered how much the interell of fociety is concerned in
the reftitude of their underdandings. That feafon of
every man’s life which is mod fufeeptible of the ftrong-
eft imprefltons, is neceffarily under female direction ; as
there are few indances, perhaps, in which that fex is
not one of the fecret fprings which regulates the mod
important movements of private or public tranfaflions.
What Cato obferves of his countrymen is in one refpe£l
true of every nation under the fun : “ The Romans
(faid he) govern the world, but it is the women that
govern the Romans.”
If it be true then (as true beyond all peradventure it
is) that female influence is thus extenfive, nothing cer¬
tainly can be of more importance than to give it a pro¬
per tendency, by the afliflance of a wel!-dire6led edu¬
cation. Far are we from recommending any attempts
SEX
to render women learned 5 yet furely it is neceffary they Sex
Ihould be raifed above ignorance. Such a general tine- I!
ture of the mod ufeful leiences as may ftrve to free the . ^ext™-
mind from vulgar prejudices, and give it a reliflh for the
rational exercile of its powers, might very judly enter
into a plan of female erudition. That lex might be
taught to turn the courfe of their refledlions into a pro¬
per and advantageous channel, without any danger of
rendering them too elevated for the feminine duties of
life. In a word, they ought to beconfidered as defign-
ed by Providence for ufe as well as Ihow, and trained
up, not only as women, but as rational creatures.'
SEX of Bees. See Bee.
SEX of Plants. See Botany Index.
SEXAGENARY, fomething relating to the num¬
ber fixty : thus fexagenary or fexagefimal arithmetic is-
a method of computation proceeding by fixties ; fuch is
that ufed in the divilion of a degree into fixty minutes,
of the minute into fixty feeonds, of the fecund into fixty
thirds, &c. Alfo fexagenary tables are tables of pro¬
portional parts, Ihowing the product of two fexagenaries
that are to be multiplied, or the quotient of the two
that are to be divided.
SEXAGES1MA, the fecund Sunday before Lent,,
or the next to Shrove-Sunday 5 fo called as being about
the 60th day before Ealter.
SEXAGESIMALS, or Sexagesimal FraSionsr
fractions whofe denominators proceed in a fexageeuple
ratio j that is, a prime, or the firft minute —^-0 j a fe-
cond = T7Ver ’■> a = Tri<ro oo- Anciently, there
were no other than fexagefimak ufed in aftronomyj and
they are Hill retained in many cafes, though decimal
arithmetic begins to grow in ufe now in affronomical
calculations. In thefe fraction?, which fome call afro-
nomicalfraElions, the denominator being always 60, or
a multiple thereof, is ufually omitted, and the numera¬
tor only written down : thus 40, 59', 32", 50'", 16"",
is to be read, 4 degrees, 59 minutes, 32 feconds, 50.
thirds, 16 fourths, &c.
SEXTANS, Sextant, a fixth part of certain things.
The Romans having divided their as into 12 ounces or
uncia, the fixth part of that, or tw'o ounces, was the
fextans.—Sextans was alfo a meafure which contained
two ounces of liquor, or two cyathi.
Sextans, in Adflronomy, a conftellation of the
fouthern hemifphere, made by Hevelius out of unformed
liars. In Hevelius’s catalogue it containsn, but in the
Britannic catalogue 41 liars.
SEXTANT, in Mathematics, denotes the fixth part
of a circle, or an arch comprehending 60 degrees.
The word fextant is more particularly ufed for an
allronomical infirument made like a quadrant, except¬
ing that its limb only comprehends 60 degrees. The-
ufe and application of the fextant is the fame with that
of the quadrant. See Quadrant; and Navigation,
p. 699, &c.
SEXTILE, Sextilis, the pofition or afpefl of two
planets when at 60 degrees dillance, or at the dillance
of two figns from one another. It is marked thus (*).
See Aspect.
SEXTTUS, Quintus, a Pythagorean philofopher,
flourilhed in the time of Augullus. He feemed formed
to rife in the republic ; but he fhrunk from civil ho¬
nours, and declined accepting the rank of fenator when
it was offered him by Julius Caefar, that he might have
L 204 1
Sextus.
Sa E X t
Sextros time to apply to philofopby. It appears that he wifhed
H to eftablith a fchool at Rome, and that his tenets, though
chiefly drawn, from the doctrines of Pythagoras, in fome
particulars refembled thofe of the Stoics.
He foon found himfelf involved in many difficulties.
His laws were tin&ured with great feverity •, and in an
early period of this eftabliihment, he found his mind fo
haraffed, and the harffinefs of the doctrines which he
wiffied to eflabliffi fo repulfive to his feelings, that he
had nearly worked himfelf up to fuch an height of def-
peration as to refolve on putting a period to his ex-
iftence.
Of the fchool of Sextius were Fabianus, Sotion, Fla-
vianus, Craffitius, and Celfus. Of his works only a
few fragments remain •, and whether any of them form¬
ed a part of the work which Seneca admired fo much,
cannot now be determined. Some of his maxims are
valuable. He recommended an examination of the ac¬
tions of the day to his fcholars when they retired to
reft; he taught, that the road to heaven (W (tjh'a) was
by frugality, temperance, and fortitude. He ufed to
recommend holding a looking-glafs before perfons difor-
dered with paffion. He enjoined his fcholars to abftain
from animal food.
SEXTON, a church-officer, thus called by corrup¬
tion of the bmn facrifta, or Saxon fegcrjlone, which de
205 ] S F O
SEXUALISTiE, among botanical writers, thofe Scxnaliftje
who have eftabliffied the claffes ol plants upon the dif-
ferences of the lexes and parts of fruftification in plants, ■ ^ ■
according to the modern method } as Linnaeus, &c.
SEZAWUL, a Hindoo word, ufed in Bengal to
exprefs an officer employed at a monthly falary to col-
left the revenues.
SFORZA, James, was the founder of the illuftri-
ous houfe of Sforza, Avhich afted lo confpicuous a part
in Italy during the 15th and i6th centuries, which
gave fix dukes to Milan, and contrafted alliances with
almoft every fovereign in Europe. James Sforza was
born on the 28th of May 1369, at Catignola, a finall
town in Italy,-lying between Imola and Facnza. His
father was a day labourer, or, according to Comrnines,.
a ffioemaker. A company of foldiers happening one day
to pafs through Catignola, he w as feized with the defire
of accompanying them to the wars. “ I will go (laid
he to himfelf), and dart my hatchet againft that tree,
and if it ftick fall in the wood, I will immedirdelv
become a foldier.” The hatchet accordingly ftuck faft,
and our adventurer enlifted 5 and becaufe, lays the Abbd
de Choifi, he had thrown the axe with all Ids force, he
affumed the name of Sforza; for his true name was
Giacomuzzo, or James Attendulo. He rofe rapidly in
the army, and foon became commander of 7000 men.
notes the fame. His office is to take care of the veflels, He defended the caufe of Jane II. queen ol Naples lor
„ /-* <4 • ..1 1 1 J i _ 1.1. J      „ d v.Tno r-i d m 1 V O K1 T M IT 1 IT rT/H (ATT)
veftments, &c. belonging to the church •, and to attend
the minifter, church-warden, &c. at church. He is
ufually chofen by the parfon only. Sextons, as well as
parilh clerks, are regarded by the common law as per¬
fons who have freehold in their offices •, and, therefore,
though they may be puniffied, yet they cannot be de¬
prived by ecclefiaftical cenfures.
The office of fexton in the pope’s chapel is appro¬
priated to the order of the hermits of St Auguftine.
He is generally a biffiop, though lometimes the pope
only gives a biffiopric, tn partibus, to him on whom he
confers the poll. He takes the title of Prefect <if the
Pope's SacriJIy, and has the keeping the veffels of gold
and filver, the relics, &c. W hen the pope lays mafs,
tire fexton always taftes the bread and wine firft. If it
be in private he fays mafs, his holinefs, of two wafers,
gives him one to eat; and, if in public, the cardinal,
who affifts the pope in quality of deacon, of three wa¬
fers, gives him one to eat. When the pope is defperately
fick, he adminifters to him the facrament of extreme
nnftion, &.c. and enters the conclave in quality of firft
conclavift.
The office of a fexton in Sweden is fometimes Angu¬
lar. During M. Outhier’s ftay at Stockholtn in 1736
he vifited the church of St Clara, and during divine fer-
vice he obferved a fexton going about with a long rod,
waking thofe perfons who had fallen afleep..
SEXTUPLE, in Mujic, denotes a mixed fort of tri¬
ple, which is beaten in double time.
SEXTUS Empiricus, a famous Pyrrhonian philo-
fopher, lived in the fecond century, under the reign of
Antoninus the Debonair. He was a phyfician of the
feft of the Empirics, and is faid to have been one of the
preceptors of Antoninus the philofopher. I here are
ftill extant his Pyrrhonian Inftitutions, and alarge rvoik
againft the mathematicians, &c. I he belt edition of
Sextus Empiricus is that of Fabricius in Greek and
Latin, printed at Leipfic in 1718, folio*
many years, and rvas made conftable of her kingdom.
He was created Count of Catignola by Pope John
XXII. by way of paying a debt of 14,000 ducats which
the church of Rome owed him. His exploits became
every day more illuftrious: He obliged Alphonfo king
of Arragon to raife the fiege of Naples; and reduced
feveral places that had revolted in Abruzzo and Le
Labour *, but while in purfuit of his enemieS'he was
unfortunately drowned in the river Aterno on the 3d
January 1424, at the age of 54 years. His heroic qua¬
lities, and the continual wars in w'hich he was engaged,
did not prevent him from forming an attachment to the
fair fex. In his youth he fell in love with a woman called
Lucia Trexana, whom he married after Are had born
him feveral children. He married afterwards Antoi¬
nette Salembini, who brought him feveral excellent
eftatesj fire bore him Bofio Sforza, compte of Santa-Flor,
a warrior and governor of Orvietta for Pope Martin V.
His third wife was Catharine Alopo, filler of Rodolpho,
grand chamberlain to the fovereign of Naples. His laft
wife, for he was four times married, w'as Mary Marzana,
daughter to the duke of Seffa. She bore him Charles
Sforza, who was general of the order of Augultines,
and archbilhop of Milan.
SFORZA, Francis, the fon of James Sforza by
Lucia Trezana, rvas born in 1401, and trained up by
his father to the profeffion of arms. At the age of
23 he defeated the troops of Braccio, who difputed
with him the paflage of the Aterno. In this aftion
his father was drowned, and Francis, though illegiti¬
mate, fucceeded him. He fought fuccefsfully againft
the Spaniards, and contributed a great deal both towards
raifing the fiege of Naples, and to the viftory which
was gained over the troops of Braccio near Aquila in
1425, where that general was killed. After the death
of fjueen Jane, in 1435, he efpoufed the interefts of
the duke of Anjou, to w'hom ffie had left her crown,
and by his courage and abilities ably fupported that un¬
fortunate
S H A r 2o6 ] s H A
bfor^a fortunate prince. He made himfelf mailer of feveral
, , places In Ancona, from which he was driven by Pope
“ Eugenius IV. who defeated and excommunicated him j
but he foon re-eftabli(hed his affairs by a vidtory. His re¬
putation was now fo great, that the pope, the Venetians,
and the Florentines, chofe him for their general againft
the duke of Milan. Sforza had already conduced Ve¬
netian armies againft that prince, though he had efpou-
fed his daughter. The duke dying in 1447, the inha¬
bitants of Milan invited Sforza, his fon-in-law, to lead
them againft that duke. But, after fome exertions in
their favour, he turned his arms againft themfelves, laid
fxege to Milan, and obliged them to receive him as
duke, notwithftanding the rights of Charles duke of Or¬
leans, the fon of Valentine of Milan. In 1464, Louis
XI. who hated Orleans, gave up to Sforza the rights
which the crown of France had over Genoa, and even
.put into his hands Savona, a town belonging to that re¬
public. The duke of Milan foon after made himfelf
ma'or of Genoa. He died in 1466, with the reputa¬
tion of a man who was willing to fell his blood to the
belt purchafer, and who was not too fcrupulous an ob-
ferver of his word. His fecond wife was Blanche
Marie, natural daughter of Philip Marie duke of Mi¬
lan. She bore him Galeas Marie, and Ludovic Marie,
dukes of Milan, Philip Marie count of Pavia, Sforza
Marie duke of Bari, Afcagne Marie bifhop of Pavia
and Cremona, and a cardinal. He was taken prifoner
by the troops of Louis XII. and confined for fome time
in the tower of Bourges. He wras a cunning man, and
deceived Cardinal d’Amboife ■when that prelate afpired
ut the papacy. His daughters were Hyppolita, married
to Alphonfo of Arragon, afterwards king of Naples 4
and Elizabeth, married to William marquis of Mont-
ferrat. He had befides feveral natural children.
SHACK, in ancient cuftoms, a liberty of winter-
-pafturage. In the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, the
lord of the manor has {hack, i. e. a liberty of feeding
his {beep at pleafure in his tenants lands during the fix
w.inter months. In Norfolk, ftiack alfo extends to the
common for hogs, in all men’s grounds, from the end of
•harveft till feed-time. Whence to go a-Jhack, is to feed
at large.
SHACKLES, aboard a fhip, are thofe oblong iron
rings, bigger at one end than at the other, with which
the ports are ftmt fall, by thrufting the wooden bar of
the port through them. There is alfo a fort of {hackles
to lift the hatches up with, of a like figure, but fmaller.
They are faftened at the corners of the hatches.
SHAD, a fpecies of Clupea. See Ichthyology
Index.
SHADDOCK, a fpecies of Citrus, the fruit of
which is of a very large fize, and of a very grateful
tafte. In the Weft Indies it is eaten after dinner to
give a zeft to the wine.
SHADOW, in Optics, a privation or diminution of
light, by the interpofition of an opaque body •, or it is
a plane where the light is either altogether obftrudted,
or greatly weakened, by the interpofition of fome
opaque body between it and the luminary-.
Shadow, in Tainting, an imitation of a real Ihadow,
effedted by gradually heightening and darkening the
colours of fuch figures as by their difpofitions cannot re¬
ceive any diredl rays from the luminary that is fuppofed
to enlighten the piece.
3
Shadow7, in PcrfpecHve. The appearance of an opaque Shadow,
body, and a luminous one, whofc rays diverge {e. gr. a i Shadows,
candle, lamp, &c.), being given j to find the juft ap-
pearance of the ftiadow, according to the laws of per-
fpeftive. The method is this : From the luminous bo¬
dy, which is here confidered as a point, let fall a per¬
pendicular to the perfpedlive plane or table j i. e. find
the appearance of a point upon which a perpendicular,
drawn from the middle of the luminary, falls on the per-
fpeftive plane ; and from the feveral angles, or raifed
points of the body, let fall perpendiculars to the plane.
Thefe points, whereon the perpendiculars fall, conneft
by right lines, with the point upon which the perpen¬
dicular let fall from the luminary falls j and continue
the lines to the fide oppofite to the luminary. Laftly,
through the raifed points draw lines through the centre
of the luminary, interfering the former 5 the points of
interfetlion are the terms or bounds of the fliadow.
SHADOWS, Coloured, a curious phenomenon in
optics, which was obferved by Profeffor Scherffer of Vi¬
enna, and afterwards by Count Rumford, who made the
difeovery while profecuting his experiments on light.
“ Defirous,” fays the count, “ of comparing the in-
tenfity of the light of a clear blue Iky by day with that
of a common wax candle, I darkened my room, and
letting the day-light from the north, coming through a
hole near the top of the window-fhutter, fall at an an¬
gle of about 70° upon a fheet of very fine white paper, I
placed a burning wax candle in fuch a pofition that its
rays fell upon the fame paper, and, as near as I could
guefs, in the line of refledion of the rays of day-light
from without 4 when, interpofing a cylinder of wood,
about half an inch in diameter, before the centre of the
paper, and at the diftance of about twm inches from its
furface, I was much furprifed to find that the two Iha-
dows projefted by the cylinder upon the paper, in-
ftead of being merely {hades without colour, as I ex*-
petted 5 the one of them, that which, correfponding
with the beam of day-light, was illuminated by the can¬
dle, was yellow ,5 rvhile the other, correfponding to the
light of the candle, and confequently illuminated by the
light of the heavens, wras of the moft beautiful blue that
it is poflible to imagine. This appearance, which was
not only unexpetted, but was really in itfelf in the
higheft degree ftriking and beautiful, I found upon re¬
peated trials, and after varying the experiment in every
wTay I could think of, to be fo perfettly permanent,
that it is abfolutely impofilble to produce two ftiadorvs
at the fame time from the fame body, the one anfwer-
ing to a beam of day-light, and the other to the light
of a candle or lamp, without thofe fhadows being co¬
loured, the one yellow, and the other blue.
“ If the candle be brought nearer to the paper, the
blue fhadow will become of a deeper hue, and the yel¬
low {hadow will gradually grow fainter $ but if it be
removed farther off, the yellow {hade w ill become of a
deeper colour, and the blue {hade will become fainter 5
and the candle remaining ftationary in the fame place,
the fame varieties in the ftrength of the tints of the co¬
loured Ihadows may be produced merely by opening the
window-(hutter a little more or lefs, and rendering the
illumination of the paper, by the light from without,
ftronger or w’eaker. By either of thefe means, the co¬
loured fihadows may be made to pafs through all the gra¬
dations of ftiade, from the deepeft to the lighteft, and
vice
s H A [ 207 ] S H A
Shadows vice verfa; and it is not a little amuling to fee fhadows
II thus glowing with all the brilliancy of the pureft and
; L Shafras’ , molt intenfe prifmatic colours, then palling fuddenly
through all the varieties of {bade, preferving in all the
molt perfect purity of tint, growing Itronger and faint-
'# Vbil er, and vanilhing and returning, at command
\Tranf. The count is clearly of opinion, that the caufes of the
colours of thefe fliadows arii'e from the different qualities
of the light by which they are illuminated-, but he does
not think it fo evident how they are produced. Perhaps
it may be faid, however, that all the phenomena of co¬
loured lhadows which the count enumerates may be ac¬
counted for by the theory of Profeffor Scherffer.
SHADWELL, Thomas, defcended of an ancient
family in Staffordlhire, was born in 1640, and educated
at Caius college, Cambridge. Pie then was placed in
the Middle Temple to ffudy the laws; Avhere having
1‘pent fome time, he travelled abroad. Upon his return
home, he became acquainted with the moft celebrated
perfons of wit in that age. Pie applied himfelf chiefly
to dramatic writing, in which he had great fuccefs and
upon the revolution, was made poet laureat and hifto-
riographer to King William and Queen Mary, in the
room of Mr Dryden. Thefe employments he enjoyed till
his death, which happened in 1692. Belide his drama¬
tic writings, he compoled feveral other pieces of poetry;
the chief of which are his congratulatory poem on the
prince of Orange’s coming to England : another on
Queen Mary j his tranflation of Juvenal’s 10th fatire,
&c. Mr Dryden treats him with great contempt, in
his fatire called Mac-FIecno. The bell; judges of that
age, however, gave their teftimony in favour of his co¬
medies $ Avfyich have in them fine ftrokes of humour ;
the charafters are often original, ftrongly marked, and
well fuftained. An edition of his works, with fome
account of his life and writings prefixed, was publilhed
in 1720, in 4 vols 8vo.
SHAFRAS, or Suffras, Gregory Savarof, an
Armenian merchant, remarkable only as the perfon who
I iold the large and celebrated diamond which is now fet
in the imperial fceptre of Ruffia. Shah Nadir, an Indian
prince, had two principal diamonds in his throne, one of
them denominated the Sun of the Sea, and the other the
Moon of the Mountain. When that prince was affaffmat-
ed, many precious ornaments belonging tothe crown were
pillaged, and privately difpofed of by the foldiers who
{hared the plunder. See Diamond, under Minera¬
logy, where the account given of this diamond is
fomewhat different.
Shafras, who was called Millionfhih at Aftracan, then
had his refidence at Baffora, with two of his brothers.
A chief of the Avganians one day applied to him, and
propofed to fell the diamond already mentioned for a
very moderate fum (probably the Moon of the Moun¬
tain), together with a very large emerald, a ruby of
coniiderable fize, and other precious Hones of lefs value.
Shafras was aftonilhed at the offer; and giving out that
he had not a fufficient fum to purchafe them, he re-
quefted time to confult with his brothers on the fub-
je£h The vender did not again make his appearance,
probably from fufpicious motives. Shafras, with the ap¬
probation of his brothers, went direclly in fearch of the
ftranger with the jewels, but by that time he had left
Baffora. Shafras, however, accidentally met him at
Bagdad, and paid him 50,000 piaffres (8958b 6s. 8d.)
for all his jewels. Shafras and his brothers being well Shafras
aware that the moft profound fecrecy was abfolutely ne- , , H
ceffary, refolved to remain at Baffora. ■ ‘ ^ \
At the expiration of 1 2 years, Shafras fet off with
the largeft of the jewels, direfting his route through
Sham and Conftantinople, and afterwards through Hun¬
gary and Silefia to the city of Amfterdam by land,
where lie publicly offered them for fale.
It is reported that the Britiffi government was among
the bidders. The Ruffian court fent for the large dia¬
mond, with an offer to reimburfe all reafonable expell¬
ees, if the price could not be agreed on. When the dia¬
mond arrived, Count Panin, the Ruffian minifter, made
the following offer to Shafras. Beffdes the patent of
hereditary nobility, which the vender demanded, he
was to receive an annual penfion of 6000 rubles during
life, 500,000 rubles in calh (112,500!. Sterling), one-
fifth of which was to be payable on demand, and the
remainder by inftalments in the courfe of ten years. He
alio claimed the order of nobility for his brothers, per-
fifting fo obftinately in his demands, that the diamond
was returned..
Shafras was now very much perplexed. He had in¬
volved himfelf in expences, was forced to pay intereft
for confiderable fums of borrowed money, and hefawno
profpeft of felling the jewel to advantage. The nego-
ciation was recommenced with Ruffia by Count Gre¬
gory Grigorievitfh Orlof, afterwards created a prince
of the empire ; and the diamond was purchafed for
450,000 rubles (105,250!.) ready money, together
with a grant of Ruffian nobility. We are informed that
3 20,000 rubles (27,000b), fell to the (hare of the ne-
gociators for eommiffion, intereft, and fimilar expences.
Shafras fettled at Aftracan ; and his riches, which by
inheritance devolved to his daughters, have been in a.
great meafure diffipated by the extravagance of his fons-
in-law.
SHAFT of a Column, in Building, is the body
thereof between the bafe and capital; fo called from its
ftraightnefs. See ARCHITECTURE.
Shaft, in mining, is the pit or hollow entrance into
the mine. In the tin-mines, after this is funk about a
fathom, they leave a little, long, fquare place, which is
called a fhamble.
Shafts are funk fome ten, fome twenty fathoms deep
into the earth, more or lefs. Of thefe fhafts, there is
the landing or working ffiaft, where they bring up the
work or ore to the furface; but if it be worked by a
horfe engine or whim, it is called a whim foaft; and
where the w;ater is drawn out of the mine, it is indif¬
ferently named an engine-fuft, or the rod-JTmft. See
Mine.
Shaft. See Trochilus, Ornithology Index.
SHAFTESBURY, a town of Dorfetfliire in Eng¬
land, in W. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 51.0. It ftands on
a high hill, and is built in the form of a bow. It en¬
joys a ferene wholefome air, and has a fine profpecfh It
is a good thoroughfare, is governed by a mayor, and
fends two members to parliament. This town is fup-
pofed to have been built in the 8th century, and to have
been enlarged by King Alfred; and had I2churches, be-
fides a Benedhftine monaftery in the time of the Saxons,
but has now only three. St Edward the martyr was
buried here. It had three mints before the conqueft,
and, in the reign of Henry VIII. was the fee of a fuf-
fragan.
S II A
[ 208 ]
S H A
Shagreen.
Sh;,ftefbury fragan blfhop. It was incorporated by Qween Elizabeth
" and’ Charles II. and is governed by a mayor, recorder,
_ twelve aldermen, bailifts, and a common-council. It
contains about 3^° houfcs, many of which are of
' freelfone. Water is fo Icarcc, that it ufed to be
iupplied from Mot comb j but it was obtained moie
- commodioufly in by means of engines, which
raifed the water above 300 feet perpendicular, and
conveyed it to a large cittern in the middle of the
town, from the diitanee of two miles. Yet even this is
laid atide, and they have dug feveral pits, in which they
preferve the rain-water j and the poor get their living
to this day by fetching it in pails or on horfes. It
gives the title of earl to the noble family of Cooper.
Shaftesbury, Ear/ of. See Cooper.
SHAG. See Pelicanus, Ornithology Index.
SHAGREEN, or Chacreen, in Commerce, a kind
of grained leather prepared of the Ikin of a fpecies
of Squalus, and much ufed in covering cafes, books,
&C.
The beft is that brought from Conftantinople, of a
"brownifh colour \ the white is the word. It is ex-
, tremely hard y yet, when deeped in water, it becomes
very foft and pliable; whence it is of great ufe among
cafe-makers. It takes any colour that is given it, red,
green, yellow, or black. It is frequently counterfeit-
-ed by morocco, formed like diagreen } but this lad is
didinguiflied by its peeling off, which the fad does
not.
The following is the method of preparing diagreen,
as it is deferibed by Profeffor Pallas.
“ All kinds of horfes or affes (kins, which have been
dreffed in fuch a manner as to appear grained, are, by
the Tartars, called fawyer, by the Perfiansj%re, and
by the Turks fagri, from which the Europeans have
made Jhagreen or c/mgreen. The Tartars who refide at
Adracan, with a few of the Armenians of that city,
are the only people in the Ruffian empire acquainted
with the art of making ffiagreen. Thofe who follow
this occupation not only gain confiderable profit by the
fale of their produdlion to the 1 artars of Cuban,^ Adra¬
can, and Cafan, who ornament with it their Turkey
leather boots, dippers, and other articles made of lea¬
ther, but they derive confiderable advantage from the
great fale of horfes hides, which have undergone no
other procefs than that of being feraped clean, and of
which feveral thoufands are annually exported, at the
rate of from 75 to 85 roubles per hundred, to Perfia,
where there is a fcarcity of fuch hides, and from which
the greater part of the diagreen manufa&ured in that
country is prepared. The hind part only of the hide,
however, which is cut out in the form of a crefcent
•about a Ruffian ell and a half in length acrofs the loins,
and a diort ell in breadth along the back, can properly
be employed for diagreen. The remaining part, as is
proved by experience, is improper for that purpofe, and
is therefore rejefted.
“ The preparation of the fains, after being cut into
the above form, is as follows They are depofited in
a tub filled with pure water, and differed to remain
there for feveral days, till they are thoroughly foaked,
and the hair has dropped off. I hey are then taken
from the tub, one by one, extended on boards placed
in an oblique dire Sion againft a wall, the corners of
them, which reach beyond the edges of the board, be- Shagreen,
ing made fait, and the hair with the epidermis is then' y—^
feraped off with a blunt iron draper called urah. The
fains thus cleaned are again put in pure water to foak.
When all the fains have undergone this part of the pro¬
cefs, they are taken from the water a fecond time,
fpread out one after the other as before, and the fleffi
fide is draped with the fame kind of inftrument. They
are carefully cleaned alfo on the hair fide, fo that no¬
thing remains but the pure fibrous tiffue, which drve<
for making parchment, confiding of coats of white me¬
dullary fibres, and which has a refemblance to a fwine’s
bladder foftened in water.
“ After this preparation, the workmen take a cer¬
tain kind of frames called pdhi, made of a ftraight and
w dmicircular piece of wood, having nearly the fame
form as the fains. On thefe the fains are extended m
as fmooth and even a manner as poffible by means of
cords and during the operation of extending them,
they are feveral times befprinkled with water, that no
part of them may be dry, and occafion an unequal ten-
fion. After they have been all extended on the frames,
they are again moiftened, and carried into the home,
where the frames are depofited clofe to each other on
the floor with the flefti fide of the fain next the ground.
The upper fide is then thickly beftrew'ed with the
black exceedingly fmooth and hard feeds of a kind of
goofe foot (chenopodium album f which the 1 artars call
alabuta, and which grows in abundance, to about the
height of a man, near the gardens and farms on the
fouth fide of the Volga •, and that they may make a
ftrong impreffion on the fains, a piece of felt is fpread
over them, and the feeds are trod down with the feet,
by which means they are deeply imprinted into the
foft fains. The. frames, without (baking the feeds, are
then carried out into the open air, and placed in a re¬
clining pofition againft a wall to dry, the fide covered
with the feeds being next the wall, in order that it may
be flickered from the fun. In this date the fains muft
be left feveral days to dry in the fun, until no appear¬
ance of moifture is obferved in them, when they are fit
to be taken from the frames. When the impreffed feeds
are beat off from the hair fide, it appears full of iuden-
tations or inequalities, and has acquired that impremon
which is to produce the grain of the fliagreen, after the
fains have been fubjefted to the laft fmoothing or fera-
ping, and have been dipped in a ley, which will be men¬
tioned hereafter, before they receive the dye.
“ The operation of fmoothing is performed on an in¬
clined bench or board, which is furniftied with an iron
hook, and is covered with thick felt of flieep’s wool,
on which the dry (kin may gently reft. The fain is
fufpended in the middle of the bench or board to its
iron hook, by means of one of the holes made in the
edge of the fain for extending it in its frame as before
mentioned *, and a cord, having at its extremity a ftone
or a weight, is attached to each end of the fain, to
keep it in its pofition while under the hands of the
workman. It is then fubjefted to the operation of
fmoothing and feraping by means of two different m-
ftruments. The firft ufed for this purpofe, called by
the Tartars tobar, is a piece of (harp iron bent like a
hook, with which the furface of the fliagreen is pretty
clofely feraped to remove all the projecting inequalities.
S H A [ 209 ]
Shagreen. This operation, on account of the corneous hardnefs of the fait brine,
the dry Ikin, is attended with fome difficulty; and
great caution is at the lame time required that too
much of the impreffion of the aUibutu feed be not de-
llroyed, which might be the cafe if the iron were kept
too {harp. As the iron, however, is pretty blunt, which
occafions inequalities on the lhagreen, this inconvenience
mult afterwards be remedied by means of a (harp fcra-
ping iron or urai, by which the furface acquires a per-
fe£t uniformity, and only faint impreflions of the alabuta
feed then remain, and fuch as the workman vvilhes. Af¬
ter all thefe operations, the ffiagreen is again put into
water, partly to make it pliable, and partly to raife the
grain. As the feeds occalion indentations on the fur-
face of the fkin, the intermediate fpaces, by the opera¬
tions of fmoothing and fcraping, lofe fome part of their
■proje&ing fubftance ; but the points which have been
deprefl'ed, and which have loit none of their fubftance,
now fwell up above the fcraped parts, and thus form the
grain of the fhagreen. I'o produce this effeft, the fkins
are left to foak in water for 24 hours ; after which they
are immerfed feveral times in a ttrong warm ley, ob¬
tained, by boiling, from a ftrong alkaline earth named
fchora, which is found in great abundance in the neigh¬
bourhood of Aftracan. When the Ikins have been ta¬
ken from this ley, they are piled up, while warm, on
each other, and fuffered to remain in that ftate feveral
hours ; by which means they fwell, and become foft.
They are then left 24 hours in a moderately ftrong
pickle of common fait, which renders them exceedingly
white and beautiful, and fit for receiving any colour.
The colour moft ufual for thefe Ikins is a fea-green ;
but old experienced workmen can dye them blue, red,
or black, and even make white ffiagreen.
“ For the green colour nothing is neceftary but filings
of copper and fal ammoniac. Sal ammoniac is diflblved
in water till the w’ater is completely faturated ; and the
ffiagreen fkins, ftill moift, after being taken from the
pickle, are waffied over with the folution on the un¬
grained flefti fide, and when well moiftened a thick lay¬
er of copper filings is ftrewed over them : the Ikins are
then folded double, fo that the fide covered with the
filings is innermoft. Each fkin is then rolled up in a
piece of felt; the rolls are all ranged together in proper
order, and they are prefled down in an uniform manner
by fome heavy bodies placed over them, under which
they remain 24 hours. During that period, the folu¬
tion of fal ammoniac diflfolves a quantity of the cu¬
preous particles fufficient to penetrate the fkin, and
to give it a fea-green colour. If the firft application
be not fufficient, the procefs is repeated in the fame
manner ; after which the fkins are fpread out and
dried.
“ For the blue dye, indigo is ufed. About two
pounds of it, reduced to a fine powder, are put into a
kettle ; cold water is poured over it, and the mixture
is ftirred round till the colour begins to be diflblved.
Five pounds of pounded alakar, which is a kind of
barilla or crude foda, prepared by the Armenians and
Calmucs, is then diflblved in it, with two pounds of
lime and a pound of pure honey, and the whole is kept
feveral days in the fun, and during that time frequently
ftirred round. The fkins intended to be dyed blue muft
be moiftened only in the natrous ley /chora, but not in
Vol. XIX. Part I.
S H A
When ftill moift, they are folded up Shagreen,
and fewed together at the edge, the tieffi fide being in- " v—’~4
nermoft, and the fhagreened hair fide outwards; after
which they are dipped three times in the remains of an
exhaufted kettle ol the lame dye, the fuperttuous dye
being each time exprefled ; and after this procefs they
are dipped in the frelh dye prepared as above, which
muft not be exprefled. The Ikins are then hung up in
the iliade to dry ; after which they are cleaned and
pared at the edges.
“ For black fhagreen, gall nuts and vitriol are em¬
ployed in the following manner :—The fkins, moift from
the pickle, are thickly beftrewed with finely pulverized
gall nuts. They are then folded together, and laid over
each other for 24 hours. A new ley, of bitter faline
earth or fchora, is in the mean time prepared, and pour¬
ed hot into fmall troughs. In this ley each fkin is fe¬
veral times dipped ; after which they are again beftrew¬
ed with pounded gall nuts, and placed in heaps for a
certain period, that the galls may thoroughly penetrate k
them, and they are dried and beat, to free them from
the duft of the galls. When this is done, they are
rubbed over, on the ftiagreen fide, with melted ffieep’s
tallow7, and expofed a little in the fun, that they may
imbibe the greafe. The ftiagreen makers are accuftom-
ed alfo to roll up each fkin feparately, and to profs or
fqueeze it with their hands againft fome hard fubftance,
in order to piomote the abforption of the tallow. The
fuperfluous particles are removed by means of a blunt
wooden fcraper (iirac) ; and when this procefs is finifti-
ed, and the fkins have lain fome time, a fufficient quan¬
tity of vitriol of iron is diflblved in water, with which
the fhagreen is moiftened on both Tides, and by this
operation it acquires a beautiful black dye. It is then
drefled at the edges, and in other places where there
are any blemiffies.
“ To obtain white ffiagreen, the fkins muft firft be
moiftened on the fhagreen fide with a ftrong folution
of alum. When the fkin has imbibed this liquor, it is
daubed over on both tides with a pafte made of flour,
which is fuffered to dry. The pafte i- then waftied off
with alum water, and the fkin is placed in the fun till
it is completely dry. As foon as it is dry, it is gently
befmeared with pure melted ftieep’s tallow7, which it is
fuffered to imbibe in the fun ; and to piomote the ef-
fe<51, it is preffed and worked with the bands. The
fkins are then faftened in fucceffion to tfie before-men¬
tioned bench, where warm water is poured over them,
and the fuperfluous fat is fcraped off with a blunt wood¬
en inftrument. In the laft operation the warm water
is of great fervice. In this manner fhagreen perfectly
white is obtained, and nothing remains but to pare the
edges and drefs it.
“ But this white ffiagreen is not intended fo much
for remaining in that ftate, as for receiving a dark red
dye ; becaufe, by the above previous procefs, the co¬
lour becomes much more perfect. The fkins dcftined
for a red colour muft not be immerfed firft in ley of
bitter fait earth { fchora), and then in pickle, but after
they have been whitened, muft be left to foak in the
pickle for 24 hours. The dye is prepared from cochi¬
neal, which the Tartars call hirmit'z. About a pound
of the dried herb tfchagann, which grows in great abun¬
dance in the neighbourhood of Aftracan, and is a kind
D d pf
S H A [21
Shagreen of foda plant or kali (falfola enemies) (a), is boiled a
II full hour in a kettle containing about four common
f reare” Pai^uls water by which means the water acquires a
greenilli colour. The herb is then taken out, and about
half a pound of pounded cochineal is put into the kettle,
and the liquor is left to boil a full hour, care being ta¬
ken to llir it that it may not run over. About I 5 or
20 drains of a fubftance which the dyers call liiter (or-
chilla) is added, and when the liquor has been boiled
or fome time longer, the kettle is removed from the
fire. The Ikins taken from the pickle are then placed
over each other in troughs, and the dye-liquor is pour¬
ed over them four different times, and rubbed into them
with the hands, that the colour may be equally imbibed
and diffufed. ' The liquor each time is exprefled \ after
which they are fit for being dried. Skins prepared in
this manner are fold at a much dearer rate than any of
the other kinds.”
SHA1K properly fignifies an old man. In the eaft
it is ufed to denote a lord or chief, a man of eminence
and property. See Schiechs.
SHAKE, in finging. See Trill.
SHAKESPEARE, or Shakspeare, William, the
prince of dramatic writers, was born at Stratford upon
Avon in Warwickfhire, on the 23d of April 1564.
From the regiiler of that town, it appears that a
plague broke out there on the 30th of June following,
which raged with great violence ; but fortunately it
did not reach the houfe in which this infant prodigy
lay. His father, John Shakefpeare, enjoyed a fmall
patrimonial eflate, and was a confiderable dealer in
wool •, his mother was the daughter and heir of Robert
Arden of Wellingcote. Our illuftrious poet being de-
iigned for the bufmefs of his father, received no better
education than the inftru&ions which the free-fehool
of Stratford could afford. After applying fome time
to the ftudy of Latin, he was called home to affift his
father, who feems by fome accident to have been redu¬
ced in his circumftances. Before arriving at the age
of 19, he married the daughter of Mr Hathaway, a
fubftantial yeoman in the neighbourhood of Stratford.
This lady was eight years older than her hufband.
Having the misfortune to fall into bad company, he
was feduced into fome profligate a&ions, which drew
on him a criminal profecution, and at length forced
him to take refuge in the capital. In concert with
his affociates, he broke into a park belonging to Sir
Thomas Lucy of Charlecote, and carried off fome of
his deer. Every admirer of Shakefpeare will regret
that fuch a blemifh fhould have Rained his charafter;
but, perhaps, if any thing can extenuate his guilt, we
might aferibe it to the opinions of the age, which, per¬
haps, as was formerly the cafe in Scotland, might not
diftinguifh the killing of deer by any mark of difgraee,
or any charge of criminality. One thing at leaf! is
certain, that Shakefpeare himfelf thought that the pro-
leeution which Sir Thomas railed againft him was car¬
ried on with too great feverity 5 an opinion which he
3 ] S H A
could not have entertained had this a£lion been at that Shake¬
time viewed in the fame criminal light as it is at prefent. fy6are‘
Shakefpeare tellified his refentment againft Sir 1 homas, y ^
by writing a fatirical ballad, which exafperated him fo
much, that the procefs was carried on with redoubled
violence •, and the young poet, in order to avoid the
punifhment of the law, w'as obliged to make his efcape.
This ballad -would be confidered as a curious relick, on
account of its being the firft produdtion of Shakefpeare ;
it would alfo be interefting to perufa a poem which could
irritate the baronet to fo high a degree, iradition has
preferved the firft ftanza :
A parliamente member, a juflice of peace,
At home a poor fcare-crow, at London an affe.
If lowfie is Lucy, as fome volke mifealle it,
Then Lucy is lowfie whatever befall it:
He thinks himielf greate,
Yet an affe in his ftate,
We allowe by his ears, but with affes to mate.
If Lucy is lowfie, as fome volke mifcalle it,
Sing lowfie Lucy whatever befall it.
If the reft of the ballad was of a piece with this ftan¬
za, it might afiift us to form fome opinion of the irrita¬
bility of the baronet, but will enable us to form no idea
of the opening genius of Shakefpeare.
Thus -expelled from his native village, he repaired to
London, where he was glad to accept a fubordinate of¬
fice in the theatre. It has been faid that he was firft
engaged, while the play was adting, in bidding the horfes
of thofe who rode to the theatre j but this ftory refts
on a llender foundation. As his name is found print¬
ed among thofe of the other players before fome old
plays, it is probable that he was fome time employed
as an add or j but we are not informed what charadlers
he played ; we are only told, that the part which 1)6
adled beft was that of the Ghoft in Hamlet} and that
he appeared in the characler of Adam in Ar you lile
it. If the names of the a<ftors prefixed to Ben .1 onion’s
play of Every Man rn his Humour were arranged in the
fame order as the perfons reprefented, which is very pro¬
bable, Shakefpeare played the part of Old Know ell.
We have realon therefore to fuppofe, as far as we can
argue from thefe few fads, that he generally reprefented
old men. See Malone’s Chronology, in his edition of
Shakefptare. x
But though he was not qualified to {bine as an ac¬
tor, he wTas now in the fituation which could molt ef-
feddually roufe thofe latent fparks of genius which af¬
terwards burft forth with fo refplendent a hame. Be¬
ing well acquainted with the mechanical bufinefs of the
theatre and the tafte of the times ; pofieffed of a know-
. ledge of the charafters of men relembling intuition, an
imagination that ranged at large through nature, fe-
ledding the grand, the fublime, and the beautiful •, a ju¬
dicious caution, that difpofed him to prefer thofe plots
which had already been found to pleafe j an uncommon
fluency
Ca) The beautiful red Turkey leather is dyed with cochineal prepared in the fame manner. Profeffor Gme-
lin iunior in the fecond part of his Travels through Rufiia, explains the herb tfehagann by artemifia ««»««, having
doubtlefs been deceived by the appearance the plant acquires after it has been dried. Befides, this artemifia is found
only in the middle of Siberia, and never on the weft fide of the Irtifch.
S H A [21
Shake- fluency and force of expreflion; he was qualified at once
fpeare. to eclipfe all who had gone before him.
—v Notwithflanding the unrivalled genius of Shake-
fpeare, moft of his plots were the invention of others 5
which, however, he certainly much improved, if he did
not entirely new-model. YVe are affured, that prior to
the theatrical compofitions of Shakefpeare, dramatic
pieces were written on the following fubjefts, viz. King
John, King Richard II. and III. King Henry IV.
and V. King Henry VIII. King Lear, Antony and
Cleopatra, Meafure for Meafiire, the Merchant of
Venice, the Taming of a Shrew, and the Comedy of
Errors.
Among his patrons, the earl of Southampton is par¬
ticularly honoured by him, in the dedication of two
poems, Venus and Adonis, and Lucrece ; in the latter
efoecially, he exprefled himfelf in fuch terms as gives
countenance to what is related of that patron’s di-
ftinguiflied generofity to him. In the beginning of
King James I.’s reign (if not fooner) he was one of
the principal managers of the playhoufe, and conti¬
nued in it feveral years afterwards; till, having ac¬
quired fuch a fortune as fatisfied his moderate withes
and views in life, he quitted the ftage, and all other
bufinefs, and pafled the remainder of his time in an ho¬
nourable eafe, at his native town of Stratford, where he
lived in a handfome houfe of his own purchafing, to
which he gave the name of New Place; and lie had
the good fortune to fave it from the flames in the dread¬
ful fire that eonfumed the greateft part of the town in
I^I4- j 1 •
In the beginning of the year 1616, he made his
will, wherein he teftified his refpedl: to his quondam
partners in the theatre : he appointed his youngeft
daughter, jointly with her hufband, his executors, and
bequeathed to them the bell part of his eftate, which
they came into the poffeflion of not long after. He
died on the 23d of April following, being the 53d year
of his age ; and was interred among his anceftors on
the north fide of the chancel, in the great church of
Stratford, where there is a handfome monument erefted
for him, infcribed with the following elegiac diftich in
Latin:
Judicio Py/ium, genio Socratem, arte Maronem,
Terra tegit, Populus niceret, Olympus habet.
In the year 1740* another very noble one wras raifed to
his memory, at the public expence, in Weftminfter ab¬
bey ; an ample contribution for this purpofe being made
upon exhibiting his tragedy of Julius Caefar, at the
theatre-royal in Drury-Lane, April 28th 173^/
Nor muft we omit mentioning another testimony of
the veneration paid to his manes by the public in gene¬
ral, which is, that a mulberry-tree planted upon his
eftate by the hands of this revered bard, Avas cut down
not many years ago j and the wood being con\'eited^ to
feveral domeftic ufes, Avas all eagerly bought at a high
price, and each Angle piece treafured up by its pm chafer
as a precious memorial of the planter.
The charafler of Shakefpeare as a dramatic Avnter
has been often draAvn, but perhaps never Avith (core ac¬
curacy than by the pen of Dr Johnfon : “ Shakeqicaie
(fays he) is above all writers, at leaft above all modern
Avriters, the poet of nature ; the poet that holds up to
his readers a faithful mirror of manners and of life.
i ] S H A
His chara&ers are not modified by the cuftoms of par¬
ticular places, unpraCHfed by the reft of the world ; by ^
the peculiarities of ftudies or profeflions, Avhidh can
operate but upon fmall numbers; or by the accidents
of tranfient fafluops or temporary opinions : they are the
genuine progeny of common humanity, fuch as the
world Avill always fupply, and obfervation will always
find. His perfons aft and fpeak by the influence of
thofe general paflions and principles by Avhich all minds
are agitated, and the Avhole fyftem of life is continued
in motion. In the writings of other poets, a charafter
is too often an individual; in thofe of Shakefpeare, it is
commonly a fpecies.
“ It is from this Avide extenfion of defign that fo
much inftruftion is derived. It is tins which fills the
plays of Shakefpeare Avith praftical axioms and domef¬
tic wifdom. It Avas faid of Euripides, that every verfe
Avas a precept; and it may be faid of Shakefpeare, that
from his works may be collected a fyftem of civil and
economical prudence. Yet his real poAver is not fhoAvn
in the fplendour of particular pafiages, but by the pro-
grefs of his fable, and the tenor of his dialogue ; and he
that tries to recommend him by feleft quotations, will
fucceed like the pedant in Hierocles, Avho, Avhen he of¬
fered his houfe to fale, carried a brick in his pocket as sE
fpecimen.
“ Upon every other ftage the univerfal agent is love,
by Avhofe power all good and evil is diftributed, and
every aftion quickened or retarded. But love is only
one of many paflions ; and as it has no great influence
upon the fum of life, it has little operation in the dra¬
mas of a poet Avho caught his ideas from the living
Avorld, and exhibited only what he faAV before him. He
knew that any other paflion, as it was regular or exor¬
bitant, was a caufe of happinefs or calamity.
“ Charafters thus ample and general Avere not eafily
difcriminated and preferved ; yet perhaps no poet ever-
kept his perfonages more diftinft from each other.
“ Other dramatifts can only gain attention by hyper¬
bolical or aggravated charafters, by fabulous and unex¬
ampled excellence or depravity, as the Avriters of bar¬
barous romances invigorated the reader by a giant and
a dwarf; and he that ftiould form his expeftations of
human affairs from the play, or from the tale, Avould
be equally deceived. Shakefpeare has no heroes, his
fcenes are occupied only by men, Avho aft and fpeak as
the reader thinks that he fhould himfelf have fpoken
or afted on the fame occafion : Even where the agency
is fupernatural, the dialogue is level Avith life. Other
Avriters difguife the moft natural paflions and moft fre¬
quent incidents ; fo that he who contemplates them in
the book Avill not knoAV them in the Avorld : Shake¬
fpeare approximates the remote, and familiarizes the
wonderful; the event which he reprefents will not hap¬
pen, but if it were poffible, its effefts Avould probably
be fuch as he has aftigned ; and it may be faid, that he
has not only fhown human nature as it afts in real exi¬
gencies, but as it would be found in trials to Avhich it
cannot be expofed.
“ This therefore is the praife of Shakefpeare, that
his drama is the mirror of life ; that he who has mazed
his imagination, in following the phantoms which other
writers wife up before him, may here be cured of his
delirious ecftafies, by reading human fentiments in hu¬
man language : bv fcenes from which a hermit may efti-
D d 2 mate
Shaks-
ipeare.
f
s
H A
-S H A [2
inate the tranfa&ions of the world, and a confeflor pre-
dict the progrefs of the paffions.”
The learning of Shakefpeare has frequently been a
fubjeft of inquiry. That he poffeffed much claflical
knowledge does not appear, yet he was certainly ac¬
quainted' with the Latin poets, particularly with Te¬
rence, as Colman has juflly remarked, which appears
from his uling the word thrvfmical. Nor was he un¬
acquainted with French and Italian. We are indeed
told, that the paflages in which thefe languages occur
might be impertinent additions of the players *, but
is it probable, that any of the players fo far furpafled
Shakefpeare ? > .
That much knowledge is fcattered over his works is
very intily oblerved by Pope ^ but it is often fuch
knowledge as books did not lupply. 44 i here is, how¬
ever, proof enough (fays Dr Johnfon) that he was a
very diligent reader-, nor was our language then fo
indigent of books, but that he might very liberally_in-
dulo-e his curiofity without excurfion into foreign lite-
ratun . Many of the Roman authors were tranflated,
and feme of the Greek ; the Reformation had filled the
kingdom with theological learning ; moft of the topics
of human difquiiition had found Englilh writers ; and
poetry had been cultivated, not only with diligence,
but fuccefs. This was a dock of knowledge fufficient
for a mind fo capable of appropriating and improving
it.”
The works of Shakefpeare confift of 35 dramatic
pieces. The following is the chronological order w hich
Mr Malone has endeavoured to eftablifh, after a minute
inveiligation, in which he has in general been fuccefs-
ful:
1. Firft Part of King Henry VI. - 1589
2. Second Part of King Flenry VI. - 1591
3. Third Part of King Henry VI. - 1591
4. A Midfummer Night’s Dream - 1592
3. Comedy of Errors - - x593
6. Taming of the Shrew - - x594
"7. Love’s Labour Loft - - I594
8. Two Gentlemen of Verona - IS9S
9. Romeo and Juliet - - I595
10. Hamlet . - - x59^
11. King John . - - I59^
12. King Richard II. - - I597
13. King Richard III. - - I597
14. Firft Part of King Henry IV. - 1597
15. Second Part of King Flenry IV. - 1598
16. The Merchant of Venice - - I598
17. All’s Well that Ends WeR - I598
18. King Henry V. - - x599
19. Much Ado about Nothing - 1600
20. As you like it - - - 1600
21. Merry Wives of Windfor - 1601
2 2. King Henry VIII. - - 1601
23. Troijus and Creflida - - 1602
24. Meafure for Meafure - - 1603
25. The Winter’s Tale - - 1604
: 26. King Lear - - - *605
27. Cymbelline - _ _ 1605
28. Macbeth - » - 1606
29. Julius Caefar - - - 1607
30. Antony and Cleopatra - - - 1608
31. Timon of Athens - - 1609
32. Coriolanus - - 1610
3 ]
33. Othello ... *6ll Shake.
34. The Tempeft - - 1612, fpti‘*re'
35. Twelfth Night - - 1614
The firft three of thefe, Mr Malone thinks, there is
very ftrong reafon to believe are not the original pro-
du&ions of Shakefpeare ; but that he probably altered
them, and added fome new feenes.
In the firft folio edition in 1623, thefe plays wTere en¬
titled 44 Mr William Shakefpeare’s Comedies, Hiftories,
and Tragedies.” They have been publifhed by various
editors. The firft folio edition by Ifaac Jaggard and
Edward Blount -, the fecond, folio, 1632, by Thomas
Cotes for Robert Allot; the third, 1664, for P. C.;
the fourth, 1685, for H. Herringman, E. Brewfter,
and R. Bentley. Rowe publifhed an 8vo edition in
1709, in 7 vols, and a i2mo edition in 1714, in 9 vols ;
for which he received 36I. 10s. Pope publiftied a 4to
edition in 1725, in 6 vols, and a i2tno in 1728, in
10 vols ; for which he wgs paid 217I. 12s. Theobald
gave a new edition in 8vo in I733> xn 7 vo^s> another
in i2mo in 1740, in 8 vols; and received for his la¬
bour 65 2l. 1 os. Sir Thomas Hanmer publiftied an edi¬
tion in 1744, in 6 vols 4to. Dr Warburton’s 8vo
edition came out in 1747, in 8 vols ; for which he was
paid 560I. The editions publilhed fince that time, are
Dr Johnfon’s in 1765, in 8 vols 8vo. Stevens’s in
1766, in 4 vols 8vo. Capell’s in 1768, in 10 vols,
crown 8vo ; for this the author was paid 300I. A fe¬
cond edition of Hanmer’s in 1771, 6 vols. Johnfon’s
and Stevens’s in 1773, in 10 vols 8vo ; a fecond edi¬
tion in 1778 ; a third by Reed in 1783 ; and Malone’s
crown 8vo edition in I7^9> 10 v°is*
The moft authentic of the old editions is that of
1623. “ At laft (fays Dr Johnfon) an edition was
undertaken by Rowe ; not becaufe a poet was to be
publiftied by a poet, for Rowe feems to have thought
very little on corredlion or explanation, but that our
author’s works might appear like thofe of his fraterni¬
ty, with the appendages of a life and recommendatory
preface. Rowe has been clamoroufly blamed for not
performing what he did not undertake ; and it is time
that juftice be done him, by confefling, that though he
feems to have had no thought of corruption beyond the
printer’s errors, yet he has made many emendations, if
they were not made before, which his fuceeffors have
received without acknowledgment, and which, if they
had produced them, would have filled pages with cen-
fures of the ftupidity by which the faults were com¬
mitted, with difplays of the abfurdities which they in¬
volved, with oftentatious expofitionsof the new reading,
and felt-congratulations on the happinefs of difeovering
it.”
The nation had been for many years content enough
with Mr Rowe’s performance, when Mr Pope made
them acquainted with the true ftate of Shakefpeare’s
text, fhowed that it was extremely corrupt, and gave
reafon to hope that there were means of reforming it.
Mr Pope’s edition, however, he obferves, fell below his
own expedlations ; and he was fo much offended, when
he was found to have left any thing for others to do,
that he paffed the latter part of his life in a ftate of hof-
tility with verbal criticifm.
The only talk, in the opinion of Mr Malone, for
which Pope was eminently and indifputably qualified,
. was
5
S H A [ 2
Shake- was to mark the faults and beauties of bis author.—
fpeare. When he undertook the office of a commentator, every
‘ anomaly of language, and every expreffion that was cur¬
rently in ufe, were confidered as errors w corruptions,
and the text was altered or amended, as it was called, at
pleafure. Pope is openly charged with being one of the
great corrupters of Shakefpeare’s text.
Pope was fucceeded by Theobald, who collated the
ancient copies, and redified many errors. He was,
however, a man of narrow comprehenfion and of little
learning, and what is worfe, in his reports of copies and
editions, he is not to be trufted without examination.
From the liberties taken by Pope, the edition of Theo¬
bald was juftly preferred, becaufe he profefled to adhere
to the ancient copies more ftri&ly, and illuftrated a few
paflages by extrads from the writers of our poet’s
age. Still, however, he was a confiderable innovator j
and while a few arbitrary changes made by Pope were
deteded, innumerable fophiftications were fxlently a-
dopted.
Sir Thomas Hanmer, who comes next, was a man of
critical abilities, and of extenfive learning. His correc¬
tions are commonly juft, but fometimes capricious. He
is cenfurable, too, for receiving without examination al-
moft all the innovations of Pope.
The original and predominant error of Warburton’s
commentary, is acquiefcence in his firft thoughts; that
precipitation which is produced by confcioufnefs of
quick difeernmentj and that confidence which'prefumes
to do, by furveying the furface, what labour only can
perform by penetrating to the bottom. His notes ex¬
hibit fometimes perverfe interpretations, and fometimes
improbable conjedures j he at one time gives the author
more profundity of meaning than the fentence admits,
and at another diicovers abfurdities where the fenfe is
plain to every other reader. But his emendations are
likewife often happy and juft; and his interpretation of
obfeure paflages learned and fagacious.
It has indeed been faid by his defenders, that his great
objed was to difplay his own learning; and certainly in
fpite of the clamour railed againft him for fubftituting his
own chimerical conceits inftead of the genuine text of
Shakefpeare, his work increafed his reputation. But as
it is of little value as a commentary on Shakefpeare,
fince Warburton is now gone, his work will probably-
foon fink into oblivion.
In 176^ Dr Johnfon’s edition, which had long been
impatiently expefted, was given to the public. His vi¬
gorous and comprehenfive underftanding threw more
light on his author than all his predeceiTors bad done.
The charader which he gave of each play is generally
juft. His refutation of the falfe glofles of Theobald and
Warburton, and his numerous explications of involved
and difficult paftages, entitle him to the gratitude of eve¬
ry admirer of Shakefpeare.
The laft editor is Mr Malone, who was eight years
employed in preparing his edition. By collating the
moft authentic copies, he has been careful to purify the
text. He has been fo induftrious, in order to difeover
the meaning of the author, that he has ranfacked many
volumes, and trufts that, befides his additional illuftra-
tions, not a fingle valuable explication of any obfeure
paflfage imthefe plays has ever appeared, which he has
not inferted in his edition. He rejeds Titus Andro-
nicus, as well as the three plays formerly mentioned, as
13 1 s H A
not being the authentic produdions of Shakefpeare. To Shake-
the whole he has added an appendix, and a copious glof- fp*aro
fary —Of this work a lefs expenfive edition has been pub- shamans. -
lifhed in 7 vols 12mo, in which the general introdudory e—y—j
obfervations prefixed to the different plays are preierved,
and the numerous notes abridged.
This judicious commentator has certainly done more
for the elucidation and corredion of Shakefpeare than all
who came before him, and has followed with indefati¬
gable patience the only road which a commentator of
Shakefpeare ought to obferve.
Within 50 years after our poet’s death, Dryden fays
that he was become “ a little obfolete;” and in the be¬
ginning of the 18th century Lord Shaftefbury complains
of his rude unpolifhed ftyle, and his antiquated phrafe
and wit. Thefe complaints were owing to the great re¬
volution which the Engliffi language has undergone, and
to the Want of an enlightened commentator. '1 hefo
complaints are now removed, for an enlightened com¬
mentator has been found in Mr Malone.
We have only farther to add, that in the year x 790
a copious index to the remarkable paflages and words
in the plays of Shakefpeare xvas publifhed by the Re¬
verend Mr Ayfcough ; a gentleman to whom the lite¬
rary world is much indebted for feveral very valuable
keys of knoxvledge. In fine, the admirers of Shake¬
fpeare are now7, by the labours of ieveral eminent men,
furnifhed with every help that can enable them to under-
ftand the fenfe and to tafte the beauties of this illuftrious
poet.
SHAKLES. See Shackles.
SHALE, in Mineralogy, a kind of ScHlSTUS, of
a black colour and flaty itruflure, or a clay hardened
into a ftony confiftence, and fo much impregnated with
bitumen that it becomes fomewhat like a coal. The
acid emitted from ftiale, during its calcination, uniting
itfelf to the argillaceous earth of the ftiale, forms alunu
About 1 20 tons of calcined ftiale will make one ton
of alum. The {hale, after being calcined, is fteepeft
in water, by which means the alum, which is formed
during the calcination of the ftiale, is diflolved : this -
diflfolved alum undergoes various operations before it
is formed into the alum of the {hops. Watfon’s Che¬
mical EiTays, vol. ii.,p. 3x5. See Alum, Chemistry-.
Index.
This kind of date forms large ftrata in Derbyftiire ;
and that which lies near the furface of the earth is of a.
fofter and more ihivery texture than that W'hich lies*
deeper. It is alfo found in large ftrata, generally above?
the coal, in moft coal counties of this kingdom.
SH ALLOP, Shalloop, or Si.oop, is a fmall light
vefiel, with only a fmall main-maft and fore-maft, and
lug-fails, to haul up, and let down on occafion.—Shal¬
lops are commonly good failers, and are therefore often,
ufed as tenders upon men of War.
SHALLOT, or Eschalot. See Allium, Bota¬
ny and Gardening Index.
SHAMANS are wizards or conjurers, in high re¬
pute among feveral id, latrous nations inhabiting dif¬
ferent parts of Ruffia. By their enchantments they
pretend to cure difeaffis, to divert misfortunes, and to
foretel futurity. They are great obfervers of dreams,
by the interpretation of which they judge of their good
or bad fortune. They pretend likewife to chiromancy,
and to foretel a man’s good or ill fuccefs by the lines of
his
Shamois.
S H A [21
Shamans hand. By thefe and fuch like means they have a
very great afcendancy over the underftandings, and a
, great influence on the condudt, of thofe people.
SHAMBLES, among miners, a fort of niches or
landing places, left at fuch dihances in the adits of the
mines, that the {hovel-men may conveniently throw up
the ore from fliamble to fliamble, till it comes to the top
of the mine.
SHAMOIS, Chamois, or Shammy,, a kind of lea¬
ther, either dreffed in oil or tanned, much efteemed for^
its foftnefs, pliancy, &c. It is prepared from the 1km
of the chamois, or ftiamois, a kind of rupicapra, or wild
goat, called alfo ifard, inhabiting the mountains of Dau-
phiny, Savoy, Piedmont, and the Pyrenees. Befides the
foftnefs and warmth of the leather, it has the faculty of
bearing foap without damage j which renders it very ufe-
ful on many accounts.
In France, &c. fome wear the fkin raw, without any
preparation. Shammy leather is ufed for the purifying of
mercury, which is done by pafling it through the pores of
this Ikin, which are very clofe. The true chamois lea¬
ther is counterfeited with common goat, kid, and even
with fheep {kins, the practice of which makes a particu¬
lar profeflion, called by the French chamoifure. The
laft, though the leaft efteemed, is yet fo popular, and
fuch vaft quantities of it are prepared, efpecially about
Orleans, Marfeilles, and Tholoufe, that it may be proper
to give the method of preparation.
Manner of fljamoi/i'ng, or of preparing fheep., goat,, or
kid [kins in oil, in imitation offhatnmij.—The {kins, being
wafhed, drained, and fmeared over with quicklime on the
fleftiy fide, are folded in two length wife, the wool out¬
wards, and laid in heaps, and fo left to ferment eight
days, or, if they had been left to dry after flaying, then
fifteen days.
Then they are waftied out, drained, and half dried ;
laid on a wooden leg, or horfe, the wool ftripped off with
a round ftaft' for that purpofe, and laid in a wreak pit,
the lime whereof had been ufed before, and has loft the
greateft part of its force.
° After 24 hours they are taken out, and left to drain
24 more 5 they are then put in another ftronger pit.
This done, they are taken out, drained, and put in
again, by turns ; which begins to difpofe them to take
oil •, and this practice they continue for fix weeks in
fummer, or three months in winter : at the end where¬
of they are waftied out, laid on the wooden leg, and the
furface of the {kin on the wool fide peeled off, to render
them the fofter ; then made into'parcels, fteeped a night
in the river, in winter more, ftretched fix or feven over
one another on the wooden leg, and the knife paffed
ftrongly on the fleftiy fide, to take off any thing fuper-
fluous, and render the Ikin fmooth. Then they are
fteeped, as before, in the river, and the fame operation
is repeated on the wool fide; they are then thrown into
a tub of water, with bran in it, which is brewed among
the Ikins till the greateft part flicks to them, and then
feparated into diftindl tubs, till they fwell, and rife of
themfelves above the water. By this means the re¬
mains of the lime are cleared out; they are then wrung
out, hung up to dry on ropes, and fent to the mill, with
the quantity of oil neceffary to fcour them : the beft oil
is that of ftock-fifli. Here they are firft thrown in
bundles into the river for 12 hours, then laid in the
mill-trough, and fulled without oil till they be well foft-
Shannon.
4. ] S H A
ened ; then oiled with the hand, one by one, and thus Shamois
formed into parcels of four Ikins each j which are mill¬
ed and dried on cords a fecond time j then a third \ and 1
then oiled again, and dried. This procefs is repeated
as often as neceffity requires: j when done, if there be
any moifture remaining, they are dried in a ftove, and
made up into parcels wrapped up in wool \ after fome
time they are opened to the air, but wrapped up again
as before, till fuch time as the oil feems to have loft all
its force, which it, ordinarily does in 24 hours. The
fkins are then returned from the mill to the chamoifer
to be fcoured ; which is done by putting them in a lixi¬
vium of wood afhes, working and beating them in it with
poles, and leaving them to fteep till the ley hath had
its effeft ; then they are wrung out, fteeped in another
lixivium, wrung again ; and this is repeated till all the
greafe and oil be purged out. When this is done, they
are half dried, and paffed over a {harp-edged iron inftru-
ment, placed perpendicular in a block, which opens,
foftens, and makes them gentle. Lafily, they are tho¬
roughly dried, and paffed over the fame inftrument
again ; which finifties the preparation, and leaves them
in the form of {hammy.
Kid and goat {kins are fhamoifed in the fame manner
as thofe of ftieep, excepting that the hair is taken off
without the ufe of any lime j and that when brought
from the mill they undergo a particular preparation
called ratnalling, the moft delicate and difficult of all the
others. It confifts in this, that, as foon as brought from
the mill, they are fteeped in a fit lixivium, taken out,
ftretched on a round wooden leg, and the hair is fcraped
oft’ with the knife ; this makes them fmooth, and in
working to call a kind of fine knap. The difficulty is
in fcraping them evenly.
SHANK, or SHANK-Painter, in a fliip, is a fhort
chain faftened under the foremaft ftirouds, by a bolt, to
the {hip’s fides, having at the other end a rope faftened
to it. On this fhank-painter the whole weight of the
aft part of the anchor refts, when it lies by the {hip’s fide.
The rope, by which it is hauled up, is made faft about a
timber-head.
Shank, in the manege, that part of a horfe’s fore-leg
which lies between the knee and the fetlock.
SHANKER, or Chancre, in Medicine, a malignant
ulcer, ufually occafioned by fome venereal diforder. See
Medicine, N° 350.
SHANNON, the largeft river in Ireland, and one
of the fineft in the Britifh dominions, not only on
account of its rolling 200 miles, but alfo of its great
depth in moft places, and the gentlenefs of its current,
by which it might be made exceedingly ferviceable to
the improvement of the country, the communication of
its inhabitants, and confequently the promoting of inland
trade, through the greateft part of its long courfe.
But the peculiar prerogative of the Shannon is its fitu-
ation, running from north to fouth, and feparating the
province of Connaught from Leinfter and Munfter, and
of confequenee dividing the greateft part of Ireland in¬
to what lies on the eaft and that on the weft of the ri¬
ver •, watering in ita paffage the valuable county of
Leitrim, the plentiful {hire of Rofcommon, the fruitful
county of Galway, and the pleafant county of Clare •,
the fmall but fine {hire of Longford, the King’s coun¬
ty, and fertile county of Meath in Leimier, the popu¬
lous county of Tipperary, the fpacious {hire of Lime¬
rick,
S H A [2
Shannon rick, and the rough but pleafant county of Kerry in
II Munfter ; vifiting 10 counties in its paiTage, and having
Shirt>‘ , on its banks the following remarkable places, viz. Lei-
' * trim, Jameftown, Lant {borough, Athlone, Clonfert,
Killaloe, and Limerick •, at 20 leagues below the latter
it fpreads gradually feveral miles in extent, lb that forne
liave confidered its expanfion as a lake. It at lait joins
its waters to the fca, being navigable all that way for
the larged veffels.
SHANSCR.IT, the language of the Bramins of Hin-
doflan. See Philology, fed. v.
SHARE of a PLOUGH, that part which cuts the
ground j the extremity forwards being covered with a
lharp-pointed iron, called the point of the fh are, and the
end of the wood behind the tail of the Jhare.
SHARK. See Squalls, Ichthyology Index.
SHARON, a name common to three cantons of Pa-
lelline. The firft lay between Mount Tabor and the fea
of Tiberias ; the fecund between the city of Cadarea of
Paleftine, and Joppa 5 and the third lay beyond Jordan.
To give an id€a of perfeH beauty, Ifaiah faid, the glory
of Lebanon and the beauty of Carmel mull be joined to
the abundance of Sharon. (Ifaiah xxxiii. 9. xxxi. 2.).
The plains of Sharon are of vaft extent •, and, when
furveyed by the Abbe Mariti a few years ago, they were
{own with cucumbers ; and he informs us, that fuch a
number is annually produced, as not only to fupply the
whole neighbourhood, but alfo all the coafts of Cyprus
and the city of Damielta. In the middle of the plain,
between Arfus and Lydda, rifes a fmall mountain, upon
the ridge of which there is a fmall village called Sharon,
from the name of the ancient city whofe king was con¬
quered by Jpfliua. .
SHARP, James, archbithop of St Andrew’s, was
born of a good family in Banfffhire in 1618. . He
devoted himfelf very early to the church, and was
educated for that purpofe in the univerfity of Aber¬
deen. When the folemn league and covenant was
framed in 1638, the learned men in that feminary, and
young Sharp in particular, declared themfelves decid¬
edly againft it. To avoid the infults and indignities to
which he was fubje&ed in confequence of this condu£l,
he retired to England, where he contra£led an acquain¬
tance with fome of the moll celebrated divines in that
country.
At the commencement of the civil wars he returned
to Scotland. During his journey thither, he acciden¬
tally met with Lord Oxenford, who was fo charmed
with his converfation, that he invited him to his houfe.
While he refided with that nobleman, he became known
to the earl of Rothes, who procured him a profeflorthip
at St Andrew’s. By the intereft of the earl of Craw¬
ford he was foon after appointed minifter of Crail 5
where he conduced himfelf, it is faid, in an exemplary
manner.
Sharp had always inclined to the caufe of royalty,
and had for fome time kept up a correfpondence with
his exiled prince. After the death of the protestor he
began to declare himfelf more openly, and feems to have
enjoyed a great (hare of the confidence of Monk, who
was at that time planning the reftoration of Charles I!.
When that general marched to London, the preibyte-
rians fent Sharp to attend him in order to fupport
their interefls. Al the requefl of General Monk and
the chief prefbyterians in Scotland, Mr Sharp was
5 ] S H A
lent over to the king at Breda to procure from him, if Sharp,
potliole, the eftablilhment of prefbyterianifm. On his ^
return, he atfured his friends that “ he had found the
king very affedlionate to Scotland, and refolved not to
wrong the fettled government of the church : but he
apprehended they were rmltaken who went about to
eitablith the prelbyterian government.”
Charles was foon after reftored without any terms.
All the laws palled in Scotland fince the year 1633 were
repealed ; the king and his min liters reiolved at all ha¬
zards to reltore prelacy. Mr Sharp, who had been
commiflioned by the Scotch pielbyterians to manage
their interelts with the king, was prevailed upon to aban¬
don the party ; and as a reward for his compliance, he
was made archbithop of St Andrew’s. This condudt
rendered him very odious in Scotland ; he was accufed
of treachery and perfidy, and reproached by his old
friends as a traitor and renegado. The abfurd and wan¬
ton cruelties which were afterwards committed, and
which were imputed in a great meafure to the archbilhop,
rendered him Hill more detelled. Nor is it probable
that thefe acculations were without foundation : the very
circumftance of his having been formerly of the prefby-
terian party would induce him, after forfaking them, to
treat them with ieverity. Befides, it is certain, that w'hen
after the rout at Pentland-hills he received an order from
the king to Hop the executions, he kept it for fome time
before he produced it to council.
1 here was one Mitchell a preacher, and a defperate
fanatic, who had formed the delign of taking vengeance
for thefe cruelties by affaffmating the archbithop. He
fired a piflol at him as he was fitting in his coach ; but
the bithop of Orkney, lifting up his hand at the moment,
intercepted the ball. Though this happened in the
rnidH of Edinburgh, the primate was fo much detefled,
that nobody Hopped the affaffin ; who, having walked
leifurely home, and thrown off his difguife, returned,
and mixed unfufpedted with the crowd. Some years
after, the archbifhop obferving a man eyeing him with
keennefs, fufpefted that he w as the allaffin, and ordered
him to be brought before him. It was Mitchell. Two
loaded pillols were found in his pocket. The primate •
offered him a pardon if he would confefs the crime j
the man complied ; but Sharp, regardlefs of his promife,
conduced him to the council. '1 he council alfo gave
him a folemn promife of pardon if he would confefs his
guilt, and difeover his accomplices. They were much
difappointed to hear that only one man was privy to his
purpofe, who w as fince dead. Mitchell was then brought
before a court of jufliee, and ordered to make a third
confeflion, which he refufed. He was imprifoned for
feveral years, and then tried. His own Confeflion was
urged againH him. It was in vain for him'to plead the
illegality of that evidence, and to appeal to the promife
of pardon previoully given. The council took an oath
that they had given no fuch promife j and Mitchell was
condemned. Lauderdale, who at that time governed
Scotland, would have pardoned him, but the primate in¬
filled on his execution 5 obferving, that if affaflins were
permitted to go unpunifhed, his life mufl be continually
in danger. Mitchell was accordingly executed.
Sharp had a fervant, one Carmichael, who by his
cruelty had rendered himfelf particularly odious to the
zealots. Nine men formed the refolution of waylaying
him in Magus-moor, about three miles from St An¬
drew’s. •
S H A
Sliarp. draw’s. While they were waiting for this man, the
primate himfelf appeared with very few attendants.
This they looked upon as a declaration of heaven in
their favour j and calling out, “ the Lord has delivered
him into our hands,” they ran up to the carriage.
They fired at him without effeft 5 a circumftanee
which was afterwards imputed to magic. They then
difpatched him with their fwords, regardlefs of the
tears and intreaties of his daughter, who accompani¬
ed him (a).
Thus fell Archbilhop Sharp, whofe memory is even
at prefent detefted by the common people of Scotland.
His abilities were certainly good, and in the early part
of his life he appears with honour and dignity. But
his conduct afterwards was too cruel and infincere to
merit approbation. His treatment of Mitchell was
mean and vindictive. How far he contributed to the
meafures adopted againft the prefbyterians is not cer¬
tain. They w'ere equally cruel and impolitic *, nor
did their effedts ceafe with the meafures themfelves.
The unheard-of cruelties exercifed by the minifters of
Charles II. againft the adherents of the covenant, raifed
fuch a .flame of enthufiafm and bigotry as is not yet en¬
tirely extinguiftied.
Sharp, Dr John, arehbiftiop of York, was defeend-
from the Sharps of Little Norton, a family of Brad¬
ford Dale in Yorkfhire ; and was fon of an eminent
tradefman of Braidford, where he was born in 1644.
He w'as educated at Cambridge, and in 1667 entered
into orders. That fame year he became domeftic chap¬
lain to Sir Heneage Finch, then attorney-general. In
1672 he was collated to the archdeaconry of Berkfhire.
In 1675 he was inftalled a prebendary in the cathedral
church of Norwich 5 and the year following was infti-
tuted into the reftory of St Bartholomew near the
Royal Exchange, London. In 1681 he was, by the
intereft of his patron Sir Heneage Finch, then lord high
chancellor of England, made dean of Norwich ; but in
3686 was fufpended for taking occafion, in fome of his
fermons, to vindicate the doftrine of the church of Eng¬
land in oppofition to Popery. In 1688 he was fworn
chaplain to King James II. being then probably reftored
after his fufpenfion, for it is certain that he wras cha¬
plain to King Charles II. and attended as a court cha¬
plain at the coronation of King James II. In 1689 he
was declared dean of Canterbury •, but never could be
perfuaded to fill up any of the vacancies made by the
deprived bifhops. Upon the death of Dr Lamplugh, he
was promoted to the fee of York. In 1702 he preach¬
ed the fermon at the coronation of Queen Anne ; and
the fame year was fworn of the privy-council, and made
lord almoner to her majefty. He died at Bath in 1713 ;
and was interred in the cathedral of York, where a mo¬
nument is erefted to his memory.—His fermons, which
S H A
were collected after his death, and publiflied in 7 vols Sharp.
8vo, are juftly admired. v—~v—
Sharp, Abraham, an eminent Englifh mathemati¬
cian and aftronomer, was born at Little Horton, near
Bradford, in the year 1651. He was put apprentice
to a merchant at Manchefter ; but fo ftrongly was he
inclined to the ftudy of mathematics, that he foon found
his fituation both irkfome and difagreeable. By the
mutual content, therefore, of his matter and himfelf, he
quitted the bufinefs of a merchant. He then removed
to Liverpool, where he wholly devoted himfelf to ma¬
thematical itudies, and where, for a tubfiftence, he taught
writing and accounts.
Soon after this, a merchant from London, in whofe
houfe the celebrated Mr Flamfteed then lodged, enga¬
ged Mr Sharp to be his book-keeper. With this emi¬
nent aftronomer he foon contrafted an intimate friend-
fhip, and by his recommendation he obtained a more pro¬
fitable employment in the dock-yard of Chatham, where
he continued till his friend and patron called him to
his afliftance. Mr Sharp was chiefly employed in
the conftruftion of the mural arch, which he finiftred in
the courfe of 14 months fo entirely to the fatisfaffion
of Mr Flamfteed, that he fpoke of him in terms of the
higheft praife. In the opinion of Mr Smeaton, this
was the firft good inftrument of the kind, and Mr Sharp
the firft artift who cut delicate divifions on aftronomi-
cal inftruments. When this inftrument was conftrufted,
Mr Sharp was but 25, and Mr Flamfteed 30 years of
age. Mr Sharp aflifted his friend in making a cata¬
logue of nearly 3000 fixed ftars, with their longitudes
and magnitudes, their right afeenfions and polar di-
ftances, with the variations of the fame while they
change their longitude by one degree.
But from the fatigue of conftantly obferving the
ftars by night, in a cold thin air, added to a weakly
conftitution, his health was much impaired \ for the
recovery of which he requefted leave to retire to his
houfe at Horton, where, as foon as he felt himfelf re¬
covering, he began to fit up an obfervatory of his own,
and the telefcopes he made ufe of were all of his own
conftrudtion, and the lenfes ground and adjufted with
his own hands.
It was about this time that he aflifted Mr Flamfteed
in calculating moft of the tables in the fecond volume of
his HiJIoria Calejlis, as appears by their letters, to be
feen in the hands of Mr Sharp’s friends at Horton.
The mathematician, fays Dr Hutton, meets with fome-
thing extraordinary in Sharp’s elaborate treatife of Geo¬
metry Improved; by a large and accurate table of feg-
ments of circles, its conftru£tion and various ufes in the
folutxon of feveral difficult problems, with compendious
tables for finding a true proportional part; and their
ufe in thefe or any other tables exemplified in making
logarithms,
r 216 1
(a) Such is the account given by all our hiftorians cf the murder of Archbifhop Sharp j and that he fell by
the hands of fanatics, whom he perfecuted, is certain. A tradition, however, has been preferved in different fa¬
milies defeended from him, which may be mentioned, and is in itfelf certainly not incredible. 1 he primate, it
feems, who, w'hen minifter of Crail, was peculiarly fevere in puniihing the fin of fornication, had, in the plenitude
of his archiepifcopal authority, taken notice of a criminal amour carried on between a nobleman high in office
and a lady of fome faftiion who lived within his diocefe. This interference Avas in that licentious age deemed very
impertinentand the archbiftrop’s defeendants believe that the proud peer mitigated the deluded rabble to mur¬
der their anceftor.
S H A [ :
Sharp logarithms, or their natural numbers, to 60 places of fi-
| v gures j there being a table of them for all primes to
5 a er' . I too, true to 61 figures. His concife treatife of Polye-
dra, or folid bodies of many bafes, both of the regular
ones and others ; to -which are added, 12 new ones,
with various methods of forming them, and their exa£t
dimenfions in furds or fpecies, and in numbers ; illuftra-
ted with a variety of copperplates, neatly engraved by
his own hands. Indeed, few of the mathematical in-
ftrument makers could exceed him in exactly gra¬
duating or neatly engraving mathematical or aftrono-
mical inftruments. He poffeffed a remarkably clear
head for contriving, and an extraordinary hand for
executing any thing, not only in mechanics, but
likewife in drawing, writing, and making the moll
beautiful figures in all his calculations and conftruc-
tions.
The quadrature of the circle was undertaken by him
for his own amufement, in the year 1699, deduced from
two different feries, by which the truth of it was proved
to 72 places of figures, as may be feen in Sherwin’s Ta¬
bles of Logarithms. In the fame book may likewife
be feen his ingenious improvements on the making of
logarithms, and the conftru£ting of the natural fines,
tangents, and fecants.
Mr Sharp kept up a eorrefpondence with moll of the
eminent mathematicians and allronomers of his time,
as Flamfleed, Newton, Halley, Wallis, Hodgfon, '&c.
the anfwers to whofe letters are all written on the backs
nr empty fpaces, of the letters he received, in a Ihort
hand of his own invention. Being one of the moll
eccurate and indefatigable computers who ever exiiied ;
he Avas many years the common refource for Flamlteed,
■Sir Jonas Moor, Halley, and others, in all forts of trou-
blefome and delicate calculations.
Mr Sharp w'as never married, and fpent his time as a
hermit. He was of a middle flature, very thin, of a
weakly conflitution ; but remarkably feeble during the
lad 3 or 4 years before his death, which happened on
the 18th of July *742, in the 91ft year of his age.
He was very irregular as to his meals, and uncommon¬
ly fparing in his diet, which he frequently took in the
following manner. A little fquare hole, refembling a
windowq formed a communication between the room
where he ufually ftudied, and another where a fervant
could enter ; and before this hole he had contrived a
Hiding board. It often happened, that the breakfafl,
dinner, and fupper, have remained untouched, w’hen the
fervant wTas gone to remove what was left,—fo deeply
was he engaged in calculations.
Sharp, in Mujtc. See Interval.
SHASTAH, the fame as Shaster.
SH ASTER, Shastah, or BeDang, the name of a
facred book, in high eftimation among the idolaters of
Hindoftan, containing all the dogmas of the religion of
the bramins, and all the ceremonies of their Worlhip; and
ferving as a commentary on the Vedam.
The term Shajler denotes “ fcience” or “ fyllem j’1
and is applied to other works of ailronomy and philofo-
phy, which have no relation to the religion of the Indians.
None but the btamins and rajahs of India are allowed
to read the Vedam ; the priells of the Banians, called
Shuderers, may read the Shatter •, and the people, in ge¬
neral, are allowed to read only the Paran er Pouran,
which is a commentary on the Shatter,
Vcxl. XIX. Part I.
17] S H A
The Shatter is divided into three parts : the firtt cen- Shafted
taining the moral law of the Indians ; the fecond, the '—•"Y"-'*™
rites and ceremonies of their religion ; and the third,
the diftribution of the people into tribes or clafles, with
the duties pertaining to each clais.
The principal precepts of morality, contained in the
firft part of the Shatter, are the following : that no ani*-
mal be killed, becaufe the Indians attribute fouls to
brute animals as well as to mankind; that they neither
hear nor ipeak evil, nor drink wine, nor eat fiefti, nor
touch any thing that is unclean ; that they obferve the
feafts, prayers, and wafliings, vdiich their law prefcribes j
that they tell no lies, nor be guilty of deceit in trade
that they neither opprefs nor offer violence to one an¬
other j that they celebrate the folemn feafts and fafts, and
appropriate certain hours of ordinary fleep to cultivate a
difpofition for prayer 5 and that they do not fteal or de¬
fraud one another.
The ceremonies, contained in the fecond part of the
Shatter, are fuch as thefe : that they watti often in the
rivers, hereby obtaining the pardon of their fins ; that
they mark their forehead with red, in token of their re¬
lation to the Deity ; that they prefent offerings and
prayers under certain trees, fet apart for this purpofe ;
that they pray in the temples, make oblations to their
pagodas or idols, fing hymns, and make procefiions,
&c. 5 that they make pilgrimages to dittant rivers, and
efpecially to the Ganges, there to wafh themfelves and
make offerings •, that they make vows to particular
faints, according to their refpedlive departments ; that
they render homage to the Deity at the firft fight of
the lun 5 that they pay their refpeft to the fun and
moon, which are the twTo eyes of the Deity ; and that
they treat with particular veneration thofe animals that
are deemed more pure than others j as the coW, buffalo,
&c. *, becaufe the fouls of men have tranfmigrated into
thefe animals.
The third part of the Shatter records the diftribu- ■
tion of the people into four elaffes : the firft being that
of the bramins or priefts, appointed to inftiu£l the peo¬
ple ; the fecond, that of the kuttcris or nobles, who are
the magiftrates 5 the third, that of the ftiudderis or
merchants ; and the fourth, that of the mechanics.
Each perfon is required to remain in the clafs in which
he was born, and to purfue the occupation afllgned to
him by the Shatter. According to the bramins, the
Shatter wras imparted by God himfelf to Brahma, and by
him to the bramins j who communicated the contents
of it to the people.
Modern writers have given us very different accounts
of the antiquity and importance of the Shatter. Mr
Holwell, who had made confiderable progrefs in the
tranilation of this book, apprehends, that the mytholo¬
gy as well as the cofmogony of the Egyptians, Greeks-,
and Romans, was borrowed from the doctrines of the
bramins, contained in it, even to the copying of their
exteriors of worftiip, and the dittribution of their idols,
though grofsly mutilated and adulterated. With refpeft
to the Vedam and Shatter, or feriptures of the Gen-
toos, this writer informs us, that Vedam, in the Mala¬
bar language, fignifies the fame as Shajier in the Shan-
fcrit j and that the firft book is followed by the Gen-
toos of the Malabar and Coromandel coafts, and alfo of
the ittand of Ceylon. The Shatter is followed by the
Gentoos of the provinces of Bengal, and by all the
E e Gentoos
S H A r 218 ] S H A
Gen loos ot the reft of India, commonly called /«<//'«
Proper, along the courfe of the rivers Ganges and Jum¬
na to the Indus. Both thefe books (he fays) contain
the inftitutes of their refpe&ive religion and woHhip,
as well as the hiftory of their ancient rajahs and princes,
often couched under allegory and fable. Their anti¬
quity is contended for by the partifans of each •, but he
thinks, that the fimilitude of their names, idols, and
great part of their worftnp, leaves little room to doubt,
nay plainly evinces, that both thefe feriptures were ori¬
ginally one. He adds, if we compare the great purity
and chafte manners of the Shafter with the great ab-
furdities and impurities of the Vedam, we need not
hefitate to pronounce the latter a corruption of the
former.
With regard to the high original of thefe feriptures,
the account of the bramins is as follows. Brahma
(that is, “ Mighty Spirit”), about 4866 years ago,
affumed the form of man and the government of Indo-
ftan. He tranflated the divine law (defigned for the
reftoration of mankind, who had offended in a pre-ex-
iftent ftate, and who are now in their laft feene of pro¬
bation, to the dignity from which they were degraded)
out of the language of angels into the well known Shan-
ferit language, and called his tranflation the Chartah
Bhade Shaft ah of Birmah, or the Six Scriptures of Divine
Words of the Might] Spirit. He appointed the bramins,
deriving their name from him, to preach the word of
God ; and the doctrines of the Shafter were according¬
ly preached in their original purity 1000 years. About
this time there was publiftied a paraphrafe on the Char¬
tah Bhade', and about 500 years afterwards, a fecond
expofition, called the Aughtorrah Bhade Shffta, or Eigh¬
teen Booh of Divine Words, written in a chara&er com¬
pounded of the common Indoftan and the Shanfcrit.
This innovation produced a fchifm among the Gen-
toos ; on which occafion, it is faid, thofe of Coroman¬
del and Malabar formed a feripture of their own,
which they pretended to be founded on the Chartah
Bhade of Bramah, and called it the Vedam of Bir-
mah, or Divine Words of the Might] Spirit. The ori¬
ginal Chartah Bhade was thrown afide, and at length
wholly unknown, except to a few families 5 who can
ft ill read and expound it in the Shanfcrit charafter.
With the eftabliftiment of the Aughtorrah Bhade, and
Vedam, which, according to the Gentoo account, is
3366 years ago, their polytheifm commenced and the
principles of religion became fo obfeure, and their ce¬
remonies fo numerous, that every head of a family w'as
obliged to keep a bramin as a guide both in faith and
praftice. Mr Holwell is of opinion, that the Chartah
Bhade, or Original Scriptures, are not copied from any
other fyftem of theology, promulgated to or obtruded
upon mankind. The Gentoos do not attribute them to
Zoroafter', and Mr Holwell fuppofes that both Zoroafter
and Pythagoras vifited Indoftan, not to inftruft, but to
be inftrufted.
From the account of Mr Dow, we learn, that the
books which contain tlie religion and philofophy of the
Hindoos are diftinguilhed by the name of Bedas ; that
they are four in number, and like the facred writings
of other nations, faid to be penned by the Divinity.
Beda, he fays, in the Shanfcrit language, literally fig-
nifies fcience ; and thefe books treat not only of religion
aad moral duties, but of every branch of philofophic
knowledge. The bramins maintain, that the Bedas Shafter.
are the divine laws which Brimha, at the creation of1——y—.
the world, delivered for the inftru&ion of mankind ;
but they affirm, that their meaning was perverted in
the firft age by the ignorance and wickednefs of feme
princes, whom they reprefent as evil fpirits, who then
haunted the earth.
The firft credible account we have of the Bedas is,
that about the commencement of the Cal Jug, of which
era the year 1768 was the 4886th year, they were
written, or rather collefled, by a great philofopher and
reputed prophet, called Bc'dfs Muni, or Be'dfs the In*
fpired.
The Hindoos (fays Mr Dow) are divided into two
great religious fefls : the followers of the doctrine of
Bedang, which is the original Shafter or commentary
upon the Bedas', and thofe rvho adhere to the principles
of the Neadirfen. The original Shafter is called Be¬
dang, and is a commentary upon the Bedas. This book,
he fays, is erroneoufly called in Europe the Vedam. It
is aferibed to Beafs Muni, and is faid to have been re-
vifed fome years after by one Serrider Swami, fince ,
which it has been reckoned facred, and not fubjett to A
any farther alterations.
Aim oft all the Hindoos of the Decan, and thofe of
the Malabar and Coromandel coafts, are of this fe£t.
The followers of the Bedang Shafter do not allow that
any phyfical evilexiftsj they maintain that God created
all things perfeftly good; but that man, being a free
agent, may be guilty of moral evil, which may be inju¬
rious to himfelf, but can be of no detriment to the gene¬
ral fyftem of nature. God, they fay, being perfedlly
benevolent, never punifhed the wicked otherwife than
by the pain and afflidlion which are the natural confe*.
quences of evil aflions ; and hell, therefore is no other
than a confcioufnefs of evil.
The Neadirfen Shafter is faid to have been written
by a philofopher called Goutam, near four thoufand
years ago. The bramins, from Mr Dow’s account of
their facred books, appear to believe invariably in the
unity, eternity, omnifcience, and omnipotence of God ;
and the polytheifm of which they have been accufed is
no more than a fymbolical worlhip of the divine attrr*
butes, which they divide into three claffes. Under the
name of Brimha, they worlhip the wifdom and creative
power of God ; under the appellation of Bifhen, his pro¬
vidential and preferving quality ; and under that of
Shibah, that attribute which tends to deftroy.
As few of our readers may have an opportunity of
perufing the Shafter, we {hall, by way of fpecimen, fub-
join a paffage from it, which, though it contains fome
metaphyfical myfteries concerning the creation, yet dif-
covers views of God fo enlightened that they would not
difgrace more refined nations. The paffage which we
{hall quote is the firft chapter of the Shafter, which is
a dialogue between Brimha the Wifdom of the Divini¬
ty, and Narud or Reafon, who is reprefented as the fun
of Brimha. Narud defires to be inftrudled by his fa¬
ther; and for that purpofe puts the following; queftions
to him:
“ Narud. O father ! thou firft of God, thou art faid
to have created the world, and thy fon Narud, aftonilh-
ed at what he beholds, is defirous to be inftrudled how
all thefe things were made.
“ Brimha. Be not deceived, my fon ! do not imagine
that.:;
S H A [ 2
Shaitcr. that I was the creator of the world, independent of the
——v"— 1 Divine Mover, who is the great original effcnce and
creator' of all things. Look, therefore, only upon me
as the inftrument of the great wi//, and a part of his
bsing, whom he called forth to execute his eternal de-
figns.
“ Narad. What (hall we think of God ?
“ Brimha. Being immaterial, he is above all concep¬
tion ; being invilible, he can have no form ; but, from .
what we behold in his works, we may conclude that he
is eternal, .omnipotent, knowing all things, and prefent
everywhere.
“ Narad. How did God create the world ?
“ Brimha. Affection dwelt with God from all eter¬
nity. It was of three different kinds ; the creative, the
preferving, and the deftrudtive. This firlt is represent¬
ed by Brimha, the fecond by Bilhen, and the third by
Shibah. You, O Narud 1 are taught to worlhip all
the three in various fhapes and likeneffes, as the Crea¬
tor, the Preferver, and the Deltroyer. The affecffion of
God then produced power, and power, at a proper con-
iumffion of time and fate, embraced goodnefs, and pro¬
duced matter. The three qualities then adting upon
matter, produced the univerfe in the following manner :
From the oppofite aftions of the creative and deffrudtive
quality in matter, felt-motion firit arofe. Self-motion
' was of three kinds ; the firft inclining to plafticity, the
fecond to difcord, and the third to reft. The difeord-
ant atftions then produced the Akaflr (a kind of celeftial
element), which invifible element poffeffed the quality
of conveying found; it produced air, a palpable ele¬
ment j fire, a vilible element j water, a fluid element j
and earth, a folid element.
“ The Akaflr difperfed itfelf abroad. Air formed
the atmofphere *, fire, collecting itfelf, blazed forth in
the hoft of heaven •, water rofe to the furface of the
earth, being forced from beneath by the gravity of the
latter element. Thus broke forth the world from the
veil of darknefs, in which it was formerly comprehend¬
ed by God. Order rofe over the univerfe. The feven
heavens were formed, and the feven worlds were fixed
in their places ; there to remain till the great diffolution,
when all things fliall be abforbed into God.
“ God feeing the earth in full bloom, and that vege¬
tation wTas ftrong from its feeds, called forth for the firft
time intelleft, which he endued with various organs and
fliapes, to form a diverfity of animals upon the earth.
He endued the animals with five fenfes; feeling, feeing,
fmelling, tailing, and hearing •, but to man he gave re-
fledtion, to raife him above the beafts of the field.
“ The creatures were created male and female, that
they might propagate their fpecies upon the earth.
Every herb bore the feed of its kind, that the world
might be clothed with verdure, and all animals provided
with food.
“ Narud. What doft thou mean, O father ! by Intel-
led! ?
u Brimha. It is a portion of the great foul of the
univerfe breathed into all creatures, to animate them
for a certain time.
“ Narud. What becomes of it after death ?
“ Brimha. It animates other bodies, or returns, like
a drop, into that unbounded ocean from which it firft
arofe.
:p ] S H A
“ Narud. Shall not then the fouls of good men re¬
ceive rewards ? nor the fouls of the bad meet with pu-
nilhment ?
“ Brimha. The fouls of men are diftinguifhed from
thofe of other animals; for the firft are endued with rea-
fon, and with a confcioufnefs of right and wrong. I?
therefore man ftiall adhere to the firft, as far as his
powers fliall extend, his foul, when difengaged from the
body by death, fliall be abforbed into the divine cffencc,
and fliall never more reanimate fleih : But the fouls of
thofe who do evil are not, at death, difengaged from
all the elements. They are immediately clothed with
a body of fire, air, and akaih, in which they are for a
time puniftied in hell. After the feafon of their grief
is over, they reanimate other bodies ; but till they {hall
arrive at a ftate of purity they can never be abforbed
into God.
“ Narud. What is the nature of that abforbed ftate
which the fouls of good men enjoy after death ?
“ Brimha. It is a participation of the divine nature,
where all paflions are utterly unknown, and where con-
feioufnefs is loft in blifs.
“ Narud. Thou fayeft, O father, that unlcfs the foul
is perfectly pure it cannot be abforbed into God : now,
as the aflions of the generality of men are partly good
and partly bad, whither are their fpirits fent immediate¬
ly after death ?
“ Brimha. They muft atone for their crimes in hell,
where they muft remain for a fpace proportioned to the
degree of their iniquities \ then they rife to heaven to
be rewarded for a time for their virtues ; and from
thence they will return to the world to reanimate other
bodies.
“ Narud. What is time ?
“ Brimha. Time exifted from all eternity with God:
but it can only be eftimated fince motion was produced,
and only be conceived by the mind, from its own con-
ftant progrefs.
“ Narud. How long fliall this world remain ?
“ Brimha. Until the four jugs ftiall have revolved.
Then Rudder (the fame with Shibah, the deftroying
quality of God), with the ten fpirits of diffolution,
lhall roll a comet under the moon, that fhall involve all
things in fire, and reduce the world into allies. God
fliall then exift alone, for matter will be totally annihi¬
lated.”
Thofe who defire more information on this fubjedl
many confult Dow’s Hiftory of Indoftan, and Holvvell’s
Interefting Hiftorical Events.*
SHAW, Dr Thomas, known to the learned world
by his travels to Barbary and the Levant, was born at
Kendal in Weftmoreland about the year 1692. He
Avas appointed chaplain to the Englilh conful at Algiers,
in which ftation he continued for feveral years; and
from thence took proper opportunities of travelling into
different parts. He returned in 1 733 j wasele&ed fel¬
low of the Royal Society •, and publiftied the account of
his travels at Oxford, folio, 1738. In 1740 he was
nominated principal of St Edmond-hall, which he raifed
from a ruinous ftate by his munificence ; and was regius
profeffor of Greek at Oxford until his death, rvhich
happened in 1751. Dr Clayton, bifliop of Clogher,
having attacked thefe Travels in his Defcription of the
Eaft, Dr SIieav publiftied a fupplement by Avay of vin-
E e 2 dication,
Shader,
Shaw,
SHE
[ 220 ]
SHE
Sliaw
dication, which is incorporated into the fecond edition
«• of his Travels, prepared by himfelf, and publilhed in
Sheathing. .. 1 l
. , /[to. I*7 Cy.
^ SHiVWI A, a genus of plants, belonging to the clafs
fyngenefia, and order polygamia fegregata, of which the
charaaers are the following j the calyx is imbricated
with five or fix leaves, the three interior of which are
larger ; the corolla is five-cleft; there is one oblong
feed. One fpecies only has been difcovered, which is
a native of New Zealand.
SHAWLS, are woollen handkerchiefs, an ell wide,
and near two long. The wool is fo fine and filky,
that the whole handkerchief may be contained in the
two hands clofed. It is the produce of a Tibet ftieep *,
but fome fay that no wool is employed but that of
lambs torn from the belly of their mother before the
time of birth. The moft beautiful fliawls come from
Calhmire : their price is from ijolivres (about fix gui¬
neas) to 1200 livres (or 50I. fterling).
In the Tranfaftions of the Society for Encouraging
Arts, Manufactures, &c. for the year I792> AVe are
formed that a (bawl counterpane, four yards fquare,
manufactured by Mr P. J. Knights of Norwich, was
prefented to the fociety j and that, upon examination,
it appeared to be of greater breadth than any goods of
equal finenefs and texture that had ever before been pre¬
fented to the fociety, or to their knowledge woven in
this country. The ftiawls of Mr Knights’s manufacture,
it is faid, ^can fcarcely be diftinguilhed from Indian
fhawls, though they can be afforded at one-twentieth
part of the price. When the fhawl is 16 quartets fquare,
Mr Knights fays it may be retailed at 20I. j if it con-
fifted of 12 quarters, and embroidered as the former, it
will coft 15I. j if plain, with a fringe only, a fhawl of
16 quarters fquare may be fold at 81. 8s. 5 if 12 quar¬
ters and fringed, at 61. 6s.
Mr Knights maintains, that his counterpane of four
yards fquare is equal in beauty, and fuperior in ftrength,
to the Indian counterpanes, which are fold at 200 gui¬
neas. The principal confumption of this cloth is in
train-dreffes for ladies j as likewife for long fcarfs, in
imitation of the real Indian fcarfs, which are fold from
60I. to Sol. ; whereas fcarfs of this fabric are fold for
as many fhillings, and the ladies fquare fhawls in pro¬
portion.
SHEADING, a riding, tything, or divifion, m the
ifle of Man ; the whole i'fland being divided into fix
{headings •, in every one of which is a coroner or chief
conftable, appointed by the delivery of a rod at the an¬
nual convention.
SHEARBILL, the Rhijnchops Nigra of Linnaeus,
the B/ack Skimmer of Pennant and Latham, and Cut¬
water of Catefby. See Ornithology Index.
SHEATHING, in the fea-language, is the cafing
that part of a fhip which is to be under water with fir-
board of an inch thick ; firft laying hair and tar mixed
together under the boards, and then nailing them on,
in-order to prevent worms from eating the ihip’s bot¬
tom. Ships of war are now generally fheathed with
copper : but copper fheathing is liable to be corroded
by the aCHon of fait water, and fomething is ftill want¬
ing to effeCt this purpofe. It is very probable that tar
might anfwer very well.
In the Cornifh mines, copper or brafs pumps are often
placed in the deepefc parts, and are confequently expo-
fed to the vitriolic or other mineral waters with which Sheathirig
fome of thefe mines abound, and which are known to II
have a much ftronger effeCt on copper than fea water. , ld:,1^arg-
Thefe pumps are generally about fix feet long, and are
ferewed together, and made tight by the interpofition
of a ring of lead, and the joinings are afterwards tarred.
One of thefe pumps was fo much corroded as to render
it unfit for ufe j but the fpots of tar, which by accident
had dropped on it, preferved the parts they covered
from the aCtion of the water. Thefe projected in feme
places more than a quarter of an inch 5 and the joints
were fo far defended by the thin coat of tar, that it
was as perfeCt as when it came from the hands of the
manufacturer. If tar thus effectually defends copper
from thefe acrid waters, can there remain a doubt of its
preferving it from the much milder waters of the fea ?
bHEATS, in a fhip, are ropes bent to the clews of
the fails, ferving in the lower fails to haul aft the clews
of the fail 5 but in topfails they ferve to haul home
the clew of the fail dole to the yard-arm.
SHEAVE, in Mechanics, a folid cylindrical wheel,
fixed in a channel, and moveable about an axis, as be¬
ing ufed to raife or increafe the mechanical powers ap¬
plied to remove any body.
SHEBBEARE, John, a political writer, was bom
at Bideford in Devonlhire, in the year 1709. He re¬
ceived the rudiments of his education at the free gram¬
mar fchool of Exeter. It has been often obferved, that
the future life of a man may be gathered from his pue¬
rile charader *, and accordingly Shebbeare, while a boy
at fchool, gave the llrongelt indications of his future
eminence in mifanthropy and learning, by the extraor¬
dinary tenacioufnefs of his memory and the readinefs of
his wit, as well as the malignity of his difpofition ; be¬
ing univerfally regarded as a young man of furprifing
genius, while at the fame time he was defpifed for his
malicious temper.
About the age of 16, Shebbeare was bound appren¬
tice to an eminent furgeon in his native town, under
whom he acquired a confiderable fhare of medical know¬
ledge. His talent for lampoon appeared at this early
period, and he could not forbear from exercifing it on his
mailer ; but the chief marks for the arrows of his wit
were the gentlemen of the corporation, fome of whom
laughed at fuch trifles, while fuch as were irritable often
commenced profecutions againft him, but without fuc-
cefs. He was frequently fummoned to appear at the
feflions, for daring to fpeak and write difrefpeCtfully of
the magiftrates \ but the laugh was always on the fide
of Shebbeare.
When his time was out, he fet up for himfelf, then
difeovering a tafte for chemiftry j foon after wrhich he
married an amiable young woman w’ith no fortune, but
of refpeCtable connections. Failing in bufinefs at Bide¬
ford, he went to Briltol in 1736, entering into partner-
Ihip wuth a chemift, and never aftenvards vifited his na¬
tive town.
The attention of the public was, in the year r73Sb a*'
trafted by an epitaph to the memory of I homas Cotter,
Efq. M. P. for Briftol, in which he contrived to raife
emotions of pity, grief, and indignation. In the follow-
ing year he publiihed a pamphlet on the Briltol waters,
after which we know' little or nothing refpe&ing him for
a number of years. He was at Paris' in I752> wh61-6
he obtained, it is faid, the degree of doCtor in medicine,.
SHE [2:
Rhebbeare. a fafl, however, which many are difpofed to queftion.
v About this time he began to emerge from obfcurity,
and draw the attention of the public, by pamphlets
written with fuch virulence and celerity as it would be
difficult to equal in the molt intemperate times. In
I754 he commenced his career with a work denomina¬
ted the Marriage AB, a political novel, in which he
treated the legiflature with fuch freedom that he was
apprehended, but foon after fet at liberty.
The moft celebrated performances, however, were a
feries of letters to the People of England, written in a
vigorous and energetic ftyle, well calculated to make
an°impreffion on common readers ; and they were of
courfe read with avidity, and diligently circulated.
They galled the miniftry, who at firft were too eager to
puniffi the author. When the third letter was publilh-
ed warrants were iffued by Lord Holderneffe in March
1756, to take up both the publifher and the author ; a
profecution rvhich appears to have been dropt. On the
12th of January 1758, the fame nobleman figned a ge¬
neral warrant for apprehending the author, printer, and
publifhers of a wicked, audacious, and treafonable libel,
entitled, “ A fixth letter to the people of England, on
the progrefs of national ruin, in which is {hewn that
the prefent grandeur of France and calamities of this
nation are owing to the influence of Hanover on the
councils of England and them having found, to
feize and apprehend, together with their books and
papers.
Government having received information that a fe-
venth letter was in the prefs, all the copies were feized
and fupprefled by virtue of another warrant, dated Ja¬
nuary 23. tin Eafter term an information was filed
again!! him by the attorney-general, and on the 17th
of June the information was tried, when Shebbeare was
found guilty ; and on the 28th of November he received
fentence, by which he was fined 5I. ordered to ftand in
the pillory December 5. at Charing Crofs, to be con¬
fined three years, and to give fecurity for his good be¬
haviour for feven years, himfelf in 500I. and two others
in 250I. each. During his confinement, he declared he
never received as prefents more than 20 guineas from
all the world.
He was detained in prifon during the whole time of
the fentence, and with fome degree of rigour ; for when
his life was in danger from a bad ftate of health, and
he applied to the court of King’s-bench for permiffion to
be carried into the rules a few hours in a day ; though
Lord Mansfield acceded to the petition, the prayer of it
was denied and defeated by Judge Fofter. At the ter¬
mination of the time of his fentence, a new reign com¬
menced ; and ftiortly afterwards, during Mr Grenville’s
adminiftration, a penfion of 200I. a-year was granted
him by the crown, through the influence of Sir John
Philips $ and he ever after became devoted to the fer-
vice of government. He was of courfe abuled in almoil
every periodical work, which he feems in general to
have had the good fenfe to negleft. Dr Smollet intro¬
duced him, in no very refpeftful light, under the name
of Ferret, in Si%Launcelot Greaves } and Mr Hogarth
made him one’’ of the group in the third election
print.
During the latter part of his life he feems to have
written but little. He ftrenuoufly fupported the mini-
flry during the American war, having publifhed, in
it ] SHE
1775, an anfwer to the printed fpeech of Edmund Shebbeare,
Burke, Efq. fpoken in the houfe of commons, April 19., ^ieeP‘ ,
1774, wherein he inveftigates his knowledge of polity, ^
legiflature, human kind, hiitory, commerce, and finance $
his arguments are examined ; the condudl of adminiftra¬
tion is boldly defended, and his talents as an orator clear¬
ly expofed to view. An effay on the origin, progrefs,
and eftabliftnnent of National Society j in which the
principles of government, the definition of phyfical, mo¬
ral, civil, and religious liberty contained in Dr Price’s
obfervations, &c. are examined and controverted ; to¬
gether with a juftification of the legiflature in reducing
America to obedience by force.
His publications of a fatirical, political, and medical
nature, amount to 34, befides a novel, called Filial
Piety, in which hypocrify and bluftering courage are
very properly chaftifed. He died on the ift of Auguft
1788, leaving behind him the charafter of a benevolent
man among thofe who wrere beft acquainted with him
a charafler w’hich, from the manner he fpeaks of his
conneftions, he probably deferved.
SHEEP, in Zoology. See Ovis and Wool. r
Amongft the various animals with which Divine Pro- Sheep ferve
vidence has ftored the world for the ufe of man, none is a wonder-
to be found more innocent, more ufeful, or more valu-^ variW
able than the fheep. The fheep fupplies us with food0 PurP°‘es*'
and clothing, and finds ample employment for our
poor at all times and feafons of the year, whereby a
variety of manufactures of woollen cloth is carried on
without interruption to domeftic comfort and lols to
friendly fociety or injury to health, as is the cafe with
many other occupations. Every lock of wool that
grows on its back becomes the means of lupport to
ftaplers, dyers, pickers, fcourers, fcriblers, carders,
combers, fpinners, fpoolers, warpers, queelers, rveavers,
fullers, tuckers, burlers, ftiearmen, preflers, clothiers,
and packers, who, one after another, tumble and tofs,
and twift, and bake and boil, this raw material, till
they have each extracted a livelihood out of it; and
then comes the merchant, who, in his turn, {hips it (in
its higheft ftate of improvement) to all quarters of the
globe, from whence he brings back every kind of richer
to his country, in return for this valuable commodity
which the fheep affords.
Befides this, the ufeful animal, after being deprived
of his coat, produces another againft the next year y
and when we are hungry, and kill him for food, he
gives us his Ikin to employ the fell-mongers and parch¬
ment-makers, who fupply us with a durable material for
fecuring our eftates, rights, and poffeflions 5 and if our
enemies take the field againft us, fupplies us with a
powerful inftrument for roufing our courage to repel
their attacks. When the parchment-maker has taken
as much of the fkin as he can ufe, the glue-maker comes-
after and picks up every morfel that is left, and there¬
with fupplies a material for the carpenter and cabinet¬
maker, which they cannot do without, and which is
effentially neceffary before w'e can have elegant furniture
in our houfes 5 tables, chairs, looking-glaffes, and a.
hundred other articles of convenience : and when the
winter nights come on, while we are deprived of the
cheering light of the fun, the fheep fupplies us with an
artificial mode of light, whereby w'e preferve every plea-
fure of domeftic fociety, and with whofe afliftance we
can continue our work, or write or read, and improve
out?
SHE - [ 222 ] s H E
Sheep, our minds, or enjoy the focial mirth of our tables. An-
^ other part of the flaughtered animal fupplies us \vitl) an
ingredient nccell'ary for making good common foap, a
ufeful ftore for producing cleanlinefs in every family,
rich or poor. Neither need the horns be thrown away ;
for they are converted by the button-makers and turners
into a cheap kind of buttons, tips for bows, and many
ufeful ornaments. From the very trotters an oil is ex-
tra61ed ufeful for many purpofes, and they afford good
food when baked in an oven.
Even the bones are ufeful alfo ; for by a late inven¬
tion of Dr Higgins, they are found, when reduced to
afhes, to be an ufeful and effential ingredient in the com-
pofition of the fineft artificial flone in ornamental work
for chimney-pieces, cornices of rooms, houfes, &c.
which renders the compofition more durable by effec¬
tually preventing its cracking (a).
If it is objected to the meek inoffenfive creature, that
he is expenfive while living, in eating up our grafs,
Sec. it may be anfvvered that it is quite the contrary }
for he can feed where every other animal lias been be¬
fore him and grazed all they could find •, and that if lie
takes a little grafs on our downs or in our field*, he
amply repays us for every blade of grafs in the richnefs
of the manure which he leaves behind him. Fie pro¬
tects the hands from the cold wintry blaft, by providing
them with the foftefl leather, gloves. Every gentle¬
man’s library is alfo indebted to him for the neat bind¬
ing of bis books, for the fheath of his fword, and for
cafes for his inftruments •, in fhort, not to be tedious in
mentioning the various ufes of leather, there Ls hardly
any furniture or utenfil of life but the (beep contri¬
butes to render either more ufeful, convenient, or orna¬
mental.
As the flieep is fo valuable an animal, every piece of
information concerning the proper method of managing
it mult be of importance. It will not therefore be ufe-
lefs or unentertaining to give fome account of the man¬
ner of managing flieep in Spain, a country famous for
^ producing the belt wool in the world.
Account of In Spain there are two kinds of fheep : the coarfe-
?he Spanifli wooi].eci flieep, which always remain in their native
fiieep country, and are houfed every night in winter ; and the
fine-woolled fheep, which are always in the open air,
and travel every fummer from the cool mountains of the
northern parts of Spain, to feed in winter on the fouth-
ern warm plains of Andalufia, Mancha, and Eftrema-
dura. Of thefe latter, it appears from accurate corn- Sheep,
putations, that there are about five millions (b) ; and
that the wool and llefli of a flock of 10,000fheep pro¬
duced yearly about 24 reals a head, about the value
of 12 Englifh fixpences, one of which belongs to the
owner, three to the king, and the other eight are allow¬
ed for the expences of pafture, tythes, fliepherds, dogs,
fait, fhearing, &c. Ten thoufand flieep form a flock,
which is divided into ten tribes, under the management
of one perfon, who lias abfolute dominion over fifty fliep¬
herds and fifty dogs. 3
M. Bourgoanne, a French gentleman, who refidedofSegovia,
many years in Spain, and directed his inquiries chiefly
to the civil government, trade, and manufadlures, of
that country, gives the following account of the wan¬
dering flieep of Segovia. “ It is (fays he) in the neigh-Bourgc-
bburing mountains that a part of the wandering flieepa?ine'i 'fra-
feed during the fine feafon. They leave them in the vo!‘>•
month of O&ober, pafs over thofe which feparate thep‘
two Cafliles, erofs New Caflile, and difperfe themfelves
in the plains of Eftramadura and Andalufia. For fome
years part thofe of the two Caftiles, which are within
reach of the Sicrra-Morena, go thither to pafs the win¬
ter ; which, in that part of Spain, is more mild 5 the
length of their day’s journey is in proportion to the
pafture they meet with. They travel in flocks from
1000 to 1200 in number, under the conduct of two
fhepherds *, one of whom is called the Mayoral, the
other the Zagal. When arrived at the place of their
deftination, they are diftributed in the paftures previouf-
ly afligned them. They return in the month of April 3
and whether it be habit or natural inftincl that draws
them towards the climate, which at this feafon becomes
moft proper for them, the inquietude which they mani-
feft might, in cafe of need, ferve as an almanac to their
conductors.”
Mr Arthur Young, in that patriotic work which he
conduced with great induftry and judgment, the An¬
nals of Agriculture, gives us a very accurate and inte-
refting account of the Pyrenean or Catalonian flieep. ^
“ On the northern ridge, bearing to the weft, are the of Catalo-
paftures of the Spanifti flocks. This ridge is not, how-nia. An-
ever, the whole j there are two other mountains, quite ^ °/i4'
in a different lituation, and the ftieep travel from one to^EF™’
another as the pafturage is fhort or plentiful. I exa-p.
mined the foil of thefe mountain paftures, and found it
in general ftony j what in the weft of England would
be
(a) Any curious perfon would be much entertained to fee the manufactory of bone alb, now (about 1794) car"
ried on by Mr Minifti of White-chapel, New Road, wherein the bones of ftieep and cows undergo many ingenious
proceffes. 1. There is a mill to break them *, 2. A cauldron to extraCt their oil, marrow, and fat j 3. A reverbe¬
ratory to heat them red hot j 4. An oven for thofe bones to moulder to afties *, 5. A ftill to colleCt the fumes of
the burnt bones into a brown fluid, from whence hartfhorn is made •, 6. Furnaces for making parts thereof
into Glauber’s falls j 7. A fand heat containing twelve jars, for collecting a cryftallizing vapour into fal-am-
moniac.
(b) In the 16th century the travelling ftieep were eftimated at feven millions : under Philip III. the number
was diminiflied to two millions and a half. Uftariz, who wrote at the beginning of the 18th century, made it
amount tn four millions. The general opinion is, that at prefent it does not exceed five millions. If to this num¬
ber the eight millions of ftationary flieep be added, it will make nearly thirteen millions of animals, all managed
contrary to the true interefts of Spain, for the advantage of a few individuals. For the proprietors of ftationary
flocks alfo have privileges which greatly refemble thofe of the members of the Mefta. According to Arriquebar
Spain contains eight millions of fine-woolled ftieep, ten millions of coarfe-woolled, and five hundred thoufand bulls,
oxen, and cows.
SHE [223] SHE
Sl-.ccp. be called a Jlone brnfl\ -with feme mixture of loam, and
—'v-'—' in a few places a little peaty. J he plants are many of
them untorched by the fheep : many ferns, narciflus,
violets, &c. but burnet (potcriumfanguiforba) and the
narrow-leaved plantain (plantago lanceolata) were eaten,
as may be fuppofed, clofe. 1 looked for trefoils, but
found fcarcely any : it was very apparent that foil and
peculiarity of herbage had little to do in rendering thefe
mights proper for Iheep. In the northern parts of Eu-
j-ope, the tops of mountains half the height of thefe
(for we were above fnow in July) are bogs, all are fo
which I have feen in our illands, or at lead the pro¬
portion of dry land is very triding to that which is ex¬
tremely wet : Here they are in general very drv. Now
a great range of dry land, let the plants be what they
may, will in every country fait (beep. The flock is
brought every night to one fpot, which is fituated at
the end of the valley on the river I have mentioned, and
near the port or palfage of Picada : it is a level fpot fliel-
tered from all winds. The foil is eight or nine inches
deep of old dung, not at all inclofed : from the freedom
from wood all around, it feems to be chofen partly for
fafety againfl wolves and bears. Near it is a very large
Hone, or rather rock, fallen from the mountain. This
the fliepherds have taken for a flicker, and have built a
but againft it ; their beds are flieep fkins, and their
door fo fmall that they crawl in. I faw no place^for
fire 5 but they have it, fince they drefs here the flefli of
their flieep, and in the night fometimes keep off the
bears, by whirling fire-brands : four of them belonging
to the flock mentioned above lie here. I viewed their
flock very carefully, and by means of our guide and in¬
terpreter, made feme inquiries of the fliepherds, which
they anf-vered readily, and very civilly. A Spaniard
at Venafque, a city in the Pyrenees, gives 600 livres
French (the livre is xojd. Englilh) a-year for the paf-
turage of this flock of 2000 flicep. In the winter he
fends them into the lower parts of Catalonia, a journey
of 12 or 13 days, and when the fnow is melted in the
fpring, they are conduced back again. They are the
whole year kept in motion, and moving from fpot to
fpot, which is owing to the great range they everywhere
have of pafture. They are always in the open air, ne¬
ver houfed or under cover, and never tafte of any food
but what they can find on the bills.
“ Four fliepherds, and from four to fix large Spanifli
dogs, have the care of this flock : the latter are in France
called of the Pyrenees breed; they are black and white,
of the fize of a large wolf, a large head and neck, arm¬
ed with collars fluck with iron fpikes. No wolf can Hand
againft them ; but bears are more potent adverfaries :
if a bear can reach a tree, lie is fafe 5 he rifes on his hind
legs, with his back to the tree, and fets the dogs at de¬
fiance. In the night the ftiepherds rely entirely on
their dogs 5 but on bearing them bark are ready with
fire-arms, as the dogs rarely bark if a bear is not at
hand. I was furprifed to find that they are fed only
with bread and milk. The head ftiepherd is paid 120
livres a-year wages and bread •, the others 80 livres and
bread. But they are allowed to keep goats, of which
they have many which they milk every day. 1 heir food
is milk and bread, except the flefli of fuch flieep or
lambs as accidents give them. The head ftiepherd
keeps on the mountain top, or an elevated fpot, from
whence he can the better fee around while the flock
4
traverfes the declivities. In doing this the iiicep are ex- Sheep.
p<>f.Jd to great danger in places that' are finny \ for by ' "',J
walking among the rocks, and efpecially the goats,
they move the ilones, which, rolling down the hills,
acquire an accelerated force enough to knock a man
down, and flieep are often killed by them \ yet we faw
how alert they were to avoid fuch ftones, and cautioul-
ly on their guard againft them. I examined the ftieep
attentively. They are in general polled, but fome have
horns 5 which in the rams turn backwards behind the
ears and projefl half a circle forward j the ewes horns
turn alfo behind the ears, but do not project ; the legs
white or reddifti 5 fpeekled faces, fome white, fome
reddiPn ; they would weigh fat, I reckon, on an average,
from 15 lb. to 18 lb. a quarter. Some tails ftiort, fome
left long. A few black ftieep among them : fome with
a very little tuft of wool on their foreheads. On the
whole they refembie tbofe on the South Downs ; their
legs are as fliort as thofe of that breed ; a point which
merits obfervation, as they travel fo much and fo well.
Their ftiape is very good 5 round ribs and flat ftraight
backs ; and would with us be reckoned handfome flieep ;
all in good order and flefli. In order to be Hill better
acquainted with them, I defired one of the fliepherds to
catch a ram for me to feel, and examine the wool, which
I found very thick and good of the carding fort, as may
be fuppofed. I took a fpecimen of it, and alfo of a
hoggit, or lamb, of laft year. In regard to the mellow
foftnefs under the {kin, which, in Mr Bakevvell’s opi¬
nion, is a flrong indication of a good breed, with a dif-
pofition to fatten, he had it in a much fuperior degree
to many of our Englifh breeds, to the full as much fo
as the Soutli Downs, which are for that point the beft
fliort-woolled flieep which I know in England. The
fleece w as on his back, and weighed, as I gueffed, about
8 lb. Englifli; but the average, they fay, of the flock
is from four to five, as I calculated by reducing the Ca¬
talonian pound of 12 oz. to ours of 16, and is all fold
to the French at 30s. the lb. French. This ram had
the wool of theft-*ck part of his neck tied clofe, and the
upper tuft-tied a feeond knot by way of ornament; nor
do they ever (hear this part of the fleece for that reafon :
we faw feveral in the flock with this fpecies of decora¬
tion. They faid that this ram would fell in Catalonia
for 20 livres. A circumflance which cannot be too .
much commended, and deferves univerfal imitation, is
the extreme docility they accuftom them to. When I
deflred the fliepherd to catch one of his rams, I fuppofed
he would do it with his crook, or probably not be able
to do it at all •, but he walked into the flock, and Angl¬
ing out a ram and a goat, bid them follow him, which
they did immediately ; and he talked to them while
they were obeying him, holding out his hand as if to
give them fomething. By this method he brought me
the ram, which I caught, and held without difficulty.”
The beft fort of flieep for fine wool are thofe bred Wha/flieep
in Herefordfliire, Devonfliire, and Worcefterfhire 5 but produce the
they are fmall, and black-faced, and bear but a fmall bed wool,
quantity. Warwick, Leicefterfliire, Buckingham, and
Northamptonfhire, breed a large-boned flieep, of the
beft lliape and deepeft -wool we have. The marfties
of Lincolnfliire breed a very large kind of fheep, but
their wool is not good, unlefs the breed be mended by
bringing in fheep of other counties among them, which
is a fcheme of late very profitably followed there. In
this
SHE [ 224 ] SHE
■Sheep, tins county, It is no uncommon thing to give fifty gui-
neas for a ram, and a guinea for the admiflion of an
ewe to one of thefe valuable males, or twenty guineas
for the ufe of it for a certain number of ewes during
one feafon. Suffolk alfo breeds a very valuable kind of
flieep. The northern counties in general breed (heep
with long but hairy wool: however, the wool which is
taken from the neck and fhoulders of theYorkfliire flieep
is ufed for mixing with Spanifh wool in fume of their
fined cloths. v
Wales produces a fmall hardy kind of ftieep, which has
the belt tailed flefli, but the word wool of all. Never-
thelefs it is of more extenfive ufe than the fined Sego-
vian fleeces 5 for the benefit of the flannel manufafture
is univerfally known. The flieep of Ireland vary like
thofe of Great Britain 5 thofe of the fouth and ead be¬
ing large and their flefli rank : thofe of the north and
the mountainous parts fmall and their flefli fweet. The
fleeces in the fame manner differ in degrees of value.
Scotland breeds a fmall kind, and their fleeces are coarfe.
But the new Leiceflerfliire breed is the mod falhion-
able, and of courfe the mod profitable breed in the
ifland. Jofeph Altom of Clifton, who raifed himfelf
from a plough-boy, w'as the fird who didinguilhed him¬
felf in the midland counties of England for a fuperior
breed of ffieep. How he improved his breed is not
known ; but it was cudomary for eminent farmers in his
time to go to Clifton in dimmer to choofe and purchafe
ram-lambs, for which they paid two or three guineas.
This man wras fucceeded by Mr Bakewrell 5 and it may
reafonably be fuppofed that the breed, by means of Al-
tom’s dock, had paffed the fird dage of improvement
before Mr Bakewell’s time. Still, however, it mud be
acknowledged, that the Leicederfliire breed of theep
owes its prefent high date of improvement to the ability
6 and care of Mr Bakewell.
.Account of “ The manner in which Mr Bakewell raifed his flieep
Mr Bake- to t]ie ^egree of celebrity in which they defervedly fland,
brood notwithdanding the reeentnefs of the improvement,
Marjkairs and its,being done in the day of thousands now living,
"Midland a thing in difpute; even among men high in the pro-
Counties, feflion, and living in the very didrift in which the im-
vol‘ 1- provement has been carried on !
p‘ 3 “ Some are of opinion that he effefted it by a crofs
How it is with the Wiltftiire breed •, an improbable idea, as their
fuppofed he form altogether contradifts it : others, that the Ryeland
improved preec[ were ufed for this purpofe 5 and with fome fliow
of probability. If any crofs whatever w^as ufed the Rye-
land breed, whether we view the form, the fize, the
wool, the flefli, or the fatting quality, is the mod pro¬
bable indrument of improvement.
“ Thefe ideas, however, are regiflered merely as mat¬
ters of opinion. It is more than probable that Mr
Bakewell alone is in poffeflion of the feveral minutiae of
improvement * and the public can only hope that at a
proper time the fa<ds may be communicated for the di-
reflion of future improvers.
“ Whenever this fliall take place, it will mod probably
come out that no crofs with any alien breed whatever
has been ufed $ but that the improvement has been ef-
fefled by felecling individuals from kindred breeds^ Sheej
from the feveral breeds or varieties of long-w oolled flieep,v-a
with which Mr Bakewell was furrounded on almoff
every fide, and by breeding, inandin (c), with this fe-
leftion : folicitoufly feizing the fuperior accidental va¬
rieties produced ; affociating thefe varieties $ and dill
continuing to feleft, with judgment, the fuperior indi¬
viduals. _ , g
“ It now remains to give a defeription of the fuperior Defcripl*
clafs of individuals of this breed, efpecially ewes and onus ej*
wedders, in full condition, but not immoderately fat. ^w,':
The rams will require to be didinguiihed afterwards. ' I
“ The head is long, fmall, and hornlefs, with ears
fomewhat long, and danding backward, and with the
nofe {hooting forward. The neck thin, and clean to¬
ward the head j but taking a conical form ; danding
low, and enlarging every way at the bafe $ the fore-end
altogether fliort. The bofom broad, with the (boulders,
ribs, and chine extraordinary full. The loin broad, and
the back level. The haunches comparatively full to¬
ward the hips, but light downward 5 being altogether
fmall in proportion to the fore-parts. The legs, at pre¬
fent, of a moderate length •, with the bone extremely
fine. The bone throughout remarkably light. The
carcafe, when fully fat, takes a remarkable form; much
wider than it is deep, and aimed as broad as it is long.
Full on the (houlder, wided on the ribs, narrowing with
a regular curve towards the tail j approaching the form
of the turtle nearer perhaps than any other animal. The
pelt is thin, and the tail fmall. The wool is ftrorter
than long wools in general, but much longer than the
middle wools •, the ordinary length of daple five to feven
inches, varying much in finenefs and weight.” ^
This breed furpaffes every other in beauty of form ; Fatten ■
they are full and weighty in the fore quarters j and aremarkal
remarkable for fmallnefs of bone. Mr Marfhall, who well. ■
has been of fo much benefit to agriculture and his coun¬
try bv his publications, informs us, in his Rural Economy
of the Midland Counties, that he has feen a rib of a
flieep of this breed contraded with one of a Norfolk
flieep : the difparity was flriking; the latter nearly
twice the fize ; while the meat which covered the for¬
mer was three times the thieknefs; confequently the
proportion of meat to bone was in the one incompara- I
bly greater than in the other. Therefore, in this point
of viewq the improved breed has a decided preference :
for furely while mankind continue to eat flefli and throw
away bone, the former mud be, to the confumer at lead,
the more valuable.
The criterions of good and bad flefli while the ani¬
mal is alive differ in different fpecies, and are not pro¬
perly fettled in the fame fpeeies. One fuperior breeder
is of opinion, that if the flefli is not loofe, it is of courfe
good j holding, that the flefti of flieep is neyer found
in a date of hardnefs, like that of ill-fleffied cattle :
while others make a fourfold didinftion of the flefli of
flieep j asloofenefs, mellownefs, firmntfs, hardnefs : con-
fidering the fird and the lad equally exceptionable, and
the fecond and third equally definable j a happy mixture
of the twTo being deemed the point of perfection.
.(c) Inandin is a term ufed in the midland counties of England to exprefs breeding from the fame famih
Eruj* by W&DLii
Sill 1 \ / V.- / 7 7.. f :f ;
J'L. i ti: rccci.xw n.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 8.
SHIP.
K ■ MiicheZl Sadf) ?
s’j/rr s//'r/// •/ //y
Sir if fi of rrs
PLATE CCCCLXnsm.
E.Milc/is/l /r';///■
SHE [22
Sheep. The flefh of (beep, when flaughtered, is well known
'T’”"’' to be of various qualities. Some is compofed of large
coarfe grains, interfperfed with wide empty pores like a
fponge : others, of large grains, with wide pores filled
with fat; others, of fine clofe grains, with fmaller pores
filled with fat: and a fourth, of clofe grains, without
any intermixture of fatnefs.
The fleih of (keep, wrhen drefled, is equally well
known to poffefs a variety of qualities : fome mutton is
coarfe, dry, and infipid 5 a dry fponge, affording little
or no gravy of any colour. Another fort is fomewhat
firmer, imparting a light-coloured gravy only. A third
plump, Ihort, and palatable ; affording a mixture of
white and red gravy. A fourth likewife plump and
well-flavoured, but difcharging red gravy, and this in
various quantities.
It is likewife obfervable, that fome mutton, when
dreffed, appears covered with a thick, tough, parch¬
ment-like integument; others with a membrane compa¬
ratively fine and flexible. But thefe, and fome of the
other qualities of mutton,’ may not be wholly owing to
breed, but in part to the age and the ftatl of fatnefs at
the time of daughter. Examined in this light, whe¬
ther we confider the degree of fatnefs, or their natural
propenfity to a ftate of fatnefs, even at an early age,
the improved breed of Leicefterlhire flreep appears with
many fuperior advantages.
The degree of fatnefs to which the individuals of this
breed are capable of being raifed, will perhaps appear
. incredible to thofe who have not had an opportunity of
Midland being convinced by their own obfervation. “ 1 have
Counties, feen tedders (fays.Mr Marfhall) of only two (hear (two
p01' \ or three years old) fo loaded with fat as to be fcarcely
' able to make a run ; and whofe fat lay fo much with¬
out the bone, it feemed ready to be fliaken from the ribs
on the fmalleft agitation.
“ It is common for the flieep of this breed to have
fuch a projeftion of fat upon the ribs, immediately be¬
hind the (houlder, that it may be eafily gathered up in
the hand, as the flank of a fat bullock. Hence it has
gained, in technical language, the name of the fore-
Jlank; a point which a modern breeder never fails to
touch in judging of the quality of this breed of theep.
“ What is, perhaps, ftill more extraordinary, it is not
rare for the rams, at leaft of this breed, to be ‘ cracked
on the back that is, to be cloven along the top of the
chine, in the manner fat fheep generally are upon the
rump. This mark is confidered as an evidence of the
beft blood.
“ Extraordinary, however, as are thefe appearances
while the animals are living, the fafts are ftill more ftri-
king after they are flaughtered. At Litchfield, in Fe¬
bruary 1785, I faw a fore quarter of mutton, fatted by
Mr Princep of Croxall, and which meafured upon the
ribs four inches of fat. It muff be acknowledged, how¬
ever, that the Leicefterthire breed do not produce fo
much wool as moil other long-woolled fheep.”
As the practice of letting rams by the feafon is now
beconie profitable, it may be ufeful to mention the me¬
thod of rearing them.
“ The principal ram-breeders fave annually twenty,
thirty, or perhaps forty ram lambs; caftration being
feldom applied, in the firft inflance, to the produce of a
valuable ram, for in the choice of thefe lambs they are
led more by blood or parentage, than by form j on
Vol. XIX. Part I,
i°
How the
rams are
reared.
5 ] SHE
which, at an early age, little dependence can be placed. Sheep.
Their treatment from the time they are weaned, in July '
or Auguft, until the time of ihearing, the firfl week in
June, coniiits in giving them every indulgence of keep,
in order to pufli them forward for the fhow ; it being
the common practice to let fuch as are fit to be let the
firfl: feafon, while they are yet yearlings—provincially
‘ fharhogs.’
“ Their firfl: pafture, after weaning, is pretty gene¬
rally, I believe, clover that has been mown early, and
has got a fecond time into head j the he ads of clover
being confidered as a moft forcing food ot fheep. After
this goes off, turnips, cabbages, colewort, with hay, and
(report fays) with corn. But the ufe of this the
breeders feverally deny, though colleftively they may be
liable to the charge.
“ Be this as it may, fomething confiderable depends
on the art of making up, not lambs only, but rams of all
ages. Fat, like charity, covers a multitude of faults j
and befides, is the beft evidence of their fatting quality
which their owners can produce (/. e. their natural pro-
penfity to a ftate of fatnefs), while in the fatnefs of the
fliarhogs is feen their degree of inclination to fat at an
early age.
“ Fatting quality being the one thing needful in gra¬
zing flock, and being found, in fome confiderable de¬
gree at leaft, to be hereditary, the fatteft rams are of
courfe the beft *, though other attachments, well or ill
placed, as to form or fafliionable points, will perhaps
have equal or greater weight in the minds of fome men,
even in this enlightened age. Such (headings as will
not make up fufficiently as to form and fatnefs, are* either
kept on to another year to give them a fair chance, or
are caftrated, or butchered while ftiarhogs.” Tr
From the firft letting, about 40 years ago, to the What fums
year 1780, the prices kept gradually rifing from fifteen. Mr Bake-
fhillings to a guinea, and from one to ten. In 178°^^^^
Mr Bakewell let feveral at ten guineas each y and, what jettjng
is rather inexplicable, Mr Parkinfon of £)uarndon let them,
one the fame year for twenty-five guineas j a price which
then aftonifhed the whole country.
From that time to 1786 Mr Bakewell’s flock rofe
rapidly from ten to a hundred guineas j and that year
he let two thirds of one ram (referving one third of the
ufual number of ewes to himfelf) to two principal
breeders, for a hundred guineas each, the entire fervices
of the ram being rated at three hundred guineas ! Mr
Bakewell making that year, by letting twenty rams on¬
ly, more than a thoufand pounds !
Since that time the prices have been ftill rifing. Four
hundred guineas have been repeatedly given. Mr Bake¬
well, this year (1789) makes, fays Mr Marfhall, twelve
hundred guineas by three rams (brothers, we believe) ;
two thoufand of feven ; and, of his whole letting, full
three thoufand guineas !
Befide this extraordinary fum made by Mr Bakewell,
there are fix or feven other breeders who make from
five hundred to a thoufand guineas each. The whole
amount of moneys produced that year in the midland
counties, by letting rams of the modern breed for one
feafon only, is eftimated, by thofe who are adequate to
the fubjedl, at the almoft incredible fum of ten thoufand
previous to the feafon are reduced from the
cumbrous fat ftate in which they are ftiown. The ufual
F f time
pounds.
Rami
\
Sheep.
The treat¬
ment of
the rams
and choice
of the
*3.
Inftrucftions
for purcha-
fing iheep.
SHE [
time of fending them out is the middle of September.
They are conveyed in carriages of two wheels with
fprings, or hung in flings, 20 or 30 miles a-day, fome-
times to the diltanee of 200 or 300 miles. They are
not turned loofe among the ewes, but kept apart in a
fmall inclofure, where a couple of ewes only are admit¬
ted at once. When the feafon is over, every care is
taken to make the rams look as fat and handfome as
poflible.
In the choice of ewes the breeder is led by the fame
criterions as in the choice of rams. Breed is the fir ft
object of confideration. Excellency, in any fpecies or
variety of live-ftock, cannot be attained with any degree
of certainty, let the male be ever fo excellent, unlefs
the females employed likewife inherit a large proportion
of the genuine blood, be the fpecies or variety what it
may. Hence no prudent man ventures to give the
higher prices for the Difhley rams, unlefs his ewes are
deeplv tindfured with the Diftdey blood. Next to breed
is fiefh, fat, form, and wool.
After the lambs are weaned, the ewes are kept in
common feeding places, without any alteration of paf-
ture, previous to their taking the ram. In winter they
are kept on grafs, hay, turnips, and cabbages. As the
heads of the modern breed are much finer than moft
others, the ewes lamb with lefs difficulty.
The female lambs, on being weaned, are. put to good
keep, but have not fuch high indulgence fhown them as
the males, the prevailing practice being to keep them
from the ram the firft autumn.
At weaning time, or previoufly to the admiffinn of
the ram, the ewes' are culled, to make room for the
thaves 6r ffiearlings, whofe fuperior blood and fafhion
intitle them to a place in the breeding flock. In the
work of culling, the ram breeder and the mere grazier
go by fomewhat different guides. The grazier’s guide
is principally age, feldom giving his ewes the rarh after
they are four {hear. The ram-breeder, on the con¬
trary, goes chiefly by merit •, an ewe that has brought
him a good ram or two is continued in the flock fo
long as ftie will breed. There are inftancesof ewes ha¬
ving been prolific to the tenth or twelfth year •, but in
general the ewes of this breed go off at fix or feven
{hear.
In the praHice of fome of the principal ram-breeders,
the culling ewes are never fuffered to go out of their
hands until after they are flaughtertd, the breeders not
only fatting them, but having them butchered, on their
premifes. There are others, hoAvever, who fell them ;
and fometimes at extraordinary prices. Three, four, and
even fo high as ten guineas each, have been given for
thefe outcafts.
There are in the flocks of fe\^eral breeders ewes that
would fetch at auction twenty guineas each. Mr Bake-
well is in p .ffeflion of ewes which,-if they were now put
up to be fold to the beft bidder, would, it is eftimated,
fetch no lefs than fiftv each, and perhaps, through the
prefent fpirit of contention, much higher prices.
The following inftruefions for purchafing flieep, we
hope, will be acceptable to our country readers.—The
farmer fhould alwavs buv his fheep from a worfe land
than his own, and they fhould be big boned, and have
a long greafy wool, curling clofe and well. Thefe ffieep
always breed the fineft wool, and are alfo the moft ap¬
proved of by the butcher for fale in the market. Tor
Sheep,
226 ] SHE
the choice of fheep to breed, the ram muft be young,
and his fkin of the fame colour with his wool, for the
lambs- will be of the fame colour with his fkin. He
fhould have a large long body ; a broad forehead, round,
and well-rifing ; large eyes j and ftraight and fhort
noftrils. The polled iheep, that is, thofe which have no
horns, are found to be the beft breeders. The ewe
fhould have a broad back •, a,large bending neck; fmall,
but fhort, clean, and nimble legs; and a thick, deep
wool covering her all over.
To know whether they be found or not, the farmer
(hould examine the wool that none of it be wanting,
and fee that the gums be red, the teeth white and even,
and the brifket-fkin red, the wool firm, the breath
fweet, and the feet not hot. Two years old is the beft
time for beginning to breed ; and their firft lambs fhould
not be kept too long, to weaken them by fuekling, but
be fold as foon as conveniently may be. They will
breed advantageoufly till they are feven years old. The
farmers have a method of knowing the age of a flreep,
as a horfe’s is known, by the mouth. When a fheep
is one fhear, as they exprefs it, it has two broad teeth
before ; when it is two fhear, it will have four ; when
three, fix ; and when four, eight. After this their
mouths begin to break.
The difference of land makes a very great difference
in the ffieep. The fat paftures breed ftraight tall ftieep,
and the barren hills and downs breed fquare fhort ones ;
woods and mountains breed tall and {lender flietp ; but
the beft of all are thofe bred upon new-ploughed land
and dry grounds. On the contrary, all wet and moift
lands are bad for flieep, efpecially fuch as are fubjeft to
be overflowed, and to have land and dirt left on them.
The fait marffies are, however, an exception to this
general rule, for their faltnefs makes amends for their
moifture ; fait, by reafon of its dry ing quality, being of
great advantage to flieep.
As to the time of putting the rams to the ewes, the When ram
farmer muft confider at what time of the fpring his grafs
will be fit to maintain them and their lambs, and whe-
ther he has turnips to do it till the grafs comes; forewes-
very often both the ewes and lambs are deflroyed by
the want of food ; or it this does not happen, if the
lambs are only ftinted in their growth by it, it is an
accident that they never recover. 1 he ewe goes 20
weeks with lamb, and according to this it is eafy to
calculate the proper time. The beft time for them to
yean is in April, unlefs the owner has very forward
grafs or turnips, or the fheep are field ftieep. W here-
you have not inclofure.s to keep them in, then it may be
proper they ftiould yean in January, that the lambs may
be ftrong bv May day, and be able to follow the oam
over the fallows and ivater-fmrows ; but then the lambs
that come fo early muft have a great deal of care taken
of them, and fo indeed ftiould all other lambs at their
firft falling, elfe while they are weak the crows and mag¬
pies w’ill pick their eyes out.
When the ffieep are turned into fields of wheat or rye
to feed, it muft not be too rank at firft, for if it be, it
generally throws them into feourings. Ewes that are
big ffiould be kept but bare, for it is very dangerous to-
them to be fat at the time of their bringing forth their
young. They fnay be well fed, indeed, like cows, a
fortnight beforehand, to put them in heart. Mortimer’s
Huffiandry, p. 243.. , ,
SHE
[ 227 J
SHE
Sheep.
*S
Thefirft
way of
feeding
16
The fe-
cond.
The feeding fheep with turnips is one great advantage
to the farmers. When they are made to eat turnips
they icon fatten, but there is fume difficulty in bringing
this about. The old ones always refule them at firft,
and will fometimes fall three or four days, till almoft
famiffied ; but the young lambs fall to at once. The
common way, in fume places, of turning a flock of
fheep at large into a field of turnips, is very dii'adyan-
tageous, for they will thus deftroy as many in a fortnight
as would keep them a whole winter. There are three
other ways of feeding them on this food, all of which
have their feveral advantages.
The firft way is to divide the land by hurdles, and
allow the flieep to come upon fuch a portion only at a
time as they can eat in one day, and fo advance the
(lieep with hurdles farther into the ground daily till all be eaten,
turnips. 'J'his is infinitely better than the former random method ;
‘but they never eat them clean even this way, but leave
the bottoms, and outlides fcooped in the ground : the
people pull up thefe indeed with iron crooks, and lay
them before the ffieep again, but they are commonly fo
fouled with the creature’s dung and urine, and with the
dirt from their feet, that they do not care for them 5
they eat but little of them, and what they do eat does
not nouriffi them like the frefh roots.
The fecond way is by inclofing the ftieep in hurdles,
as in the former ; but in this they pull up all the turnips
which they fuppofe the ftieep can eat in one day, and
daily remove the hurdles over the ground whence they
have pulled up the turnips : by this means there is no
wafte, and lefs expence, for a perfon may in two hours
pull up all thofe turnips; the remaining (hells of which
would have employed three or four labourers a-day to
get up with their crooks out of the ground trodden
hard by the feet of the ffieep •, and the word is, that as
in the method of pulling up firft, the turnips are eaten
up clean, in this way, by the hook, they are wafted,
the ffieep do not eat any great part of them, and when
the ground comes to be tilled afterwards for a crop of
corn, the fragments of the turnips are feen in fuch quan¬
tities on the furface, that half the crop at leaft feems to
have been wafted.
The third manner is to pull up the turnips, and re¬
move them in a cart or waggon to fome other place,
fpreading them on a freffi place every day ; by this me¬
thod the fheep will eat them up clean, both root and
leaves. The great advantage of this methed is, when
there is a piece of land not far off which wants dung more
than that where the turnips grow, which perhaps is alfo
too wet for the fheep in winter, and then the turnips
will, by the too great moifture and dirt of the foil,
fometimes fpoil the fheep, and give them the rot. Yet
fueh ground will often bring forth more and larger
turnips than dry land, and when they are carried off,
and eaten by the flieep on ploughed land, in dry weather,
and on green fward in wet weather, the flieep will luc-
ceed much better j and the moift foil where the turnips
grew not being trodden by the ffieep, will be much
fitter for a crop of corn than if they had been fed with
turnips on it. The expence of hurdles, and the trouble
of moving them, are faved in this cafe, which will coun¬
terbalance at lead: the expence of pulling the turnips
and carrying them to the places where they are to be
eaten. They muft always be carried off for oxen-
The difeafes to which fheep are fubjeff are thefe;,
Sheep.
*7
The third,
which is
the beft.
18
Difeafes of
rot, red-water, foot-rot and hoving, feab, dunt, rickets,
fly-ftruek, flux, and burfting. Ot each of thefe we (hall v ~™'
give the beft defcription in our power, with the moil
approved remedies. 19
The rot, which is a very pernicious difeafe, has of The rot.
late engaged the attention of fcientific farmers. But
neither its nature nor its caufe has yet been fully af-
certained. Some Valuable and judicious obfervations
have, however, been made upon it, which ought to
be circulated, as they may perhaps, in many cafes,
furnifh an antidote for this malignant diilemper, or be
the means of leading others to fome more efficacious
remedy. Some have luppofed the rot owing to the quick
growth of grafs or herbs that grow in wet- places.
Without premifing, that all bounteous Providence has
given to every animal its peculiar tafte, by which it
diitinguifhes the food proper for its prefervation and
fupport, if not vitiated by fortuitous cireumftances, it
feeins verydifficult to difcover on philofophieal principles
why the quick growth of grafs ffiouid render it noxious,
or why any herb fhould at one feafon produce fatal effects,
by the admiffion of pure water only into its component
parts, which at other times is perfe&ly innocent, al¬
though brought to its utmoft ftrength and maturity by
the genial influence of the fun. Befides, the conftant
praftice of moft farmers in the kingdom, who with the
greatefl fecurity feed their meadows in the fpring, when
the grafs fhoots quick and is full of juices, militates
direftly againft this opinion,
Mr Arthur Young afcribes this difeafe to moifture.
In confirmation of this opinion, which has been general¬
ly adopted, wre are informed, in the Bath Society pa¬
pers*, by a correfpondent, that there wTas a paddock ad-* Vol. t.
joining to his park which had for feveral years caufedart* x^vu
the rot in moft of the fheep w hich were put into it.
In 1769 he drained it, and from that time his ffieep
were free from this malady. But there are fadfts which
render it doubtful that moifture is the foie caufe. We
are told, the dry limed land in Derbyffiire will produce
the rot as well as water meadow's and flagnant marfhes j
and that in fome wet grounds ffieep fuftain no injury for
many w’eeks. ,2o
Without attempting to enumerate other hypothefes Its caufe,
which the ingenious have formed on this fubjedl, wre
fhall purfue a different method in order to difeover the
caufe. On differing ffieep that die of this diforder, a
great number of infers called Jlukes (fee Fa sc 101-a)
are found in the liver. That thefe flukes are ibe caufe
of the rot, therefore, is evident) but to explain how
they come into the liver is not fo eafy. It is probable
that they are fwallowed by the flieep along with their
food while in the egg ftate. The eggs depofited in
the tender germ are conveyed with the food into the
ftomaeh and inteftines of the animals, whence they ->re
received into the lafteal veffels, carried off inthechyle*
and pafs into the blood ; nor do they meet with any
obftruftion until they arrive at the capillary veffels of
the liver. Here, as the blood filtrates through the ex¬
treme branches, anfwering to thofe of the vena porta
in the human body, the fecerning veffels are too minute
to admit the impregnated ova, which, adhering to the
membrane, produce thofe animalculae that feed upon
the liver and deftroy the ffieep. They mnch refemble
the flat fiffi called plaice, are fometimes as large as a (li¬
ver two-pence, and are found both in the liver and in
F f 3 the
Sheep.
si
and moft
approved
cures.
SHE [2
the pipe (anfwering to that of the 'bena cava') which
conveys the blood from the liver to the heart.
The common and moft obvious objection to that
opinion is, that this infeft is never found but in the li¬
ver, or in fome parts of the vifcera, of fheep that are
difeafed more or lefs ; and that they muft therefore be
bred there. But this obje&ion will lofe its force, when
we confider that many infefts undergo feveral changes,
and exrft under forms extremely difterent from each
other. Some ©f them may therefore appear and be
well known under one fhape, and not known to be the
fame under a fecond or third. The fluke may be the
laft ftate of fome aquatic animal which we at prefent
very well know under one or other of its previous
forms.
If this be admitted, it is eafy to conceive that Iheep
may, on wet ground efpecially, take multitudes of
thefe ova or eggs in with their food ; and that the fto-
mach and vifcera of the fheep being a proper nidus for
them, they of courfe hatch, and appearing in their fluke
or laft ftate, feed on the liver of the animal, and occa-
fion this diforder.
It is a Angular faft, “ that no ewe ever has the rot
while flie has a lamb by her fide.” The reafon of this
may be, that the impregnated ovum paflfes into the
milk, ai\d never arrives at the liver. The rot is fatal to
(keep, hares, and rabbits,- and fometimes to calves 5 but
never infefts animals of a larger fize.
Miller fays that parfley is a good remedy for the rot
in {beep. Perhaps a ftrong decoftion of this plant, or
the oil extradted from its feeds, might be of fervice.
Salt is alfo a ufeful remedy. It feems to be an ac¬
knowledged fadt, that fait marfhes never produce the
rot. Salt indeed is pernicious to moft infedfs. Com¬
mon fait and water expel worms from the human body j
and fea-weed, if laid in a garden, will drive away infedts j
but if the fait is feparated by fteeping it in the pureft
fpring-water for a few days, it abounds with animalculae
of various fpecies.
Lifle, in his book of hufbandry, informs us of a far¬
mer who cured his whole flock of the rot by giving
each fheep a handful of Spanifh fait for five or fix morn¬
ings fucceflively. The hint was probably taken from
the Spaniards, who frequently give their ftieep fait to
keep them healthy. On fome farms perhaps the ut-
■moft caution cannot always prevent this diforder. In
wet and warm feafons the prudent farmer will remove
his {heep from the lands liable to rot. Thofe who
have it not in their power to do this may give each
Iheep a fpoonful of common fait, with the fame quan¬
tity of flour, in a quarter of a pint of water, once or
twice a-week. At the commencement of the rot the
fame remedy given four or five mornings fucceffively
will in all probability effedt a cure. The addition of
the flour and water, it is fuppofed, not only abates the
pungency of the fait, but difpofes it to mix with the
chyle in a more gentle and efficacious manner.
A farmer of a confiderable lordihip in Bohemia vi-
fiting the hot-wells of Carllhad, related how he prefer-
2
8 ] SHE
ved his flocks of fheep from the mortal diftemper which Sheep,
raged in the wet year 1760, of which fo many periffied. '““"v-
His prefervative was very Ample and very cheap : “ He
fed them every night, when turned under a filed, cover,
or ftables, with hathed fodder llraw ; and, by eating it
greedily, they all efcaped.” 22
“ Red water is a diforder moft prevalent on wet Red wa- I
grounds. I have heard (fays Mr Arthur Young) thatter'
it has fometimes been cured by tapping, as for a drop-
fy. This operation is done on one fide of the belly to¬
wards the flank, juft below the wool.
“ The foot-rot and having, which is very common on Foot-rot,,
low fenny grounds, is cured by keeping the part clean,
and lying at reft in a dry pafture.” ^
The fcab is a cutaneous difeafe owing to an impuri- Scab,
ty of the blood, and is moft prevalent in wet lands or
in rainy feafons. It is cured by tobacco-water, brim-
ftone, and alum, boiled together, and then rubbed over
the ffieep. If only partial, tar and greafe may be fuf-
ficient. But the fimpleft and moft efficacious remedy for
this difeafe was communicated to the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, &.c. by Sir Jofeph Banks.
“ Take one pound of quickfilver^ half a pound of Remedy re,
Venice turpentine, half a pint of oil of turpentine, and commend-
four pounds of hwgs lard (c). Let them be rubbed in by Sir
mortar till the quickfilver is thoroughly incorporated^^
with the other ingredients j for the proper mode of do¬
ing which, it may be proper to take the advice, or even
the afliftance, of fome apothecary or other perfon ufed
to make fuch mixtures.
“ The method of ufing the ointment is this : Begin¬
ning at the head of the ffieep, and proceeding from be¬
tween the ears along the back to the end of the tail,
the wool is to be divided in a furrow till the Ikin can
be touched ; and as the furrow is made, the finger
flightly dipped in the ointment is to be drawn along the
bottom of it, where it will leave a blue ftain on the
Ikin and adjoining wool: from this furrow fimilar ones
muft be drawn down the ffioulders and thighs to the
legs, as far as they are woolly •, and if the animal is
much infefted, two more ffiould be drawn along each
fide parallel to that on the back, and one down each
fide between the fore and hind legs.
“ Immediately after being dreffed, it is ufual to turn
the ffieep among other ftoek, without any fear of the
infeftion being communicated ; and there is fcarcely an
inftance of a ffieep fuffering any injury from the appli¬
cation. In a feAV days the blotches dry up, the itch¬
ing ceafes, and the animal is completely cured : it is ge¬
nerally, however, thought proper not to delay the ope¬
ration beyond Michaelmas.
“ The hippobofca ovina, called in Lincolnfliire Jheep
fagg, an animal well known to all ffiepherds, which lives
among the wool, and is hurtful to the thriving of ffieep,
both by the pain its bite occafions and the blood it
fucks, is deftroyed by this application, and the wool is
not at all injured. Our wool-buyers purchafe the fleeces
on which the ftain of the ointment is vifible, rather in
preference to others, from an opinion that the ufe of
(c) By fome unaccountable miftake the laft: ingredient, the four pounds of hogs lard, is omitted in the receipt
publiffied in the Tranfaftions of the Society $ a circumftance that might be productive of bad effeCts.—The lea-
which contained the receipt has fince been cancelled, and a new one printed.
Shaep.
26
he dunt.
!. 27
ackets.
SHE [229
it having preferved the animal from being vexed either
' with the fcab or faggs, the wool is lefs liable to the de¬
fers of joints or knots ; a fault obferved to proceed
from every fudden Hop in the thriving of the animal,
either from want of food or from difeale.
“ This mode of curing was brought into that part
'of Lincolnfhire where my property is fituated about 12
years ago, by Mr Stephenfon of Mareham, and is now
fo generally received, that the fcab, which ufed to be
the terror of the farmers, and which frequently deter¬
red the more careful of them from taking the advan¬
tage of pailuring their fheep in the fertile and exten-
five commons with which that diftritl abounds, is no
longer regarded with any apprehenlion: by far the molt
of them have their flock anointed in autumn, when
they return from the common, whether they fliow any
fymptoms of fcab or not 5 and having done fo, conclude
them fafe for fome time from either giving or receiving
infe&ion. There are people who employ themfelves
in the bufinefs, and contract to anoint our large ftieep
at five {hillings a fcore, infuring for that price the fuc-
cefs of the operation •, that is, agreeing, in cafe many
of the fheep break out afrefh, to repeat the operation
gratis even fome months afterwards.”
The dunt is a diftemper caufed by a bladder of wa¬
ter gathering in the head. No cure for this has yet
been difcovered.
The rickets is a hereditary difeafe for which no anti¬
dote is kjiown. The firft fymptom is a kind of light-
headed^ms, which makes the affe&ed fheep appear wild- ^ attain their full growth,
er than ufual when the fhepherd or any perfon ap ' ™
28
ly-ftruck,
lux.
29
proaches him. He bounces up fuddenly from his lairfV
and runs to a diftance, as though he were purfued by1#
dogs. In the fecond ftage the principal fymptom is
the fheep’s rubbing himfelf againfl: trees, &c. with fuch
fury as to pull off his wool and tear away his flefh.
“ The diftreffed animal has now a violent itching in his
fkin, the effeft of a highly inflamed blood } but it does
not appear that there is ever any cutaneous eruption or
falutary critical difcharge. In fh»rt, from all circum-
flances, the fever appears now to be at its height.”—
The laft ftage of this difeafe “ feems only to be the pro-
grefs of diffolution, after an unfavourable crifis. The
poor animal, as condemned by Nature, appears ftupid,
walks irregularly (whence probably the name rickets),
generally lies, and eats little : thefe fymptoms increafe
in degree till death, which follows a general confump-
tion, as appears upon diffeflion of the carcafe •, the
juices and even folids having fuffered a general diffolu¬
tion.
In order to difcover the feat and nature of this dif¬
eafe, (heep that die of it ought to be differed. This
is faid to have been done by one gentleman, Mr Beal 5
and he found in the brain or membranes adjoining a
maggot about a quarter of an inch long, and of a
brownifh colour. A few experiments might eafily de¬
termine this fa£l.
T\\q Jh/ Jiruck is cured by clipping the wool off as
far as infefted, and rubbing the parts dry with lime or
WTood-afhes} curriers oil will heal the wounds, and pre¬
vent their being ftruck any more ; or they may be cu¬
red with care, without clipping, with oil of turpentine,
which will kill all the vermin where it goes j but the
former is the fureft way.
The Jiux is another difeafe to which fheep are fub-
X
] SHE
je<ft. The belt remedy is faid to be, to houfe the flieep Sheep.
immediately when this diftemper appears, to keep them ' v
very warm, and feed them on dry hay, giving them fre¬
quent glyfters of w'arm milk and water. '1 he caufe of
that diftemper is either their feeding on wet lands, or
on grafs that is become moffy by the lands having
been fed many years without being ploughed. When
the farmer perceives his flieep-Walks to become moffy,
or to produce bad grafs, he Ihould either plough or ma¬
nure with hot lime, making kilns either very near or
in the ftieep-walks, becaufe the hotter the lime is put
on, the fweeter the grafs comes up, and that early in
the year.
Burjiing, or as it is called in fome places the blajl, at- And hard¬
tacks {beep when driven into frefh grafs or young clo-ing.
ver. They overeat themfelves, foam at the mouth,
fvvell exceedingly, breathe very quick and ftiort, then
jump up, and inftantly fall down dead. In this cafe,
the only chance of faving their life is by {tabbing them
in the maw with an inftrument made for the purpofe.
The inftrument is a hollow tube, with a pointed wea¬
pon pafling through it. A hole is made with the
pointed weapon; which is immediately withdrawn, and
the hole is kept open by inferting the tube till the wind
is difcharged. 31
Sheep are infefted with worms in their nofe called Account of
cejlrus ovis, and produced from the egg of a large two-l^e I,ofe*
winged fly. The frontal finufes above the nofe in {heep which ;n_
and other animals are the places where thefe worms livefeft {heep.
attain their full growth. Thefe finufes are always
' «f a foft white matter, which furnifhes thefe worms
a proper nourilhment, and are fufficiently large
for their habitation ; and when they have here acquired
their deftined growth, in which they are fit to undergo
their changes for the fly-ftate, they leave their old habi¬
tation, and, falling to the earth, bury themfelves there;
and when thefe are hatched into flies, the female, when
{he has been impregnated by the male, knows that the
nofe of a {heep or other animal is the only place for her
to depofit her eggs, in order to their coming to maturi¬
ty. Mr Vallifnieri, to whom the wrorld owes fo many
difcoveries in the infeift clafs, is the firft who has given
any true account of the origin of thefe worms. But
though their true hiftory had been till that time un¬
known, the creatures themfelves were very early difco¬
vered, and many ages fince were efteemed great medi¬
cines in epilepfies.
The fly produced from this worm has all the time of
its life a very lazy difpofition, and does not like to
make any u{e either of its legs or wings. Its head and
corfelet together are about as long as its body, which
is compofed of five rings, ftreaked on the back ; a pale
yellow and brown are there difpofed in irregular fpots ;
the belly is of the fame colours, but they are there more
regularly difpofed, for the brown here makes three lines,
one in the middle, and one on each fide, and all the
intermediate fpaces are yellow. The wings are nearly of
the fame length with the body, and are a little inclined
in their pofition, fo as to lie upon the body : they do
not, however, cover it; but a naked fpace is left be¬
tween them. The ailerons or petty wings which are
found under each of the wings are of a whitifti colour,
and perfeftly cover the balancers, fo that they are not
to be feen without lifting up thefe.
The fly will live two months after it is firft produ¬
ced,
Sheep
I!
Sheers.
Competi¬
tion for
marking
theep.
SHE f 2 30 ] SHE
ced, but mil take no nourHhment of any kind ; and pof-
fibly it may be of the fame nature with the butterflies,
which never take any food during the whole time of
their living in that ftate. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. vol. iv.
p. 552, &c. ' . . .
To find a proper compofition for marking (keep is
a matter of great importance, as great quantities of wool
are every year rendered ufelefs by the pitch and tar
with which they are ufually marked. The requifite
qualities for fuch a compofition are, that it be cheap,
that the colour be flxong and lafting, fo as to bear the
changes of weather, and not to injure the wool. Dr
Te wis recommends for this purpofe melted tallow, with
fo much charcoal in fine powder ftirred into it as is fuf-
ficient to make it of a full black colour, and of a thick
confiftence. This mixture, being applied warm with a
marking iron, on pieces of flannel, quickly fixed or har¬
dened, bore moderate rubbing, refifted the fun and rain,
and yet could be wafhed out freely w ith foap, or ley,
or ftale urine. In order to render it ftill more durable,
and prevent its being rubbed off, with the tallow may
be melted an eighth, fixth, or fourth, of its weight of
tar, which will readily wafli out along with it from the
wool. Lewis’s Com. Phil. Techn. p. 361.
SHEEP-Stea/ing. See Theft.
SHEERING, in the fea-language. When a fliip is
not fleered fteadily, they fay (he flieers, or goes {fleer¬
ing or when, at anchor, (lie goes in and out by means
of the current of the tide, they alfo fay flie {fleers.
SHEERNESS, a fort in Kent, feated on the point
where the river Medway falls into the Thames. It was
built by King Charles II. after the infult of the Dutrfh,
who burnt the men of war at Chathanv The buildings
belonging to it, in which the officers lodge, make a
pretty little neat town j and there is alfo a yard and a
dock, a chapel and a chaplain. Mr Lyons, who failed
with the honourable Captain Phipps in his voyage to¬
wards the Pole, fixed the longitude, of Sheernefs to
O. 48' E. its latitude 510 25'.
SHEERS, a name given to an engine ufed to hoift
or difplace the lower mafts of a fhip. The {fleers em¬
ployed for this purpofe in the royal navy are compofed
of ieveral long mafts, whofe heels reft upon the fide of
the hulk, and having their heads declining outward
from the perpendicular, fo as to hang over the veffel
whofe mafts are to be fixed or difplaced. The tackles,
which extend from the head of the maft to the flieer-
heads, are intended to pull in the latter toward the maft-
head, particularly when they are charged with the
weight of a mail after it is raifed out of any fliip,
which is performed by ftrong tackles depending from
the fheer-heads. The effort of thefe tackles is produced
by two capfterns, fixed on the deck for this purpofe.
In merchant {hips this machine is compofed of two
mafts or props, erected in the fame veffel wherein the
maft is to be planted, or from whence it is to be remo¬
ved. The lovrer ends of thefe props reft on the oppo-
fite fides of the deck, and their upper parts are fafti ned
acrofs, fo as that a tackle which hangs from the in¬
terfusion may be almoft perpendicularly above the
ftation of the maft to which the mechanical powers are
applied. Thefe {fleers are fecured b* flays which ex¬
tend forward and aft to the oppofite extremities of the
veffeL
Sheeps, aboard a fliip, an engine ufed to hoift or Sheen
difplace the lower mafts of a fliip. ||
SHEET-LEAD. See PeumBERY. ^Sheffield)
Sheet, in lea language, a ropt faftened to one or
both the lower corners of a fail, .to extend and retain it
in a particular flation. Vv In n a ftdp fails with a lateral
ivind, the lower corner ot the main and fort fail are faf¬
tened by a tack and a {fleet; the former being to wind¬
ward, and the latter to leeward ■, the tack, however, is
entirely d'ffufed with a ftern wind, whereas the fail is
never fpread without the- afliflance of one or both "of the
{fleets. The fta) -fails and ftudding-fails have only one
tack and one {fleet each : the ftay-fail tacks are always
fallened forward, and the {fleet drawn aft j but the flud-
ding-fail tack draws the under clue of the fail to the ex¬
tremity of the boom, whereas the flieet is employed to
extend the inmoft.
SHEFFIELD, a town in the weft riding of York-
ftiire, about 162 miles from London, is a large, thri¬
ving town on the borders of Derbyfhire, with a popu¬
lation of 31,314 fouls j has a fine ftone bridge over
the Don, and another over the Sheaf, and a church
built in the reign of Henry I. It had a caftle built in
the reign of Henry III. in which, or elfe in the manor-
houfe of the Park, Mary queen of Scots was prifoner
16 or 17 years ; but after the death of Charles I. it wras
Avith feveral others, by order of parliament demolifhed.
In 1673 an hofpital Avas erected here, and endoAved with
200I. a-year. There is a charity-fchool for 30 boys,
and another for 30 girls. This toAvn has been noted fe¬
veral hundred years for cutlers and fmiths manufactures,
•which were encouraged and advanced by the neighbour¬
ing mines of iron, particularly for files, and knives or
Avhittles j for the laft of which efpecially it has been a
ftaple for above 300 years *, and it is reputed to excel
Birmingham in thefe Avares, as much as it is furpaffed
by it in locks, hinges, nails, and polifhed fteel. The firft
mills in England for turning grindftones Avere alfo fet up
here. The houfes look black from the continual fmoke
of the forges. Here are 600 mafter cutlers, incorporated
by the ftyle of the Cutlers ofHal/am/hire (of Avhich this
is reckoned the chief toAvn), Avho employ no lefs than
40,000 perfons in the iron manufactures ; and each of
the mafters gives a particular {tamp to his wares. I here
is a large market on Tuefday for many commodities,
but efpecially for corn, Avhich is bought up here for the
Avhole Aveft riding, Derbyfliire, and Nottinghamftiire,
It has fairs on Tuefday after Trinity-Sunday, and No¬
vember 28. In the new market-place, ereCted by the
duke of Norfolk, the Ihambles are built upon a moft
excellent plan, and ftrongly inclofed. There are feveral
other neAV good buildings, fuch as a large and elegant
oCtagon chapel belonging to the hofpital or almS-
fioufes •, HkeAvife a good affembly-room and theatre. We
muft not omit the large fteam-engine, lately finilhed,
for the purpofe of poliftiing and grinding the various
forts of bardAvare. The parilh being very large, as Avell
as populous, Mary I. incorporated 12 of the chief in¬
habitants, and their fuceeffors for ever, by the ftyle of
the Twr/ve Capita! Btirgeffes of Sheffield, empoAvering
tl em to eleCl and ordain three priefts to aflift the vicar*
Avhi> Avere to be naid out of certain lards and rents which
{he gave out f the croAvn : and fince this fettlement two
more chapels have been built in two hamlets of this ira*
rilh,
SHE [ 231 ] SHE
neffield. rifli, which are ferved by two of the affiftants, while the
third, in his turn, helps the vicar in his parilh-church.
lames I. founded a free grammar-fchool here, and ap¬
pointed 13 fchool'burgefles to manage the revenue, and
appoint the mailer and ufher. A new chapel was built
lately by the contributions of the people of the town
and of the neighbouring nobility and gentry. Water
is conveyed by pipes into Sheffield, whofe inhabitants
pay but a moderate rent for it. In the neighbourhood
there are fome mines of alum. The remains of the Ro¬
man fortification between this town and Rotheram,
which is fix miles lower down the river, are Hill vifible j
and here alfo is the famous trench of five miles long,
by fome called Devil's or Dane's Bank, and by others
Kemp Bank and Temple's Bank. Well Long. 1. 29.
N. Lat. 13. 20.
Sheffield, John, duke of Buckinghamlhire, an emi¬
nent writer of the 17th and 18th century, of great per-
fonal bravery, and an able minilter of Hate, was born
about 1650. He loll his father at nine years of age ;
and his mother marrying Lord Offullton, the care of his
education was left entirely to a governor, who did not
greatly improve him in his Itudies. Finding that he was
deficient in many parts of literature, he refolved to de¬
vote a certain number of hours every day to his Itudies ;
and thereby improved himfelf to the degree of learning
he afterwards attained. Though poffeHed of a good
eltate, he did not abandon himfelf to pleafure and indo¬
lence, but entered a volunteer in the fecond Dutch war }
and accordingly was in that famous naval engagement
where the duke of York commanded as admiral : on
which occafion his lordlhip behaved fo gallantly, that
he was appointed commander of the Royal Catharine.
He afterward made a campaign in the French fervice
under M. de Turenne. As Tangier was in danger of
being taken by the Moors, he offered to head the
forces which were fent to defend it ; and accordingly
was appointed to command them. He wras then earl
of Mulgrave, and one of the lords of the bed-chamber
to King Charles II. The Moors retired on the ap¬
proach of his majelty’s forces ; and the refult of the ex¬
pedition was the blowing up of Tangier. He continu¬
ed in feveral great polls during the ffiort reign of King
James II. till that unfortunate prince was dethroned.
Lord Mulgrave, though he paid his refpedls to King
William before he was advanced to the throne, yet
did not accept of any poll in the government till fome
years after. In the fixth year of William and Mary
he was created marquis of Normanby in the county of
Lincoln. He was one of the moll a£live and zealous
oppofers of the bill which took away Sir John Fen¬
wick’s life ; and exerted the utmoll vigour in carrying
through the Treafon Bill, and the bill for Triennial Par¬
liaments. He enjoyed fome confiderable polls under
King William, and enjoyed much of his favour and
confidence. In 1702 he was fworn lord privy-feal ; and
in the fame year wras appointed one of the commiffioners
to treat of an union between England and Scotland. In
1703 he -was created duke of Normanby, and foon after
duke of Buckinghamffiire. In 1711 he was made He ward
of her majelly’s houfehold, and prefident of the council.
During Queen Anne’s reign he w'as but once out of
employment; and then he voluntarily refigned, being
attached to what were called the Tory principles. Her
2
majelty offered to make him lord chancellor •, but he de- Sheffield
dined the office. He was inllrumental in the change of
the minifiry in 1710. A circumllance that refle&s the 1 " ^ ~
highell honour on him is, the vigour with which he adl-
ed in favour of the unhappy Catalans, who afterward
were fo inhumanly facrificed. He was furvived by only
one legitimate fon (who died at Rome in 1735) } but
left feveral natural children. He died in 1721. He was
admired by the poets of his age j by Dryden, Prior,
and Garth. His Effay on Poetry was applauded by
Addifon, and his Rehearfal is Hill read with pleafure.
His writings were fplendidly printed in 1723, in twro
volumes qto j and have fince been reprinted in 1729,
in two volumes 8vo. The firll contains his poems on.
various fubje&s 5 the fecond, his profe w'orks •, which
confilt of hiftorical memoirs, fpeeches in parliament,
characters, dialogues, critical obfervations, effays, and
letters. It may be proper to obferve, that the edition
of 1729 is callrated ; fome particulars relating to the
revolution in that of 1723 having given offence.
SHEFFIELDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of pentandria, and to the order of monogynia. The
corolla is bell-lhaped ; the filaments are ten \ of which
every fecond is barren. The capfule confifis of one cell,
which has four valves. There is only one fpecies, the
repens, a native of New Zealand.
SHEIBON, a diltriCt in Africa, lying on the fouth-
eall of the kingdom of Dar-Fur, where much gold is
found both in dull and in fmall pieces. The idolatrous
natives and favages colled the dull in quills of the
ollrich and vulture, and in that condition dilpofe of it
to the merchants. On difeovering a large piece of gold,
they kill a Iheep on it before it is removed. Their
marriage is a fimple agreement to cohabit. The Haves
brought in great numbers from this quarter, are partly
prifoners of war among themfelves, and partly feduced
by treachery, and fold. In times of fcarcity, it is faid,
a father has been known to fell his children.
There are fome Mahometans at Sheibon, who wear
clothing, and live among the idolaters 3 but it is not
faid whether they are Arabs or not.
SHEIK, in the oriental eulloms, the perfon who has
the care of the mofques in Egypt 3 his duty is the fame
as that of the imams at Conllantinople. There are
more or fewer of thefe to every mofque, according to its
fize or revenue. One of thefe is head over the reft,
and anfwers to a parilh-prieft with us; and has under
him, in large mofques, the readers, and people who
cry out to go to prayers 3 but in fmall mofques the Iheik
is obliged to do all this himfelf. In fuel) it is their bu-
finefs to open the mofque, to cry to prayers, and to be¬
gin their ihort devotions at the head of the congrega¬
tion, who Hand rank and file in great order, and make
all their motions together. Every Friday the flieik
makes an harangue to his congregation.
SHEIK-Bel/et, the name of an officer in the Oriental
nations. In Egypt the ftieik-bellet is the head of a
city, and is appointed by the pacha. The bufinefs of
this officer is to take care that no innovations be made
wffiich may be prejudicial to the Porte, and that they
fend no orders which may hurt the liberties of the
people. But all his authority depends on his credit and
intereft, not his office : for the government of Egypt is
of fuch a kind, that often the people of the lead: power
Sheik
II
Shenan.
SHE - [232
by tbeir pofts have the greateft influence : and a caia of
the janizaries or Arabs, and fometimes one of their
meaneft officers, an oda-bafha, finds means, by his parts
and abilities, to govern all things.
SHEILDS. See Shields.
SHEKEL, the name of a weight and coin current
among the ancient Jews. Hr Arbuthnot makes the
weight of the fliekel equal to 9 pennyweights 24 grains
Troy weight j and the value equal to 2s. Sterling.
The golden Ihekel was worth ll. 16s. 6d.
SHELDRAKE. See Anas, Ornithology Index.
SHELF, among miners, the fame with what they
otherwife call faJI ground, or faj} country ; being that
part of the internal ftrufture of the earth which they
find lying even and in an orderly manner, and evidently
retaining its primitive form and fituation.
SHELL, in Natural Hi/lory, a hard, and, as it were,
ftony covering, with which certain animals are defend¬
ed, and thence called Jhell fijh. For the claflification
and hiftory, fee Conchology.
Shells, in Gunnery, are hollow iron balls to throw
out of mortars or howitzers, with a fufe-hole of about
an inch diameter, to load them with powder, and to
•receive the fufe. The bottom, or part oppofite to the
fufe, is made thicker than the reft, that the fufe may
fall uppermoft. But in fmall elevations this does not
always happen, nor indeed is it neceffary 5 for, let the
(hell hill as it will, the fufe fets fire to the powder with¬
in, which burfts the (hell, and caufes great devaftation.
The {hells had much better be of an equal thicknefs j
for then they burfl into more pieces.
Meffage SHELLS, are nothing more than howitz-
fhells, in the infideof which a letter or other papers are
put; the fufe hole is flopped up with wood or cork, and
the (hells are fired out of a royal or howitz, either into
a garrifon or camp. It is fuppofed, that the perfon to
whom the letter is fent knows the time, and accordingly
appoints a guard to look out for its arrival.
SHELL-FiJh. Thefe animals are in general ovipa¬
rous, very few inftances having been found of fuch as
are viviparous. Among the oviparous kinds, anato-
mifts have found that fome fpecies are of different fexes,
in the different individuals of the fame fpecies •, but others
are hermaphrodites, every one being in itfelf both male
and female. In both cafes their increafe is very nume¬
rous, and fcarce inferior to that of plants, or of the
moft fruitful of the infeft clafs. The eggs are very
fmall, and are hung together in a fort of duffers by
means of a glutinous humour, which is always placed
about them, and is of the nature of the jelly of frog’s
fpawn. By means of this, they are not only kept to¬
gether in the parcel, but the whole clutter is fattened
to the rocks, {hells, or other folid fubftances } and thus
they are preferved from being driven on ftiore by the
waves, and left where they cannot fucceed.
SHELL-Gold. See Gold.
SHELTIE, a fmall but ftrong kind of horfe, fo
called from Shetland, or Zetland, where they are pro¬
duced.
SHELVES, in fea-language, a general name given
to any dangerous {hallows, fand banks, or rocks, lying
immediately under the furface of the water, fo as to in¬
tercept any fliip in her paffage, and endanger her de-
ttru61ion.
SHENAN. See Dyeing of lEATHEE.
] SHE
SHENSTONE, William, an admired Engliffi Shenftowj
poet, the eldeft fon of a plain country gentleman, who '““Y'-*
farmed his own eftate in Shropftiire, was born in No¬
vember 1714. He learned to read of an old dame,
whom his poem of the “ School-miftrefs” has deliver¬
ed to potterity ; and foon received fuch delight from
books, that he was always calling for new entertain¬
ment, and expected that, when any of the family went
to market, a new book ftiould be brought him, which,
when it came, was in fondnefs carried to bed, and laid
by him. It is faid, that when his requeft had been ne-
gledted, his mother wrapped up a piece o£ wood of the
fame form, and pacified him for the night. As he
grew older, he went for a while to the grammar-fchool
in Hales Owen, and was placed afterwards with Mr
Crumpton, an eminent fchoolmafter at Solihul,, where
he dittinguiftied himfelf by the quicknefs of his progrefs.
When he was young (June 1724,) he was deprived of his
father j and foon after (Auguft 1726) of his grandfa¬
ther ; and was, with his brother, who died afterwards
unmarried, left to the care of his grandmother, who
managed the eftate. From fchool he was fent, in 1732,
to Pembroke college in Oxford, a fociety which for half
a century has been eminent for Englilh poetry and ele¬
gant literature. Here it appears that he found delight
and advantage 5 for he continued his name there ten
years, though he took no degree. After the firft four
years he put on the civilian’s gown, but without fhow-
ing any intention to engage in the profeffion. About
the time when he went to Oxford, the death of his
grandmother devolved his affairs to the care of the
reverend IVEr Dolman, of Brome, in Staffordfhire,
whofe attention he always mentioned with gratitude.
—At Oxford he applied to Englilh poetry j and
in 1737, publiftied a fmall Mifcellany, without his
name. He then for a time wandered about, to ac¬
quaint himfelf with life, and was fometimes. at Lon¬
don, fometimes at Bath, or any place of public refortj
but he did not forget his poetry. He publilhed, in
1740, his “ Judgment of Hercules,” addreffed to Mr
Lyttleton, whofe intereft hefupported with great warmth
at an ele&ion j this was two years afterwards followed
by the “ School-miftrefs.” Mr Dolman, to whofe care
he was indebted for his eafe and leifure, died in 1745,
and the care of his fortune now fell upon himfelf. He
tried to efcape it a while, and lived at his houfe with his
tenants, who were diftantly related; 'but, finding that
imperfedt poffeflion inconvenient, he took the whole
eftate into his owrn hands, an event which rather im¬
proved its beauty than increafed its produce. Now be¬
gan his delight in rural pleafures, and his paflion of ru¬
ral elegance ; but in time his expences occafioned cla¬
mours that overpowered the lambs bleat and the lin¬
net’s fong, and his groves were haunted by beings very
different from fauns and fairies. He fpent his eftate in.
adorning it, and his death was probably haftened by his
anxieties. He was a lamp that fpent its oil in blazing.
It is faid, that if he had lived a little longer, he would
have been aflifted by a penfion; fuch bounty could not
have been more properly beftowed, but that it was ever
alked is not certain } it is too certain that it never was
enjoyed.—He died at the Leafowes, of a putrid fever,
about five on Friday morning, February 11. 1763; an<^
was buried by the fide of his brother, in the churchyard
of Hales-0wen.
In
SHE [ 233 ] SHE
:henftoBC In his private opinions, our autlior adhered to no
II particular left, and hated all religious difputes. Ten-
hendan. dernefs, in every fenfe of the word, was his peculiar
charafteriftic; and his friends, domeftics, and poor
neighbours, daily experienced the effefts of his benevo¬
lence. This virtue he carried to an excefs that feemed
to border upon weaknefs; yet if any of his friends
treated him ungenerouily, he was not eafily reconciled.
On fueh occalions, however, he ufed to fay, “ I never
will be a revengeful enemy •, but I cannot, it is not in
my nature, to be half a friend.” He was no economift;
for the generofity of his temper prevented his paying a
proper regard to the ufe of money : he exceeded there¬
fore the bounds of his paternal fortune. But, if we
conlider the perfeft paradife into which he had con¬
verted his eftate, the hofpitality with which he lived,
his charities to the indigent , and all out of an eftate that
did not exceed 300I. a-year, one ftiould rather wonder
that he left any thing behind him, than blame his want
of economy : he yet left more than fufficient to pay all
his debts, and by his will appropriated his whole eftate
to that purpofe. Though he had a high opinion of
many of the. fair fex, he forbore to marry. A pafllon
he entertained in his youth was with difficulty furmount-
ed. The lady was the fubjeft of that admirable pafto-
ral, in four parts, which has been fo univerfally read
and admired, and which, one would have thought,
muft have foftened the proudeft and moft obdurate
heart. His works have been publiffied by Mr Dodfley,
in 3 vols 8vo. The firft volume contains his poetical
works, which are particularly diflinguiffied by an ami¬
able elegance and beautiful ftmplicity •, the fccond vo¬
lume contains his profe works ; the third his letters, &c.
fi/or. DiR.
SHEPPEY, an ifland at the mouth of the river
Medway, about 20 miles in circumference. It is fepa-
rated from the main land by a narrow channel; and has
a fertile foil, which feeds great flocks of ffieep. The
borough-town of Queenborough is feated thereon $ be-
lides which it has feveral villages.
SHERARDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria clafs, and in the natural method rankingun-
der the 47th order, Stellate. See Botany Index.
SHERBET, or Sherbit, a compound drink, firft
brought into England from Turkey and Perfia, confift-
ing of water, lemon-juice, and fugar, in which are dif-
folved perfumed cakes made of excellent Damafcus fruit,
containing an infufion of fome drops of rofe water.
Another kind of it is made of violets, honey, juice of
raifins, &c.
SHERIDAN, Thoma-s, D. D. the intimate friend
of Dean Swift, is faid by Shield, in Cibber’s “ Lives of
the Poets,” to have been born about 1684, in the
county of Cavan, where, according to the fame autho¬
rity, his parents lived in no very elevated ftate. They
are deferibed as being unable to afford their fon the ad¬
vantages of a liberal education ; but he, being obferved
to give early indications of genius, attrafted the notice
of a friend to his family, who fent him to the college of
Dublin, and contributed towards his fupport while he
remained there. He afterwards entered into orders, and
fet up a fehool in Dublin, which long maintained a
very high degree of reputation, as well for the attention
bellowed on the morals of the fcholars as for their pro¬
ficiency in literature. So great was the eftimation in
VOL. XIX. Part I.
which this feminary was held, that it is afferled to
have produced in fome years the fum of loool. It
does not appear that he had any confiderable prefer¬
ment j but his intimacy with Swift, in 1725, procured
for him a living in the fouth of Ireland worth about
150I. a-year, which he went to take poffeffion of,
and, by an aft of inadvertence, deftroyed all his future
expeftations of riling in the church ; for being at Corke
on the 1 ft of Auguft, the anniverlary of King George’s
birth-day, he preached a fermon, which had for its
text, “ Sufficient for the day is the evil thereof.”
On this being known, he was ftruck out of the lift
of chaplains to the lord lieuteuant, and forbidden thd
caftle.
This living Dr Sheridan afterwards changed for that
of Dunboyne, which, by the knavery of the farmers,
and power of the gentlemen in the neighbourhood, fell
fo low as Sol. per annum. He gave it up for the free
fehool of Cavan, where he might have lived well in fo
cheap a country on Sol. a-ycar falary, befides his fcho¬
lars j but the air being, as he faid, too moift and un-
wholefome, and being difgufted with fome perfons who
lived there, he fold the fehool for about 400I. j and ha¬
ving foon fpent the money, he fell into bad health, and
died Sept. 10. 1738, in his 55th year.
Lord Corke has given the following charafter of him:
“ Dr Sheridan was a fehool mailer, and in many in-
ftances perfeftly well adapted for that ftation. He was
deeply verfed in the Greek and Roman languages, and
in their cuftoms and antiquities. He had that kind of
good nature which abfence of mind, indolence of bo¬
dy, and careleffnefs of fortune, produce ; and although
not over ftrift in his own conciuft, yet he took care of
the morality of his fcholars, whom he fent to the univer-
ftty remarkably well founded in all kinds of claffica!
learning, and not ill inftrufted in the focial duties of
life. He was flovenly, indigent, and cheerful. He
knew books much better than men ; and he knew the
value of money leaft of all. In this fituation, and with
this difpofltion, Swift faftened upon him as upon a prey
with which he intended to regale himfelf whenever his
appetite ffiould prompt him.” His Lordlhip theft
mentions the event of the unlucky fermon, and adds,
“ Eh is ill-ftarred, good-natured, improvident man, re¬
turned to Dublin, unhinged from all favour at court,
and even baniffied from the caftle. But ftill he remain¬
ed a punfter, a quibbler, a fiddler, and a wit. Not a
day paffed without a rebus, an anagram, or a madrigal.
His pen and his fiddleftick were in continual motion
and yet to little or no purpofe, if we may give credit
to the following verfes, which {hall ferve as the conclu-
fion of his poetical charafter :
“ With mufic and poetry equally blefs’d,
u A bard thus Apollo moft humbly addrefs’d }
“ Great author of poetry, mufic, and light,
“ Inftrufted by thee, I both fiddle and write •,
“ Yet unheeded I ferape, or I fcribble all day,
“ My tunes are neglefted, my verfe flung away.
“ Thy fubftitute here, Vice-Apollo, difdains
“ To vouch for my numbers, or lift to my (trains.
“ Thy manual fign he refufes to put
“ To the airs I produce from the pen or the gut :
“ Be thou then propitious, great Phoebus, and grant
“ Relief, or reward, to my merit or want.
Gg
Sheridan.
“ Tho’
Sheridan,
' Sheriff.
Blackjl.
Comment.
vol. i.
P- 33^-
SHE [
“ Tho’ the Dean and Delany tranfeendfcntly dune,
“ O ! brighten one folo or lonnet of mine :
“ Make one work immortal, ’tis all I requeft.
“ Apollo look’d pleas’d, and refolving to jeft,
“ Replied—Honeft friend, I’ve confider’d your cafe,
“ Nor dillike your unmeaning and innocent face.
“ Your petition I grant, the boon is not great,
“ Your works fhall continue, and here’s the receipt:
“ On rondeaus hereafter your fiddle-firings fpend,
“ Write verfes in circles, they never fhall end.”
“ One of the volumes of Swift’s mifcellanies confifls
aim oft entirely of letters between him and the Dean.
He publifired a profe tranflation of Perfius •, to which
he added the belt notes of former editors, together with
many judicious ones of his own. Lifts work was print¬
ed at London, 1739, in i2mo. Biog. DiB.
Sheridan, Mrs Frances, wife of I homas Sheridan,
M. A. was born in Ireland about dre year 1724, but
defcended from a good Englifh family which had remo¬
ved thither. Her maiden name was Chamberlaine, and
fhe was grand-daughter of Sir Oliver Chamberlaine.
The firft literary performance by which fhe diftinguifh-
ed herfelf was a little pamphlet at the time of a violent
party-difpute relative to the theatre, in which Mr She¬
ridan had newly embarked his fortune. So well-timed
a work exciting the attention of Mr Sheridan, he by
an accident difcovered his fair patronefs, to whom he
was foon afterwards married. She ^vas a perfon of the
moft amiable ehara&er in every relation of life, with the
moft engaging manners. After lingering feme years
in a very weak ftate of health, (he died at Blois, in the
foulh of France, in the year 1767. Her “ Sydney
Biddulph” may be ranked with the firft produ&ions of
that elafs in ours or in any other language. She alfo
wrote a little romance in one volume called Nourjahad,
in which there is a great deal of imagination productive
of an admirable moral. And fire was the authorefs of
two comedies, “ The Difcovery” and “ I he Dupe.
SHERIFF, an officer, in each county in England,
nominated by the king, invefled with a judicial and
minifterial power, and who takes place of every noble¬
man in the county during the time of his office.
The ftreriff is an officer of very great antiquity in
this kingdom, his name being derived from two Saxon
words, fignifying the reeve, bailiff, or officer the
flftre. He is called in Latin vice-come^, as being the
deputy of the earl or comes, to whom the cuftody of
the ffiire is faid to have been committed at the firft di-
vifion of this kingdom into counties. _ But the earls, m
procefs of time, by reafon of their high employments
and attendance on the king’s perfon, not being able to
tranfaft the bufinefs of the county, were delivered of
that burden, referving to themfelves the honour, but
the labour wras laid on the fheriff. So that now the fhe-
riff does all the king’s bufinefs in the county; and though
he be ft ill called vice-comes, yet he is entirely indepen¬
dent of, and not fubjeft to, the earl •, the king, by his
letters patent, committing cujlodiam comitatus to the
Iheriff, and to him alone.
Sheriffs were formerly chofen by the inhabitants of
the feveral counties. In confirmation of which it was
ordained, by ftatute 28 Edw. I. c. 8. that the people
fihould have an eleftion of fheriffs in every ffiire where the
Shrievalty is not of inheritance. For anciently in feme
234 1 she
counties the ffieriffs were hereditary 5 as we apprehend Sheriff,
they w7ere in Scotland till the ftatute 20 Geo. II. c. 43 j v~“
and ft ill continue in the county of Weftmoreland to this
day ; the city of London having alfo the inheritance of
the fhrievalty of Middlefex veiled in their body by char¬
ter. The reafon of thefe popular eledions is affigned
in the fame ftatute, c. 13. “ that the commons might
choofe fuch as would not be a burden to them.” And
herein appears plainly a ftrong trace of the democrati-
cal part of our conftitution ; in which form of govern¬
ment it is an indifpenfable requifite, that the people
fhould choofe their own magiftrates. I his eletlion
Avas in all probability not abfolutely veiled in the com¬
mons, but required the royal approbation. Tor in the
Gothic conftitution, the judges of their county courts
(which office is executed by the fheriff) weie eledled
by the people, but confirmed by the king ; and the
form of their ele&ion was thus managed : the- people,
or incolce territoru, ehofe twelve electors, and they no¬
minated three perfons, ex quibus rex unum confii mabat.
But, with us in England, thefe popular eleibions, grow¬
ing tumultuous, Were put an end to by the ftatute 9
Edw. II. ft. 2. which ena&ed, that the fheriffs fhould
from thenceforth be affigned by the chancellor, trea-
furer, and the judges } as being perfons in whom the
fame truft might with confidence be repofed. By fta-
tutes 14 Edw. III. c. 7. 23 Hen. VI. c. 8. and 21
Hen. VIII. c. 20. the chancellor, treafurer,. prefident
of the king’s council, chief juflices, and chief baron,
are to make this eleflion j and that on the morrow of
All Souls, in the exchequer. And the king s letters
patent, appointing the new fheriffs, ufed commonly to
bear date the fixth day of November. The ftatute of
Cambridge, 12 Ric. II. c. 2. ordains, that the chan¬
cellor, treafurer, keeper of the privy feal, ftevard of the
king’s houfe, the king’s chamberlain, clerk of the rolls,
the juftices of the one bench and the other, baions of
the exchequer, and all other that fhall be called to or¬
dain, name, or make juftices of the peace, fheiifts, aijd
other officers of the king, fhall be fworn to aft indiffe¬
rently, and to name no man that fueth to be put in of¬
fice, but fuch only as they fhall judge to be the beft
and moft fufficient. And the cuftom now is (and has
been at leaft ever fince the time of Fortefcue, who was
chief juftice and chancellor to Henry the Sixth), that ^
all the judges, together with the other great officers,
meet in the exchequer chamber on the morrow of All
Souls yearly, (which day is now altered to the moirow
of St Martin, by the laft aft for abbreviating Michael¬
mas term), and then and there propofe three perfons to
the king, who afterwards appoints one of them to be
fheriff This cuftom of the twelve judges propofing
three perfons feems borrowed from the Gothic confti¬
tution before-mentioned : with this difference, that among
the Goths the x 2 nominors were firft elefted by the peo¬
ple themfelves. And this ufage of ours, at its firft in-
troduaion, there is reafon to believe, was founded up¬
on feme ftatute, though not now to be found among our
printed law's} firft, becaufe it is materially different from
the direftion of all the ftatutes before-mentioned-, which
it is hard to conceive that the judges would have coun¬
tenanced by their concurrence, or that Fortefcue would
have inferted in his book, unlefs by the authority of
fome ftatute j and alfo, becaufe a ftatute is exprefsly
referred to in the rjecord, which Sir Edward Coke
I
P
S H E [ 235 ] SHE
SluH-iff. tells us lie tranfcribed from the council book ot 3d
March, 34 Hen. VI. and which is in fubitance as fol¬
lows. The king had of his own authority appointed
a man Iherift' of Lincolnfhire, which office he refufed
to take upon him •, whereupon the opinions of the judges
were taken, what ffiould be done in this behalf. And
the two chief juftices, Sir John Fortefcue and Sir John
Prifot, delivered the unanimous opinion of them all j
“ that the king did an error when he made a perfon
Iheriff that was not chofen and prefentcd to him accord¬
ing to the ftatute j that the perfon refuting was liable
to no fine for difobedience, as if he had been one of
the three perfons chofen according to the tenor of the
ilatute ; that they would advife the king to have re-
courfe to the three perfons that were chofen according
to the ftatute, or that fome other thrifty man be in-
treated to occupy the office for this year ; and that, the
next year, to efehew fuch inconveniences, the orderof the
ftatute in this behalf made be obferved.” But notwith-
ftanding this unanimous refolution of all the j'udges of
England, thus entered in the council-book, and the fta¬
tute 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. c. 26. § 61. which exprefs-
ly recognizes this to be the law of the land, fome of our
writers have affirmed, that the king, by his prerogative,
may name whom he pleafes to be theriff, whether cho¬
fen by the judges or not. This is grounded on a very
particular cafe in the fifth year rffi Queen Elizabeth,
when, by reafon of the plague, there was no Michael¬
mas term kept at Weftminfter j fo that the judges could
not meet there in crajhno animarum to nominate the fhe-
riffs : whereupon the queen named them herfelf, with¬
out luch previous aftembly, appointing for the moft part
one of two remaining in the laft year’s lift. And this
cafe, thus circumftanced, is the only authority in our
books for the making thefe extraordinary Iheriffs. It
is true, the reporter adds, that it was held that the queen
by her prerogative might make a theriff without the
elecftion of the judges, non objlunte aliquo Jlatuto in contra-
riwn ; but the doftrine of non objlante, which fets the
prerogative above the laws, uras effedlually demolilhed
by the bill of rights at the revolution, and abdicated
Weftminfter-hall when King James abdicated the king¬
dom. However, it muft be acknowledged, that the
pradlice of occafionally naming what are called pocket-
Jberiffs, by the foie authority of the crown, hath uni¬
formly continued to the reign of his prefent majefty ;
in which, it is believed, few (if any) inftances have oc¬
curred.
Sheriffs, by virtue of feveral old ftatutes, are to con¬
tinue in their office no longer than one year ; and yet it
hath been faid that a Iheriff may be appointed durante
bene placito, or during the king’s pleafure j and fo is
the form of the royal writ. Therefore, till a new Ihe¬
riff be named, his office cannot be determined, unlefs
by his own death, or the demife of the king •, in which
laft cafe it was ufual for the fucceffor to fend a new
writ to the old ffieriff; but now, by ftatute 1 Anne ft.
l. c. 8. all officers appointed by the preceding king may
hold their offices for fix months after the king’s demife,
unlefs fooner difplaced by the fucceffor. We may
farther obferve, that by ftatute 1 Ric. II. c. n. no
man that has ferved the office of ffieriff for one year can
be compelled to ferve the fame again within three years
after.
We ffiall find it is of the utmoft importance to have
the ffieriff appointed according to law, when we conli-
der his power and duty. Thefe are either as a judge,
as the keeper of the king’s peace, as a miniftciiai of¬
ficer of the fuperior courts ol juitice, or as the king’s
bailiff.
In his judicial capacity he is to hear and determine
all caufes of 40 ffiillings value and under, in his coun¬
ty court : and he has alfo a judicial power in divers o-
ther civil cafes. He is likewife to decide the election^
of knights of the (hire (fubjedt to the controul ol the
Houle of Commons), of coroners, and of verderors ; to
judge of the qualification of voters, and to return fuch
as he Ihall determine to be duly eleeltd.
As the keepers of the king’s peace, both by com¬
mon law and tpecial commithon, he is the firft man
in the county, and fuperior in rank to any nobleman
therein, during his office. He may apprehend, and
commit to prifon, all perfons who break the peace, or
attempt to break it \ and may bind any one in a re¬
cognizance to keep the king’s peace. He may, and is
bound, ex officio, to purlue and take all traitors, mur¬
derers, felons, and other mifdoers, and commit them to
gaol for fafe cuftody. He is- alfo to defend his coun¬
ty again!! any of the king’s enemies when they come
into the land j and for this purpofe, as well as for
keeping the peace and purfuing felons, he may com¬
mand all the people of his county to attend him 3 which
is called the poffe comitatus, or power of the county 3
which fummons, every perfon, above 15 years old, and
under the degree of a peer, k bound to attend upon
warning, under pain of fine and imprifonment. But
though the ffieriff is thus the principal confervator of
the peace in his county, yet, by the exprefs direftions
of the great charter, he, together with the conftable,
coroner, and certain other officers of the king, are for¬
bidden to hold any pleas of the crown, or, in other
words, to try any criminal offence. For it would be
highly unbecoming, that the executioners' of jullice
Ihould be alfo the judges; Humid impofe, as well as le¬
vy, fines and amercements 3 Ihould one day condemn a
man to death, and perfonally execute him the next.
Neither may he aft as an ordinary juftice of the peace
during the time of his office 3 for this would be equally
inconfiftent, he being in many refpefts the fervant of
the juftices.
In his minifterial capacity, the ftieriff is bound to ex¬
ecute all procefs iffuing from the king’s courts of juf¬
tice. In the commencement of civil caufes, he is to
ferve the writ, to arreft, and to take bail 3 when the
caufe comes to trial, he muft fummon and return the
jury 3 when it is determined, he muft fee the judgment
of the court carried into execution. In criminal mat¬
ters, he alfo arrefts and imprifon's, he returns the jury,
he has the cuftody of the delinquent, and he executes
the fentence of the court, though it extend to death
itfelf.
As the king’s bailiff, it is his bufinefs to preferve the
rights of the king within his bailiwick 3 for fo his coun¬
ty is frequently called in the writs : a word introduced
by the princes of the Norman line 3 in imitation of the
French, whofe territory is divided into bailiwicks, as
that of England into counties. He muft feize to the
king’s ufe all lands devolved to the crown by attainder
or efeheat; muft levy all fines and forfeitures; muft feize
and keep all waifs, wrecks, eftrays, and the like, unlefs
G g 2 they
SHE [ 236 ] SHE
Sheriff, they be granted to Tome fubjeft ; and muft alfo collect
Sherlock. tjie rents lvithin his bailiwick, if commanded by
¥—proce^s £rom tjie exchequer.
To execute thefe various offices, the fheriff has under
him many inferior officers •, an under-ffieriff, bailiffs, and
gaolers, who muft neither buy, fell, nor farm their offices,
on forfeiture of 500I.
The under-ffieriff ufually performs all the duties of
the office j a very few only excepted, where the per-
fonal prefence of the high ftieriff is neceffary. But no
under flieriff ffiall abide in his office above one year j
and if he does, by ftatute 23 Hen. VI. c. 8. he for¬
feits 200I. a very large penalty in thofe early days. And
no under ffieriff or ffieriff’s officer lhall praftife as an at¬
torney during the time he continues in fuch office : for
this would be a great inlet to partiality and oppreffion.
But thefe falutary regulations are ffiamefully evaded, by
pra&ifing in the names of other attorneys, and putting
in ffiam deputies by way of nominal under-ffieriffs : by
reafon of which, fays Dalton, the under ffieriffs and bai¬
liffs do grow fo cunning in their feveral places, that they
are able to deceive, and it may well be feared that many
of them do deceive, both the king, the high ffieriff, and
the county.
Sheriff, in Scotland. See Law, Part iii. fe£l. 3.
SHERLOCK, William, a learned Englifh divine
in the 17th century, was born in 1641, and educated
at Eton fchool, where he diftinguiffied himfelf by the
vigour of his genius and his application to ftudy. 1 hence
he was removed to Cambridge, where he took his de¬
grees. In 1669 he became reftor of the parifli of St
George, Botolph-lane, in London j and in 1681 was col¬
lated to the prebend of Pancras, in the cathedral of St
Paul’s. He was likewife chofen mafter of the Temple,
and had the reftory of Therfield in Hertfordfhire. Af¬
ter the Revolution he was, fufpended from his preferment,
for refufing the oaths to King William and Queen Ma¬
ry ; but at laft he took them, and publicly juftified what
he had done. In 1691 he was inftalled dean of St
Paul’s. His Vindication of the Doftrine of the Trinity
engaged him in a warm controverfy with Dr South and
others. Biffiop Burnet tells us, he was “ a clear, a po¬
lite, and a ftrong writer ; but apt to affume too much
to himfelf, and to treat his adverfaries with contempt.”
He died in 1707. His works are very numerous*, a-
mong thefe are, 1. A Difcourfe concerning the Know¬
ledge of Jefus Chrift, againft Dr Owen. 2. Several
pieces againft the Papifts, the Socinians, and Diffenters.
3. A pra&ieal Treatife on Death, which is much ad¬
mired. 4. A pra&ical Difcourfe on Providence. 5. A
practical Difcourfe on the Future Judgment; and many
other works.
Sherlock, Dr Thomas, bilhop of London, was
the fon of the preceding Dr William Sherlock, and
was born in 1678. He was educated in Catharine hall,
Cambridge, where he took his degrees, and of which
he became mafter ; he was made mafter of the Temple
very young, on the refignation of his father ; and it is
remarkable, that this mafterfhip was held by father and
Ion fucceffively for more than 70 years. He was at
the head of the oppofition againft Dr Hoadley biffiop
of Bangor *, during which conteft he publifhed a great
number of pieces. He attacked the famous Collins’s
^ Grounds and Reafons of the Chriftian Religion,” in
4i
a courfe of fix fermons, preached at the Temple church, Sherlock
which he intitled “ The Ufe and Intent of Prophecy in SherrifFe,
the feveral Ages of the World.” In 1728, Dr Sherlock
was promoted to the biffiopric of Bangor j and Avas
tranflated to Saliffiury in 1734. In 1747 he refufed
the archbiffiopric of Canterbury, on account of his ill
ftate of health j but recovering in a good degree, ac¬
cepted the fee of London the following year. On oc-
cafion of the earthquakes in 1750, he publiftied an ex¬
cellent Paftoral Letter to the clergy and inhabitants
of London and Weftminfter : of which it is faid there
were printed in qto, 3000 ; in 8vo, 20,000 ; and in
l2mo, about 30,000 } befide pirated editions, of which
not lefs than 50,000 were fuppofed to have been fold.
Under the weak ftate of body in which he lay for feveral
years, he revifed and publiffied 4 vols of Sermons in 8vo,
which are particularly admired for their ingenuity and
elegance. He died in 1762, and by report worth
I50,000L “ His learning,” fays Dr Nicholls, “ was
very extenfive : God had given him a great and an un-
derftanding mind, a quick comprehenfion, and a folid
judgment. Thefe advantages of nature he improved by
much induftry and application. His fkill in the civil
and canon law was very confiderable j to which be had
added fuch a knowledge of the common law of England
as few clergymen attain to. This it was that gave him
that influence in all caufes where the church was con¬
cerned *, as knowing preeifely what it had to claim from
its conftitutions and canons, and what from the com¬
mon law of the land.” Dr Nicholls then mentions his
conftant and exemplary piety, his warm and fervent zeal
in preaching the duties and maintaining the doftrinesof
Chriftianity, and his large and diffuflve munificence and
charity *, particularly by his having given large fums of
money to the corporation of clergymen’s fons, to feveral
of the hofpitals, and to the fociety for propagating the
gofpel in foreign parts : alfo his bequeathing to Catha-
rine-hall in Cambridge, the place of his education, his
valuable library of books, and his donations for the
founding a librarian’s place and a fcholarlhip, to the a-
mount of feveral thoufand pounds.
SHERRIFFE of Mecca, the title of the defen¬
dants of Mahomet by Haffan Ibn Ali. Thefe are di¬
vided into feveral branches, of which the family of Ali
Bunemi, confifting at leaft of three hundred individuals,
enjoy the foie right to the throne of Mecca. The Ali
Bunemi are, again, fubdivided into two fubordinate
branches, Darii Sajid, and Darii Barkad j of whonr
fometimes the one, fometimes the other, have given fo-
vereigns to Mecca and Medina, when thefe were fepa-
rate ftates.
Not only is the Turkhh fultan indifferent about the
order of fucceffion in this family, but he feems even to
foment the diffenfions which arife among them, and fa¬
vours the ftrongeft, merely that he may weaken them
all. As the order of fucceffion is not determinately
fixed, and the fherriffes may all afpire alike to the fo-
vereign power, this uncertainty of right, aided by the
intrigues of the Turkiffi officers, occafions frequent re¬
volutions. The grand ffierrifte is feldom able to main¬
tain himfelf on the throne; and it ftill feldomer happens
that his reign is not difturbed by the revolt of his near-
eft relations. There have been inftances of a nephew
fucceeding his uncle, an uncle fucceeding his nephew ;.
SHE
| ;herriffe. and fometiraes of a perfon, from a remote branch, com-
' ing in the room of the reigning prince of the ancient
houfe.
When Niebuhr was in Arabia, in 1763, the reigning
SherrifFe Mefad had fitten fourteen years on the throne,
and, during all that period, had been continually at war
with the neighbouring Arabs, and with his own neareft
relations fometimes. A few years before, the pacha of
Syria had depofed him, and raifed his younger brother
to the fovereign dignity in his ftead. But after the
departure of the caravan, Jafar, the new fherriffe, not
being able to maintain himfelf on the throne, was obli¬
ged to refign the fovereignty again to Mefad. Achmet,
the fecond brother of the fherriffe, who was much belo¬
ved by the Arabs, threatened to attack Mecca while
Niebuhr w'as at Jidda. Our traveller was foon after in¬
formed of the termination of the quarrel, and of Ach-
met’s return to Mecca, where he continued to live peace¬
ably in a private charadler.
Thefe examples fliow that the Muffulrnans obferve
not the law which forbids them to bear arms againft
their holy places. An Egyptian bey even prefumed,
a few years fince, to plant fome fmall cannons within
the compafs of the Kaaba, upon a fmall tower, from
which he fired over that facred manfion, upon the palace
of Sherriffe Mefad, with whom he was at variance.
The dominions of the fherriffe comprehend the cities
of Mecca, Medina, Jambo, Taaif, Sadie, Ghunfude, Ha¬
ll, and thirteen others lefs confiderable, all fituated in
Hedj as. Near Taaif is the lofty mountain of Gazvan,
which according to Arabian authors, is covered with
fnow in the midft of fummer. As thefe dominions are
neither opulent nor extenfive, the revenue of their fo¬
vereign cannot be confiderable.
He finds a rich refource, however, in the impofts le¬
vied on pilgrims, and in the gratuities offered him by
Muffulman monarchs. Every pilgrim pays a tax of from
ten to an hundred crowns, in proportion to his ability.
The Great Mogul remits annually fixty thoufand rou-
pees to the fherriffe, by an affignment upon the govern¬
ment of Surat. Indeed, fince the Englifh made them-
felves mafters of this city, and the territory belonging
to it, the nabob of Surat has no longer been able to
pay the fum. The fherriffe once demanded it of the
Engliih, as the poffeffors of Surat j and, till they fhould
fatisfy him, forbade their captains to leave the port of
Jidda. But the Englifh difregarding this prohibition,
the fherriffe complained to the Ottoman Porte, and they
communicated his complaints to the Englifh ambaffa-
dor. He at the fame time opened a negociation with
the nominal nabob, who refides in Surat. But all thefe
fteps proved fruitlefs : and the fovereign of Mecca feems
not likely to be ever more benefited by the contribution
from India.
The power of the fherriffe extends not to fpiritual
SHE
matters ; thefe are entirely managed by the heads of the Sherriffe,
clergy, of different fedls, who are refident at Mecca. . Shetland.
Rigid Muffulmans, fuch as the Turks, are not very fa-
vourable in their fentiments of the fherriftes, but fufpeft
their orthodoxy, and look upon them as fecretly attach¬
ed to the tolerant fed! of the Zeidi.
SHETLAND, the name of certain iflands belong¬
ing to Scotland, and lying to the northward of Orkney.
There are many convincing proofs that thefe iflands
were very early inhabited by the Bids, or rather by
thofe nations who were the original poffeffors of the
Orkneys ; and at the time of the total deftruftion of
thefe nations, if any credit be due to tradition, their
woods were entirely ruined (a) It is highly probable
that the people in Shetland, as well as in the Orkneys,
flourifhed under their own princes dependent upon the
croAvn of Norway ; yet this feems to have been rather
through what they acquired by fifhing and commerce,
than by the cultivation of their lands. It may alfo be
reafonably prefumed, that they grew thinner of inhabi¬
tants after they Avere annexed to the crown of Scot¬
land ; and it is likely that they revived again, chiefly
by the very great and extenfive improvements which
the Dutch made in the herring fifhery upon their coafls,
and the trade that the crews of their buffes, then very
numerous, carried on with the inhabitants, neceffarily
refulting from their want of provifiens and other conve¬
niences.
There are many reafons which may be afligned why
thefe iflands, though part of our dominions, have not
hitherto been better known to us. They were com¬
monly placed two degrees too far to the north in all the
old maps, in order to make them agree with Ptolemy’s
defcription of Thule, which he afferted to be in the la¬
titude of 63 degrees ; which we find urged by Camden
as a reafon why Thule muff be one of the Shetland ifles,
to which Speed alfo agrees, though from their being
thus wrong placed he could not find room for them in
his maps. Another, and that no light caufe, was the
many falfe, fabulous, and impertinent relations publifh-
ed concerning them (b), as if they were countries in-
hofpitable and uninhabitable 5 and laftly, the indolence,
or rather indifference, of the natives, who, contenting
themfelves with thofe neceffaries and conveniences pro¬
cured by their intercourfe with other nations, and con¬
ceiving themfelves neglefted by the mother country, have
feldom troubled her with their applications.
There are few countries that have gone by more
names than thefe iflands *, they were called in Icelandic,
Hialtlandia, from hiaIt, the “ hilt of a (word this
might be poffibly corrupted into Hetland, Hit/and, or
Hethland, though fome tell us this fignifies a u high
land.” They have been likewife, and are ftill in fome
maps called Zetland and Zealand, in reference, as has
been fuppofed, to their fituation. By the Danes, and
by
1 237 ]
(a) The tradition is, that this was done by the Scots when they deftroyed the Pitts j but is more probably re¬
ferred to the Norwegians rooting out the original poffeffors of Shetland.
(b) They reprefented the climate as intenfely cold ; the foil as compofed of crags and quagmire, fo barren
as to be incapable of bearing corn •, to fupply which, the people, after drying fifh-bones, powdered them, then,
kneaded and baked them for bread. The larger fifh-bones were faid to be all the fuel they had. Yet, in fo dreary
a country, and in fuch miferable circumftances, they were acknowledged to be very long-lived, cheerful, and con¬
tented.
Shetland.
' 
SHE [ 238 ] ' SHE
by tbc •natives, they are ftyled 'Yealtaland: and not-
' Avithftanding the oddnefs of the orthography, this dif¬
fers very little, if at all, from their manner of pronoun¬
cing Zetland, out of which pronunciation grew the mo¬
dern names of Shetland and Shotland.
The illands of Shetland, as we commonly call them,
are well fituated for trade. The neareit continent to
them is Norway ; the port of'Bergen lying 44 leagues
eaft, wherea? they lie 46 leagues north-north-eaft from
Buchannefs j eaft north-ealt from Sanda, one of the
Orkneys, about 16 or 18 leagues ; fix Or feven leagues
north-eaft from Fair Ifle ; 58 leagues eaft from the Fer-
roe illes } and at nearly the fame diftance north-eaft from
Lewis. The fouthern promontory of the Mainland,
called Sumburgh Head, lies in 59 degrees and 59 mi¬
nutes of north latitude j and the northern extremity of
Unft, the moft remote of them all, in the latitude of
(\i degrees 15 minutes. The meridian of London paffes
through this laft illand, which lies about 2 degrees 30
minutes weft from Paris, and about 5 degrees 15 minutes
eaft from the meridian of Cape Lizard. According to
Gifford’s Hiftorical Defcription of Zetland, the inhabit¬
ed iflands are 33, of which the principal is ftyled Main¬
land, and extends in length from north to fouth about
60 miles, and is in fome places 20 broad, though in
others not more than two.
It is impoffible to fpeak with precifion ; but, accord¬
ing to the beft computation which we have been able to
form, the Shetland iiles contain near three times as much
land as the Orkneys : and they are confidered as not in¬
ferior to the provinces of Utrecht, Zealand, and all the
reft of the Dutch iflands taken together 5 but of climate
and foil they have not much to boaft. The longeft day
in the ifland of Unft is 19 hours 15 minutes, and of
confequence the Ihorteft day 4 hours and 45 minutes.
The fpring is very late, the fummer very fliort 5 the au¬
tumn alfo is of no long duration, dark, foggy, and
rainy 5 the winter fets in about November, and lafts till
April, and fometimes till May. They have frequently
in that feafon ftorms of thunder, much rain, but little
froft or fnow. High winds are indeed very frequent and
very troublefome, yet they feldom produce any terrible
effe.fls- The aurora borealis is as common here as in any
of the northern countries. In the w’inter feafon the Tea
fwells and rages in fuch a manner, that for five or fix
months their ports are inacceflible, and of courfe the
people during that fpace have no correfpondence with
the reft of the world. »
The foil in the interior part of the Mainland, for the
moft part, is mountainous, moorifti, and boggy, yet not
to fuch a degree as to render the country utterly impaf-
fable j for many of the roads here, and in fome of the
northern ifles, are as good as any other natural roads,
and the people travel them frequently on all occafions.
Near the coaft there are fometimes for miles together
flat pleafant fpots, very fertile both in pafture and corn.
The mountains produce large crops of very nutritive
grafs in the fummer; and they cut confiderable quanti¬
ties of hay, with which they feed their cattle in the
winter. They might with a little attention bring more
of their country into cultivation : but the people are 1c
much addidted to their filhery, and feel fo little*neceffity
of having recourfe to this method for fubfiftence, that
they are content, how ftrange foever that may feem to
4
us, to let four parts in five of their land remain in a ftate Shetland
of nature. v——y-
They wrant not confiderable quantities of marl in dif¬
ferent iilands, though they ufe but little j hitherto there
has been no chalk found ; limeftone and freeftone there
are in the fouthern parts of the Mainland in great quan¬
tities, and alfo in the neighbouring iflands, particularly
Fetlar •, and confiderab'le quantities of flate, very good
in its kind. No mines have been hitherto wrought
to any great extent •, but there are in many places ap¬
pearances of metallic ores, as thofe of copper and iron •,
and it is faid, pieces of filver ore have been found. In
fome of the fmaller ifies there are ffrong appearances of
iron •, but, through the want of proper experiments be¬
ing made, there is, in this rtfpedl at leaft, hitherto no¬
thing certain. Their meadows are inclofed with dikes,
and produce very good grafs. The little corn they grow
is chiefly barley, with fome oats •, though even in the.
northern extremity of Unft the little land which they
have is remarkable for its fertility. The hills abound
with medicinal herbs and their kitchen-gardens thrive
as well, and produce as good greens and roots, as any
in Britain. Of late years, and fince this has been at¬
tended to, fome gentlemen have had even greater fuc-
cefs than they expected in the cultivating of tulips,
rofes, and many other flowers. They have no trees,
and hardly any ftirubs except juniper, yet they have a
tradition that their country was formerly overgrown
with woods *, and it feems to be a confirmation of this,
that the roots of timber-trees have been, and are ftill,
dug up at a great depth 5 and that in fome, and thofe
too inacceflible, places, the mountain-alh is ftill found
growing wild. That this defedl, viz. the want of wood
at prefent, does not arife entirely from the foil or cli¬
mate, appears from feveral late experiments 5 fome gen¬
tlemen having raifed afh, maple, horfe-chefnuts, &c. in
their gardens. Though the inhabitants are without ei¬
ther wood or coals, they are very w'ell fupplied Avith
fuel, having great plenty of heath and peat. The black
cattle in this country are in general of a larger fort than
in Orkney, which is owing to their having more exten-
five paftures 5 a clear proof that ftill farther improve¬
ments might be. made in refpedt to fize. Their horfes
are fmall, but ftrong, flout, and well-ftiaped, live very
hardy, and to a great age. They have likewife a breed
of fmall fwine, the flefli of which, when fat, is efteem-
ed very delicious. They have no goats, hares, or foxes j
and in general no wild or venomous creatures of any
kind except rats in fome few ifiands. They have no
moorfowl, which is the more remarkable, as there are
everywhere immenfe quantities of heath ; but there are
many forts of wild and water-fowl, particularly the dun-
ter-goofe, clack-goofe, folan-goofe, fwans, ducks, teal,
whaps, foifts, lyres, kitti wakes, maws, plovers, cormo¬
rants, &c. There is likewife the ember-goofe, which
is faid to hatch her egg under her wing. Eagles and
hawks, as alfo ravens, crows, mews, &c. abound
here.
All thefe iflands are well watered; for there are eve¬
rywhere excellent fprings, fome of them mineral and
medicinal. They have, indeed, no rivers ; but manv
pleafant rills or rivulets, of different fizes •, in lome of
the largeft they have admirable trouts, fome of which
are of 15 and even of 20 pounds weight. They have
likewife
SHE [ 239 ] SHE
letland. likewife many freih-water lakes, well ftored with trout
and eels, and in molt of them there are alfo large and
fine flounders ; in fome very excellent cod. Thele frefh-
water lakes, if the country was better peopled, and the
common people more at their eafe, are certainly capable
of great improvements. The fea-coafts of the Main¬
land of Shetland, in a ftraight line, are 5 5 leagues ;
and therefore there cannot be a country conceived more
proper for etlablifhing an extenflve fifhery. What the
inhabitants have been hitherto able to do, their natural
advantages confldered, does not deferve that name, not-
withftanding they export large quantities of cod, tuik,
ling, and Ikate, infomuch that the bounty allowed by
a6ts of parliament amounts from 1400I. to 2000I. an¬
nually. Haddocks, whitings, turbot, and a variety of
other fifli, and in many of the inlets excellent oyfters,
lobfters, mufcles, cockles, and other fhell-fifh are abun¬
dant, as well as multitudes of otters and feals : am¬
bergris, and other fpoils of the ocean, are fometimes
found upon the coafts.
The inhabitants are a flout, well-made, comely peo¬
ple ; the lower fort of a fwarthy complexion. The gen
try are allowed, by all who have converfed with them,
to be moil of them polite, fhrewd, fenfible, lively, ac¬
tive, and intelligent perfons •, and thefe, to the number
of 100 families, have very handfome, flrong, well-built
houfes, neatly furniflred ; their tables well ferved ; po-
lithed in their manners, and exceedingly hofpitable and
civil to ftrangers. Thofe of an inferior rank are a hardy,
robuft, and laborious people, who, generally fpeaking,
get their bread by fifliing in all weathers in their yawls,
which are little bigger than Gravefend wherries 5 live
hardily, and in the fummer feafon moltly on fifli; their
drink, which, in reference to the Britith dominions, is
peculiar to the country, is called bland, and is a fort of
butter-milk, long kept, and very four. Many live to
great ages, though not fo long as in former times. In
refpeft, however, to the bulk of the inhabitants, from
the poornefs of living, from the nature of it, and from
the drinking great quantities of corn-fpirits of the very
word fort, multitudes are affll&ed with an inveterate
fcurvy •, from which thofe in better circumftances are
entirely free, and enjoy as good health as in any other
country in Europe. As they have no great turn to
agriculture, and are perfuaded that their country is not
fit for it, they do not (though probably they might)
raife corn enough to fupport them for more than two-
thirds of the year. But they are much more fuccefsful
in their pafturft-grounds, which are kept well inclofed,
in good order, and, together with their commons, fup-
ply them plentifully with beef and mutton. They pay
their rents generally in butter at Lammas, and in mo¬
ney at Martinmas. As to manufaflures, they make a
ftrong coarfe cloth for their own ufe, as alfo linen.
Fhey make likewife of their own wool very fine (lock¬
ings. They export, befides the different kinds of fiik
already mentioned, fome herrings, a confiderable quan¬
tity of butter and train-oil, otter and feal (kins, and no
inconfiderable quantity of the fine (lockings jufl men¬
tioned. Their chief trade is to Leith, London, Ham¬
burgh, Spain, and to the Straits. They import tim¬
bers, deals and fome of their bed oats, from. Norway 5
corn and flour from the Orkneys, and from North Bri¬
tain 5 fpirits and fome other things from Hamburgh ;
cloths and better fort of linen from Leith : grocery,
houfehold furniture, and other nece(faries, from London. Shetland
The duties to the fuperior are generally let in farm ; and ^
are paid by the people in butter, oil, and money. The .
remains of the old Norwegian conftitution are (till vifi-
ble in the divifion of their lands 5 and they have fome
udalmen or freeholders amongft them. But the Scots
laws, cuftoms, manners, drefs, and language prevail ;
and they have a flieriif, and other magiftrates for the ad-
minillration of juftice, as ivell as a euftomhoufe, with a
proper number of officers. In reference to their ecclefi-
aftical concerns, they have a prefbytery, 1 2 miniflers,
and an itinerant for Foula, Fair Ifland, and the Skerries.
Each of thefe minifters has a (Upend of between 40 and
50 pounds, befides a houfe and a glebe free from taxes.
The number of fouls in thefe itlands may be about 20,000.
SHFW-BREAD, the loaves of bread which the pried
of the week put every Sabbath-day upon the golden-
table in the fanfluary, before the Lord, in the temple
of the Jews. They were twelve in number, and were
offered to God in the name of the twelve tribes of Ifrael.
They ivere fliaped like a bYick, were ten palms long and
five broad, weighing about eight pounds each. They
were unleavened, and made of fine flour by the Levites.
The prieds fet them on the table in two rows, fix in a
row, and put frankincenfe upon them to preferve them
from moulding. They were changed every Sabbath,
and the old ones belonged to the pried upon duty. Of
this bread none but the prieds might eat, except in cafes
of neceffity. It was called the bread of faces, becaufe
the table of the (hew bread, being almod over-againd
the ark of the covenant, the loaves might be faid to be
fet before the face of God. The original table was car¬
ried away to Babylon, but a new one was made for the
fecond temple. It was of wood overlaid with gold.
This, with the candledick and fome other fpdils, was
carried by Titus to Rome.
SHI ANT or ScHANT Islands, a cinder of fmall un¬
inhabited iflands, lying fix miles from the S. E. coad of
Lewis in Scotland, in W. Long. 6. 20. N. Eat. 57. 53.
SHIELD, an ancient weapon of defence, in form of
a light buckler, borne on the arm to fend off lances,
darts, &c. The form of the (liield is reprefented by
the efcutcheon in coats of arms. The (liield Avas
that part of the ancient armour on which the perfons
of diflinflion in the'field of battle ahvays had their
arms painted ; and mod of the words ufed at this
time to exprefs the fpace that holds the arms of fa¬
milies are derived from the Latin Avord feutum. The
French efeu and efeuffton, and the Englifh Avord efcut¬
cheon, or fcutcheon, are evidently from this origin ;
and the Italian /a/f/o fignifies both the fliield of arms
and that ufed in Avar. The Latin name clyp'eus, for
the fame thing, feems alfo to be derived from the Greek
Avord yXvpini, to engrave; and it had this name from
the feveral figures engraved on it, as marks of didinc-
tion of the perfon who Avore it.
The dneld in Avar, among the Greeks and Ro¬
mans, was. not only ufeful in defence, but it Avas
alfo a badge of honour to the Avearer ; and he who
returned from battle without it Avas always treated
Avith infamy aftenvards. People have at all times
thought this honourable piece of the armour the proper-
ed place to engrave, or figure on the figns of dignity of
the poffeffor of it •, and hence, Avben arms came to be
painted for families in aftertimes, the heralds al¬
ways
SHI [24
ways cliofe. to reprefent them upon the figure of a fhield,
but with feveral exterior additions and ornaments ; as
the helmet, fupporters, and the reft.
The form of the ftiield has not only been found dif¬
ferent in various nations, but even the people of the
fame nation, at different times, have varied its form ex¬
tremely ; and among feveral people there have been
fhields of feveral forms and fizes in ufe, at the fame pe¬
riod of time, and fuited to different occafions. The
molt ancient and univerfal form of Ihields, in the earlier
ages, feems to have been the triangular. This we fee
inftances of in all the monuments and gems of antiquity:
our own moft early monuments (how it to have been the
moft antique fhape alfo with us, and the heralds have
found it the moft convenient for their purpofes, when
they had any odd number of figures to repietent j as if
three, then two in the broad bottom part, and one in the
narrow upper end, it held them very well} or if five,
they flood as conveniently, as three below, and two
above. The other form of a ftiield, now univerfally
ufed, is fquare, rounded and pointed at the bottom : this
is taken from the figure of the Samnitic ftiield ufed by
the Romans, and fince copied very generally by the
Englifti, French, and Germans.
The Spaniards and Portuguefe have the like general
form of ftiields, but they are round at the bottom with¬
out the pointand the Germans, befide the Samnite
ftiield, have two others pretty much in ufe : thefe are,
i. The bulging ftiield, diftinguiftied by its fwelling or
bulging out at the flanks; and, 2. The indented ftiield,
or ftiield chancree, which has a number ot notches and
indentings all round its fides. 1 he ufe of the ancient
fliield of this form was, that the notches ferved to reft
the lance upon, that it might be firm while it gave the
thruft ; but this form being lefs proper for the receiving
armorial figures, the two former have been much more
ufed in the heraldry of that nation-
Befide this different form of the ftiields in heraldry,
we find them alfo often diftinguiftied by their different
pofitions, fome of them Handing ereft, and others flant-
ing various ways, and in different degrees-, this the he¬
ralds exprefs by the word pendant, “ hanging,” they
feeming to be hung up not by the centie, but by the
right or left corner. I he French call thefe ecu pendant,
and the common antique triangular ones ecu ancien.
The Italians call this fcuto pendente ; and the reafon
given for exhibiting the ftiield in thefe figuies in heral¬
dry is, that in the ancient tilts and tournaments, they
who were to juft at thefe military yxercifes, were obliged
to hang up their fhields with their armories, or coats of
arms on them, out at the windows and balconies of the
houfes near the place ; or upon trees, pavilions, or the
barriers of the ground, if the exereife was to be perform¬
ed in the field.
Thofe who were to fight on foot, according to Co-
lumbier, had their flrields hung up by the right corner,
and thofe who were to fight on horfeback had theirs
hung up by the left. This pofition of the ftiields in
heraldry is called couc/ie by fome writers, though by the
generality pendant.
It was very frequent in all parts of Europe, in arms
given between the nth and 14th centuries; but it is
to be obferved that the hanging by the left corner,
as it was the token of the owner’s being to fight on
horfeback, fo it was efteemed the moft honourable and
> ] SHI
noble fituation ; and all the pendant ftiields of the Tons
of the royal family of Scotland and England, and of our
nobility at the time, are thus hanging from the left
corner. The hanging from this corner was a token of
the owner’s being of noble birth, and having fought in
the tournaments before ; but no fovereign ever had a
ftiield pendant any way, but always ered, as they never
formally entered the lifts of the tournament.
The Italians generally have their ftiields of arms of
an oval form ; this feems to be done in imitation oi thofe
of the popes and other dignified clergy : but their herald
Petro Sando feems to regret the ufe of this figure of the
ftiield, as an innovation brought in by the painters and
engravers as moft convenient for holding the figures, but
derogatory to the honour of the pofleffor, as not repre->
fenting either antiquity or honours won in war, but ra¬
ther the honours of fome citizen or perfon of learning.
Some have carried it fo far as to fay, that thofe who
either have no ancient title to nobility, or have fullied
it by any unworthy adion, cannot any longer wear their
arms in ftiields properly figured, but were obliged to
have them painted in an oval or round fliield.
In Flanders, where this author lived, the round and
oval {Fields are in the difrepute he fpeaks of; but in
Italy, befides the popes and dignified prelates, many of
the fir ft families of the laity have them.
The fecular princes, in many other countries, alio re¬
tain this form of the fliield, as the moft ancient and truly
expreffive of the Roman clypeus.
Shield,in Heraldry,^ efcutcheon, or field on which
the bearings of coats of arms are placed. See Heraldry.
SHIELDRAKE, or Sheldrake. See Anas, Or¬
nithology Index.
SHIELDS, North and South, two fca-port towns,
at the mouth of the T yne, the one in Northumberland,
the other in the county of Durham. South Shields
contained above 2CO falt-pans, 50 years ago ; but now
there are not more than five or fix ; and the duty, which
is now only 1 o,cool, per annum, amounted formerly to
8o,OOOl. South Shields has a confiderable trade, in
which not lefs than 500 veffels from ICO to 500 tons
burden are employed ; and has nine dry docks for re¬
pairing, and 10 yards for building ftiips. This town
has been much improved of late years. In the centre
there is a large Iquare, in which there is a handlome
town-hall, with a colonnade under it for the weekly
market, and from which ftreets branch out on all fides.
North Shields contains alfo fome fine ftreets and fquares.
The harbour is very commodious, and fo fpacioas, that
it is capable of receiving 2000 ftiips. It is defended by
a fort, in which there is alfo a lighthoufe, correfpond-
ing with another on the top of the bank, to diredl vef¬
fels into the harbour. The population of North and
South Shields is eftimated at 23',000. W. Long. 1. 12.
N. Lat. 55. 44.
SHIFTERS, on board a man of war, certain men
who are employed by the cooks to ftiift and change the
water in which the flefh or fifti is put, and laid for fome
1 time, in order to fit it for the kettle.
SHIFTING A TACKLE, in fea-language, the aft of
’ removing the blocks of a tackle to a greater diftanee
from each other, on the object to which they are ap¬
plied, in order to give a greater fcope or extent to their
purchafe. This operation is otherwife called fleeting.
Shifting the helm denotes the alteration of its pofition,
£ Expli-
catio Re- .
rum et
Verhorum
in Leg Sax.
voc. Libra.
S H .1 [ 241 ] s H I
by pufhing it towards the oppofite fide of the fliip.
Shifting the voyal, fignifies changing its pofition on the
capltern, from the right to the left, and vice verfa.
SHILLING, an Englifh filver coin, equal to twelve
pence, or the twentieth part of a pound.
Freherus derives the Saxon fciliing, whence our {hil¬
ling, from a corruption of jiliqua ; proving the deriva¬
tion by feveral texts of law, and, among others, by the
26th law, De annuls legatis. Skinner deduces it from
the Saxon fcild, “ fliield,” by reafon of the efcutcheoij
of arms thereon*
Bifhop Hooper derives it from the Arabic fcheele,
fignifying a 'weight; but others, with greater probabi¬
lity, deduce it from the Latin Jicilicus, which lignified
in that language a quarter of an ounce, or the 48 th part
of a Roman pound. In confirmation of this etymology
it is alleged, that the {hilling kept its original fignifica-
tion, and bore the fame, proportion to the Saxon pound
as ficilicus did to the Roman and the Greek, being ex-
aftly the 48th part of the Saxon pound j a difeovery
which we owe to Mr Lambarde*.
However, the Saxon laws reckon the pound in the
round number at 50 {hillings, but they really coined
out of it only 48 ; the value of the {lulling wras five-
pence j but it w'as reduced to fourpence above a century
before the conquefi: $ for feveral of the Saxon laws, made
in Athelftan’s reign, oblige us to take this eftimate.
Thus it continued to the Norman times, as one of the
Conqueror’s laws fufficiently afeertains ; and it feems
to have been the common coin by which the Englifti
payments were adjufled. After the conquefi, the
French fo/idus of twelvepence, which was in ufe among
the Normans, was called by the Englifh name of {hil¬
ling *, and the Saxon {hilling of fourpence took a Nor¬
man name, and was called the groat, or great coin, be-
caufe it was the largeft Englifti coin then known in
England.
It has been the opinion of the biftiops Fleetwood and
Gibfon, and of the antiquaries in general, that, though
the method of reckoning by pounds, marks, and {hil¬
lings, as well as by pence and farthings, had been in
conftant ufe even from the Saxon times, long before the
Norman conqueft, there never was fuch a coin in Eng¬
land as either a pound or a mark, nor any {hilling, till
the year 1504 or 1505, when a few filver {hillings or
twelvepences were coined, which have long fince beelr
folely confined to the cabinets of collectors.
Mr Clarke combats this opinion, alleging that fome
coins mentioned by Mr Folkes, under Edward I. were
probably Saxon {hillings new minted, and that Arch-
biftiop Aelfric exprefsly faysf, that the Saxons had
three names for their money, viz. mancufes, {hillings,
and pennies. He alfo urges the different value of the
Saxon {hilling at different times, and its uniform pro¬
portion to the pound, as an argument that their {hil¬
ling was a coin ; and the teftimony of the Saxon gof-
pels, in which the word wTe have tranflated pieces offi¬
ver is rendered /hillings, which, lie fays, they would
hardly have done, if there had been no fuch coin as a
{hilling (hen in ufe. Accordingly the Saxons expreffed
their (hilling in Latin by ficlus and argentetis. He far¬
ther adds, that the Saxon (hilling was never expreffed
by fo/idus till after the Norman fettlements in England;
and howfoever it altered during the long period that
elapfed from the conqueft to the time of Henry VII. it
VOL. XIX. Part I.
w7as the moft conftant denomination of money in all pay¬
ments, though it was then only a fpecies of account, or
the twentieth part of the pound fterling : and when it
was again revived as a coin, it leffened gradually as the
pound fterling leffened, from the 28th of Edward III.
to the 43d of Elizabeth.
In the year 1560 there wras a peculiar fort of {hilling
ftruck in Ireland, of the value of ninepence Engliih,
which paffed in Ireland for tw elvepence. The motto on
the reverie was, pofui Deum adjutorem meum. Eighty-
two of tliefe (hillings, according to Malynes, W'ent to
the pound 5 they therefore weighed 20 grains one-
fourth each, which is fomewhat heavier in proportion
than the Eriglifti (hilling of that time, 62 w'hereof went
to the pound, each weighing 92 grains feven-eighths
and the Iriih {hilling being valued at the Tower at nine-
pence Englifti, that is, one-fourth part lefs than the
Englifti {hilling, it fliould therefore proportionably
weigh one-fourth part lefs, and its full weight be fome-
what more than 62 grains ; but fome of them found at
this time, though much worn, weighed 69 grains. In
the year 1598, five different pieces of money of this
kind were ftruck in England for the fervice of the king¬
dom of Ireland. Thefe were {hillings to be current in
Ireland at twelvepence each half {hillings to be current
at fixpence; and quarter (hillings at threepence. Pen¬
nies and halfpennies were alfo ftruck of the fame kind,
and fent over for the payment of the army in Ireland.
The money thus coined was of a very bafe mixture of
copper and filver 5 and two years after there were more
pieces of the fame kinds ftruck for the fame fervice,
which were ftill wmrfe ; the former being three ounces
of filver to nine ounces of copper ■, and thefe latter only
two ounces eighteen pennyweights to nine ounces two
pennyweights of the alloy.
The Dutch, Flemifti, and Germans, have likewife
their {hilling, called fchelin, fchilling, fcalin, &c. but
thefe not being of the fame weight or finenefs with the
Englifti {lulling, are not current at the fame value. The
Englifti {lulling is worth about 23 French fols; thofe of
Holland and Germany about 11 fols and a half j thofe
of Flanders about nine. The Dutch {hillings are alfo
called fols de gros, becaufe equal to twelve gros. The
Danes have copper {hillings worth about one-fourth of a
farthing fterling.
SHILLUK, a town in Africa oh the banks of the
true Nile. The houfes are built of clay, and the clothing
of the inhabitants confifts of long grafs, which they pais
round the wraift and between the thighs. They are all
black, and both fexes (have their heads. Thefe people
have the dominion of the river, and exafl toll of all paf-
fengers. The meaning of the word Shiiluk feems to be
unknown. When they tranfport Mahometans acrofs
the ferry, they fometimes fhew the importance which
their fituation gives them. After the Mahometan has
placed himfelf in the boat, they a(k him, w'ho is the
mafter of that river ? The other replies Ulloh or Rub-
baric, God is the mafter of it. No, you mull fay that
fuch a one (naming his chief) is the mafter of it, or you
ftiall not pafs. They are faid to be hofpitable to fuch
as come among them in a peaceable manner, and as ne¬
ver betraying thofe to whom they have once afforded
protection. The particulars of their worftiip have not
been deferibed. Shiiluk, according to Mr Bnnvne’s
map, is in 130 N. Lat. 3 2° 26' E. Long.
Shilling
.11
Shiiluk.
SHILOH,
SHI [ 242 ] SHI
Shi’oh. SHILOH, is a term famous among interpreters and
*... .-y—j commentators upon Scripture. It is found (Gen. xlix.
10.) to denote the Meffiah. The patriarch Jacob fore¬
tells his coming in thefe words j “ The fceptre (hall not
depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his
feet, until Shiloh come ; and unto him (hall the gather¬
ing of the people be.” The Hebrew text reads, nW >0'
*3 1J? until Shiloh come. All Chriftian commentators
agree, that this word ought to be underftood of the
Mefliah, or Jefus Chrill ; but all are not agreed about
its literal and grammatical fignification. St Jerome,
who tranflates it by Qui mittemlus ejl, manifellly reads
Shiloach “ fent,” intlead of Shiloh. The Septuagint have
it Ea>j oi'j tu, cc,7rox.uy.vjoi ctwru \ or, «v ibSq u> ccko-
xiircti, (as if they had read ihu; inftead of ribw), i. e.
“ Until the coming of him to whom it is referved
or, “ Till we fee arrive that which is referved for him.”
It muft be owned, that the fignification of the He¬
brew ivord Shiloh is not well known. Some tranllate,
“ the fceptre fhall not depart from Judah, till he comes
to whom it belongs ;” or sb» inftead of ibx sb. O-
thers, “ till the coming of the peace-maker,” or “ the
pacific ; or, “ of profperity,” nb» profperatus ejl. Sha-
lah fignifies, “ to be in peace, to be in profperity j”
others, “ till the birth of him who ftiall be born of a
woman that fliall conceive without the knowledge of a
* Arab. man,” bpir or K'b’^ fecundina, fnixus * ; othenvife, “ the
Zmi. de fceptre ftrall not depart from Judah, till its end, its ruin j
Zieu. tju (.jie ftownfal of the kingdom of the Jews,” b»W or
f I.e Clerc nbiz; it has ceafed, it has JitiiJhed\. Some Rabbins have
in Ger.ef. taken the name Siloh or Shiloh, as if it fignified the city
of this name in Paleitine : “ The fceptre fliall not be
taken away from Judah till it comes to Shiloh ; till it
fliall be taken from him to be given to Saul at Shiloh.”
But in what part of Scripture is it faid, that Saul was
acknowledged as king or confecrated at Shiloh ? If we
would underftand it of Jeroboam the fon of Nebat, the
matter is ftill as uncertain. The Scripture mentions no
aflembly at Shiloh that admitted him as king. A more
modern author derives Shiloh from vhv, fatigare, which
fometimes fignifies to be weary, to Juffer ; “ till his la¬
bours, his fufferings, his paflion, fliall happen.”
But not to amufe ourfelves about feeking out the
grammatical fignification of Shiloh, it Is fufficient for
us to (how, that the ancient Jew’s are in this matter
agreed with the Chriflians : they acknowledge, that
this word Hands for the MeJJiah the King. It is thus
that the paraphrafts Onkelos and Jonathan, that the an¬
cient Hebrew commentaries upon Genefis, and that the
Talmudifts themfelves, explain it. If Jefus Chrift and
his apoftles did not make ufe of this paflage to prove
the coming of the Mefliah, it was becaufe then the com¬
pletion of this prophecy was not fufficiently manifeft..
The fceptre ftill continued among the Jews 5 they had
ftill kings of their own nation in the perfons of the He-
rods ; but foon after the fceptre was entirely taken
away from them,, and has never been reftored to them
fince.
The Jews feek in vain to put forced meanings upon
this prophecy of Jacob •, faying, for example, that the
fceptre intimates the dominion of ftrangers, to which
they had been in fubjedlion, or the hope of feeing one
day the fceptre or fupreme power fettled again among
themfelves. It is eafy to perceive, that all this is con¬
trived to deliver themfelves out of perplexity. In vain
3
likewife they take refuge in certain princes of the cap- Stiloh
tivity, whom they pretend to have fubfifted beyond the H
Euphrates, exercifing an authority over their nation >
little differing from abfolute, and being of the race of
David. This pretended fucceflion of princes is per¬
fectly chimerical ; and though at certain times they
could fhow a fucceflion, it continued but a ftiort time,
and their authority was too obfeure, and too much li¬
mited, to be the objeft of a prophecy fo remarkable as
this was.
SHINGLES, in building, fmall pieces of wrood, or
quartered oaken boards, fawn to a certain fcantling, or,
as is more ufual, cleft to about an inch thick at one end,
and made like wedges, four or five inches bread, and
eight or nine inches long.
Shingles are ufed inftead of tiles or flates, efpecially
for churches and fteeples 5 however, this covering ip
dear ; yet, where tiles are very fcarce, and a light co¬
vering is required, it is preferable to thatch 5 and where
they are made of good oak, cleft, and not fawed, and
well feafoned in water and the fun, they make a fure,
light, and durable covering.
The building is firft to be covered all over with boards,
and the fliingles nailed upon them.
SHIP, a general name for all large veffels, particu¬
larly thofe equipped W’ith three malts and a bowfprit;
the mails being compofed of a low’ermaft, topmaft, and
top-gallant-malt : each of thefe being provided with
yards, fails, &c. Ships, in general, are either employed
for war or merchandife.
SHIPS of War are veffels properly equipped with ar¬
tillery, ammunition, and all the neceffary martial wea¬
pons and inftruments for attack or defence. They are
diftinguiflied from each other by their feveral ranks or
claffes, called rates, as follows : Ships of the firft rate
mount from ico guns to no guns and upwards } fecond
rate, from 90 to 98 guns j third rate, from 64 to 74
guns ; fourth rate, from 50 to 60 guns ; fifth rate, from
32 to 44 guns j and fixth rates, from 20 to 28 guns.
See the article Rate. Veffels carrying lefs than 20
guns are denominated foops, cutters,fire-Jhips and bombs.
It has lately been propofed to reduce the number of thefe
rates, which would be a faving to the nation, and alfo
productive of feveral material advantages.
In Plate CCCCLXXX. is the reprefentation of a _
firft rate, with rigging, &c. the feveral parts of which
axe as follows :
Parts of the hull.—Fig. 1. A, The cathead ; B, The Plate
fore-chain-wales, or chains j C, The main-chains j D,CCCCLXXX
The mizen-chains ; E, The entering port ; F, The u
hawfe-holes ; G, The poop lanterns j H, The chefs-
tree; I, The head ; K, The ftern.
I, The bowfprit. 2, Yard and fail. 3, Gammon¬
ing. 4, Manrop. 5, Bobftay. 6, Spritfail-ftieets. 7,
Pendants. 8, Braces and pendants. 9, Halliards. 10,
Lifts. 11, Clue-lines. 12, Spritfail-horfes. 13, Bunt¬
lines. 14, Standing lifts. 15, Bowfprit-lhroud. 16,
Jib-boom. 17, Jibftay and fail. 18, Halliards. 19,
Sheets. 20, Horfes. 21, Jib guy. 22, Spritfail-topfail
yard. 23, Horfes. 24, Sheets. 25, Lifts. 26, Braces
and pendants. 27, Cap of bowfprit. 28, Jack ftaff.
29, 'Truck. 30, Jack flag.—31, Foremajl. 32. Run¬
ner and tackle. 33, Shrouds. 34, Laniards. 35. Stay
and laniard. 36, Preventer-fiay and laniard. 37,
Woolding of the maft. 38, Foreyard and fail. 39,
Horfes,
S H I r 243 ] S H I
Sliip- Horfes. 40, Top. 41, Crowfoot. 42, Jeers. 43,
“ 1 Yard-tackles. 44, Lifts. 43, Braces and pendants.
46, Sheets. 47, Foretacks. 48, Bowlines and bridles.
49, Fore buntlines. 50, Fore leechlines. 51, Pre¬
venter-brace. 52, Futtock-fhrouds.—33, Foretop-majt,
54, Shrouds and laniards. 33, Foretop-fail yard and
fail. 36, Stay and fail. 37, Runner. 38, Back-
ftays. 39, Halliards. 60, Lifts. 61, Braces and pen¬
dants. 62, Horfes. 63, Clew lines. 64, Bowlines and
bridles. 63, Reef-tackles. 66, Sheets. 67, Buntlines.
68, Crofs trees. 69, Cap. 70, Foretop-gallant-mall.
71, Shrouds. 72, Yard and fail. 73, Backftays. 74,
Stay. 73, Lifts. 76, Clewlines. 77, Braces and pen¬
dants. 78, Bowlines and bridles. 79, Flag-ftaff. 80,
Truck. 81, Flag-ftay-ftaff. 82, Flag of the lord high
admiral.—83, Mainmajl. 84, Shrouds. 83, Laniards.
86, Runner and tackle. 87, Futtock-lhrouds. 88,
Top-lantern. 89, Crank of ditto. 90, Stay. 91, Pre-
venter-ftay. 92, Stay-tackles. 93, Woolding of the
maft. 94, Jeers. 93, Yard-tackles. 96, Lifts. 97,
Braces and pendants. 98, Horfes. 99, Sheets. i©o,
Tacks. 101, Bowlines and bridles. 102, Crow-foot.
103, Cap. 104, Top. 103, Buntlines. 106, Leech¬
lines. 107, Yard and fail.—108, Main-topmafl. 109,
Shrouds and laniards. 110, Yard and fail, in, Fut-
tock-lhrouds; 112, Backftays. 113, Stay. 114, Stay-
fail and halliards. 113, Tye. 116, Halliards. 117,
Lifts. 118, Clewlines. 119, Braces and pendants,
120, Horfes. 121, Sheets. 122, Bowlines and bridles.
123, Buntlines. 124, Reef-tackles. 123, Crofs-ttecs.
126, Cap.—127, Maintop gallantmajl. 128, Shroud
and laniards. 129, Yard and fail. 130, Backftays.
131, Stay. 132, Stayfail and halliards. 133, Lifts.
134, Braces and pendants. 13 3, Bowlines and bridles.
136, Clewlines. 137, flagftaff. 138, Truck. 139,
Flagftaff-ftay. 140, Flag ftandard.—-141, Mhenmajl.
242, Shrouds and laniards. 143, Cap. 144, Yard
and fail. 143, Block for fignal halliards. 146, Sheet.
147, Pendant lines. 148, Peckbrails. 149, Stayfail.
230, Stay. 131, Derrick and fpan. 132, Top, 133,
Crofsjack yard. 134, Crofsjack lifts. 133, Crofsjack
braces. 136, Crofsjack flings—137, Mhen-topmajl.
138, Shrouds and laniards. 139, Yard and fail. 160,
Backftays. 161, Stay. 162, Plalliards. 163, Lifts.
164, Braces and pendants. 163, Bowlines and bridles.
166, Sheets. 167, Clewlines. 168, Stayfail. 169,
Crofstrees. ^170, Cap. 171, Flagftaff. 172, Flagftaff-
ftay. 173, Truck. 174, Flag, union. 173, Enlign-
ftaff. 176, Truck. 177, Enfign. 178, Stern ladder.
179, Bower cable.
I '--ClXXX1 Plate CCCCLXXXL is a vertical longitudi-
fig. 2. ’ nal fe&ion of a firft rate ftiip of war, with references to
the principal parts ; which are as follows:
A, Is the head containing,—1, The Item \ 2, The
knee of the head or cutwater j 3, The lower and upper
cheek; 4, The trail-board ; 5, The figure; 6, The
gratings ; 7. The brackets; 8, The falfe Item ; 9, The
breaft hooks ; 10, Ihe haufe holes ; ti, The bulkhead
forward; 12, The cathead; 13, The cathook; 14, Ne-
celfary feats; 13, The manger within board ; 16, The
bowfprit.
B, Upon the forecaftle—17, The gratings; 18, The
partners of the maft ; 19, The gunwale ; 20, The bel-
fry ; 21, The funnel for fmoke; 22, The gangway go«
ing off the forecaftle ; 23, The forecaftle guns.
C, In the forecaftle—24, The door of tire bulkhead Sh
forward; 23, Officers cabins; 26, Staircafe ; 27, Fore-
top-fail flicet bits ; 28, The beams ; 29, The Carlings.
D, The middle gun-deck forward—30, The fore¬
jeer bits; 31, The oven and furnace of copper; 32,
The captain’s Cook room; 33, The ladder or way to
the forecaftle.
E, The lower gun-deck forward—34> ^ ^ie knees fore
and aft; 3 ?, The fpirketings, or the firft ftreak next
to each deck, the next under the beams being called
clafftps ; 36, The beams of the middle gun-deck fore and
aft ; 37, The Carlings of the middle gun-deck fore and
aft; 38, The fore-bits; 39, The after or main bits;
40, The hatchway to the gunner’s and boatfwain’s
ftore-rooms ; 41, The jeer capftan.
F, The orlop—42, 43, 44, The gunner’s, boatfwain’s,
and carpenter’s ftore-rooms; 43, The beams of the lower
giin-deck ; 46, 47, The pillars and the riders, fore and
aft ; 48, The bulkhead of the ftore-rooms.
G, The hold—49, 30, 31, The foot-hook rider, the
floor rider, and the ftandard, fore and aft; 32, The
pillars ; 33, The ftep of the foremaft; 34, The kelfon,
or falfe keel, and dead rifing ; 33, The dead-wood.
H, At midftiips in the hold—36, the floor-timbers;
37, The keel; 38, The well ; 39, The chain-pump;
60, The ftep of the mainmaft; 61, 62, Beams and car-
lings of the orlop, fore and aft.
I, The orlop amidftiips—63, The cable tire; 64, The
main hatchway.
K, The lower gun-deck amidfhips—65, The ladder
leading up to the middle gun deck; 66, The lower tire
of ports. ,
L, The middle gun-deck amidlhip—67, The middle
tire of ports ; 68, The entering port ; 69, The main
jeer bits; 70, Twilled pillars or ftanchions ; 71, The
capftan; 72, Gratings ; 73, The ladder leading to the
upper deck.
M, The upper gun-deck amidlhips—74, The main¬
top fail-flieet bits ; 73, The upper partners of the main¬
maft ; 76, The gallows on which fpare topmafts, &c.
are laid ; 77, The fore Iheet blocks ; 78, The rennets ;
79, The gunwale; 80, The upper gratings; 81,
The drift brackets; 82, The pifs dale; 83, The cap¬
ftan pall.
N, Abaft the mainmaft—84, The gangway off the
quarterdeck ; 83, The bulkhead of the coach; 86, The
ftaircafe down to the middle gun-deck; 87, The beams
of the upper deck ; 88, The gratings about the main¬
maft ; 89, The coach or council-chamber ; 90, The
ftaircafe up to the quarterdeck.
O, The quarterdeck—91, The beams; 92, The car-
lings ; 93, The partners of the mizenmaft ; 94, The
gangway up to the poop ; 93, The bulkhead of the
cuddy.
P, The poop—96, The trumpeter’s cabin ; 97, The
taffarel.
Q, The baptain’s cabim
R, The cuddy, ufually divided for the mailer and fe-
cretary’s officers.
S, The ftate-room, out of which is made the bed¬
chamber and other conveniences for the commander in
chief; 98, The entrance into the gallery ; 99, The
bulkhead of the great cabin; 100, The ftern lights and
after galleries.
T, The ward-room, allotted for the lieutenants and
H h 2 inset ne
S H I
Ship. marine officers: ioi, The lower gallery j 102, The
“"v lleerage and bulkhead of the -wardroom ; 103, The
whipftaff. commanding the tiller j 104, The after flair-
cafe leading down to the lower gun-deck.
V, Several officers cabins abaft the mainnaaft, where
•the foldiers generally keep guard.
W, The gun room—105, the tiller commanding the
rudder ; 106, The rudder 5 107, The ftern-poft ; toB,
The tiller tranfom j 109, The feveral tranfoms, viz. 1,
2, 3, 4, 5 j 11o, The gun-room ports, or {tern-chafe ;
lil? The bread room fcuttle, out of the gun-room j
11 2, The main capilan } 113, The pall of the eapftan-,
114, The partner 5 11 j'j I lie bulkhead of the bread-
room.
X, The bread-room.
Y, The Reward's room, where all provifions are
weighed and ferved out.
Z, The cockpit, where are fubdivifions for the purfer,
the furgeon, and his mates.
A A, The platform or orlop, where provifion is made
for the wounded in the time of fervice-, 116, 1 he hold
abaft the main-maft •, I 1 7, The ftep of the mizen-maft •,
118, The kelfon, or falfe keel; 119, The dead wood, or
riling.
Ships of war are fitted out either at the expence of
the Rate or by individuals. Thofe fitted out at the pub¬
lic expenee are called King's /hips, and are divided into
Jhips of the line, frigates, Jloops, &c. For an account of
each of thefe, fee the refpedtive articles. Ships of war
fitted out by individuals are called privateers. See the
article Privateer.
Armed-SniP. See An MET)-Ship.
Bomb-SHIP. See BOMB Vejfels.
Double-SHIP. See SHIP-Building.
Fire-Ship. See FlRE-Ship.
Hofpital-SHIP, a yeffel fitted up to attend on a fleet of
men of war, and receive their fick or wounded ; for
which purpofe her decks fhould be high, and her ports
fufficiently large. Her cables ought alio to run upon
the upper deck, to the end that the beds or cradles may
be more commodioufly placed between decks, and admit
a free paffage of the air to difperfe that which is offen-
live or corrupted.
Merchant-SlIIP, a veffel employed in commerce to
carry commodities of various forts from one port to an¬
other.
The largeR merchant (hips are thofe-employed by the
different companies of merchants who trade to the Fall
Indies. They are in general larger than our 40 gun
{hips } and are commonly mounted with 2Q guns on their
upper-deck, which are nine pounders; and fix on their
quarter-deck, which are fix pounders.
Reg if er-SHIP. See REGISTER-Ship.
Store-SlIlP, a veffel employed to carry artillery or
naval {lores for the ufe of a fleet, fortrefs, or garrifon.
Tranfport-SHIP, is generally ufed to conduft troops
from one place to another.
Befides the different kinds of {hips above mentioned,
which are denominated from the purpofe for which
they are employed, veffels have alfo, in general, been
named according to the different manner of rigging
them. It would be an endlefs, and at the fame time
cccclxxxi. an unneceffary talk, to enumerate all the different kinds
3- of veffels with refpeft to their rigging 5 and there¬
fore a few only are here taken notice of. Fig. 3.
SHI
is a fhip which would be converted into a bark by {trip- Ship,
ping the mizen mail of its yards and the fails belong-
ing to them. If each malt, its correfponding topmaft
and topgallant-maft, inftead of being compofed of fe-
parate pieces of wood, were all of one continued piece,
then this veffel with very little alteration would be a
polacre. Fig. 4. reprefents ay«ou>; fig. $.-3. bilander; 1
fig. 6. a brig; fig. 7. a ketch; fig. 8. a fchooner; ^{^,1
fig. 9. z. foop ; fig. 10. a xebec; fig. 11. 3. galliot ; fig. fig, g,’I
1 2. a dogger ; fig. 13. galley under fail; fig. 14. ditto
rowing.
Ships are alfo fometimes named according to the dif¬
ferent modes of their conftrudlion. Thus we fay, ‘i.eat-
built {hip, &c.
To SHIP, is either ufed aflively, as to embark any
perfon or put any thing aboard {hip: or paffively, to re¬
ceive any thing into a {hip ; as, “ we {hipped a heavy
fea at three o’clock in the morning.”
To Ship, alfo implies to fix any thing in its place •,
as, to {hip the oars, that is, to put them in their row-
locks •, to fliip the fwivel guns, is to fix them in their
fockets; to {hip the handfpokes, &c.
Machine for drawing Bolts out of SHIPS, an inftru-
ment invented by Mr William Hill for this purpofe.
His account of which is as follows *. * t t ■
“ Firft, The ufe of this machine is to draw the kelfon
and dead wood bolts out, and to draw the knee of the Societyfs
head bolts.—Secondly, The heads of the kelfon bolts the Encoi
heretofore were all obliged to be driven through the kel rfe™tf
fon, floor-timbers, and keel, to get them out; by this^ ^,
means the kelfon is often entirely deffroyed, and the large
hole the head makes materially wounds the floors; and
frequently, when the bolt is much corroded, it fcarfs, and
the bolt comes out of the fide of the keel.—Thirdly,
The dead-wood bolts that are driven with two or three
drifts, are feldom or never got out, by which means the
dead wood is condemned, when fome of it is really fer-
viceable.—Fourthly, In drawing the knee of the head-
bolts, fometimes the knee Harts off, and cannot be got
to again, but furs up, and with this machine may be
drawn in ; for it has been proved to have more power
in ftarting a bolt than the maul.”
In fig. I. “ A, A, reprefent two ffrong male ferevrs, piate
working in female ferews near the extremities of the cccclxxxi
cheeks, againft plates of iron E, E. C C is the bolt fig-11
to be drawn ; which, being held between the chaps of
the machine at DD, is, by turning the ferews by the
lever B, forced upwards out of the^ wood or plank of
the ff\ip. F, F, are two dogs, with hooks at their low¬
er extremities; which being driven into the plank, ferve
to fupport the machine till the chaps have got faff hold
of the bolt. At the upper part of thefe dogs are rings
paffing through holes in a collar, moveable near the
heads of the ferews. Fig. 2. is a view of the upper fide Fig. 2.
of the cheeks when joined together ; a, a, the holes in
which the ferews work ; b, the chaps by which the bolts
are drawn. Fig. 3* T he under fide of the cheek : a, ^SFig. 3.
the holes in which the ferexvs work; b, the chaps by
which the bolts are drawn, and where the teeth that
gripe the bolt are more diftindlly ftiown. Fig. 4. Onej-jg,^,
of the cheeks feparated from the other, the letters refer¬
ring as in fig. 2. and 3.
This machine was tried in his majeffy’s yard at Dept¬
ford, and was found of the greateft utility.—“ Firft, it
drew a bolt that was driven down fo tight as only to go
one
[ 244 ]
S H I
Ship, one inch in fixteen blows with
— v " ‘ and was well clenched below : the bolt drew the ring a
confiderable way into the wood, and wire drew itfelf
through, and left the ring behind. Secondly, it drew a
bolt out of the Venus’s dead wood that could not be got
out by the maul. That part of it which went through
the keel w'as bent clofe up to the lower part of the dead-
wood, and the machine drew the bolt ftraight, and
drew it out with eafe. It alfo drew a kelfon bolt out of
the Stanley Well Indiaman, in Meffrs Well’s yard,
Deptford } which being a bolt of two drifts, could not
be driven out.
Management of SHIPS at fmgle anchor, is the method
of taking care of a {hip while riding at fmgle anchor in
a tide-way, by preventing her from fouling her anchor,
&c. The following rules for this purpofe, with which
* Taylor's we have been favoured by Henry Taylor * of North
InpuRions Shields, will be found of the utmoft confequence.
Riding in a tide-v'ay, with a frelh-of wind, the (hip
fhouki have what is called a floort or windward fervice,
fay 45 or 50 fathoms of cable, and always fheered to
windward (a), not always with the helm hard down,
but more or lefs fo according to the ftrength or weak-
nefs of the tide. It is a known faft, that many (hips
ftieer their anchors home, drive on board of other fliips,
and on the fands near which they rode, before it has
been difcovered that the anchor had been moved from
the place where it was let go.
When the wind is crofs, or nearly crofs, off fhore, or
in the oppofite dire&ion, (hips will always back. This
is done by the mizen-topfail, afliifed, if needful, by the
mizen-ftayfail ; fuch as have no mizen-topfail common¬
ly ufe the main-topfail, or if it blows freih, a topgallant-
fail, or any fuch fail at the gaff.
In backing, a {hip ihould ahvays wind with a taught
cable, that it may be certain the anchor is drawn round.
In cafe there is not a fufficiency of wind for that pur-
2 pofe, the lhip {hould be hove apeak.
How the Riding with the wind afore the beam, the yards {hould
yards ought be braced forward •, if abaft the beam, they are to be
braced all aback.
If the wind is fo far aft that the {hip will not back
(which {hould not be attempted, when the tide eafes,
the {hip forges ahead, and brings the buoy on the lee
[ 245 ] SHI
a double headed maul, tickliih fituation, the after-yards mull be braced for¬
ward, and the fore-yards the contrary way : {he will lay
fafe, as the buoy can be kept on the lee quarter, or fup-
pofe the helm is a-port, as long as the buoy is on the
larboard quarter. With the helm thus, and the wind
right aft, or nearly fo, the {larboard main and fore bra¬
ces {hould be hauled in. This fuppofes the main braces
to lead forward.
Ship.
to Young
Mariners
Riding at
Anchor in
moderate
Weather.
When the
Slip will
back.
ta be
braced.
. . 3
Riding
windward
t.de in qUarter'), {he muft be fet ahead : if the wind is far aft,
ger of s- ...
breaking
her ftieer.
and blows frelh, the utmoft care and attention is necef-
fary, as {hips riding in this fituation often break their
fheer, and come to windwrard of their anchors again.
It {hould be obferved, that when the {hip lies in this
When the ftiip begins to tend to leewrard, and the Tending to
buoy comes on the weather-quarter, the firft thing to
be done is to brace about the fore-yard ; and when the mu^
wand comes near the beam, fet the fore-ftayfail, and be i'et a-
keep it {landing until it {hakes *, then brace all the head,
yards {harp forward, efpecially if it is likely to blow
ftrong. 5
If laying in the aforefaid pofition, and {lie breaks her How to
flieer, brace about the main-yard immediately-, if {heman*ge
recovers and brings the buoy on the lee or larboard quar-
ter, let the main-yard be again braced about ; but if die bej. (beer,
come to a fheer the other way, by bringing the buoy
on the other quarter, change the helm and brace the
fore-yard to. 6
Riding leeward tide with more cable than the wind-When a ,
ward fervice, and expelling the {hip will go to wind- lonS fer"
ward of her anchor, begin as foon as the tide eafes to an(j t‘he ’
fhorten in the cable. This is often hard work j but itfhip is like-
is nectftary to be done, otherwife the anchor may be ly to go to
fouled by the great length of cable the {hip has to draw windward,
round ; but even if that could be done, the cable would
be damaged apainlt the bows or cut-water. It is to
be obferved, that when a flup rides windward tide, the
cable {hould be cackled from the ftiort fervice towards
the anchor, as far as will prevent the bare part touching
the fhip.
When the ftiip tends to windward and muft be fet a-
head, hoift the fore-ftayfail as foon as it will Hand, and
when the buoy comes on the lee quarter, haul down the
fore-ftayfail,^ brace to the fore-yard, and put the helm .
a-lee ; for till then the helm muft be kept a-weather
and the yards full. 7
When the ftiip rides leeward tide, and the wind in- How to
creafes, care ftiould be taken to give her more cable ni^naSe in
in time, otherwife the anchor may {{art, and probably0 *
it will be troublefome to get her brought up again ;
and this care is the mofe neceffary when the {hip rides
in the haufe of another ftiip. Previous to giving a long
fervice it is ufual to take a weather-bit, that is, a turn
of the cable over the windlafs end, fo that in veering
away the ftiip will be under command. The fervice
ought
(a) It has been thought by fome fheorifts, that {hips ftiould be ftieered to leeward of their anchors ; but ex¬
perience and the common pra£lice of the bell informed feamen are againft that opinion : for it is found, that when
a ftiip rides leeward tide and ftieered to windward, with the wind two or three points upon the bow, and blowing
hard in the interval between the fqualls, the ftieer will draw her towards the ivind’s eye ; fo that when the next
fquall comes, before {he be preffcd aftream of her anchor, it is probable there will be a lull again, and the fpring
which the cable got by the flieer will greatly eafe it during the fquall.
Every feaman knows that no ftiip without a rudder, or the helm left loofe, will wear ; they always in fuch fitua-
tions fly to : this proves that the wind prefling upon the quarter and the helm a-lee, a ihip will be lefs liable to
break her ftieer than when the helm is a-weather. Beftdes, if the helm is a-lee when Hie breaks her ftieer, it will
be a-weather when the wind comes on the other quarter, as it ought to be until ftie either fwing to leeward, or
bring the buoy on the other quarter. Now if the ftiip breaks her ftieer with the helm a-weather, it throws her
head to the wind fo fuddenly as fcarce to give time to brace the yards about, and very probably flie will tali over
her anchor before the fore-ftayfail can be got up.
S H I
&
[ 246 ]
SHI
1?.
8
Caution
The parti¬
cular duty
■of the chief
mate.
cJuglft to be greafed, which will prevent ils chafing in
the haufe.
If the gale continues to increafe, the topmafts fttould
be ftruck in time j but the fore-yard fhould fcldom, if
ever, be lowered down, that in cafe of parting the fore-
iail may be ready to be fet. At fuch times there fliould
be more on deck than the common anchor-watch, that
no accident may happen from inattention or falling a-
fletp.
In a tide-wray a fecond anchor fhould never be let go
but when abfolutely neceffary ; for a fhip will fometimes
ride eafier and fafer, efpecially if the fea runs high, with
a very long fcope of cable and one anchor, than with
lefs length and two cables j however, it is advifable, as
a preventive, when fhips have not room to drive, and the
night is dark, to let fall a fecond anchor under foot, with
a range of cable along the deck. If this is not thought
necelfary to be done, the deep-fea lead fhould be thrown
overboard, and the line frequently handled by the watch
that they may be affured fhe rides fail.
If at any time the anchor-wratch, prefuming on their
reipecbng QWn knowledge, fhould wind the fhip, or fuffer her to
Watch. break her fheer without calling the mate, he fhould im¬
mediately, or the v£ry firft opportunity, oblige the crew
to heave the anchor in fight $ which will prevent the
commifiion of the like fault again ; for befides the fhare
of trouble the watch will have, the reft of the crew will
blame them for negletfting their duty.
Prudent mates feldom lie a wreek in a road-ftead
without heaving their anchor in fight; even though they
have not the leaft fufpicion of its being foul. There
are other reafons why the anchor fhould be looked at ;
fometimes the cable receives damage by fweeping wrecks
or anchors that have been loft, or from rocks or ftones •,
and it is often neceffary to trip the anchor, in order to
take a clearer birth, which ftiould be done as often as
any fhip brings up too near.
Method for the fafe removal of fuch SHIPS as have
been driven on fhore. For this purpofe empty cafks are
ufually employed to float off the veffel, efpecially if fhe
is fmall, and at the fame time near the port to which it
is propofed to conduct her. In other cafes, the followr-
ing method adopted by Mr Barnard* will anfwer.
“ On January I. 1779 (fays Mr Barnard), in a moft
dreadful ftorm, the York Eaft* Indiaman, of eight hun¬
dred tons, homeward bound, with a pepper cargo, part¬
ed her cables in Margate roads, and was driven on fhore.
within one hundred feet of the head and thirty feet of
the fide of Margate pier, then drawing twenty-two feet
fix inches water, the flow of a good fpring tide being
only fourteen feet at that place.
“ On the third of the fame month I rvent down, as a
fhip-builder, to affift, as much as lay in my power, my
worthy friend Sir Richard Hotham, to whom the fhip
belonged. I found her perfedtly upright, and her fhere
-(or fide appearance) the fame as when firft built, but
funk to the twelve feet water-mark fore and aft in a bed
of chalk mixed with a ftiff blue clay, exactly the fhape
of her body below that draft of water and from the
rudder being torn from her as file ftruck coming on
fhore, and the violent agitation of the fea aft* r her be¬
ing there, her ftern was fo greatly injured as to admit
free accefs thereto, which filled her for four days equal
to the flow of the tide. Having fully informed myfelf
of her fituation and the flow of fpring-tides, and being
* Philofo-
phrcal
2'ranfac-
tions,
vol. ixx.
part 1.
clearly of opinion fhe might be again got off, I recom- Ship,
mended, as the firft neceffary ftep, the immediate dif-
charge of the cargo *, and, in the progrefs of that bufi-
nefs, I found the tide always flowed to the fame height
on the fhip j and when the cargo was half difeharged,
and I knew the remaining part fhould not make her
draw more than eighteen feet water, and while I was
obferving the water at twenty-two feet fix inches by the
fhip’s marks, fhe inftantly lifted to feventeen feet eight
inches j the water and air being before excluded by her
preffure on the clay, and the atmofphere adting upon
her upper part equal to fix hundred tons, -which is the
weight of water difplaced at the difference of thefe two
drafts of water.
“ The moment the fhip lifted, I difeovered fhe had
received more damage than was at firft apprehended, her
leaks being fuch as filled her from four to eighteen feet
water in an hour and a half. As nothing effedtual was
to be expedted from pumping, feveral fcuttles or holes
in. the fhip’s fide were made, and valves fixed thereto,
to draw off the water at the loweft ebb of the tide, to
facilitate the difcharge of the remaining part of the car¬
go 5 and, after many attempts, I fucceeded in an exter¬
nal application of fheep-fkins ferved on a fail and thruft
under the bottom, to flop the body of water from rufh-
ing fo furioufly into the fhip. This bufinefs effedled,
moderate pumping enabled us to keep the fhip to about
fix feet water at low water, and by a vigorous effort we
could bring the fhip fo light as (when the cargo fhould
be all difeharged) to be eafily removed into deep water.
But as the external application might be difturbed by
fo doing, or totally removed by the agitation of the
fhip, it was abfolutely neceflary to provide fome per¬
manent fecurity for the lives of thofe who were to na¬
vigate her to the river Thames. I then recommended
as the cheapeft, quickeft, and moft effectual plan, to lay
a deck in the hold, as low as the vrater could be pump¬
ed to, framed fo folidly and fecurely, and caulked fo
tight, as to fwim the fhip independent of her own leaky
bottom. ,
“ Beams of fir-timber twelve inches fquare were pla¬
ced in the hold under every lower-deck beam in the
fhip, as low as the vrater would permit $ thefe were in
two pieces, for the conveniency of geting them doAvn,
and alfo for the better fixing them of an exadt length,
and Well bolted together when in their places. Over
thefe were laid long Dantzic deals of two inches and
a half thick, well nailed and caulked. Againft the
fhip’s fides, all fore and aft, was well nailed a piece of
fir twelve inches broad and fix inches thick on the low¬
er and three inches on the upper edge, to prevent the
deck from rifing at the fide. Over the deck, at every
beam, was laid a crofs piece of fir timber fix inches deep
and twelve inches broad, reaching from the pillar of
the hold to the fhip’s fide, on which the fhores were to
be placed to refift the preffure of the water beneath.
On each of thefe, and againft the lower^-deck beam, at
equal diftances from the fide and middle of the fhip, was
placed an upright fhore^ fix inches by tAvelve, the lower
end let two inches into the crofs piece. From the foot
of this fhore to the {hip’s fide, under the end of every
lower deck beam, was placed a diagonal fliore fix inches
by twelve, to eafe the fhip’s deck of part of the ftrain
by throwing it on the fide. An upright fliore of three
inches by twelve was placed from the end of every crofs
piece
S H I
Ship- piece to the lower deck beams at the fide, and one of
three inches by twelve on the midfhip end of every crofs
piece to the lower deck beam, and nailed to the pillars
in the hold. Two firm tight bulkheads or partitions
were made as near the extremes of the Ihip as poflible.
The ceiling or infide plank of the (hip was very fecurely
SHI
caulked up to the lower deck, and the whole formed a
complete (hip with a flat bottom within fide, to fwim the
outfide leaky one j and that bottom being depreffed fix
feet below the external water, refifted the {hip’s weight
above it equal to five hundred and eighty-one tons, and
fafely conveyed her to the dry-dock at Deptford.”
[ 247 1
S H I P-B U
1. CHIP-BUILDING, or Naval Architecture,
definition. Q the art of conftru&ing a fhip fo as to anfwer a
2 particular purpofe either of war or merchandife.
liftoiy. To whom the world is indebted for the invention of
{hips, is, like all other things of equal antiquity, un¬
certain.
A very fmall portion of art or contrivance was feen
in the firll Ihips : they were neither ftrong nor durable j
but confifted only of a few planks laid together, with¬
out beauty or ornament, and juft fo compared as to
keep out the water. In fome places they were only the
hulks or ftocks of trees hollowed, and then confifted
only of one piece of timber. Nor was wood alone ap¬
plied to this ufe j but any other buoyant materials, as
the Egyptian reed papyrus j or leather, of which the
primitive {hips were frequently compofed ; the bottom
and fides being extended on a frame of thin battens or
fcantlings, of flexible wood, or begirt with wickers^
fuch as we have frequently beheld amongft the Ameri¬
can favages. In this manner they were often navigated
upon the rivers of Ethiopia, Egypt, and Sabaean Arabia,
even in latter times. But in the firft of them, we find
no mention of any thing but leather or hides fewed to¬
gether. In a veflel of this kind, Dardanus fecured his
retreat to the country afterwards called Troas, when he
was. compelled by a terrible deluge to foriake his former
habitation of Samothrace. According to Virgil, Cha¬
ron’s infernal boat was of the fame compofition.
But as the other arts extended their influence, naval
architedlure likewife began to emerge from the gloom
of ignorance and barbarifm ; and as the {hips of thofe
ages were increafed in bulk, and better proportioned
for commerce, the appearance of the floating citadels
of unufual form, full of living men, flying with Teeming^
ly expanded wings over the furface of the untravelled
ocean, {truck the ignorant people with terror and afto-
nifliment: and hence, as ive are told by Ariftophanes,
arofe the fable of Perfeus flying to the Gorgons, who
was actually carried thither in a {hip ! Hence, in all
probability, the famous ftory of Triptolemus riding on
a winged dragon is deduced, only becaufe he failed from
Athens, in the time of great dearth, to a more plentiful
country, to fupply the neceflities of his people. The
fidlion of the flying horfe Pegafus may be joined with
thofe, who, as feveral mythologifts report, was nothing
but a fhip with fails, and thence faid to be the offspring
of Neptune the fovereign of the fea ; nor does there ap¬
pear any other foundation for the ftories of griffins, or
of {hips transformed into birds and fifties, which we fo
often meet with in the ancient poets. So acceptable to
the firft ages of the ivorld were inventions of. this na¬
ture, that whoever made any improvements in naviga¬
tion or naval architeciure, building new Ihips better fit-
I L D I N G.
ted for ftrength or fwiftnefs than thofe ufed before, or Riftoir
rendered the old more commodious by additional contri- «=
vances, or dificovered countries unknown to former tra¬
vellers, were thought worthy of the greateft honours,
and often affociated into the number of their deified he¬
roes. Hence we have in aftronomy the figns of* Aries
and Taurus, which were no other than two fliips; the
former tranfported Phryxus from Greece to Colchos,
and the latter Europa from Phoenicia to Crete. Ar¬
go, Pegafus, and Perfeus, were likewife new {hips of a-
different fort from the former, which being greatly ad¬
mired by the barbarous and uninftru&ed people of thofe
times, were tranflated amongft the {tars, in coname-
moration of their inventors, and metamorphofed into
conftellations by the poets of their own and of fucceed-
ing ages..
The chief parts, of which {hips anciently confifted,
were three, viz. the belly, the prow, and the Hern: thefe.
were again compofed of other fmaller parts, which ftiall
be briefly deferibed in their order. In the defeription,
we chiefly follow Scheffer, who has fo copioufly treated
this fubjedt, and with fuch induflry and learning col-
ledted whatever is ne'ceffary to illullrate it, that very
little room is left for enlargement by thofe ivho incline
to purfue this inveftigation.
1, In the belly, or middle part of the ftiip, there was
Tjfwrif, carina, or the “ keel,” which was compofed of
wood : it was placed at the bottom of the ftiip, being
defigned to cut and glide through the waves, and there¬
fore was not broad, but narrow and ftiarp; whence it
may be perceived that not all fliips, but only the^**^
which ftiips of war were called, whofe bellies were
ftraight, and of a fmall circdmference, were provided
with keels, the reft having ufually flat bottoms. Around
the outfide of the keel were fixed pieces of wood, to
prevent it from being damaged when the ftiip w^as firft
launched into the water, or afterwards ftruck on any
rocks j thefe were called in Latin cunei.
Next to the keel was the “ pump well, or
well-room,” within which was contained the ccvrXtol, or
“ pump,” through which water was conveyed out of
the ffiip.
After this, there was tSumgu or the “ fecond
keel,” fomewhat refembling what is now called Mfon;
it was placed beneath the pump, and called
X,*\y.w, KteiTOTTotuv; by fome it is falfely fuppofed to be
the fame with QctXr.is.
Above the pump was an hollow place, called by He¬
rodotus mt? vYios, by Pollux, *vres and yetc^a, becaufe
large and capacious, after the form of a belly ; by the
Latins tejludo. This was formed by crooked "ribs, with
which it was furrounded, which were pieces of wood
rifing from the keel upwards, and called by Hefychius
npus
ship-building.
va«s(j, and by others lyzotMec, the belly of the Hup being
contained within them : in Latin cqflce ; and in Eng-
lilh, timbers. Upon thefe were placed certain planks,
•which Ariftophanes calls ivTiganiuxs, or
The TrXivgxi, latera, or “ iides” of the ihip, encom-
paffed all the former parts on both hands*, thefe were
compofed of large rafters extended from prow to ilern,
and called and ^tifiia/xccTcc, becauie by them the
whole fabric was begirt or furrounded.
In both thefe fides the rowers had their places, call¬
ed ro<^a< and tdaXiet, in Latin fori and tranjlra, placed
above one another ; the lowed; wras called baXupo?, and
thofe that laboured therein S-xXxptct ; the middle,
and the men ^vXtoi *, the uppermoft whence the
rowers were termed In thefe apartments wTere
ipaces through which the rowers put their oars : thefe
were fometimes one continued vacuity from one end to
the other, called but more ufually diftinft holes,
each of which was defigned for a fmgle oar ; thefe
were ftyled r^uotlx, as alfo oQSxXptet, becaute
not unlike the eyes of living creatures. All of them w7ere
by a more general name termed lyx-unx, from containing
the oars j but £y»ryw<» feems to have been another thing,
fignifying the Ipaces between the banks of oars on each
lide, where the paflengers appear to have been placed.
On the top of all there was a paffage or place to walk,
called and as joining to the S-(>xvoi,
or uppermoft bank of oars.
2. n^u^x, the “ prow, or fore-deck,” whence it is
fometimes called ftiTMTrcv, and commonly diftinguiflred
by other metaphorical titles taken from human faces.
In fome fhips there is mention of two prorvs, as alfo
two fterns *, fuch as Danaus’s ftiip adorned by Minerva
when he fled from Egypt. It w*as ufual to beautify
the prow with gold and various forts of paint and co¬
lours ; in the primitive times red was moft in ufe *,
whence Homer’s drips were generally dignified with
the titles of /xtXroTrx^ti, and (poivtr.aTrx^oi, or “ red fa¬
ced the blue, likewife, or fky-colour, was frequently
made ufe of, as bearing a ft rift refernblance to the colour
of the fea 5 whence wre find drips called by Homer
y.vxv67r^up»t, by Ariftophanes xvxvix/2oXot. Several other
colours were alfo made ufe of *, nor were they barely
varnidred over with them, but very often annealed by
wax melted in the fire, fo that neither the fun, winds,
nor water, were able to deface them. The art of doing
this was called from the wax x»jgeyg<*p«e, from the fire
iftcxv^x-vi, which is defcribed by Vitruvius, and mention¬
ed in Ovid.
Picia co/oribus ujits
Cceru/enm matrem concava puppis Jiabet.
The painted drip with melted wax anneal’d
Had Tethys for its deity- 
In thefe colours the various forms of gods, animals,
plants, &c. wrere ufually drawn, which were likewife
often added as ornaments to other parts of the drips, as
plainly appears from the ancient monuments prefen ted
to the world by Bayfius.
The fides of the prow wrere termed vli^x, or “ wrings,”
and nxyx, according to Scheffer, or rather *, for
fince the prow is commonly compared to a human face,
it will naturally follow1 that the fides fhould be called
-cheeks. I heie are now called bouts by our manners.
3. ngyKvj), “ the hind-deck or poop,” fometimes caL Hiftwy,
led v£x, the “ tail,” becaufe the hindmoft part' of the' r-
ftiip ; it w'as of a figure more inclining to round than
the prow, the extremity of which was (harp, that it
might cut the waters *, it was alio built higher than the
prow, and w7as the place where the pilot tat to fleer 5
the outer-bending part of it was called tmiruav, anfwer-
ing to our term quarter.
They had various ornaments of fculpture on the
prow ; as helmets, animals, triumphal wreaths, &c.—
The item was more particularly adorned W'ith wings,
(hields, &c. Sometimes a little maft was erefted where¬
on to hang ribbands of divers colours, which fervcd in-
ftead of a flag to diftinguidi the flap ; and a weather¬
cock, to fignify the part from whence the wind blew7.
Oh the extremity of the prow w7as placed a round
piece of wood, called the from its bending and
fometimes otp&xXfAos, the “ eye” of the (trip, becaufe fix¬
ed in the fore-deck ; on this was infcribed the name of
the drip, which was ufually taken from the figure paint¬
ed on the flag. Hence comes the frequent mention of
fhips called Pegqfi, ScylU, bulls, rams, tigers, S^c,
which the poets took the liberty to reprefent as living
creatures that tranfported their riders from one country
to another.
The whole fabric being completed, it w7as fortified
with pitch, and fometimes a mixture of rofin, to fecure
the wood from the waters *, whence it comes that Ho¬
mer’s drips are everywhere mentioned with tire epithet
of +aXxHxt, or “ black.” Pitch was firft ufed by the
inhabitants of Phaeacia, fince called Corfica j fome¬
times wax was employed for the fame purpofe 5 whence
Ovid,
Ccerulea ceratas accipit unda rates.
The azure waves receive the waxed fhips.
After all, the (hip being bedecked with garlands and
flowers, the mariners alfo adorned with crowns, fire was
launched into the fea with loud acclamations and other
expreflions of joy *, and being purified by a prieft with a
lighted torch, an egg and brimftone, or after fome
other manner, was confecrated to the god whofe image
fire’bore.
The (hips of war of the ancients were diftinguiftred
from other kinds of veffels by various turrets and aecei-
fions of building, fome to defend their own foldiers, and
others to annoy the enemy ; and frdm one another, in
latter ages, by feveral degrees or ranks of oars, the moft
ufual number of which was four or five, which appear
not to have been arranged, as fome imagine, on the
fame level in different parts of the (hip ; nor yet, as
others have fuppofed, direftly above one another’s
heads *, but their feats being placed one behind another,
afeended gradually, like flairs. Ptolemy Philopater,
urged by a vain-glorious defire of exceeding all the
world befides in naval architefture, is faid to have far¬
ther enlarged the number of banks to 40 ; and the (hip
being otherwife in equal proportion, this raifed her to
fuch an enormous bulk, that (he appeared at a diftance
like a floating mountain or ifland ; and, upon a nearer
view, like a prodigious caftle on the ocean. .She was
280 cubits long, 38 broad, and 48 high (each cubit be¬
ing 1 Englifh foot 5L inches), and carried 400 rov7ers,
400 bailors, and 3000 foldiers. Another which the
fame
SHIP-BUILDING.
Hiftory-
'celera,
Kp-
r
| p- vol. iv,
6C4.
fame prince made to fail on the Nile, we are told, was
half a ftadium long. Yet thefe were nothing in compa-
rifon of Hiero’s fhip, built under the direction of Ar¬
chimedes } on the ftrudture of which Mofehion wrote a
whole volume. There was wood enough employed in
it to make 50 galleys ; it had all the variety of apart¬
ments of a palace ; fuch as banqueting-rooms, galleries,
gardens, fith-ponds, {tables, mills, baths, and a temple to
Venus. The floors of the middle apartment were all
inlaid, and reprefented in various colours the {lories of
Homer’s Iliad. The ceilings, windows, and all other
parts, were finilhed with wonderful art, and embellilhed
with all kinds of ornaments. In the uppermoft apart¬
ment there was a fpacious gymnafium, or place for exer-
cife, and water was conveyed to the garden by pipes,
fome of hardened clay, and others of lead. The floors
of the temple of Venus were inlaid with agates and
other precious {tones) the infide lined with cyprefs
wood ; the windows adorned with ivory paintings and
fmall ftatues. . There was likewife a library. This vef-
fel was adorned on all fides with fine paintings. It had
20 benches of oars, and was encompaffed with an iron
rampart, eight towers, with walls and bulwarks, furnith-
ed with machines of war, particularly one which threw
a {tone of 300 pounds, or a dart 12 cubits long, the
fpace of half a mile, with many other particulars related
by Athenaeus. Caligula likewife built a veflel adorned
with jewels in the poop, with fails of many colours, and
furnifhed with large porticoes, bagnios, and banquet¬
ing-rooms, befides row's of vines, and fruit-trees of va¬
rious kinds. But thefe, and all fuch monrtrous fabrics,
ferved only for fhow and oftentation, being rendered-by
their vaft bulk unwieldy and unfit for fervice. Athe¬
naeus informs us, the common names they were known
by, wrere Cyclades, or I&tna, i. e. “ iflands, or moun¬
tains,” to which they feemed nearly equal in bignefs ;
confifting, as {ome report, of as many materials as
would have compofed 50 triremes, or {hips of three
banks.
The veffels employed by the northern nations appear
to have been {till more imperfect than thofe of the Ro¬
mans 5 for a law was enacted in the reign of the em¬
peror Honorius, 24th September, A. X). 418, inflift-
ing capital punifhment on any ■who fliould inltrudt the
barbarians in the art of fhip-buiiding 5 a proof at once
of the great eftimation in which this fcience w'as then
held, and of the ignorance of the barbarians w'ith re¬
gard to it.
The fleet of Richard I. of England, when he weighed
anchor for the holy war from Meflina, in Sicily, where
he had paffed the winter, A. D. 1190-1, is faid to have
confided of 150 great (hips and 53 galleys, befides
barks, tartans, &c. What kinds of Ihips thefe were is
not mentioned. To the crufades, however pernicious in
other refpects, this fcienoe fcems to owe fome improve¬
ments ; and to this particular one we are indebted for
Richard’s marine code, commonly called the Laws of
Oleron, from the name of a fmall ifland on the coaft of
France, where he compofed them, and which moft of
the nations in Europe have made the bails of their ma¬
ritime regulations. Thofe {hips, if they merited the
name of (hips, wrere probably very fmall, as we find that
fo long after as the time of Edward I. anno 1304, 40
men were deemed fufficient to man the belt and largeft
veflels in England j and that Edivard the Third, anno
Vol. XIX. Part I,
J335, ordained the mayor, and flierilfs'of London to Hiftory.
“ take up all {hips in their port, and all other ports in “1
the kingdom, of the burden of 40 tons and upwards,
and to furnifh the fame with armed men and other ne-
ceffaries of war, againft the Scots his enemies, confede¬
rated with certain perfons of foreign nations.” Edward
the Third’s fleet before Calais, anno 1347, confiited of
738 Englifli flaps, carrying 14,956 mariners, being on
an average but 20 men to each [hip •, 1 5 (hips and 459
mariners, from Bayonne in Guienne, being 30 men to
each (hip j 7 (hips and 184 men from Spain, which is-
26 men to each (hip j one from Ireland, carrying 25
men j 14 from Flanders, with 133 men, being fcarcely
10 men to each (hip ; and one from Guclderland, with
24 mariners. Fifteen of thefe were called the king’s
own (hips, manned with. 419 mariners, being fornewhat
under 17 to each (hip.
Hiflorians reprefent the veflels of Venice and Genoa
as the largefl and the bed about this time, but they
were foon exceeded in fize by the Spanilh veflels called
carricks, fome of which carried cannon •, and thefe again
were exceeded by the veflels built by the northern peo¬
ple, particularly thofe belonging to the Hanfe-towns.—->
In the 14th century, the Hanfeatics were the fovereigns
of the northern feas, as w'ell without as within the Bal¬
tic -} and their (hips were fo large, that foreign princes
often hired them in their wars. According to Hak¬
luyt, an Englilh (hip from Newcaftle, of 200 tons bur¬
den, was feized in the Baltic by thofe of Wifmar and
Roitock, anno 1394 j and another Englifli veflel of the Fcedera, •
fame burden was violently feized in the port of Lifbon, v°h Vlii-
anno 141 2. P-
Soon after (hips of a much larger fize were con- ^ vo^
ftructed. It is mentioned that a very large (hip was*5, 2‘’8’
built, anno 1449, by John Taverner of Hull; and in ^
the year 1455, King Henry IV. at the requeft of ^ ^
Charles king of Sweden, granted a licence for a Swedifli
fliip of the burden of a thoufand tons or under, laden
with merchandife, and having 1 20 perfons on board, to
come to the ports of England, there to difpofe of their
lading, and to relade back with Englifli merchandife,
paying the ufual cuftoms. The infcription on the tond)
of William Canning, an eminent merchant, who had
been five times mayor of Briftol, in Ratelift-chureh at
Briftol, anno 1474, mentions his having forfeited the
king’s peace, for which he was condemned to pay 300
marks ; in lieu of which fum, King Edw'ard IV. took
of him 2470 tons of (hipping, amongfl: which there
was one fliip of 900 tons burden, another of 500 tons,
and one of 400 tons, the reft being fmaller.
In the year 1506, King James IV. of Scotland built
the largefl: (hip which had hitherto been feen, but which
was loft in her way to France in the year 1512, owing
probably to a defective conftruftion, and the unikilful-
nefs of the crew in managing fo large a (hip.—About
this time a very large fliip was likewife built in France.
In the fleet fitted out by Henry VIII. anno 1512, there
was one fliip, the Regent, of 1000 tons burden, one of
500, and three of 400 each. A (hip ftill larger than
the Regent, was built foon after, called Henri Grace
Dieul In the year 1522 the firft voyage round the
globe was finbhed.
The Englifli naval hiftorians think that (hips carried
cannon on their upper decks only, and had no gun-
ports before the year 1545 : and it is certain that many
I i of
Mo nfon's
Naval
Trails,
P- 254.
3
Ships of
the com¬
mon form
found de-
fecfive,
4
and im¬
provements
propofed.
5
Double
Ihips in¬
troduced
by Sir Wil¬
liam Petty,
European
Magazine
SHIP E U
of the largeft fhips m former times were fitted out from
harbours, where fhips of a moderate fize now would
not have water enough.to float them. In I575> the
whole of the royal navy did not exceed 24 fliips, and
the number of merchant-fliips belonging to England
amounted to no more than 135 veffels above too tons,
and 656 between 40 and 100 tons. At Queen Eliza¬
beth’s death, anno 1603, there were not above four
merchant-fliips in England of 400 tons burden each.—
The largeft of Queen Elizabeth’s fliips of war was 1000
tons burden, carrying but 340 men, and 40 guns, and
the fmalleft 600 tons, carrying 150 men and 30 guns.
Smaller veffels were occafionally hired by her from pri¬
vate owners.
In the memorable fea-fight of Lepanto between the
Turks and Chriftians, anno 1571, no veffels were em¬
ployed but galleys •, and it would appear from the car-
cafes of fome of them, which are ftill preferved in the
arfenal at Venice, that even thefe were not fo large or
fo well conftrufted as thofe of our times. The Invin¬
cible Armada, as Spanifli vanity fly led it, once the
terror and admiration of nations, in the pompous and
•exaggerated defcriptions of which the Spanifli authors
of thofe times dwelt with fo much apparent pleafure,
confided of 130 ftiips, near 100 of which were the
ftatelieft that had yet been feen on the ocean. • The
largeft of thefe, however, would be no more than a third
rate veffel in our navy, and they were fo ill conftrufted,
that they would neither move eafily, fail near the wind,
nor be properly worked in tempeftuous weather. The
whole of the naval force colle&ed by Queen Elizabeth
-to oppofe this formidable fleet, including hired veffels,
tenders, ftore-fliips, &c. amounted to no more than
*43'
Ship-building began now to make a confiderable pro-
grefs in Britain. Both war and trade required an in-
creafe of (hipping 5 fo that in the year 1670, the an¬
nual charge of the navy was reported to be 500,000!. •,
and in 1678 the navy confifted of 83 ftiips, of which
58 were of the line. At this time the exports amount¬
ed to ten millions per annum *, and the balance of trade
vras two millions. In 1689 there were 173 ftiips, great
and fmall, in the royal navy, and it has been eonftant-
ly increafing ; fo that in 1761 the ftiips in the navy
amounted to 372, of which 129 were of the line ; and
in the beginning of the year 1795, the total amount
was above 430.
As ftiips of the common conftruftion are found to
be very defedlive in many particulars, various methods
have therefore from time to time been propofed to re¬
move fome of the bad qualities they poffeffed. As it
would be an endlefs talk to enumerate the different in¬
ventions for this purpofe, a few of them only will now
be mentioned.
Invi663 Sir William Petty conftru&ed a double (hip,
or rather a fingle (hip with a double bottom, which was
found to fail confiderably fafter than any of the fliips
I L D I N G.
with which it had an opportunity of being tried. Her Hiftory.
firft voyage was from Dublin to Holyhead ■, and in her
return “ (he turned into that narrow harbour againfl:
wind and tide, among rocks and (hips, with fuch dex¬
terity as many ancient leamen confeffed they had never
feen the like.” This veffel with .70 more was loft in
a dreadful tempeft. ^ |
The fubjeft was again revived by Mr Gordon, in his and again
Principles of Naval Architefture, printed at Aberdeen propofed 1
anno 1784 •, where, having delivered his fentiments on^y
the conftrufHon of large mails, he fays ; “ Thefe ex-
periments likewife point out to us methods by which
two veffels may be laterally connefted together, though
at a confiderable diftance from each other, in a manner
fufficiently ftrong, with very little increafe of weight or
expence of materials, and without expofing much fur-
face to the a£tion or influence of the wind or the weaves,
or obftrudling their motion in any confiderable degree,
and confequently without being much oppofed by them
on that account under any circumftances 5 and if veffels
are judicioufly conftru&ed wdth a vknv to fuch a junc¬
tion, it would be no eafy matter to enumerate all the
advantages that may be obtained by this means.” He
then enumerates the advantages that double veffels ^
wrould have over thofe of the common conftruftion. And lately
Soon after double ftiips were actually built by Mr Mil-conllruded
ler of Dalfwinton. by Mr Mil
Another plan was propofed by Mr Gordon to make pr]nciplts
a ftiip fail fall, draw little water, and to keep a good of Naval
wind. For this purpofe, “ the bottom (he fays) ftiould Architec-
be formed quite flat, and the fides made to rife perpen- ture<V-
dicular from it, without any curvature y which would Drau§llt c
not only render her more fteady, as being more oppofed Water pro.
to the water in rolling, but likewife more convenient forpofed to be
ftowage, &c. while the fimplicity of the form would ^imiI1‘^ei'
contribute greatly to the eafe and expedition with
which (lie might be fabricated. Though dimini(hingiocity( ^
the draught of water is, cateris paribus, undoubtedly 9
the moft effectual method of augmenting the velocity inconve-
with which veffels go before the wind ; yet, as it pro-niencyof
portionally diminifties their hold of the water, it ren-tlus Pian.
ders them extremely liable to be driven to leeward, and Reraejie(}
altogether incapable of keeping a good wind. This |)y aug.
defeft may, however, be remedied, in a Ample and ef-meriting
feftual manner, by proportionally augmenting the depth
of keel, or, as fo large a keel would be inconvenient onot e ee
many accounts, proportionally increafing their number; I.1
as, in place of adding a keel eight feet deep to a veffel creafing"
drawing fix feet water, to affix to different parts of her the num-
flat bottom, which would be well adapted for receiving ber of
them, fix different keels of two feet deep each at equalkee^-
diftances from each other, with proper intervals between j
which will be found equally effe&ual for preventing
thefe pernicious effefts. Four fuch, indeed, would have
anfwered the purpofe as well as the eight feet keel, were
it not for the fuperior preffure or refiftance of the lower
water (a).
Thus
(a) This is frequently repeated on the authority of Mr Gordon and others. Theory fays otherwife ; and the
for Auguft eXperinients of Sir Ifaac Newton (how in the moft unexceptionable manner, that the refiftance of a ball defcending
*’ through the water is the fame at all depths ; nay, the heaping up of the water on the bow, occafioning a hydro-
ftatical preffure in addition to the real refiftance, will make the whole oppofition to an equal furface, but of greater
horizontal dimenfions, greater, becaufe it bears a greater proportion to the refiftance.
Hiftory.
12
Ilie plan
,rther im-
iroved by
adop-
aon of flid-
n? keels.
13
fhe utility
f Hiding
:eels pro-
ed by ex-
«riment.
*4
ind aclu-
Uy put in
laftice
pon a
rger fcale,
Thus then it appears, that a veffel drawing eight feet
water only, keels and all, may be made to keep as good
a wind, or be as little liable to be driven to leeward, as
the fharpeft built veffel of the fame length drawing 14,
nay 20 or upwards, if a few more keels are added, at
the fame time that Ihe would be little more refilled in
moving in the line of the keels than a veffel drawing
fix feet w’ater only. Thefe keels, befides, would
ftrengthen the vellel confiderably, would render her
more Heady, and lefs liable to be overfet, and thereby
enable her to carry more fail; and Mr Gordon then
enumerates the feveral advantages that a {hip of this
conllrudlion will poffefs.
This plan has been put into execution by Captain
Schank, with this difference only, that inllead of the
keels being fixed as propofed by Mr Gordon, Captain
Schank conllrufted them fo as to Hide down to a certain
depth below the bottom, or to be drawn up within the
Ihip as occafion might require.
Captain Schank having communicated his plans to
the Navy Board, two veffels were in confequence or¬
dered to be built of 13 tons each, and fimilar in dimen-
fions, one on the old conftrudlion, and the other flat-
bottomed, with Hiding keels. In 1790 a compara¬
tive trial in prefence of the commiflioners of the navy
was made on the river Thames, each having the fame
quantity of fail ; and although the veffel on the old
conftruclion had leeboards, a greater quantity of bal-
laft, and two Thames pilots aboard, yet Captain
Schank’s veffel with three Hiding keels beat the other
veffel, to the aftonifiiment of all prefent, one half of the
whole difiance failed j and no doubt Ihe would have
beat her much more had Hie been furnifiied with a
Thames pilot.
This trial gave fo much fatisfa&ion, that a king’s
cutter of 120 tons wTas immediately ordered to be built
on the fame conftrudlion, and Captain Schank was re-
queffed to fuperintend its building. This veffel wras
launched at Plymouth in 1791, and named the Trial.
■ The length of this veffel is 66 feet, breadth 21 feet,
and depth of the hold feven feet : her bottom is quite
flat, and draws only fix feet water, with all her ^uns,
flores, &c. whereas all other veffels of her tonnage on
the old conflrudlion draw 14 ftet ; fo that’’ flie can go
with fafety into almofl any harbour or creek. She has
three Hiding keels inclofed in a cafe or well} they are
each 14 feet in length ; the fore and the after keels are
three feet broad each, and the middle keel is fix feet
broad. The keels are moveable by means of a winch,
and may be let down feven feet below the real keel j
and they work equally well in a ftorm as in ftill wa¬
ter. Her hold is divided into feveral compartments, all
water-tight, and fo contrived, that Ihould even a plank
or two Hart at fea in different parts of the veffel, Ihe
may be navigated with the greateft feeurity to any
place. If Hie ffiould be driven on Ihore in a gale of
wind, Ihe will not foon become a wreck-, as her keels
will be driven up into their cafes, and the Ihip being
flat-bottomed, will not be eafily overfet j and being
able to go into fuch lhallow water, the crew may all be
eafily faved. By means of her Hiding keel Ihe is kept
fteady in the greateft gale; ftie is quite eafy in a great
fea, does not ftrain in the leaft, and never takes in wa¬
ter on her deck ; and when at anchor, Ihe rides more
upright and even than any other Ihip can do : fhe fails
S H I P-B U 1 L D I N G.
very fall either before or upon a wind j no veffel (he
has ever been in company with, of equal fize, has been
able, upon many trials, to beat her in failing 5 and yet
her fails feem too fmall.
It has alfo been propofed to conftrudl veffels of other
materials than wood ; and a veffel was built whofe bot¬
tom, inftead of being plank, avas copper.
Book I. Containing the Method of Delineating the
feveral Sehlions of a Ship.
Chap. I. Of the Properties of Ships.
A ship ought to be conftrufted fo as to anfwer the General
particular purpofe for which (he is intended. It would principles
be an eafy matter to determine the form of a ftiip in-°f
tended to fail by means of oars 5 but, when fails are HU
ufed, a (hip is then a6led upon by two elements, the
wind and water ; and therefore it is much more diffi¬
cult than is commonly imagined to afcertain the form of
a (hip fo as to anfwer in an unfavourable as well as a fa¬
vourable wind ; the (hip at the fame time having a car¬
go of a certain weight and magnitude. ^
Every (hip ought to fail well, but particularly when propert;es
the wind is upon the beam; for this purpofe a eonfider- that a fhip
able length in proportion to the breadth is neceflary, nnift pof-
and the plane of refiftance (hould be the leaft poffible. (c0^°a^e^
The main frame (hould alfo be placed in a proper fitua- ^
tion ; but according to the experiments of Mr Chap¬
man *, its plane is variable with the velocity of the * Trdite de
(hip : the mean place of the main frame has, however, la Con/lruc-
been generally eftimated to be about one-twelfth of thet!0n e}es
length of the keel before the middle. Without a fuf- ^‘’'^aUX'
ficient degree of (lability a ffiip will not be able to car-1
ry a prefs of fail; a great breadth in proportion to the
length and low upper-works will augment the liability.
The following particulars being attended to, the above
property will be gained, and the ftiip will alfo fleer
well. The wing tranfom Ihould be carried pretty high j
the fafhion-pieces well formed, and not full below the
load water-line: the lower part of the ftem to be a por¬
tion of a circle, and to have a confiderable rake : the
fternpofl to be nearly perpendicular to the keel; and all
the upper Avorks kept as low’ as poffible.
Many Ihips from conllrudlion are liable to make much To make a
leeAvay. This may in a.great meafure be avoided by giv- fliip keep
ing the Ihip a long keel, little breadth, and a confider- a §0°d
able depth in the hold : Avhence the bow ivill meet with wmf*>
little refiftance in comparifon to the fide, and therefore
the Ihip Avill not fall much to the leeward. jg
Another Very great retardation to the velocity of a and to fail
(hip is her pitching. The principal remedy for this is to fmoothly
increafe the length of the keel and floor, to diminiffi
the riling afore and abaft, and to conftrufl the hull in °
fuch a manner that the contents of the fore-body
may be duly proportioned to the contents of the after-
bodV' . . ’ 10
In a Hrip of Avar the lotver tier of guns ought to bein fln'ps of
of a fufficient height above the Avater, othenvife it will war the
be impoffible to Avork the lee-guns Avhen it bloAVS hard.lower deck
This property Avill be obtained by giving her a long j?11”5 .t0
floor-timber, little riling, a full midffiip frame, light up-highabov*
per works, and the wing-tranfom not too high : And the vvaterf
in every Ihip. the extreme breadth ought always to be
higher afore and abaft than at midffiips.
I i 2 A-
S H I P-B U I L D I N G.
252
Properties A merchant fhip, befides being a fail failer, ought
ot Ships‘ , to carry a confiderable cargo in proportion to its
' ”r—2vo length, to fail with little ballaft, and to be navigated
Properties with few hands.
of a mer- That a {hip may take in a confiderable cargo, it
chant Hup, fcould have a great breadth and depth in proportion to
to take in - ^ts a bottom, and a long and flat floor,
great cargo] But a (hip of this conftru&ion will neither fail fall, nor
*2 carry much fail.
and to have If a flflp be filled out much towards the line of float-
ftability. ation, together with low upper works, Ihe will require
little ballaft : and that ftiip which is ftiff from conliruc-
tion is much better adapted for failing faft than one
which, in order to carry the fame quantity of canvas,
is obliged to be loaded with a much greater weight :
for the reliftance is as the quantity of water to be re¬
moved, or nearly as the area of a tranfverfe feftion of
the immerfed part of the body at the midlhip frame j
and a body that is broad and lhallow is much ftiffer
than one of the fame capacity that is narrow and deep.
Principles “ The advantages (fays Mr Gordon) are numerous,
of Naval important, and obvious. For it is evident, that by en-
Architec- larging, perhaps doubling, the breadth of vefiels, and
ture.p. 100. £ormjng tjiejr bottoms flat and well furnifhed with
23 keels, they muft, in the firjl place, become much ftea-
Adv^ntages ^ier, rou little, if any, and be enabled to carry greatly
a fmalliP ^ more an(i that in a better dire&ion, at the fame-
draught of time that they would be in no danger of being difmaft-
water, €d or overfet, unlefs the marts were of a moft extraor¬
dinary height indeed. Secondly, They would have little
or no occafion for ballaft, and if any was ufed, could
incur lefs danger from its ftiifting. Thirdly, That there
would be much more room upon deck, as well as ac¬
commodation below •, the breadth being fo much in-
creafed without any diminution of the height above the
load-wrater line. Fourthly, That they would deviate
much lefs from the intended courfe, and penetrate the
water much carter in the proper dire&ion *, for doubling
the breadth, without any increafe of weight, would di-
minifh the depth or draught of water one half; and
though the extent of the dire&ly oppofing furface
would be the fame as before, yet the veflel in moving
■would meet with half the former refiftance only ; for fo
great is the difference between the preffure, force, or
readlion, of the upper and the under water. Fifthly,
That they would by this means be adapted for lying
unfupported in docks and harbours when dry, be ren¬
dered capable of being navigated in (hallow water, and
of being benefited by all the advantages attending that
very important circumftance : and it is particularly to
be obferved, that making veffels which may be naviga¬
ted in (hallow water, may, in many refpedts, juftly be
regarded as a matter of equal importance with increa-
flng the number of harbours, and improving them, as ha¬
ving identically the fame effedfts with regard to naviga¬
tion •, at the fame time, that the benefits which w'ould
refult from fuch circumftances are obtained by this means
without either expence, trouble, or inconvenience : be-
lides, it would not only enable veffels to enter many ri¬
vers, bays, and creeks, formerly inaceeflible to (hips of
burden, but to proceed to fuch places as are moft
landlocked, where they can lie or ride moft fecure,
and with lead expence of men and ground tackle. As
{hips of war would carry their guns well by being fo
5
(teady, there could be but little occafion for a high Property
topflde, or much height of hull above water 5 and as i ot Ships
little or no ballaft w’ould be required, there would be 1 ’ H
no neceflity, as in other veffels, for increaftng their
weight on that account, and thereby prefling them
deeper into the water. Thefe are very important cir-
cumftances, and would contribute much to improve the ii:
failing of fuch veffels.1’ From whence it appears, that
there would be united, what has hitherto been deemed irre-
concileable, the greateft poflible (lability, which is nearly
as the area of a tranverfe fedlion of the immerfed part of
the body at the midftiip frame : and a body that is broad
and (hallow is much ftiffer than one of the fame capaci¬
ty that is narrow and deep. A (hip of this conftruction
may take in a confiderable cargo in proportion to her
fize •, but if deeply loaded will not fail faft, for then the
area of a feiftion of the immerfed part at the midfhip
frame will be very confiderable 5 and as the fails of fuch
a (hip muft neceffarily be large, more hands will there¬
fore be required.
The lefs the breadth of a (hip, the fewer hands will be anc| t0 j,e
neceffary to work her j as in that cafe the quantity of fail navigatea
will be kfs, and the anchors alfo of lefs weight. We (hallw k*1 tew
gain much (fays M. Bouguer) by making the extreme I
breadth no more than the fifth or fixth part of the jya!U-xrtK
length, if, at the fame time, we diminifli the depth pro¬
portionally ; and likewife this moft furprifing circum¬
ftance, that by diminilhing thefe two dimenfions, or by
increafing the length, a ftiip may be made to go fome-
times as fail as the wind.
In order to obtain the preceding properties, very op*imp0ffi!;ie
pofite rules muft be followed ; and hence it appears to to unite aj
be importable to conftrudl a (hip fo as to be poffeffed of the quali-
them all. The body, however, muft be fo formed, that j)es
as many of thefe properties may be retained as pofiible, me p'!;
always obferving to give the preference to thofe which
are moft required, if it is known what particular trade
the ftiip is to be employed in, thofe qualities are then
principally to be adhered to which are moft effentially
neceffary for that employment.
It may eafily be demonftrated that fmall (hips will Small (hip
not have the fame advantages as large ones of a fimilarinferiorto
form, when employed in the fame trade : for a large largeone-
(hip will not only fail fafter than a fmall one of a fimi-^^”1^
lar form, but will alfo require fewer hands to work her. j
Hence, in order that a fmall fhip may poffefs the fame
advantages as a large one, the correfponding dimtnfions
will not be proportional to each other. The reader will
fee in Chapman’s ArchiteBura Nava/is Mercatoria am¬
ple tables of the feveral dimenfions of (hips, of different
claffes and fizes, deduced from theory combined with
experiment. Tables of the dimenlions of the princi¬
pal (hips of the Brilifh navy, and of other (hips, are
contained in the Ship-builder’s Repofitory, and in Mur¬
ray’s Treatife on Ship-building.
Chap. II. Of the different Plans of a Ship.
When it is propofed to build a (hip, the propor¬
tional fize of every part of her is to be laid down j from
whence the form and dimenfions of the timbers, and of
every particular piece of wood that enters into the con-
ftru&ion, is to be found. As a (hip has length, breadth,
and depth, three different plans at lead are neceffary to
exhibit
28
Half
breadth
plan,
or projec
don.
30
SHI P-B U
Different exhibit the form of the feveral parts of a fliip : thefe are
plans of a ufuaHy denominated the Jheer plan, the half breadth and
^ , body plans.
^ The Jheer plan or draught, otherwife called the plan
Sheer of elevation, is that fed inn of the (hip which is made
draught, or foy a vertical plane palling through the keel. Upon
deration. pjan are down the length of the keel; the
height and rake of the Item and fternpoft ; the fituation
and height of the midlhip and other frames •, the place
of the marts and channels; the projection of the head
and quarter gallery, and their appendages 5 and in a fhip
of war the pofition and dimenfions of the gun-ports.
Several imaginary lines, namely, the upper and lower
height of breadth lines, water lines, &c. are alfo drawn
in this plane.
The half breadth, ox floor plan, or, as it is frequently
called the horizontal plane, contains the feveral half-
, , breadths of every frame of timbers at different heights-,
horizontal water lines, &e. are alfo deferibed on this
plane. , ’
29 plane.
Body plan, The body plan, or plane of projection, is a feet ion of
the fliip at the midfhip frame or broadert place, perpen¬
dicular to the two former. The feveral breadths, and
the particular form of every frame of timbers, are de¬
feribed on this plane. As the two fides of a fliip are
fimilar to each other, it is therefore unneceffary to lay
down both*, hence the frames contained between the
main frame and the ftem are deferibed on one fide of
the middle line, commonly on the right hand fide, and
the after frames are deferibed on the other fide of that line.
The various Several lines are deferibed on thefe planes, in order
lines laid the more readily to aflift in the formation of the timbers j
down on princ;pal 0f which are the following :
e e p ans. q-pg timber line, is a curve limiting the height of
the fhip at each timber.
The top-timber half breadth line, is a feftion of the
fliip at the height of the top-timber line, perpendicular
to the plane of elevation.
The height of breadth lines, are two lines named the
upper and lower heights of breadth. Thefe lines are
deferibed on the plane of elevation to determine the
height of the broadeft part of the fhip at each timber;
and being deferibed in the body plan, limit the height
and breadth of each frame at its broadeft part.
Main half breadth, is a feftion of the fhip at the
broadeft part, perpendicular to the fheer plan, and re-
prefents the greateft breadth at the outfide of every
timber.
Water lines, are lines fuppofed to be deferibed on the.
bottom of a fhip when afloat by the furface of water j
and the uppermoft of thefe lines, or that deferibed by
the water on the ftiip’s bottom when fufficiently load¬
ed, is called the load water line. According as the
fhip is lightened, fhe will rife higher out of the water ;
and hence new water lines will be formed. If fhe be
lightened in fuch a manner that the keel may preferve
the fame inclination to the furface of the water, thefe
lines will be parallel to each other 5 and if they are pa¬
rallel to the keel, they will be reprefented by ftraight
lines parallel to each other in the body plan j otherwife
by curves. In the half breadth plan, thefe lines are
curves limiting the half breadth of the fhip at the height
of the correfponding lines in the Iheer plan. In or¬
der to diftinguifh thefe lines, they are ufually drawn in
green.
I L D I N G, 253
Ribband lines, are curves on a fliip’s bottom by the in- Different
terfeftion of a plane inclined to the plane of elevation j ship* *
and are denominated diagonal or horizontal, according . - ^  i
as they are meafured, upon the diagonal, or in a direc¬
tion perpendicular to the plane ot elevation. Both
thefe anfwer to the fame curve on the fliip’s bottom,
but give very different curves when deferibed on the
half breadth plan. 31
Frames, are circular pieces of timber bolted toge- Frames,
ther, and raifed upon the keel at certain diftances, and
to which the planks are faftened. A frame is compofed t rnber/‘
of one floor-timber, two or three futtocks, and a top- futtocks,
timber on each fide : which being united together, form and top
a circular inclofure, and that which inclofes the greateft ^m^er-
fpace is called the midlhip or main frame. T he arms
of the floor-timber of this frame, form a very obtufe an¬
gle ; but in the other frames this angle decreafes with
the diftance of the frame from midihips. Thofe floor-
timbers which form very acute angles are called crutches.
The length of the midfhip floor-timber is in general
about half the length of the main frame. 32
A frame of timbers is commonly formed by arches of Sweeps of
circles called [weeps. There are generally five fweeps: t*ie ieveral
ift, The fioor fweep ; which is limited by a line in the
body plan perpendicular to the plane of elevation, a
little above the keel; and the height of this line above
the keel at the midfhip frame is called the dead rifing.
The upper part of this arch forms the head of the floor
timber. 2d, The lower breadth fweep ; the centre of
which is in the line reprefenting the lower height of
breadth. 3d, The reconciling fweep. This fweep joins
the two former, without interfering either ; and makes
a fair curve from the lower height of breadtli to the
rifing line. If a ftraight line is drawn from the upper
edge of the keel to touch the back of the floor fweep,
the form of the midfhip frame below the lower height
of breadth will be obtained. 4th, The upper breadth
fweep; the centre of which is in the line reprefenting
the upper height of breadth of the timber. This fweep
deferibed upwards forms the lower part of the top tim¬
ber. 5th, The top-timber fweep is that which forms the
hollow of the top timber. This hollow is, however, very
often formed by a mould, fo placed as to touch the up¬
per breadth fweep, and pafs through the point limiting
the half breadth of the top timber. 33
The main frame, or as it is ufually called dead-fat, is of
denoted by the chara6ter 0. The timbers before dead-tranies'
flat are marked A, B, C, &c. in order •, and thofe abaft
dead-flat by the figures'1, 2, 3, &c. The timbers ad¬
jacent to dead-flat, and of the fame dimenfions nearly,
are diflinguifhed by the charafters (A), (B), &c\ and
(1), (2), &c. That part of the fliip abaft the main
frame is called the after body ; and that before it the
fore body.
All timbers are perpendicular to the half breadth
plan. Thofe timbers whofe planes are perpendicular
to the flieer plan, are called fjiiare timbers ; and thofe
whofe planes are inclined to it are called canted timbers.
The 7'ijing line, is a curve drawn in the flieer plan, at
the heights of the centres of the floor fweeps in the
body plan. As, however, this line, if drawn in this
manner, would extend beyond the upper line of the
figure, it is therefore ufually fo drawn that, its lower part
may touch the upper edge of the keel. This is per¬
formed by taking the heights of each of the centres in
the
254 S H I P-B U
Different the body plan, from the height of the centre of the
Plans of a fweep Gf dead-flat, and fetting them off on the corre-
* fponding timbers in the flieer plan from the upper edge
of the keel.
Half breadth of the rifing, is a curve in the floor plan,
•which limits the diftances of the centres of the floor
fweeps from the middle line of the body plan.
The rifing of the floor, is a curve drawn in the flieer
plan, at the height of the ends of the floor timbers. It
is limited at the. main frame or dead flat by the dead
rifing, and in flat fliips is nearly parallel to the keel for
fome timbers afore and abaft the midfhip frame j for
which reafon thefe t imbers are called flats: but in (harp
• fhips it rifes gradually from the main frame, and ends
on the ftem and port.
Cutting-down line, is a curve drawn on the plane of
elevation. It limits the depth of every floor timber at
the middle line, and alfo the height of the upper part of
the dead wood afore and abaft.
Timber and room, or rootn andflpace, is the diftance
between the moulding edges of two timbers, which muff
always contain the breadth of two timbers and an inter¬
val of about two or three inches between them. In
forming the timbers, one mould ferves for two, the fore-
fide of the one being fuppofed to unite with the aftfide
of the other, and fo make only one line, which is call¬
ed i\w joint of the timbers.
Principal '^n order to illuflrate the above, and to explain more
pieces that .particularly the principal pieces that compofe a (hip, it
compote a WJ}1 be neceffary to give a defeription of them. Thefe
te pieces are for the moft part reprefented according to the
eccclxxxiv order of their difpofition in fig. I.
fig. x. A, Reprefents the pieces of the keel to be fecurely
bolted together and clinched.
B, The fternpoft, which is tenanted into the keel, and
connefted to it by the knee G.
E, The back of the poll, which is alfo tenanted into
the keel, and fecurely bolted to the port *, the intention
of it is to give fufiicient breadth to the port, which fel-
dom can be got broad enough in one piece. C is the
falfe poll, which is fayed (b) to the fore part of the
fternpoft.
C, The ftem, in two pieces, to be fcarfed together.
The ftem is joined to the fore foot, which makes a part
of both.
H, The apron, in two pieces, to be fcarfed together,
and fayed on the infide of the ftem, to fupport the fcarf
thereof; and therefore the fcarf of the apron muft be at
fome diftance from that of the ftem.
I, The ftemfon, in two pieces, to fupport the fcarf
of the apron.
D, The beams which fupport the decks ; and F the
knees by which the beams are faftened to the fides of
the Ihip.
K, The wing tranfom : it is fayed acrofs the ftern¬
poft, and bolted to the head of it, and its extremities
are raftened to the falhion pieces. L, Is the deck tran¬
fom, parallel to the wing tranfom. M, N, Two of the
lower tranfoms: thefe are faftened to the fternpoft and
falhion pieces in the fame manner as the wing tranfom.
O, The knee which fallens the tranfom to the Ihip’s
I L D I N G.
fide. - And, O, The falhion piece, of which there is Differeni!
one on each fide. The keel of tne fafhion piece is con- ^a,ns.°fi
ne£ted with the dead-wood, and the head is faftened to . ^'P1
the wing tranfom. i
R, S, Breaft-hooks; thefe are fayed in the infide to
the ftem, and to the bow on each fide of it, to which
they are faftened with proper bolts. There are gene¬
rally four or five in the hold, in the form of that marked
R, and one in the form of that marked S, into which the
lower deck planks are rabbeted: There is alfo one im¬
mediately under the haufe holes, and another under the
fecond deck.
T, The rudder, which is joined to the fternpoft by
the rudder irons, upon which it turns round in the
googings, faftened to the fternpoft for that purpofe.
There, is a mortife cut in the head of the rudder, into
which a long bar is fitted called the tiller, and by which
the rudder is turned.
U, A floor timber : it is laid acrofs the keel, to
xvhich it is faftened by a bolt through the middle.
V, V, V, V, The lower, the fecond, third, and fourth
futtocks. W, W, The top timbers. Thefe reprefent
the length and fcarf of the feveral timbers in the mid-
Ihip frame.
X, The pieces which compofe the kelfon. They
are fcarfed together in the fame manner as the keel, and
placed over the middle of the floor timbers, being fcored
about an inch and a half down upon each fide of them,
as reprefented in the figure.
Y, The feveral pieces of the knee of the head ; the
lower part of which is fayed to the Item, and its keel is
fcarfed to the head of the forefoot. It is faftened to
the bow by two knees, called cheeks, in the form of that
reprefented by Z; and to the ftem, by a knee called a
flandard, in the form of that marked 0.
a, The cathead, of which there is one on each fide
of the bow, projefting fo far as to keep the anchor clear
of the ihip when it is hove up.
b, The bits, to which the cable is faftened when the
ihip is at anchor.
d. The fide counter-timbers, which terminate the ihip
abaft within the quarter gallery.
e, e, Two pieces of dead wood, one afore and the
other abaft, fayed on the keel.
Fig. 2. is a perfpeftive reprefentation of a ihip fra-Fig. 2. |
med and ready for the planking ; in which A, A is the
keel v B, the fternpoft } C, the ftem ; K, L, M, the
tranfoms ; F, F, F, F, F, F, the ribbands.
Chap. III. Containing Preliminary Problems, Sec.
The general dimenfions of a ihip are the length,
breadth, and depth. ^
To afeertain thofe dimenfions that will beft anfwer Propor-
the intended purpofe is, no doubt, a problem of confi- tional di-
derable difficulty; and from theory it may be ihown^^P5
that there are no determinate proportions fublifting be- ,5
tween the length, breadth, and depth, by which thefe to be in-
dimenfions may be fettled ; yet, by combining theory ferred front
and prafHce, the proportional dimenfions may be ap- *^Jne(]
proximated to pretty nearly. wjtj1 prati?
(b) To faij, is to join, two pieces of timber clofe-together.
3?
iod alio
am the
ircle.
S H I P-B U
reliminary As fliips are Conftrufted for a variety of different
rob terns- pUrp0fes, their principal dimenfions muft therefore be
altered accordingly, in order to adapt them as nearly as
poffible to the propofed intention 5 but fince there is no
fixed ftandard thereby to regulate thefe dimenfions, the
methods therefore introduced are numerous, and in a
great meafure depend upon cuflom and fancy.
With regard, however, to the proportional dimen¬
fions, they perhaps may be inferred from the circle.
Thus, if the extreme breadth be made equal to the dia¬
meter, the length at the load water line, or the diftance
between the rabbets of the ftem and port at that place,
may be made equal to the circumference of the fame
circle 5 and the depth of the hold equal to the radius,
the upper works being continued upwards according to
circumftances. A (hip formed from thefe dimenfions,
with a bottom more or lefs full according as may be
judged neceffary, will no doubt anfwer the propofed in¬
tention. Neverthelefs, one or other of thefe dimenfions
may be varied in order to gain fome effential property,
which the trade that the velfel is intended for may re¬
quire.
?rnclical The following hints are given by Mr Hutchinfon *
•matt- towards fixing rules for the beft conftruflion of {Inns
•'MW bottoms. 1
1. “ I would recommend (fays he"), to prevent fhips
See Book bottoms from hogging f upwards amidfhip, to have the
chap. 2. fore and after part of their keels deep enough, that the
upper part may be made to admit a rabbet for the gar-
board ftreak, that the main body and bearing part of
the (hips bottoms may be made to form an arch down¬
wards in their length, fuppofe with the fame fheer as
their bends, at the rate of about 2 inches for every 30
feet of the extreme length of the keel towards the mid-
fhip or main frame, which rnay be reckoned the crown
of the arch ; and the lower part of the keel to be made
ftraight, but laid upon blocks fo that it may form a re¬
gular convex curve downwards at the rate of an inch
for every 30 feet of the extreme length of the keel, the
loweft part exaftly under the mainframe ; which curve,
I reckon, is only a fufficient allowance for the keel to
become ftraight below, after they are launched afloat,
by the preffure of the water upward againft their floors
amidfhip, which caufes their tendency to hog. And
certainly a ftraight keel is a great advantage in failing,
as well as to fupport them when laid upon level ground
or on ftraight blocks in a repairing dock, without taking
damage.
2. “ As fquare-fterned fhips, from experience, are
found to anfwer all trades and purpofes better than
round or pink-fterned fhips, I would recommend the
foie part of the fternpoft, on account of drawing the
■water lines in the draught, only to have a few inches
rake, that the after part may ftand quite upright per¬
pendicular to the keel: and for the rake of the ftem I
would propofe the rabbet for the budding ends for the
entrance, and bows from the keel upwards, to form the
fame curve as the water line from the ftem at the har-
P|n towards the main breadth, and the bows at the har-
pin to be formed by a fweep of a circle of half the three-
ourths of the main breadth •, and the main tranfom to
be three-fourths of the main breadth ; and the buttocks,
at the load or failing mark aft, to be formed, in the fame
manner as the bows at the harpin, with a fweep of a
circle of half the three-fourths of the main breadth, to
I L D I N G. 255
extend juft as far from the ftem and fternpoft as to ad-Preliminary
mit a regular convex curve to the main frame, and from
thefe down to the keel to form regular convex water- ~~ v
lines, without any of thofe unnatural, hollow, concave
ones, either in the entrance or run •, which rules, in my
opinion, will agree with the main body of the ftiip,
whether fhe is defigned to be built full for burden or
fharp below for failing.
3. “ This rule for raking the ftem will admit all the
water lines in the {hip’s entrance to form convex curves
all the way from the ftem to the midfhip or main frame,
which anfwers much better for failing as well as mak¬
ing a fhip more eafy and lively in bad weather. And
the bows fhould flange off, rounding in a circular form
from the bends'up to the gunwale, in order to meet the
main breadth the fooner, with a fweep of half the main
breadth at the gunwale amidfhips; which will not only
prevent them greatly from being plunged under water
in bad weather, but fpread the {landing fore-rigging the
more, to fupport thefe material malls and fails forward
to much greater advantage than in thofe over lharp
bowed ftiips, as has been mentioned. And as the fail¬
ing trim of (hips in general is more or lefs by the Hern,
this makes the water lines of the entrance in proportion
the {harper to divide the particles of water the eafier,
fo that the fhip may prefs through it with the leaft re¬
finance.
“ The run ought to be formed {horter or longer,
fuller or {harper, in proportion to the entrance and main
body, as the fhip is defigned for burden or failing fall.
I he convex curves of the water lines fhould leffen gra¬
dually from the load or failing mark aft, as has been
mentioned, downwards, till a fair ftraight taper is form¬
ed from the after part of the floor to the fternpoft be¬
low, without any concavity in the Water lines ; which
will not only add buoyancy and burden to the after¬
body and run of the fhip, but, in my opinion, will help
both her failing and fleering motions ; for the preflure
of the water, as it clofes and rifes upon it to come to its
level again, and fill up that hollow which is made by
the fore and main body being preffed forward with fail,
will impinge, and a£l with more power to help the fhip
forward in her progreflive motion, than upon thofe un¬
natural concave runs, which have fo much more flat
dead wood, that muft, in proportion, be a hinderance
to the ftern being turned fo eafily by the power of the
helm to fleer the fhip to the greateft advantage.”
Many and various are the methods which are employ¬
ed to deferibe the feveral parts of a {hip. In the follow¬
ing problems, however, thofe methods only are given
which appear to be moft eafily applied to practice, and
which, at the fame time, will anfwer any propofed pur-
pofe.
Problem I. To deferibe in the plane of elevation the
ftieer or curvature of the top timbers.
Let QR (fig. 3O b® the length of the fhip between Plate
the wing tranfom and the rabbet of the ftem. Then ecccIxxxv.
fince it is generally agreed, efpecially by the French
conftruflors, that the broadeft part of the {hip ought Theplace
to be about one-twelfth of the length before the main of the
frame or dead flat ^ therefore make R0 equal to five-ma*n ^rame
twelfths of QR, and 0 will be the ftation of the main abo ^ ^"e-
frame 5 [pace the other frames on the keel, and from f^e the"
thefe points let perpendiculars be drawn to the keel, middle of
Let 0P be the height of the ftiip at the main frame,+he
VF
SHIP-BUILDING.
40
The flem,
Fig- 3
0-6 s 11 i r-J3 U
Preliminary VF the height at the aftermoft frame, and KK the
Problems. at the ftem. Through P draw EPL parallel
' "'r “to the keel-, defcribe the quadrants PGI, PMN, the
Method of radius being P© make PH equal to EF, and_ PO
defcribmg- equal KL, and draw the parallels GH, OPdl Divide
thetop-tim-GH fimilar to ©C, and OM fimilar to ©R. Through
her line. thefe points of divilion draw lines perpendicular to EL,
and the feveral portions of thefe perpendiculars contain¬
ed be!ween EL and the arch will be the tilings of the
top-timber line above EL. A curve drawn through
thefe points will form the top-timber line.
This line is more eafily drawn by means of a curved
or bent ruler, fo placed that it may touch the three points
F, P, and K.
Proe. II. To defcribe the ftem.
L't K (ng. 3.) be the upper part of the ftem, through
which draw KS parallel to the keel, and equal to twice
KR : Through the termination of the wales on the
ftem draw TW parallel to (£R. Then from the centre
S, with the diftance SK, defcribe an arch : Take an
extent equal to the ncareft diftance between the parallels
WT, QR ; and find the point W, fuch that one point
of the compafs being placed there, the other point will
juft touch the neareft part of the above arch j and from
this point as a centre defcribe an arch until it meets the
keel, and the ftem will be formed. .
Pros. III. To defcribe the fternpoft.
Set off QV (%. 3.) for the rake of the poll : draw
VX perpendicular to the keel, and equal to the height
of the wing tranfom, join QX, and it will reprefent the
aft fide of the poll.
Prob. IV. To defcribe the half breadth line.
Let MN (fig. 4.) be the given length Make N©
equal to five-twelfths of MN 5 draw the line ©P per¬
pendicular to MN, and equal to the propofed extreme
half breadth. Let ME be the round aft of the ftern
or wing tranfom make EO perpendicular to MN, and
equal to the given half breadth at the flern, which is
o-enerally between two-thirds and three-fourths of the
main half breadth ; and defcribe the arch MO, the
centre of which is in the middle line. Space the frames
(A), A, B, &c. and (1), I, 2, &c. From the centre
©, with the radius ©P, defcribe the quadrant PRS ;
defcribe alfo the quadrant PCT. T hrough the point
O draw ORU parallel to MN j divide the ftmight line
RU fimilar to M© and through thefe points of di-
vifion draw lines perpendicular to MN, and meeting
the arch. Transfer thefe lines to the correfpondent
frames each to each, and a curve drawn through the
extremities will reprefent that part of the fide contain¬
ed between the main frame and the ftern. Again,
through (£, the extremity of the foremoft frame, draw
OV parallel to MN. Or make PV a fourth or third
part of PU, according as it is intended to make the fliip
more or lefs full towards the bow. Divide VC fimilar
to ©C through thefe points draw lines perpendi¬
cular to MN, and terminating in the quadrantal arch :
Transfer thefe lines to the correfponding timbers in the
fore part, and a curve drawn through the extreme points
will limit that part of the (hip’s fide contained betiveen
P and Q. Continue the curve to the next timber at
X. From P draw QZ perpendicular to pX 5 make
the angle ZNP equal to ZpN, and the point Z will
be the centre of the arch forming the bow. Remark,
and poft.
Dg- 3-
• 4* r
Main half
breadth
line.
Tig- 4-
if it is propofed that the breadth of the Ihip at the frames pelimina-
adjacent to the main frame (hall be equal to the breadth ^ roble^
at the main frame } in this cafe, the centres of the qua¬
drantal arches will be at the points of interfeftion of
thefe frames with the line MN ; namely, at (A) and
(©. Alfo, if the height of the fliip at the frames (A)
and (1) is to be the fame as at dead flat, the quadrantal
arches in fig. 3. are to be deferibed from the points of
interfe&ion of thefe frames with the line EL.
Thefe rules, it is evident, are variable at pleafure ;
and any perfon acquainted with the firft principles of
mathematics may apply calculation to find the radii of
the feveral fweeps. 43
Prob. V. To defcribe the main frame or dead flat. Of their.
This frame is that which contains the greateft fpace, fram
and the particular form of each of the other frames de¬
pends very much on it. If the fhip is intended to carry
a great burden in proportion to her principal dimenfions,
this frame is- made very full 5 but if (he is intended to
fail fail, it is ufually made (harp. Hence arifes diverfity
of opinions refpe&ing its form 5 each conftruHor ufing
that which to him appears preferable. In order to fave
repetition, it is judged proper to explain certain opera¬
tions which neceffarily enter into all the different me¬
thods of conftrufting this frame.
In the plane of the upper fide of the keel produced, General
draw the line AB (fig. 5.) equal to the propofed breadth precePtsl
of the fliip ; bifeft AB in C, and draw AD, CL, and^ecn
BF, perpendicular to AB. Then, fince the two fides FJg ^
of a fliip are fimilar, it is therefore thought fufficient to
defcribe the half of each frame between the main frame
and the ftern on one fide of the middle line CL, and
the half of each of thofe before the main frame on the
other fide of it. The firft half is called the after-body,
and the other the fore-body. The after-body is com¬
monly deferibed on the left fide of the middle line ; and
the fore-body on the right fide of it: hence the line
AD is called the fule line of the after body, and BF
the fide line of be fore body. Make AD and BF each
equal to the height of the (hip at the main frame. Make
AG, EG, and AH, BH, equal to the lower and upper
heights of breadth refpeaively, taken from the (heer
plan. Let II be the load water line, or line of floata¬
tion when, the fhip is loaded, and KK. the height of the
riling line of the floor at this frame. IMake LN, CO,
each equal to half the length of the floor timber, and
N, O, will be the heads of the floor timber, through
which draw perpendiculars to AB. Make C zzz, E m,
each equal to half the thicknefs of the fternpoft, and C»,
E w, equal to half the thicknefs of the ftern, and join
mm, nn.
Method I. Of deferibing a main frame.'—From the
centre a (fig. 5.), in the lower breadth line, defcribe
the lower breadth fweep Q e ; make N b equal to the
propofed radius of the floor fweep, and from the centre
b defcribe the floor fweep N/ Let the radius of the
reconciling fweep be A g, equal to about the half of
AC then make A h equal to N b, and A m equal to
G a. Now from the centre «, with an extent equal to
g m, defcribe an arch, and from the centre b, with the
extent g h, defcribe an arch interfering the former in
c, which will be the centre of the reconciling fweep ef.
Join N w by an inverted curve, the centre of which may
be in the line b N produced downwards j or it may be
intned
SHIP-BUILDING.
257
■■'nslimlnan joined by two curves, or by a ftraight line if there is
Problems. rifulg 5 and hence the lower part of the main frame
will be defcribed.
In order to form the top timber, make F k equal to
fuch part of the half breadth, agreeable to the propofed
round of the fide, as one-feventh •, join H k, and make
equal to about two-thirds of H k : make the angle
Hz/ equal to z’H /; and from tlie centre / at the dif-
tance /H defcribe the arch H i; and from the centre 0,
the interfedlion of / /, and k F produced, defcribe the
arch ik, and the top timber will be formed.
II. To defcribe a main frame of an intermediate ca¬
pacity, that is, neither too flat nor too Jharp.—Divide the
^ fine AX (fig. 6.), which limits the head of the floor
timber, into three equal parts ; and make a b equal to
one of them. Divide the line d B, the perpendicular
diftance between the load water line afid the plane of
the upper fide of the keel, into feven equal parts *, and
fet oft* one of thefe parts from d to c, and from c to m.
Let GH be the lower deck, join G my and produce it
to q. Draw the ftraight line‘V a, bileft it in //, and
from the points n, a, defcribe arches with the radius G q
interfedting each other in P, which will be the centre
of the arch n a. The centre of the arch V zz is found by
deferibing arches downwards with the fame radius.
With an extent equal to once and a half of B e, de¬
fcribe arches from the points b, e, interfefting each other
in A, and from this point as a centre defcribe the arch
eb ; make «/equal to dni, and join Km, Kl. Then,
in order to reconcile two arches fo as to make a fair
curve, the centres of thefe arches and of the points of
contaft mull be in the fame ftraight line. Hence the
point k will be the centre of the arch dm, and 0 the
centre of the arch a l. The arch i m is defcribed from
the centre K.
To form the top timber, fet back the tenth part of
the half breadth from K to S upon the line of the fe-
cond deck; then with an extent equal to two-thirds of
the whole breadth defcribe an arch through the points
S and H, the upper height of breadth* Again, make
MI equal to the fifth part of the half breadth ; defcribe
an arch of a circle through the points S and T, taking
the diagonal GB for the radius. As this arch is in-
X'erted in refpefl: of the arch d S, the centre will be
without the figure. Hence one-half of the main frame
is formed, and the other half is deferibed by fimilar ope¬
rations.
Remark. This frame may be made more or lefs full
by altering the feveral radii.
III. To defcribe a main frame of a circular form.—
Let the feveral lines be drawn as before : Then make
Plate O a (fig. 7.) equal to the half breadth G a, and from
cdxxxvi. t}je centre a, with the radius G a, defcribe the arch
J /- i G c O. Let d be the head of the floor-timber, and
d x the riling. Aflume the point f in the arch, ac¬
cording to the propofed round of the fecond futtock, and
defcribe the arch df; the centre of which may be found
as in the former method : from the centre a, with the
diftance a d, defcribe the arch dcO •, make dc equal to
one-third of d O, and the angle dc h equal to c dh, and
from the centre h defcribe the arch d c. The inverted
|!lg' 8.
arch c O may defcribed as before.
IV. To defcribe a very full main frame. — Let the
vertical and horizontal lines be drawn as before: let b,
fig. 8. be the floor-head, and b x the riling. Divide G c
Vol, XIX, Part L
into two equal parts in the point d, and Upon c d cie- Preliminary
feribe the fquare d b a c, in which inferibe the quadrant l*>ro1^ems,l
dea. Divide the line bd into any number of equal parts
in the points O, N, M, L, and draw the lines Lzzz, Me,
N n, O b, perpendicular to d b. Divide the line G C,
the depth of the hold, the riling being deducted, into
the fame number of equal parts in the points E, F, I, K,
and make the lines E p, F q, I r, K r, in the frame,
equal to the lines O b, N n, M e, L m, in the fquare,
each to each refpeblively ; and through the points G,^;,
q, r, x, b, defcribe a curve. The remaining part of the
frame may be defcribed by the preceding methods.
V. To defcribe the main frame of a /hip intended to
be a fafl faiter.—The principal lines being drawn as be¬
fore, let the length of the floor-timber be equal to half
the breadth of the Ihip, and the riling one-fifth or onc-
fixth of the whole length of the floor-timber, which day
off from x to E, fig. 9. Through the point E draw the Fig. 9.
line T x perpendicular to GC, and d E perpendicular to
AG. Join T d, which bifedl in B, and draw BE per¬
pendicular thereto, and meeting CG produced in F,
from the centre F, at the diilance FT, defcribe the fe-
micircle T c/D. Divide GT into any number of parts,
VW, &c. and bifeft the intervals DV, DW, &c. in
the points X, Z, &c. ; then, from the centre X, whir
the extent XV, defcribe the femicircle D b V, interfec-
ting AG in b. Let VP be drawn perpendicular to-
GT, and b P perpendicular to AG, and the point of in-
terfeftion P will be one point through which the curve
is to pafs. In like manner proceed for the others, and
a curve drawn through all the points of interfe£lion will
be part of the curve of the main frame. The remain¬
ing part of the curve from E to Y will be compofed of
two arches, the one to reconcile with the former part
of the curve at E, and the other to pafs through the
point Y, the centre of which may be found by any of
the preceding methods. In order to find the centre of
that which joins with the curve at E, make TR equal
to the half of GD, asd join ER, in which a proper centre
for this arch may be eafily found.
The portion G E of the curve is a parabola, whole
vertex is G and parameter GD.
For GD : G b G b 1 GV by conftruflion.
Hence DG X GVrrG b*, which is the equation for
a parabola.
VI. To defcribe a main frame of a middling capaci¬
ty.—Let the length of the floor-timber be equal to one-
half of the breadth of the Ihip. Make Or/, fig. ic. Fig. 10.
equal to one-fourth of the length of the floor-timber, 1
and draw the perpendicular d c equal to the rifing, and
divide it into two equal parts in the point e. Defcribe
an arch through e, and the extremity o of the floor-tim¬
ber, the radius being equal to the half breadth, or more
or lefs according to the propofed round of the floor head.
Then with the radius O /, half the length of the floor-
timber, defcribe the arch e Y.
Draw Im perpendicular to OA : bife& An in p, and
draw the perpendicular p q. From the middle of A p
draw the perpendicular r s, and from the middle of A r
draw the perpendicular t u. Make n z,pg, each equal
to / n : make the diftances p y, r b, each equal to « g /
r F, t E, each equal to a h ; and t x equal to a E. Then
a curve drawn through the points a, %, y, F, „y, T, will
form the under part of the midfhip frame.
We lhall finilh thefe methods of deferibing the main
X k frame
Traits de
Navire de
B'liiguer,
p. 601.
Fig. II.
258 S H I P-B U
Preliminary frame of a fliip with the following remark from M. Vial
, I’lo!>!eins- du Clairbois *. “It feems (fays he) that they have af-
*. Architec- to avoid ftraight lines in naval architefture j yet,
tare Na- geometrically fpeaking, it appears that a main frame
•vale, p. 22. formed of flraight lines will have both the advantage
and fimplicity over others.” To illuftrate this, draw
the flraight line MN (fig. 9.) in fuch a manner that
the mixtilineal fpace M a / may be equal to the mix-
tilineal fpace DNY. Hence the capacity of the main
frame formed by the flraight lines MN, NY will be
equal to that of the frame formed by the curve M a
DY 5 and the frame formed by the llraight lines will
for the moft part be always more fufceptible of receiv ing
a bow that will eafily divide the fluid. It is alfo evi¬
dent, that the cargo or ballaft, being lower in the frame
formed of flraight lines than in the other, it will there¬
fore be more advantageoufly placed, and will enable the
fhip to carry more fail (c) •, fo that having a bow equal¬
ly well or better formed, fhe will fail fafler.
Pros. VI. To deferibe a flern having a fquare tuck.
Let AB (fig. 11.) be the middle line of the poll,
and let CD be drawn parallel thereto at a diftance equal
to half the thicknefs of the pofl. Make CE equal to
the height of the lower part of the fafhion-piece above
the keel: make CT equal to the height of the extre¬
mity G of the tranfom above the plane of the keel pro¬
duced, and CH equal to the height of the tranfom on
the pofl, HT being equal to above one-ninth or one-
tenth of GT, and deferibe the arch GH, the centre of
which will be m BA produced : make EK equal to
five-twelfths of ET : through K draw KL perpendicu¬
lar to CD, and equal to EK •, and with an extent equal
to EL deferibe the arch EL. Make GI equal to the
half of ET, and from the' centre I deferibe the arch
GM, and draw the reconciling curve ML.—Let the
curve of the fafhion-piece be produced upwards to the
point reprefenting the upper height of breadth as at O.
Make ON equal to the height of the top-timber, and
BN equal to the half breadth at that place, and join
ON. Through N and the upper part of the counter,
let arches be deferibed parallel to GH. The tafferel,
windows, and remaining part of the ftern, may be finilh-
ed agreeable to the fancy of the artifl.
In fig. 12. the projection of the ftern on the plane of
elevation is laid down, the method of doing which is
obvious from infpeftion.
If the tranfom is to round aft, then fince the fafhion-
pieces are always fided ftraight, their planes will inter-
fed the ftieer and floor planes in a ftraight line. Let
(fig. 14.) be the interfeaion of the plane of the fa-
cccdxxxvii. fhion-piece with the floor plane. From the pointy draw
%. 14. g W perpendicular to £ M: make y k equal to the height
of the tuck, and W k being joined will be the interlec¬
tion of the plane of the fafhion-piece with the fheer
plane. Let the water lines in the fheer plane produced
meet the line k W in the points a, s, h, and draw the per¬
pendiculars aa,fsy Jih. From the points a, s, h (fig. 14.)
draw lines parallel to G ^ to interfea each correfpond-
ing water line in the floor plane in the points 3? 2, 1.
Fig. iz.
Plate
I L D I N G.
From the points G, 3, 2, I, in the floor-plane drawPreliminar
lines perpendicular to g M, interfering the water lines Problems
(fig. 13.) in the points G, 3, 2,/l ; and through thefe * ^
points deferibe the curve G 3 2 1 and \VG 3 2,
1 h will be the projeClion of the plane of the fafhion-
piece on the fheer plane. Through the points G, 3, 2,
I (fig. 13.) draw the lines GF, 3 A, 2 b, I H, per-Fig. 13.
pendicular to W k ; and make the lines WF, a A, r Sy
A H, equal to the lines ^ G, a 3, -f 2, A 1 (fig. 14.) re-
fpeClively, and WFASH A will be the true form of the
plane of the aft fide of the fafhion-piece. When it is
in its proper pofition, the line WF will be in the fame
plane with the fheer line } the line « A in the fame
plane with the water-line a 3 j the line s S in the fame
plane with the water line s 2 j and the line A H in the
fame plane with the water line A 1. If lines be drawn
from the feveral points of interfeClion of the water lines
with the rabbet of the port (fig. 13.), perpendicular to
g M, and curved lines being drawn from thefe points to
G, 3, 2, 1 (fig. 14.) refpe&ively, will give the form Fig
and dimenfions of the tuck at the feveral water lines.
Prob. VII. To bevel the fafhion-piece of a fquare
tuck by water-lines.
As the fafhion-piece both rakes and cants, the planes
of the water-lines will therefore interleCt it higher on
the aft than on the fore-fide ; but before the heights on
the fore-fide can be found, the breadth of the timber
muft be determined; which let be b n (fig- 150* hen,,
as it cants, the breadth in the direClion of the water¬
line will exceed the true breadth. In order to find the
true breadth, form the aft-fide of the faftiion-piece as di-
refted in the laft problem.
Let t 5 (fig. 13.) be the aft fide of the rabbet on the pig. ,3,
• outfide of the poft, WM the common fe&ion of the plan
of the fafhion-piece and the fheer-plan. Before this laft
line can be determined, the feveral water-lines 1, 2, 3,
4, and 5, muft be drawn parallel to the keel, which may
reprefent fo many tranfoms.—Let thefe water-lines be
formed and ended at the aft-fide of the rabbet, as in
fig. 14. where the rounds aft of the feveral tranfoms are
deferibed, limiting the curves of the water-lines. Now
the line WM muft rake fo as to leave room for half the
thicknefs of the poft, at the tuck : in order to which,
produce W^ to r; make rg half the thicknefs of the
poft ; through r draw a line parallel to g M to interfea:
^ G in £ : then with the radius r b, from x the point of
the tuck as a centre, deferibe an arch, and draw the line
WM juft to touch the back of that arch.
The line WM being drawn, let any point k in it be
affirmed at pleafure : from k draw A y perpendicular to
g M : through y drawr y f (fig. 14.) parallel to g G, in¬
terfering the line M f drawn perpendicular to ^ M m
the point /. From M draw M i perpendicular to yfr
and from y draw y n perpendicular to WM (fig. 13.)-
Make M n (fig. 15.) equal to Mf (fig. 14.) j then MI
(fig. 15.) being equal X.o yk (fig.13.), join n 1, and
the angle 1 n M will be the bevelling to the horizontal
plane. Again, make M 2, M/(fig. 15.) refpeaively
equal to y n (fig. 13.) and Mf (fig. 14.), and join 2/;:
^ and
fc) It is not a general rule, that lowering the cargo of a Ihip augments her liability. This is demonftrated by
the Chevalier de Borda, in a work publilhed by M. de Goimpy upon this fubjefl. See alfo L ArcAiteBure Nova
par M, Via/ du Clairbois^ p. 23,
S H I P-B U
'Sretiminary and the angle M z f will be the bevelling to tlie Iheer-
Problems. p}arie.
The bevelling being now found, draw the line ab
“*?• I5‘ j j.) parallel to z n, a a or b n being the fcantling
of the timber. Then n x will be the breadth of the
timber on the horizontal plane, and 2; e its breadth on
the Iheer-plane, and ac what is within a fquare.
Now as the' lines ^ G, « 3, s 2, /i 1, y i, reprefent
the aft-fide of the falhion-piece on the horizontal plane
(fig. 14), dotted lines may be drawn parallel to them
to reprefent the forc4ide, making n x (fig. 15.) the per¬
pendicular diftance between the lines reprefenting fore
and aft fides of the fathion-piece. By thefe lines form
the fore-fide of the falhion-piece in the fame manner as
the. aft-fide was formed. The water-lines on the fore-
fide of the plane of the fafiiion-piece niuft, however, be
firft drawn in fig. 13. thus : Draw the lines e b, c d pa¬
rallel to WM, and whofe perpendicular diftances there¬
from may be equal to a c and z e (fig. 15.) refpeftive-
ly. Draw a line parallel to « A through the point
where the line cd interfe&s the fifth water-line. Drawr
a line parallel to « A through the point where the
fourth water-line interfedls the line c d; in like manner
proceed with the other water-lines. The fore-fide of
the falhion-picce is now to be deferibed by means of
thefe new water-lines, obferving that the difiances in
the floor-plane muft be fet olf from the line eb, and not
from WM, as in the former cafe; and a curve deferib¬
ed through the points 5, 3, 2, 1, where thefe diftances
reach to, will reprefent the fore-fide of the fafhion-piece.
The neareft diftance between tlie points 5, 3, 2, 1,
and the aft-fide of the fafhion-piece is what the bevelling
is beyond the fquare when both ftock and tongue of
the bevel are perpendicular to the timber. Make
(fig. 16.) equal to the breadth of the timber, and M 5
‘S'equal to the perpendicular diflance of the point 5
(fig. 13.) from the aft-fide of the faftiion-piece, and
join 5/>. In like manner proceed with the others, and
the bevellings at thefe parts will be obtained ; but, in
order to avoid confufion, the perpendiculars 4, 3, 2,
(fig. 13.), inftead of being laid off from M (fig. 16.),
were fet off from points as far below M as the other ex¬
tremities of the lines drawm from thefe points are below
the point p.
Prob. VIII. To deferibe the tranfoms of a round
poop.
The tranfoms are faftened to the ftern-poft in the
fame manner that the floor-timbers are faftened to the
keel, and have a riling called the flight fimilar to the ri-
fing of the floor-timbers. The upper tranfom is called
the xving tranfom, the next the deck tranfom, and the
others the /frfl, fecond, and third tranfoms in order. The
wing tranfom has a round aft and a round up : the round
up of the deck tranfom is the fame as that of the beams.
The fafliion-piece of a fquare tuck muft be firft de¬
feribed, together with the three adjacent frames, by the
method to be explained. The part of the ftern above
the wing tranfom is to be deferibed in the fame manner
as before, and may therefore be omitted in this place.
The part below the keel of the fafhion-piece is alfo the
pj ^ fame in both cafes. Let fig. 17. reprefent the faftiion-
pceclmviii piece of a fquare tuck, and the three adjoining frames,
jig, Divide the interval AB into four equal parts in the
points C, D, E, and draw the perpendiculars AF, CGr
I L D I N G. 259
DH, El, and BK : thefe will be portions of water-lines^Arainary
anfwering to the feveral tranfoms* 1 lob^ms..
Let thefe water-lines be deferibed on the floor plan p-jg, l8>
(fig. 18.), in which ABC reprefents the wing tran¬
fom. Deferibe the arch ^ C to reconcile the curves
A b and CE. Let LEG be the water-line anfvvering
to the lower part of the fafhion-piece, the diflance be¬
tween the points L and A being equal to the exoefs
of the projection of the point A beyond that of B
(fig. 20.). Draw GK (fig. 18.) perpendicular to AM,
and make the angle KCM equal to about 25 degrees,
and CN will be the projection of the falhion-piece on
the floor-plane. Make AB (fig. 19.) equal to AB ^
(fig. 17.). Divide it into four equal parts, and draw
the perpendiculars AF, CH, DI, EK, and BG. Make
AF equal to CM, and BG equal to MN, and draw the
curve FHIKG, having a lefs curvature than the fa¬
ftiion-piece of the fquare tuck sc pgr.. Make MO,
MP, MQ, equal to CH, DI, and EK refpeitively.
Divide AL (fig. 18.) into four equal parts, and to
thefe points of divifion draw curves through the points
O, P, fo as to partake partly of the curvature of
A b CE and partly of that of LNF, but moft of the
curvature of that to which the propofed curve is near¬
eft ; and hence the form of the feveral tranfoms w'ill be
obtained.
In order to reprefent the curve of the faftiion-piece
on the plane of projection, make the lines AF, CG,
DH, El, and BK, (fig. 17.) refpedtively equal to the
perpendicular diftance of the points C, O P, Q^, and N.
From the line AN (fig. 18.), and through the extremi¬
ties of thefe lines, draw the curve FGHIK.
It remains to lay down the projection of the faftu’on-
piece on the plane of elevation. In order to which, di¬
vide the line AB, fig. 20. (equal to AB fig. 17.) into pjg 2Ca
four equal parts, and through the points of divifion
draw the perpendiculars AF, CG, DH, El, and BK ;
make AF (fig. 20.) equal to the perpendicular diftance
of the point C from the line BL (fig. 18.). In like man¬
ner make the lines CG, DH, El, and BK (fig. 20) re-
fpectively equal to the perpendicular diftances of the
points O, P, £), and N, from the line BL (fig. 18.);
and a curve drawn through thefe points will be the pro-
jeefion of the faftiion-pieee on the plane of elevation.
Prob. IX. To deferibe the intermediate frames in
the after body.
For this purpofe the midftiip and ftern frames muft
be drawn in the plane of projedtion. As the main frame
contains the greateft capacity, and the ftern frame is
that having the leaft, it hence follows that the form and
dimenfidns of the intermediate frames will be between
thefe ; each frame, however, partaking moft of the form
of that to which it is neareft.
Let ACDE (fig. 21.) be the main frame on thep- 2r>
plane of projedtion, and FGH the ftern frame ; and let
there be any convenient number of intermediate frames,
as Jiine. Draw the floor ribband CF, and the breadth
ribband GD. Divide the curves CD, EG, each into
the fame number of equal parts, as three, in the points
K, M ; L, N; and draw the fecond and third ribbands
KL, MN. In order to divide thefe ribbands fo as tr*
form fair curves in different fedtions, various methods
have been propofed. One of the belt of thefe, being
that which is chiefly employed by the French conftruc-
K- k 2 tors.
26o
SHIP-BUILDING.
Preliminary tors, is by means of an equilateral triangle, which is con-
,Problems, ftniftcd as follows.
Fitr. za. Draw the line ME (fig. 22.), limited at M, but pro¬
duced towards E : take M I equal to any convenient
extent j make I, 2 equal to thrice that extent, 2, 3
equal to five times, and 3, 4 equal to feven times the
above extent; and continue this divifion to E, always
increaling by two, until there be as many points as there
are frames, including the. main and ftern frames. Up¬
on ME deferibe the equilateral triangle MSE, and draw
lines from the vertex S to each point of divifion 5 then
the line SM will be that anfwering to the main frame,
and SE that corresponding to the port j and the other
lines will Jse thofe anfwering to the intermediate frames
in order.
Fig. 23, Let fig. 23. be the projection of part of the ftern on
the plane of elevation, together Avith the eighth and
ninth frames. From the points L, N, G, (fig. 21.)
draw the lines LO, NP, GO, perpendicular to the
plane of the upper edge of the keel. Make AB (fig.
23.) equal to AF (fig. 21.), and draw the Avater line
BCD. Draw the line BC (fig. 22.) fo that it maybe
parallel to the bafe of the triangle, and'equal to CD
(fig. 23.)> Avhich produce indefinitely towards H. Make
BD equal to BC (fig. 23.), and draw the dotted line
SD (fig. 22.). The ribband FC (fig. 21.) is to be ap¬
plied to the triangle, fo that it may be parallel to the
bafe, and contained betAveen the line MS and the dot¬
ted line SD. Let cf reprefent this line •, then transfer
the feveral divifions from<q/'tothe ribband CF (fig. 21.),
and number them accordingly. Again, make EF (fig.
23.) equal to LO (fig. 21.), and draw the Avater line
FGH •, make BF (fig. 22.) equal to FG (fig. 23.),
and draAv the dotted line SF; apply the fecond ribband
LK to the triangle, fo that the extremity K may be
on the line SM, and the other extremity L on the dot¬
ted line SF, and making with SM an angle of about
624- degrees. Let £ / be this line, and transfer the divi¬
fions from it to the ribband KL. In like manner make
IK (fig. 23.) equal toNP (fig. 21.), and draAv the Ava-
ter line KLM. Make BG (fig. 22.) equal to KL (fig.
23.), and draw the dotted line SG ; then the ribband
is to be applied to the triangle in fuch a manner
that its extremities M and N may be upon the lines
SM, SG refipeCthmly, and that it may make an angle
of about 68 degrees Avith the line SM j and the divi¬
fions are to be transferred from it to the ribband MN.
The fame procefs is to be followed to divide the other
ribbands, obferving to apply the fourth ribband to the
triangle, fo that it may make an angle of 86 degrees
with the line SM ; the fifth ribband to make an angle
of 6 3 degrees, and the fixth an angle of 60 degrees with
the line SM.
The quantities of thefe angles are, hoAArever, far from
bcirig precifely fixed. Some contlruCtors, in applying
the ribbands to the triangle, make them all parallel, to
its bafe5 and others vary the meafures of thefe angles
according to fancy. It may alfo be remarked, that a
different method of dividing the bafe of the triangle is
ufed by fome. It is certainly proper to try different
methods j and that is to be preferred which befl anfwersPrelimina;
the intended purpofe. Problem:
Befide the frames already mentioned, there are other
tAvo laid down by fome conflruCtors in the feveral plans,
called balance frames. The after balance frame is placed
at one fourth of the length of the fhip before the itern-
poft ; and the other, commonly called the loof frame, at
one fourth of the fhip’s length aft of a perpendicular to
the keel from the rabbet of.-the Item. Let the dotted
line at X, betAveen the fifth and fixth frames, (fig. 23.)
be the place of the after balance frame in the plane of
elevation. Then, in order to lay doAvn this frame in the
plane of projection, its reprefentation muff be previoufly
draivn in the triangle. To accomplifh this, draAv the
line SV (fig. 22.) fo that the interval 5V may have the
fame ratio to 5 6 (fig. 22.) that 5X has to 5 6 (fig.
23.) (d). Then the feveral points in the ribbands in
the plane of projection anfwering to this frame are to
be found by means of the triangle in the fame manner
as before.
The loof frame is nearly of the fame dimenfions as
the after balance frame, or rather of a little greater ca¬
pacity, in order that the centre of gravity of that part
of the fhip may be nearly in the plane of the midfhip
frame. Hence the loof frame may be eafily draAvn in
the plane of projection, and hence alfo the other frames
in the fore body may be readily deferibed.
Prob. X. To deferibe the frames in the fore body.
DraA\r the middle line of the Item AB (fig. 24.) Fig. 24.
make AC, BD each equal to half the thicknefs of the
ftem, and draAv the line CD *, deferibe alfo one half of
the main frame CEFGHI. Let e JL,f¥,gG, h H, be
Avater lines at the heights of the ribbands on the main
frame •, alfo let a be the termination of the floor ribband,
and b that of the breadth ribband on the ftem. Divide
the interval ab into three equal parts in the points c, r/,
and draAv the ribbands « E, c F, </ G, and b H. Make
ei, fk, g /, hm (fig. 24.) equal to e i, fk, g l, hm
(fig. 21.) refpeCtively, and draAv the curve Gik/m,
Avhich will be the projection of the loof frame. Or fince
it is neceflary that the capacity of the loof frame fhould
be a little greater than that of the after balance frame,
each of the above lines may be increafed by a propor¬
tional part of itfelf, as one tenth or one tAventieth, as
may be judged proper.
ConftruCt the triangle (fig. 25.) in the fame manner Fig. 23.
as fig. 2 2. only obferving, that as there are fewer frames
in the fore than in the after body, its bafe will therefore
be divided into fewer parts. Let there be eight frames
in the fore body, then there will be eight divifions in
the bafe of the triangle befide the extremes.
Let fig. 26. reprefent the ftem and part of the fore-
body in the plane of elevation, and let O be the place
of the loof frame. Divide the interval 4, 5 (fig. 25.)
fo that 4, 5 may be to 4 Z as 4, 5 to 4, o (fig. 26.),
and draw the dotted line SZ, Avhich Avill be the line de¬
noting the loof frame in the triangle.
Draw the lines AB, CD, EF, GH (fig. 26.) paral-Fig. 26..
lei to the keel, and %vhofe perpendicular diftances there¬
from may be equal to C o, C c, C d, C b, (fig. 24.) the
interfeClions
(d) It is evident, from the method ufed to divide the bafe of the triangle, that this proportion does not agree
.exaClly with the conftruCtion: the difference, however, being fmall, is therefore negleCted in praClice.
3
S H I P - B U
taeliminary interactions of thefe lines with the rabbet of the Item,
i Problems- namely, the points I, K, L, M will be the points of
•—-v ' termination of the feveral ribbands on the ftem in the
plane of elevation. Divide 8 A (fig. 25.) fo that 8 B,
8 C, 8 D, and 8 £, may be refpe£tively equal to BI,
DK, FL, and HM (fig. 26.), and draw the dotted
lines SB, SC, SD, SE (fig. 25.). Apply the edge of
a flip of card to the firft ribband (fig. 24.), and mark,
thereon the extremities of the ribband «, E, and alfo
the point of interfeftion of the loot’ frame. Then ap¬
ply this flip of card to the triangle in fuch a manner
that the point a may be on the dotted line SB, the
point E on the line SM, and the point anfwering to the
loof frame on the dotted line SZ; and mark upon the
card the feveral points of interfedlion of the lines S 1,
S 2, &c. Now apply the card to the ribband a E (fig.
24.) as before, and transfer the feveral points of divi-
fion from it to the ribband. In like manner proceed
with the other ribbands ; and lines drawn through the
correfponding points in the ribbands will be the projec¬
tion of the lower part of the frames in the fore body.
The projections of the top-timbers of the feveral frames
may be taken from the half breadth plan j and hence
each top-timber may be eafily defcribed.
In large fhips, particularly in thofe of the French
navy, a different method is employed to form the top-
timbers in the fore body, which is as follows:
Plate Let BI (fig. 27.) be one-fourth of the breadth of
bcccfexx x. the thip, and draw IK parallel to AB. Take the
fiS- 27‘ height of the foremoft frame from the plane of eleva¬
tion, and lay it off from A to B : from the point B
draw BH perpendicular to AB, and equal to half the
length of the wdng tranfom. Let E be the place of
the breadth ribband on the main frame, and F its place
on the ftem at the height of the wing tranfom. With
a radius equal to five-fixths of half the greateft breadth
•; of the (hip defcribe the quadrant EFG (fig. 28.) j
Make EH equal to FG (fig. 27.), the point F being
at the height of the wing tranfom. Through H draw
HO perpendicular to EH, and interfefting the circum¬
ference in O •, then draw OL parallel to HE, and EL
parallel to HO. Divide EL into as many equal parts
as there are frames in the fore body, including the main
frame, and from thefe points of divifion draw the per¬
pendiculars 11, 22, &c. meeting the circumference as
in the figure. Take the diftance 11, and lay it off
from G (fig. 27.) towards F to the point I 5 and from
the fame point G lay off towards F the feveral per¬
pendiculars contained between the ftraight line and the
curve to the points 2, 3, &c. and through thefe points
draw lines parallel to EG.
fg- 29. Take any line AB (fig. 29.) at pleafure : divide it
equally in two in the point 8 : divide 8 B in two parts
in the point 7, and continue this method of divifion un¬
til there are as many points as there are frames in the
fore body, including the main frame. Upon AB con-
ftruft the equilateral triangle ACB, and draw the line
C 8, C 7, &c. Place a flip of card on the parallel
a K 8 (fig. 27.), and mark thereon the points oppofite
to a, K, and 8 *, and let them be denoted accordingly.
Then apply this flip of card to the triangle, fo that the
point a, which is that anfwering to the rabbet of the
Item, may be on the line AC ; that the point anfwer¬
ing to K may be on C 8, and the extremity 8 on the
line CB; and mark on the card the points of interfec-
I L D 1 N G. 261
tion of the lines C 7, C 6, &c. and number them ac- Preliminary
cordingly. Now apply this flip of card to the fever)th ^ ro'olems. ^
parallel (fig. 23.), the point a being on the line CD,
and mark on this parallel the point of interfe&ion 7 •,
Aide the card down to the fixth parallel, to which tranf-
fer the point N° 6. In like manner proceed with the
other parallels.
The point K, at the interfeftion of the line IK with
the eighth parallel, is one point through which the
eighth frame paffes. From this point upwards a curve
is to be defcribed fo as to reconcile with the lower part
of this frame already defcribed, and the upper part,
forming an inverted arch, -which is to terminate at FI.
This top-timber may be formed by txvo fvreeps, whofe
radii and centres are to be determined partly from cir-
cumflances and partly according to fancy. It how¬
ever may be more readily formed by hand.
Let LM (fig. 27.) be the line of the fecond deck
at the main frame, and let LN be the difference of the
draught of water, if any. Make GN (fig. 28.) equal
to LN : draw NM perpendicular to GN, meeting the
circle in M 5 and through the points G and M draw
the parallels GY and MV; divide GN as before, and
from the feveral points of divifion draw perpendiculars
terminating in the curve. Transfer thefe perpendicu¬
lars from L upwards (fig. 27.), and through the points
thus found draw the lines 11, 22, &c. parallel to LM.
Apply a flip of card to the eighth parallel, and mark
upon it the point anfwering to the ftem, the eighth and
main frames : carry this to the triangle, and place it fo
that thefe points may be on the correfponding lines.
Then the points of interfedtion of the lines C 7, C 6,
&c. are to be marked on the card, which is now to be
applied firft to the eighth parallel (fig. 27.), then to
the feventh, &c. transferring the feveral points of divi¬
fion in order as before.
Draw the line HO (fig. 27.) ; mark its length on a
flip of card, and apply it to the triangle, fo that it may
be parallel to its Safe, and its extremities one on the
eighth and the other on the main frame 2 mark on the
card the points of interfedtion of the feveral intermedi¬
ate lines as before ; then apply the card to HO, and
transfer the divifions.
There are now three points determined through
which each top-timber muft pafs, namely, one in the
breadth ribband, one in the fifth, and one in the upper
ribband. Through thefe curves are to be defcribed,
fo as to reconcile with the lower part of the frame, and
partake partly of the curvature of the eighth frame,
and partly of that of the main frame, but moft of that
of the frame to which it is neareft : and hence the
plane of projedtion is fo far finilhed, that it only re¬
mains to prove the feveral frames by water lines.
Another method of deicribing the frames in the
body plan is by fweeps. In this method it is neceffary,
in the firft: place, to defcribe the height of the breadth
lines, and the rifing of the floor, in the plane of eleva¬
tion. The half breadth lines are next to be deferibed in
the floor plan. The main frame is then to be defcri¬
bed by three or more fweeps, and giving it fuch a form
as may be moft fuitable to the fervice the fliip is defign-
ed for. The lower, upper, and top-timber heights of
breadth, and the rifings of the floor, are to be fet upon
the middle line in the body plan, and the feveral half
breadths are then to belaid off on lines drawn through
thefe
262 SHI P-B U
Preliminary tliefe points perpendicular to the middle line. A mould
Problems. may ti,en j-,e macle for the main frame, and laid upon
the feveral rifings, as in whole mouldings, explained in
Chapter V, with this difference, that here an under
breadth fvveep is deferibed to pafs through the point
which limits the half breadth of the timber, the centre
of which will be in the breadth line of that timber.
The proper centres for all the frames being found, and
the arches deferibed, the bend mould muft be fo pla¬
ced on the riling line of the floor that the back of it
may touch the back of the Under breadth fweep. But
the general pradtice is, to deferibe all the floor ivveeps
will^compaffes, as well as the under breadth {weeps,
and to reconcile thefe two by a mould which is an arch
of a circle, its radius being the fame with that of the re¬
conciling fweep by which the midfhip frame was formed.
It is ufual for all the floor fweeps to be of the fame ra¬
dius 5 and in order to find their centres a line is formed
on the floor plan for the half breadth of the floor. As
this line cannot be deferibed on the furface of a fliip, it
is therefore only an imaginary line. Inftead of it fome
make ufe of a diagonal in the body plane to limit the
half breadth of the floor, upon every rifing line, and to
eredt perpendiculars at the feveral interfedlions, in the
fame manner as for the midfbip frame.
After the fweeps are all deferibed, recourfe is had to
moulds, or fome fuch contrivance, to form the hollow of
the timbers, much in the fame manner as in whole
moulding •, and when all the timbers are formed, they
mull be proved by ribband and wrater lines, and altered,
if neceffary to make fair curves.
The preceding methods ofdefcribing the feveral planes
or fedlions of a fhip being wrell understood, it will be a
very eafy matter to conftrudt draughts for any propofed
fliip : and as the above planes were deferibed feparately
and independent of each other, it is therefore of little
confequence which is firif deferibed. In the following
application, however, the plane of elevation will be firif
drawn, then part of the floor plan, and laftly the body
plan : and in conne£Hng thefe plans the moil rational
and Ample methods will be employed.
Chap. IV. Application of the foregoing Rules to the
Conjlruclion of Ships.
Sect. I. To conflruB a Ship intended to carry a confi-
derable Burden in Proportion to her general Dimen-
lions, and to draw little Water.
I L E> 1 N G.
Height of middle line of wales at the main
frame
Height of middle line of wales at the Hern
Breadth of the wales
Height of top-timber at midfhips
      — at Item
P. In. Application
6 10°^ t^c f°re.
IO 6goinSUul«'
IO to the Con-1
1 9 ftrudtfon oil)
14 o Ships.
Dimensions^
Length between the wing tranfom and a per¬
pendicular from the rabbet of the Item at
the height of breadth line
Main half breadth moulded
Half breadth at the height of breadth line at
the ftern - -
Top-timber half breadth
Height of the ftem above the upper edge of
the keel - "
Height of the breadth line at the ftem
Height of the breadth line at the ftern
Upper height of breadth at the main frame
Lower height of breadth
Height of middle line of wales at the ftem
F. In.
80
11
7
10
I?
J3
12
7
5
10
Draw the line ah (fig. 30.) equal to 80 feet, from Plate
a convenient icale: divide it into as many equal parts CCCCXC
plus one as there are to be frames, which let be 16, “£• P-
and through each point of diviflon draw perpendiculars.
Make b c equal to 17 feet, the perpendicular height of
the top of the ftem above the upper edge of the keel,
and deferibe the ftem by Prob. II. Make a J equal
to 1 of feet, the height of the middle line of the wales
at the ftern, and a e equal to the propofed rake of the
poll, which may be about 2 feet: join de; and draw
the line fg reprefenting the aft-fide of the poft. De¬
feribe the counter and ftern by Problem VI. and VII.
Make ®// equal to 14 feet, the top timber height at
the main frame, and 1 k equal to 18 feet, the height at
the ftern ; and through the three points r, h, k, deferibe
the curve limiting the top-timbers by Problem I. Make
b d equal to 10 feet, the height of the middle line of
the wales at the ftem, and ®H equal to 6 feet JO
inches, the height at the main frame } and the curve
it H d being deferibed will reprefent the middle line of
the wales. At the diftance of iof inches on each fide
of this line draw two curves parallel thereto, and the
wales will be completed in this plan. Make bl equal
to 13^ feet, the height of the breadth line at the ftem ;
a m equal to 12J feet, the height at the ftern, and I ®
K ® equal to 5 feet 10 inches and 7 feet 4 inches re-
fpedtively; and draw the upper breadth line /K wi and
lower breadth line / I tn. From the line a b lay down¬
wards the breadth of the keel, which may be about one
foot, and draw the line L / parallel to a b.
Let the line L r, which is the lower edge of the keel,
reprefent alfo the middle line of the floor plan. Pro¬
duce all the perpendiculars reprefenting the frames:
make ® M (fig. 31.) equal to 11 feet, the main halfFjg. 31.
breadth at midfhips-, through m (fig. 30.) draw the
line m N perpendicular to a b, and make p N equal to
7A feet, and draw the main half breadth line NM r by
Problem IV. Deferibe alfo the top-timber half breadth
line PO r, © O being equal to ioi feet, and form the
projedling part of the ftem qrst.
In order that the top-timber line may look fair on
the bow, and to prevent the foremoft top-timbers from
being too ftiort, it is neceffary to lift or raife the flieer
from the round of the bow to the ftem. For this pur-
pofe the following method is ufually employed: Pro¬
duce the circular fheer before the ftem in the plane of
elevation at pleafure j then place a batton to the round
of the bow in the half breadth plan, and mark on it the
ftations of the fquare timbers and the fide of the ftem ;
apply the batton to the fheer plan, and place it to the
(beer of the fhip, keeping the ftations of the timbers on
the batton well with thole on the fheer plan for feve¬
ral timbers before dead- flat, where they will not alter $
then mark the other timbers and the ftem on the flieer
line produced ; through thefe points draw lines parallel
to the keel, to interfecl their correfponding timbers
and the ftem in the fheer plan : then a curve deferibed
thefe laft points will be the fheer of the fhip round
S H I P - B U
i.pplication tlie bojv, lifted as required : and the heights of the
r the fore-t]lus lengthened are to be transferred to the
iJthe Con- bod.Y Plan as befwe'
jrrudtion of Draw the line AB (fig. 32.) equal to 22 feet, the
Ships. whole breadth ; from the middle of which draw the
—y perpendicular CD: make CE equal to half the thicknefs
pfate. of the poll, and CF equal to half that of the ftem, and
--r f1-0111 tbe points A, E, F, B, draw lines parallel to CD.
Make AG, EG each equal to 14 feet, the height at
the main frame, and draw the line GG parallel to AB.
Make GH, GH each equal to half a foot, the difference
between the main and top timber half-breadths. From
A and B fet up the heights of the lower and upper
breadth lines to I and K, and draw the llraight lines
IK, IK. Let CL be the riling at the main frame, and
0, 0 the extremities of the door timber. Hence, as
there are now five points determined in each half of
the main frame, it may be very eafily defcribed.
Make CM equal to L0, join M0, and draw the
other ribbands NO, PQ^ In order, however, to fim-
plify this operation, the redlilineal dillance 01 was
trifedled, and through the points of divifion the lines
NO, PO were drawn parallel to the door ribband
M0.
'lake the dillance be (fig. 30.), and lay it off from
F to (fig. 32.); alfo make (fig. 32.) equal to
F u (fig. 30.) •, through b draw b c parallel to AB, and
equal to FR (fig. 3i.)- I11 manner take the
heights of each top timber from fig. 30. and lay them
off from C towards D (fig. 32.) 5 through thefe points
draw lines parallel to AB, and make them equal each to
each, to the correfponding half breadth lines taken from
the door-plan : Then through the feveral points «, r,
&c. thus found, draw a line a c FI, which will be the
projection of the top-timber line of the fore body in the
body plan. Proceed in the fame manner to find the
top-timber line in the after body.
Transfer the height of the main-breadth line on the
ftem b l (fig. 30.), from F to d (fig. 32.). Transfer
alfo the heights of the lower and upper breadth lines at
timber F (fig. 30.), namely, FW, FX, from F to £>
and f (fig. 32.) ; through which draw the parallels eg,
fh; make them equal to FS (fig. 31.), and draw the
ftraight line^ /z. In this manner proceed to lay down
the portions of the extreme breadth at each frame, both
in the fore and in the after body in the body plan, and
draw the upper and lower breadth lines d h K, difl in
the fore body and K i, I i in the after body. Hence
the portions of the feveral top-timbers contained between
the top-timber and main breadth lines may be eafily de¬
fcribed. It was before remarked that their forms were
partly arbitrary. The midfhip top-timber has generally
a hollow, the form of which is left entirely to the artiil,
though in fome {hips, efpecially fmall ones, it lias none.
It is the common praClice to make a mould for this hol¬
low, either by a fweep or fome other contrivance, which
is produced confiderably above the top-timber line, in a
ftraight line or very near one. The midfhip top-timber
is formed by this mould, which is fo placed that it
breaks in four with the back of the upper breadth fweep.
The other top-timbers are formed by the fame mould,
obferving to place it fo that the ftraight part of it may
be parallel to the ftraight part of the midfhip timber,
and moved up or down, ftill keeping it in that direCIion
till it juft touches the back of the upper breadth fweep.
4*
I L D I N G.
263
Some conftruCIors begin at the after timber, after the Application
mould is made for the midfiiip top-timber, becaufe they °^.tbe ^ore~
think it eafier to keep the ftraight part of the mould Pa- to The^'orT
rallel to this than to the midftiip timber ; and by thisftru&ion
means the top fide is kept from winding. Others, again, Ships.
make a mark upon the mould where the breadth line of
the midftiip timber croffts it, and with the fame mould
they form the after timber : this will occafion the mark
that was made on the mould when at the main frame to
fall below the breadth line of the after timber, and
therefore another mark is made at the height of the
breadth line at the after timber j the llraight part of the
mould is then laid obliquely acrofs the breadth lines of
the top-timbers in fuch a manner that it may interfecl
the breadth line of the midfhip timber at one of thefe
marks and the breadth line of the after timber at the
other mark ; then the feveral interfeCHons of the breadth
lines of the timbers are marked upon the mould ; which
muft now be fo placed in forming each timber, that the
proper mark may be applied to its proper breadth, and
it muft be turned about fo as juft to touch the upper
breadth fweep. Any of thefe methods may make a fair
fide, and they may be eafily proved by forming another
intermediate half breadth line. .
The remaining parts of the frames may be defcribed
by either of the methods laid down in Problems IX.
and X. In order, however, to illuftrate this ftill far¬
ther, it is thought proper to fubjoin another method of
forming the intermediate frames, the facility of which
will recommend it.
Take FZ (fig. 30.), and lay it from F to l (fig. 32.) j
then deferibe the lowrer part of the foremoft frame, ma¬
king it more or lefs full according as propofed} and in¬
terfering the ribbands in the points /, m, n. Deferibe
alfo the aftermoft frame 0, y?, q. Make «/3 (fig. 30.)
equal to Fr (fig. 32.), and produce it to a (fig. 31.) j
alfo draw 7 £ and e £ (fig. 30.) equal to E r and E s
(fig. 32.) refpeftively , and produce them to b and c :
Make F e, Ff, Fli (fig. 31.) equal to M /, N 7n, P n
(fig. 32.) each to each. Let alfo 0/^, 0 z, 0 and
9/, ()?n, 9 n (fig. 31.) be made equal to M 0, NO,
PQ_, and M 0, Ny, Pjo (fig. 32.) ; then through thefe
points trace the curves a e n h lb, rfitn c, and r R k
and they will be the projections of the ribbands in the
floor plane. Now transfer the feveral intervals of the
frames contained between the middle line and the rib¬
bands (fig. 31.) to the correfponding ribbands in the
body plan (fig. 32.). Hence there will be five points
given in each frame, namely, one at the lower breadth
line, one at each ribband, and one at the keel j and
confequently thefe frames may be eafily deferibed. In
order to exemplify this, let it be required to lay down
the frame E in the plane of jwojeClion. Take the in¬
terval E n (fig. 31.), and lay it from M to zz (fig. 32.). .
Lay off alfo E t/, E e (fig. 31.) from N to and from
P to n (fig. 32.) j then through the points F, u, w, n
and the lower breadth line deferibe a curve, and it
will be the reprefentation of the frame E in the body
plan. In like manner the other frames may be de-
feribed.
The ribbands may now be transferred from the body
plan to the plane of elevation, by taking the feveral
heights of the interfeClion of each ribband with the
frames, and laying them off on the correfponding frames
in the floor plan j and if the line drawn through thefe
points
i64
SHIP-BUILDING.
Application points make a fair curve, it is prefumed that the curves
of the lore- 0f ^jie frames are rightly laid down in the body plan,
goms ^lles Only one of thefe ribbands, namely, the firft, is laid
itruVtion of down in fig. 30. Thefe curves may alfo be farther pro-
Ships. ved, by drawing water lines in the plane of elevation,
y ■- an(l in the body plan, at equal diftances from the upper
edge of the keel. Then the diftances between the mid¬
dle line of the body plan, and the feveral points of in-
terfe&ion of thefe lines with the frames, are to be laid
off from the middle line in the floor plan upon the cor-
refponding frames •, and if the line drawn through thefe
points form a fair curve, the frames are truly drawn in
the body plan-
In figs 30. and 32. there are drawn four water lines
at any equal diftances from the keel, and from each
other. Thefe lines are then transferred from fig. 32. to
fig. 31. j and the lines palling through thefe points make
fair curves.
The tranfoms are defcribed by Problem VIII. jt is
therefore unneceffary to repeat the procefs. A rifrng
line of the floor timbers is commonly drawn in the plane
of elevation.
As this is intended only as an introduftory example,
feveral particulars have therefore been omitted ; which,
however, will be exemplified in the following feftion.
Sect. IV. To defcribe the feveral Plans of a Ship of
War propofed to carry 80 Guns upon two Decks.
As it is propofed in this place to Ihow the method of
•defcribing the plans of a Ihip of a very confiderable fize,
it therefore feems proper to give the dimenfions of every
particular part neceffary in the delineation of thefe plans.
. The feveral plans of this Ihip are contained in figs. 33.
Fi s 33 and 34- But as it would very much confufe the fi-
4?S- ^ gures to have a reference to every operation, and as the
former example is deemed a fufficient illuftration, the
letters of reference are upon thefe accounts omitted in
the figures.
Principal Dimensions.
tor)'.
ship Build-: Lengths.—Length on the guti or lower deck
-G Repofi. from the aft part of the rabbit of the ftem
to the aft part of the rabbet of the poll
Length from the foremoft perpendicular to
dead flat
Length from the foremoft perpendicular to
timber Y
Length from after perpendicular to timber 37
Room and fpace of the timbers
Length of the quarter-deck from the aft part
of the ftern * - -
Length of the forecaftle from the fore part of
the beak-head - - -
Length of round-houfe deck from the aft part
of the ftern
Heights.—Height of the gun or lower deck
from the upper edge of the keel to the
under fide of the plank at dead flat
Height of the gun or lower deck from the
upper edge of the keel to the under fide of
the plank at foremoft perpendicular
Height of the gun or lower deck from the
F. Jn.
182 o
63 nl
4 0
3 4
2 8^
95 0
49 0
51
24 o
26
upper edge of the keel to the under ude of
the plank at after perpendicular
Height from the upper fide of the gun-deck
plank to the under fide of -fhe upper deck
plank, all fore and aft
Height from the upper fide of the! a£ore
upper deck plank to the under fide >
of the greater deck plank J
Height to the under fide of forecaftle plank,
afore and abaft - - , *
Height from the upper fide of the! a£ore
quarter-deck plank to the under > a£)a£j.
fide of the round-houfe plank j ‘
Height of the lower edge of the main wales
at foremoft perpendicular
Height of the lower edge of the main wales
at dead flat
Height of the lower edge of the main wales
at after perpendicular
Height of the lower edge of the channel
•wales at foremoft perpendicular
Height of the lower edge of the channel
wales at dead flat
Height of the lower edge of the channel
wales at after perpendicular
Height of the upper fide of the wing tran-
fom - - * ‘
Height of the touch of the lower counter at
the middle line
Height of the touch of the upper counter at
the middle line
Height of the top-timber line at the after part
of the flern timber
Breadths.—Main wales in breadth from lower
to upper edge - * -
Channel wales in breadth from lower to up¬
per edge - - -
Waift rail in breadth
Diftance between the upper edge of the chan¬
nel wales and the under edge of the waift
rail -
Sheer rail in breadth
Diftance between the fheer rail and the
above from timber 13 to the ftern
Diftance between the ftreer rail and the
above from timber 7 to timber 11
Diftance between the Iheer rail and the rail
above from timber C to the forepart of
beak-head * - -
And the faid rail to be in breadth
Plank flieer to be in thicknefs
Centres of the tnafts.—From the foremoft per¬
pendicular to the centre of the mainmaft on
the gun-deck
From the foremoft perpendicular to the centre
of the foremaft on the gun-deck
From the after perpendicular to the centre of
the mizenmaft on the gun-deck
Stem.—The centre of the fweep of the ftem
abaft timber P * - -
Height of ditto from the upper edge of the
keel -
Stem moulded -
F. In. Application
of the fore
26 3 £°'ng Rule,
5 to the Con. '
ftruiftion oil
Ships.
6 TO
6 n
6 6
6 9
6 TO
24 6
20 o
26 6
32 6
29 o
34 o'
28 4
33 5
36 2
44
4
3
0
rail
rail
2 9
b 6
2 5
1 4
o 6
o 2-!
103 2
29 5
28 6
o 4
26 1
1 3
L .".♦•/UI-V'wAt-
SHIP-BUILDING.
Application Foremoft part of tire head afore the perpen-
Bif the fore- dicular - - - _
° tife/cotT He*ght of ditto from the upper edge of the
tmftion ot keel
Ships. Stcfn-pojl.—Aft part of the rabbet afore the
'V"’—' perpendicular on the upper edge of the keel
Aft part of the port abaft the rabbet at the
upper edge of the keel
Aft part of the port abaft the rabbet at the
wing tranfom . _ _
Stern-port fore and aft on the keel
Ditto fquare at the head
Counters.—The touch of the lower counter at
the middle line, abaft the aft part of the
wing tranfom -
Round aft of the lower counter
Round up of the lower counter
The touch of the upper counter at the middle
line, abaft the aft part of the wing tran¬
fom -
Round aft of the upper counter
Round up oflihe upper counter
Aft part of the ftern-timber at the middle
line, at the height of the top-timber line,
abaft the aft part of the wing tranfom
F. In.
2 4 Round aft of the wing tranfom
Round up of the wing tranfom
38 3 Draught of water.—Load draught ofl aporc
water from the upper edge of the > , r.
3 4 keel - - _ j aba
Channels.—Foremoft end of the fore channel
2 6 afore timber R - - -
The channel to be in length
1 1 And in thicknefs at the outer edge
3 1 The dead eyes to be 12 in number, and in dia-
2 Of meter . _ . .
Foremoft end of the main channel afore tim¬
ber 9 - - - -
7 6 The channel to be in length
1 4 And in thicknefs at. the outer edge
o 9 The dead eyes to be 14 in number, and in
diameter - - -
Foremoft end of the mizen-channel abaft tim-
9 9 ber 27
1 3-J The channel to be in length
O 10 And in thicknefs at the outer edge
The dead eyes to be 7 in number, and in dia¬
meter - - _ _
12 6-
F.
o
o
20
20
265
In. Application
g of the fore
r g°inS Rules
5? to the < on-
ftruifticm of
J Ships.
I O
37 °
o 4f
1 6
o 10
38 o
o 4f
1 6
2 4
20 o
o 4
1 o
DIMENSIONS of the feveral Parts of the Bodies.
Fore Body.
Timbers Names.
T
W
Lower height of breadth
Upper height of breadth
Height of the top-timber line
Height of the rifing line *
Height of the cutting down
Main half breadth
Top-timber half breadth
Half breadth of the rifing
Length of the lower breadth fweeps
Firft diagonal line
Second ditto - -
Third ditto
Fourth ditto
Fifth ditto
Sixth ditto - -
Seventh ditto
Ft.
22
24
37
o
2
24
20
8
19
7
r3
20
23
24
In.
6
10
5
o
3i
Si
11
7
2
9
9
o
41
8
Ft. In.
22 6
24 10
37
o
2
24
24 11
7
Si
3i
S
20 10
8 4
18 9
7 8
13 8
19 11
23 4i
24 8
24 1
Ft.
22
24
38
3
2
24
20
6
18
7
19
23
24
24
In.
7
10
o
10
3i
4i
9
Si
3
7
4’f
2
o
4t
Ft.
23
24
38
9
2
24
20
2
r7
7
12
*7
21
23
Tn.
. o
I Oh
5
10
8
of
6
9
3
1
1
7
8i
Si
23 9
Ft. In.
22 11
25 Si
39 1
18 6
3 ^
23 2i
20 o
5 7
Outfide
15
^ 3
10 3
15 1
18 11
21 2f
22 10
Ft.
25
26
39
6
20
18
14
3
7
11
H
i7
In
7
4i
10
4
2
9i
1
8
if
1
8i
1
Ft. In.
26 10
27 4-I-
4° 4
17 o
17 10
12
20 I of
Ft. In,
28 8
29
40
4
8
ri
13
6
Si
S
8f
11 o
16 6
12 o
3 4r
6 o
7 11
18 6f 14 7
Rifing height li feet 10 inches at dead flat, from which all the other rifings muft be fet off.
Vol. XIX. Part I.
L 1
1
266
SHIP- BUILDING.
Jlfier Body.
Timbers Names.
Lower heio-lit of breadth
Upper ditto
Height of the top-timber line
Height of the cutting down
Height, of the rifing '
Main half breadth
Half breadth of the rifing
Top-timber half breadth
Topfides half breadth
Length of lower breadth fweeps
Firil diagonal
Second ditto
Third ditto
Fourth ditto - -
Fifth ditto
Sixth ditto
Seventh ditto
t In.
22 6
24 10
37 5
2 34
o 2-.7
Ft. In
22 6
24 IO
37 5
2,
z OV
O
20 II
23 4rr
24 8
Ft. In.
22 6
24 IO
37
24 5t24 4i:
S 6 8 3
20 10
J9
7
T3
19
23
24
3
7
l9
7
[3
l9 7 i
13
t. In.
20 7 5
24 II
37 10
2 3*
3 64
24 3i
6 10
20 9
18
7
l3
x9
22
24
7
5
1
o
6i
1
17
t
22
25
33
2
6
24
5
20
!7
7
12
18
21
23
In
9
1
34
4
o
1
34
7
1
2t
6
14
11
64
21
Ft.
23
25
38
2
10
23
2
20
*9
16
6
11
16
20
22
In.
04
4
11
74
1
8t
8
3
7
o
7
2
6
3
2i
Ft
27
25
39
3
*7
?-3
2
10
!4
5
9
J4
18
3i{20
In
7i
8
8
5
o
ci
6
5
4
5
9
7
2
29
24
26
40
5
In.
6
3
6
2-1
33
Ft.
25
27
41
8
35 37
21 10
Outfide
18 2
*7
I 2
4
7
II
23 9i
0T15
6 it 8
o
5
7
7
5-
3 a
2
23
I21 84
16
«5
9
2
4
7
11
H
18
20
In.
102
I
5
7
8
10
1 of
10
8
r t.
26
27
42
In.
9l
9
o
Ft. In.
28 3
28 8
42 6
104-
11
11
84
1
5
7
5
o
11
oi
15
H 3
4 8
o 7
O II
2
4
7
11
17 8
Diagonal Lines for both the Fore and After Bodies.
Tig. 33-
Fore and After Bodies.
Height up the middle line
Diftance from the middle line on the bafe line
Height up the fide line
Names of the Diagonal Lines.
iff
Ft In.
6 11
4 8
2d
Ft. In.
II 4
9 1
3d
Ft. In.
f6 5 +
'5 6
4 th
Ft. In.
20 8
5th
Ft. In
23 SH
6 7
6th
7 th
Ft In Ft. In
27 5 ,43 9
12 7ij32 8;
I. Of the Sheer Draught or Plane of Elevation.
Draw a ftraight line (fig. 33.) to reprefent the up¬
per edge of the keel, eredt a perpendicular on that end
to the right,.and from thence let oft' 182 feet, the length
on the gun-deck, and there eredl another perpendicular;
that to the right is called the furcmoft perpendicular, and
the other the after one : upon thefe two perpendiculars
all the foremoft and aftermoft heights muft be fet off,
which are expreffed in the dimenfions.^
Then fet off the diftance of the main frame or dead
flat from the foremoft perpendicular, and at that place
eredl a third perpendicular, which muft be diftinguifhed
by the charafter ®. From dead flat the room and
{pace of all the timbers muft be fet off; but it will on¬
ly be neceffary to ereft a perpendicular at every frame
timber ; which in the fore body are called dead flat. A,
C, E, &c. and in the after body (2), I, 3, 5, &c. :
hence the diftance between the frame perpendiculars will
be double the room and fpace expreffed in the dimen-
fions. Then fet off the heights of the gun-deck afore
at midfhip or dc ad flat, and abaft from the upper fide
of the keel ; and a curve defcribed through thefe three
points will be the upper fide of the gun-deck. Set off
the thicknefs of the gun-deck plank below that; and
another curve being drawn paralltl to the former, the
gun-deck will then be defcribed at the middle line of
the fheer plan.
The centre of the ftem is then to be laid down by
means of the table of dimenfions; from which centre,
with an extent equal to the neareft diftance of the upper
edge of the keel, defcribe a circle upwards : deferibe
alfo another circle as much without the former as the
ftem is moulded. Then fet off the height of the head
of the ftem, with the diftance afore the perpendicular,
and there make a point ; and within that fet off the
moulding of the ftem, and ihere make another point ;
from this laft-mentioned point let a line pafs downwards,
interfering the perpendicular at the height of the gun-
deck, and breaking in fair with the inner circle, and
the after part of the ftern is drawn. Draw anotner line
from the foremoft point downwards, parallel to the for¬
mer, and breaking in fair with the outer circle ; then
the whole ftem null be formed, except the after or low¬
er end, which cannot be determined till hereafter.
The ftern-poft muft be next formed. Set off on the
upper edge of the keel a fpot for the aft part of the
rabbet taken from the dimenfions, and from that for¬
ward fet off another point at the diftance cf the tniek-
nefis
ship-building.
267
Application nefs of the plank of the bottom, which is four inches and
if the fore- a . ancj from i|j;s laft-mentioned point draw a line
,0"the Con- ulnvar^s interfering the perpendiculars at the height of
Iruftionof the lower deck; then fet up the perpendicular the
Ships, height of the wing tranfom, and draw a level line, and
■—where that line interfeifb, the line firft drawn will be
the aft tide of the wing tranfom •, on the upper part of
the middle line fet off from that place the diitance of
the aft fide of the Hern-poll •, fet off alfo the diftance of
the after part from the rabbet on the upper edge of the
keel, and a line drawn through thefe two points will
be the aft fide of the poll. A line drawn parallel to
the firlt drawn line at the difiance of four inches and
a half, the thicknefs of the plank on the bottom, will be
the aft fide of the rabbet: and hence the Hern-poll is
defcribed, except the head, which will be determined
afterwards.
From the dimenfipns take the feveral heights of the
upper deck above the gun-deck, afore, at midlhip, and
abaft, and fet them off accordingly j through thefe
points defcribe a curve, which will be the under fide of
the upper delpk } defcribe alfo another curve parallel
thereto, at the diHance of the thicknefs of the plank,
and the upper deck will be then reprefented at the
middle line of the ftiip.
Set off the height of the lower counter, at the mid¬
dle line, from the upper edge of the keel, and draw a
horizontal line with a pencil; then on the pencil line
fet off the diftance the touch of the low'er counter is
abaft the aft fide of the wing tranfom : from this point
to that where the fore part of the rabbet of the ftern-
poft interfefts the line drawn for the upper part of the
wing tranfom, draw a curve at pleafure, which curve
will reprefent the lower counter at the middle line.
The height of the upper counter Is then to be fet off
from the upper edge of the keel, and a horizontal line
is to be draivn as before, fetting off the diftance the
touch of the upper counter is abaft the aft fide of the
wing tranfom $ and a curve defcribed from thence to
the touch of the lower counter will form the upper
counter at the middle line.
Both counters being formed at the middle line, the
upper part of the ftern timber above the counters is to
be defcribed as follows : On the level line drawn for
the upper fide of the wing tranfom fet oft’ the diftance
of the aft fide of the ftern timber at the middle line
from the aft fide of the wing tranfom, at the height of
the top-timber line, and ereft a perpendicular: then up¬
on this perpendicular, from the upper edge of the keel,
fet off the height at the middle line of the top timber
line at the after fide of the ftern timber ; through this
point draw a ftraight lin'e to the touch of the upper
counter, and the upper part of the ftern timber will be
defcribed.
As the ftern rounds two ways, both up and aft, the
ftern timber at the fide will confequently alter from
that at the middle line, and therefore remains to be re¬
prefented. Take the round up of the upper counter
from the dimenfions* and fet it below the touch at tile
middle, and with a pencil draw a level line ; take alfo
the round aft, and fet it forward from the touch on the
touch line, and fquare it down to the pencil line laft
drawn, and the point of interfeftion will be the touch
of the upper counter at the fide. In the fame manner
find the touch of the lc*. er counter j and a curve, fi-
milar to that at the middle line, being defcribed from Application
the one touch to the other, will form the upper counter0*
’ 11 going’ Rules
at the fide. ^ tjie (jon*
Take the round up of the wing tranfom, and fet it ftruction of
off below the line before drawn for the height of the Ships,
wing tranfom, and draw another horizontal line in pen- v ' ^
cil: then take the round aft of the wing tranfom, and
fet it forward on the uppel line from the point repre-
fenting the aft fide of the wing tranfom j fquare it down
to the lower line, and the interfedlion will be the touch
of the wing tranlom : then a curve, fimilar to that at
the middle line, being drawn from the touch of the
wring tranfom to the touch of the lower counter at the
fide, will be the lower counter at the fide. Draw a
line from the upper counter upwards, and the whole
ftern timber at the fide will be reprefented. But as the
ftraight line drawn for the upper part of the fide tim¬
ber ftiould not be parallel to that at tiie middle line, its
rake is therefore to be determined as follows.
Draw a line at pleafure, on which fet off the breadth
of the ftern at the upper counter j at the middle of this
line fet off the round aft of the upper counter; then
through this point and the extremities of the ftern de¬
fcribe a curve. Now take the breadth of the ftexn at.
the top-timber line, and through the point where that
breadth will interfedl the curve for the round aft of the.
ftern draw a line parallel to that firlt drawn, and the
diftance from the line laft drawn to the curve at the
middle of the line is the diftance that the fide timber
mull be from the middle line at the height of the top-
timber line.
The Iheer is to be defcribed, which is done by fet¬
ting off the heights afore, at midfiiips and abaft $ and
a curve defcribed through thefe three points will be the
Iheer. But in order that the fiicer may correfpond
exaftiy with the dimenfions laid down, it will be ne~
ceffary to proceed as follows : The perpendicular re-
prefenting timber dead flat being already drawn, fet
off from that the diftances of the other frame timbers^
which is double the room and fpace, as the frames are
only every other one ; and ereft perpendiculars, writing
the name under each : then on each of thefe perpen¬
diculars fet off the correfponding heights of the top-
timber line taken from the table of dimenfions for con-
ftru6ting the bodies *, and through tbefe points a curve
being defcribed, will reprefent the fiieer of the ftiip or
top-timber line agreeable to the dimenfions.
The quarter-deck and forecaftle are next to be de¬
fcribed, which may be done by taking their refpeftive
heights and lengths from the dimenfions, and deferibing
their curves. In the fame manner alfo, the round-houfe
may be drawn. The decks being deferibed reprefent-
ing their heights at the middle, it is then neceffary to
reprefent them alfo at the fide. For this purpofe take
the round of the decks from the dimenfions, and fet
them off below the lower line drawn for the middle j
and a curve defcribed both fore and aft, obferving to
let it be rather quicker than the former, will be the re-
prefentation of the decks at the fide.
The ports come next under confideration. In the
placing of them due attention mult be paid, fo as to
preferve ilrength ; or that they fliall be fo difpofed as
not to weaken the (hip in the leaft, which is often done
by cutting off principal timbers, placing them in too
large openings, having too fhort timbers by the fide of
L 1 2 them.
268
Application
of the fore¬
going Rules
to the Con-
itrudlion of
Ships.
SHIP-BUILDING.
them, &c. The frames reprefented by the lines al¬
ready drawn mull be firft confulted. Then with a
pencil draw two curves, for the lower and upper parts
of the lower deck ports, parallel to the line reprefent-
ing the lower deck •, the diftances of thefe lines from
the deck are to be taken from the dimenfions, obfer-
ving, however, to add to thefe heights the thicknefs of
the deck, as the deck line at the lide reprelents the un¬
der part of the deck.
The foremoft port is then to be defcribed, obferving
to place it as far aft as to give fufhcient room for the
manger : the moft convenient place wdll therefore be
to'put it between the frames R and T, and equally di-
ftant from each. It will then be placed in the moft con-
fpicuous point of ftrength, as it will have a long top-
timber on the aft fide and a long fourth futtock on the
fore fide of it. The fecond port may be placed in like
manner betrveen the next two frames, which will be
equally w-ell fituated for ftrength as the former j and
by proceeding in this manner, the ports on the gun deck
may alfo be placed, taking care to have two frames be¬
tween every two ports, all fore and att.
The upper deck ports are then to be defcribed ; and
in order to difpofe of them in the ftrongelt fituation
pofftble, they muft be placed over the middle between
the gun-deck ports, fo that every frame in the (hip will
run up to the top of the fide, by their coming between
a gun and upper deck port ; and every port will be
between the frames, which will in a great meafure con¬
tribute towards the ftrength of the (hip. With regard
to the ports on the quarter deck, it is not of fuch ma¬
terial confequsnce if they cut the head of the frame, as
in placing them the fituation of the dead eyes muft be
confidered, placing a port where there is a vacancy be¬
tween the dead eyes large enough to admit of one •, ob¬
ferving always to place them as nearly as poffible at
equal diftances from each other •, and where it happens
that they do not fall in the wake of a frame, then that
frame muft by all means be carried up to the top of the
fide.
The neceffary length of the round-houfe being de¬
termined in the dimenfions, it may be fet off*, obferving,
however, to let it be no longer than is juft fufficient
for the neceflary accommodations, as the ftiorter the
round houfe the works abaft may be kept lower, and a
low fnug ftern is always' accounted the handfomeft.
Then fet off the round of the deck at the foremoft end,
below the line drawn ; the deck at the fide may be de¬
fcribed bv another curve drawn quite aft. Now, from
the point for the round of the deck to the ftern-timber,
draw a curve parallel to the top-timber line, and that
will be the extreme height of the top of the fide abaft,
which height continues to range fair along to the fore¬
moft end of the round-houfe, and at that place may
have a fall about 14 inches, -which may be turned off
with a drift fcroll. At the fore part of the quarter¬
deck, the topfide may have a rife of 14 inches, which
may alfo be turned off with a.fcroll. But as the raifing
of the topfide only 14 inches at that place will not be
fufficient to unite with the heights abaft, it will there¬
fore be neceffary to raife 14 inches more upon that,
and break it off with a fcroll inverted on the firft fcroll,
and continue thefe two lines, parallel to the top-timber
line, to the diftance of about feven feet aft. At the
foremoft: end of the round-houfe. there is a break of 14
«T"
inches already mentioned ; and in order to make that Application
part uniform with the breaks at the foremoft end of the^.1^ fore.,
quarter-deck, there muft be fet down 14 inches moreP\nS kufos:
below the tormer ; and at theie two heights continue two^^j^ o{.
curves parallel to the top-timber line, from the aft part Ships. .
of the ftern to the ends of the two curves already drawn
at the foremoft end of the quarter-deck. If they ffiould
happen not to break in fair with them, they muft be
turned off with a round ; but to make them appear
more handfome, the lower line may be turned off with
a fcroll. Thefe lines being drawn will reprefent the
upper edges of the rails.
The height of the top fide at the fore part of the (hip
muft next be confidered ; which, in order to give proper
height for the forecaftle, muft have a rife there of 14
inches, the break being at the after end of the fore¬
caftle, and turned off as before. But as this part of
the fhip is ftill confiderably lower than the after part, it
will be neceffary to give another of eight inches upon
the former, and turn it off with a fcroll inverted. Hence
this part of the fhip will appear more uniform to the af¬
ter part.
The finifhing parts, namely the wales, ftern, head,
rails, &c. remain to be defcribed. The wales may be
firft drawn j and as the ftrength of the fhip depends
very much on the right placing of them, great care
muft therefore be taken that they may be as little as
poffible wounded by the lower-deck ports, and fo placed
that the lower-deck bolts fhall bolt in them, and
alfo that they come as near as poffible on the broadeft
part of the fhip. In the firft place, therefore, the
height of breadth lines muft be chofen for our guide.
Thefe heights of breadth are to be taken from the di¬
menfions, and fet off on the refpt ftive frames, and curves
drawn through thefe points will be the upper and lower
heights of breadth lines. The height of the -wales
may be now determined ; which in general is in fuch
a manner that the upper height of breadth line comes
about fix inches below their upper edge, and the wales
are then placed right upon the breadth lines. Take the
heights and breadths of the wales afore, at midfhips,
and abaft, from the table of dimenfions ; draiv curves
through the points thus found, and the -wales will be
reprefented.
The channel -wales are then to be defcribed. They
are principally intended to ftrengthen the top fide, and
muft be placed between the lower and upper deck ports j
and the lower end of them at midfhips fhould be placed
as low as poffible, in order to prevent them from being
-cut by the upper deck ports afore and abaft. Take
their heights and breadths from the dimenfions ; lay
them off, and defcribe curves through the correfpond-
ing points, and the channel wales will be reprefented.
Lay off the dimenfions of the wafte rail found in the
table } and through the points draw a line parallel to the
top-timber line all fore and aft. This rail terminates
the lower part of the paint work on the top fide, as all
the wrork above this rail is generally painted, and the
work of the top fide below it payed with a varnifh, ex¬
cept the main wales, which are always payed with pitch.
Take the draught of water from the dimenfions, and
draw the load water-line, which is always done ig green.
Divide the diftance between the load water line and the
upner edge of the keel into five equal parts, and through
thefe points draw four more water-lines.
Set
S H I P-B U
application Set off the centres of the mafts on the gun-deck *,
the fore- t]ieJr rake may likewife be taken from the dimenfions.
^ Set off alfo the centre of the bowfprit, letting it be
I r^ion of four feet from the deck at the after part of the item,
| Ships, which will give fufficient height for a light and airy fi-
Draw the knight-heads fo as to be fufficiently high
above the bowfprit to admit of a chock between them
for the better fecurity of the bowfprit. The timber
heads may alfo be drawn above the forecaftle, obferving
to place the moft convenient for the timbers of the frame,
being thofe which come over the upper deck ports, as
they may be allowed long enough to form handfome
heads. There ihould be one placed abaft the cat-head,
to which the foremoit block is to be bolted, and there
may be two ports on the forecaftle formed by them,
and placed where it is moft convenient to the dead
eyes.
Defcribe the channels, taking their lengths and
thickneffes from the dimenfions, and place their upper
edges well with the lower edge of the lheer rail. The
dead eyes may then be drawn, obferving to place them
in fuch a manner that the chains may not interfere with
the ports •, and the preventer plates muft all be placed
on the channel wales, letting them be of fuch a length
that the preventer bolt at each end may bolt on each
edge of the channel wales. It muft alfo be obferved to
give each of the chains and preventer plates a proper
rake, that is, to let them lie in the direftion of the
ftirouds, which may be done in the following manner :
Produce the malt upwards, upon which fet off the
length of the maft to the lower part of the head ; thefe
ftraight lines drawn from that point through the centre
of each dead eye will give the direftion of the chains
and preventer braces.
The fenders may be then drawn, obferving to place
them right abreaft of the main hatchway, in order to
prevent the (hip’s fide from being hurt by whatever
may be hoifted on board. The proper place for them
will therefore be at timber 3 •, and the diftance between
them may be regulated by the diftance between the
ports. The cheft tree may alfo be drawn, which muft
be placed at a proper diftance abaft the foremaft, for
the conveniency of hauling home the fore tack. It
may therefore be drawn at the aft fide of timber C
from the top of the fide down to the upper edge of the
channel wales •, and the fenders may reach from the top
of the fide down to the upper edge of the main wales.
As the fenders and cheft-tree are on the outfide of the
planks, wales, &c. the lines reprefenting the wales, &c.
ihould not be drawn through them.
Draw the fteps on the fide, which muft: be at the fore
part of the main drift or break, making them as long
as the diftance between the upper and lower deck ports
will admit of. They may be about fix inches afunder,
and five inches deep, and continued from the top of the
fide down to the middle of the main wales.
In order to defcribe the head, the height of the beak-
' head muft be firft determined, which may be about two
feet above the upper deck. At that place draw a hori¬
zontal line, upon which fet off the length of the beak-
head, which may be 7- feet abaft the fore part of the
ftem, and from thence fquare a line up to the fore¬
caftle deck ; which line will reprefent the aft part of the
beak-head, and will likewife terminate the foremoft end
l
I L D I N G.
269
of the forecaftle. The length of the head may now be Application
determined, which by the proportions will be found to
be 15 feet fix inches from the fore part of the ftem. Set tt^e Con_
it off from the fore part of the ftem, and eredt a per- ftrudion of
pendieular, which will be the utmoft limits of the figure Ships,
forward : then take the breadth of the figure from the ' ~ <
proportions, which is four feet four inches, and fet it oft'
forward j and another perpendicular being drawn will
(how the utmoft extent of the hair bracket forward, or
aft part of the figure. Then draw the lower cheek, let¬
ting the upper edge be well with the upper edge of the
main wales, and the after end ranging well with the
beak-head line ; fet oft' the depth of it on the ftem ;
which is about 11 inches, and let a curved line pafs
from the alter end through the point on the ftem, and
to break in fair with the perpendicular firft drawn for
the length of the head, the fore part of the curve will
then reprefent the pofition of the figure.
The upper cheek may next be drawn } but, in order
to know the exadt place of it on the ftem, the place of
the main rail muft firft be fet off on the ftem, the upper
edge of which may be kept on a level with the beak-
head ; then fetting off the depth of it below that, the
place for the upper cheek may be determined, letting
it be exadtly in the middle between that and the lower
cheek : then, by drawing curves for the upper and
lower edges of the cheek from the after end parallel to
the lower cheek, to break in fair with the perpendicular
drawn for the back of the figure : then the upper cheek
will be formed. The upper part may run in a ferpen-
tine as high as ■where the (houlder of the figure is fuppo-
fed to come, at which place it may be turned off with
a fcroll. The diftance from the fcroll to the heel of the
figure is called the hair-bracket.
The head of the block may be formed by continuing
the line at the bread round to the top of the hair-brac¬
ket, obferving to keep the top of it about fix inches'
clear of the under fide of the bowfprit.
Having the diftance fet off on the ftem for placing the
main rail, it may next be deferibed, keeping the bag of
it as level as poffible for the conveniency of the gratings,
and letting the foremoft end rife gradually according to
the rife of the upper cheek and hair bracket, and may
turn off on the round of the fcroll before drawn for the
hair-bracket. To form the after end, fet off the fize
of the head of the rail abaft the beak-head line, and
eredt a perpendicular •, then defcribe the arch of a circle
from that perpendicular, to break in fair with the lower
fide of the rail in the middle, and alfo another from the
beak-head perpendicular, to break in fair with the upper
fide of the rail at the middle, obferving to continue the
head of it fufficiently high to range with the timber
heads above the forecaftle.
The head timbers are next to be drawn, placing the
ftem timber its own thicknefs abaft the ftem,and the fore¬
moft muft be fo placed that the fore fide may be up and
down with the heel of the block or figure, which has not
yet been fet off. Take therefore the diftanee from the
bread to the heel on a fejuare which is feven feet, and
eredt a perpendicular from the lower part of the lower
cheek to the lower part of the upper cheek ; which per¬
pendicular will terminate the foremoft end of the lower
cheek and the heel of the figure, and will alfo termi¬
nate the lower end of the hair-bracket: then, by conti¬
nuing the fame perpendicular from the upper part of
270
S H I P-B U
Application the lower deck to the under part of the main rail, the
of the fore-£ore Qf tjlc foremoft htad timber will be defcribed;
toThe Con! and by fetting off its thicknefs aft, the other fide may
ftrudtion of be drawn. The middle head timber may be fpread he-
Ships. tween the two former ones j and there may alfo be one
^ v ' timber placed abaft the Item, at a diftance from the
Item, equal to that between the others, and the lower
end of it may fxep on the upper edge of the lower rail.
To defcribe the middle and lower rails, divide the
diftance between the lower part of the main rail and the
upper part of the upper cheek equally at every head
timber ; and curves being defcribed through thefe points
will form the middle and lower rails. I-he after end of
the lower rail muft terminate at the after edge of the
after head timber.
The cat-head ought to be reprefented in fuch a man¬
ner as to come againif the aft fide of the head of the
main rail, to rake forward four inches in a foot, and to
fteeve up 5-J inches in a foot, and about one foot fix
inches fquare. The lower part of it comes on the plank
of the deck at the fide, and the fupporter under it mull
form a fair curve to break in with the after end of the
middle rail.
The hawfe holes muft come between the cheeks,
which is the moft convenient place for them ; but their
place fore and aft cannot be exa&ly determined until
they are laid down in the half-breadth plan.
The knee of the head is to projeft from the breaft of
the figure about two inches ; and particular care muft
be taken that in forming it downwards it be not too
full, as it is then liable to rub the cable very much : it
may therefore have no more fubftance under the lower
cheek at the heel of the figure than is juft fufficient to
admit of the bobftay holes, and may be 3f feet diftant
from the ftem at the load-water line, making it run in
agreeable ferpentine line from the breaft dotvn to the
third rvater line, where it may be if feet from the ftem.
By continuing the fame line downwards, keeping it
more diftant from the ftem as it comes down, the gripe
will be formed, if he lower part of it muft break in fair
with the under part of the falfe keel; and the breadth
of the gripe at the broadeft place will be found by the
proportions to be ff feet. As the aft part of the gripe
is terminated by the fore foot, or foremoft end of the
keel, it will now be proper to finifti that part as fol¬
lows : From the line reprefenting the upper edge of the
keel fet down the depth of the keel, through which
draw a line parallel to the former, and it will be the
lower edge of the keel. From that point, where the
aft fide of the ftem is diftant from the upper edge of
the keel by a quantity equal to the breadth of the keel
at midihips, erefl a perpendicular, which will limit the
foremoft end of the keel ; and the after or lower end of
the ftem may be reprefented by fetting off the length of
the fcarf from the foremoft end of the keel, which may
be fix feet. Set down from the line reprefenting the
lower edge of the keel the thicknefs of the falfe keel,
which is feven inches ; and a line drawn through that
point parallel to the lower edge of the keel will be the
under edge of the falfe keel, the foremoft end of which
may be. three inches afore the foremoft end of the main
keel.
The head being now finiflied, proceed next to the
ftern, the fide and middle timbers of which are already
drawn. From the fide timber fet off forward 14 feet.
2
I L D I N G.
the length of gallery, and draw a pencil line parallel to ApplicatiJ ]
the fide timber ; draw aifo a line to interfedl the touchof f#rti|
of the upper counter at the fide, producing it for wards
parallel to the ftieer as far as the pencil line firft drawn 5 ftruchon 0
and this line rvill repvefent the upper edge of the gal- Ships,
lery rim. From which fet down eight inches, the '““y-'w
breadth of the gallery rail, and draw the lower edge
of the rail. At the diltanee of eight inches from the
fore fide of the fide timber draw a line parallel thereto j
and from the point of interfedlion of this line with the
upper edge of the gallery rim, draw a’curve to the
middle timber parallel to the touches of the upper coun¬
ter, which line will reprefent the upper edge of the up¬
per counter rail as it appears on the ftieer draught.
The lower edge of this rail may be formed by fetting
off its depth from the upper edge. In the fame manner
the lower counter rail may be defcribed : then take,the
diftance between that and the upper counter rail, and
fet it off below the rim rail 5 and hence the rail that
comes to the lorver ftool may be drawn, keeping it pa¬
rallel to the rim rail. Underneath that, the lower fi-
niftiing may be formed, making it as light and agreeable
as poflibie.
Set off from the middle timber on'the end of the
quarter-deck the projettion of the balcony, which may
be about two feet, and draw a line with a pencil paral¬
lel to the middle timber. On this line fet oft' a point
if inches below the under fide of the quarter-deck,
rom which draw a curve to the fide timber parallel to
the upper counter rail, which curve will reprefent the
lower fide of the foot fpace rail of the balcony as it ap¬
pears in the ftieer draught.
Take the diftance between the point of interfe£Hon
of the upper edge of the upper counter with the mid¬
dle line, and the point of interfeflion of the under fide
of the foot fpace rail with the middle line, which fet
up on a perpendicular from the upper edge of the rim
rail at the foremoft end. Through this point draw a
line parallel to the rim rail to interfeft the lower part
of the foot fpace rail, and this line will reprefent the
loAver edge of the rail that comes to the middle ftool,
and will anfwer to the foot Ipace rail. 1 hen between
this line and the rim rail three lights or fafties may be^
drawn, having a muntin or pillar between each light of
about 14 inches broad, and the lower gallery will be
finilbed. Set off the depth of the middle ftool rail
above the line already drawn • for the lower edge, and
the upper edge may be drawn. 1 hen fet off the fame
depth above the curve drawn for the lower edge of the
foot fpace rail, and the upper edge of that rail may then
be drawn.
The quarter-piece muft be next deferibed, the heel
of which muft ftep on the after end of the middle ftool.
Draw a line with a pencil parallel to the middle timber,
and at a diftance therefrom, equal to the proje£lion of
the balcony. Upon this line fet up from the round-
houfe deck the height of the upper part of the ftern or
taff rail, which may be four feet above the deck. At
that height draw with a pencil a horizontal line,, and
from its intcrfedlion with the line firft drawn defcribe a
curve to the middle ftool rail, obferving to make the
lower part of this curve run nearly parallel to the fide
timber, and the lower part about three inches abaft the
fide timber } and this curve will reprefent the aft fide of
the quarter-piece at the outfide. T here let off the thick-
S H I P-B U
^plication nefs of the quarter-piece, which is one foot fix inches,
the fore-afore the curve already drawn j and another curve be-
tlfe^’orT *ng parallel to it from the lower part to the
rwftion oftoP the ^eer’ and the quarter-piece at the outfide
Ships, will be reprefented. On the horizontal line drawn for
J the upper part of the taff rail fet off forward the thick-
nefs of the taff-rail, which is one foot *, then draw a
curve down to the head of the quarter-piece parallel to
the firft, and that part of the taff-rail will be deferibed.
Inflead of a fair curve, it is cuftomary to form the upper
part of the taff-rail with one or two breaks, and their
curves inverted. Either way may, however, be ufed
according to fancy.
Set off the depth of the taff-rail, which may be about
3i feet, on the line drawn for the projeftion ; from the
upper part, and from this point, deferibe a curve as low
as the heel of the quarter-piece, and about five inches
abaft it at that place ; obferving to make it run nearly
parallel to the after edge of the quarter-piece •, and the
after part of the quarter-piece, which comes neareli to
the fide, will be reprefented.
Set up on the line drawn for the projection of the
balcony the height of the upper part of the balcony or
bread rail, which is 3f feet from the deck ; fet off the
thicknefs of the rail below that, and deferibe the balco¬
ny, keeping it parallel to the foot fpace rail, and termi¬
nating it at the line drawn for the after part of the quar¬
ter-piece nearelt the fide ; and the whole balcony will
then be reprefented.
The upper gallery is then to be deferibed. In order
to this, its length muff be determined, which may be
11 feet. Set off this diftance from the fide timber for¬
ward with the fheer ; and at this point draw a line pa¬
rallel to the fide timber, which line will reprefent the
fore part of the gallery. Then take the diftance be¬
tween the upper part of the foot fpace rail and the up¬
per part of the breaft rail on a perpendicular, and fet it
off on a perpendicular from the upper part of the middle
ftool rail on the line drawn for the fore part of the gal¬
lery, from which'to the fore part of the quarter-piece
draw a ftraight line parallel to the rail below, which
line will be the upper edge of the upper rim rail; and
its thicknefs being fet off, the lower edge may alfo be
drawn. From the upper edge of that rail fet up an ex¬
tent equal to the diftance between the lower rim rail
and middle ftool rail, and deferibe the upper ftool rail,
the after end of which will be determined by the quar¬
ter-piece, and the fore end by the line for the length of
the gallery. There may be three failles drawn between
thefe two rails as before 5 and hence the upper gallery
will be formed.
I he upper finilhing fhould be next drawn, the length
of which may be 1 f foot lefs than the upper gallery.
Draw a line parallel to the rake of the ftern for the fore
end of it, and let the upper part of the top fide be the
upper part of the upper rail, from which fet down three
inches for the thicknefs of the rail, and deferibe it.
Deferibe alfo another rail of the fame length and thick¬
nefs as the former ; and eight inches below ; from the
end of which a Terpentine line may be drawn down to
the upper ftool rail, and the upper finiftiing will be com¬
pleted.
The ftern being now finifhed, the rudder only re¬
mains to be drawn. The breadth of the rudder at the
lower part is to be determined from the proportions, and
I L D 1 n G.
fet off from the line reprefenting the aft part of the Application
ftern-poft ^ which line alfo reprefents the fore part ofof d'6 -ore-
the rudder. Then determine on the lower hance, let-
ting it be no higher than is juft fufficient, which may be ftnuflion of
about one foot above the load water-line, and fet off its Ships.
breadth at that place taken from the proportions. Then ' 1 1 '
a line drawn from thence to the breadth fet off at the
lower part will be the aft fide of the rudder below the
lower hance. There may alfo be another bance about
the height of the lowrer deck. The ufe of thefe breaks
or hanees is to reduce the breadth as it riles toward the
head. The aft part may be drawn above the lower
hance, the break at the lower hance being about ten
inches, and the break at the upper hance fix inches.—
The back may be then drawn. It is of elm, about
four inches thick on the aft part. That thicknefs be¬
ing fet off, and a line drawn from the lower hanee to
the lower end, will reprefent'the back. The head of
the rudder fhould be as high as to receive a tiller above
the upper deck. Therefore fet off the fize of the head
above the upper deck, and draw a line from thence to
the break of the upper hance, and the aft part of the
rudder will be reprefented all the way up. The beard¬
ing (liould be drawn, by felting off the breadth of it
at the keel from the fore fide of the rudder, which may
be nine inches. Set off alfo the breadth at the head of
the wing-tranfom, which may be a foot. Then a line
being drawn through thefe two points, from the lower
part of the rudder to about a foot above the wing-tran¬
fom, and the bearding will be reprefented. As the
bearding is a very nice point, and the working of the
rudder depending very much upon it, it fliould always
be very particularly confidered. It has been cuftomary to
beard the rudder to a ftiarp edge at the middle line, by
which the main piece is reduced more than neceffary.
'Idle rudder fhould, however, be bearded from the fide
of the pintles, and the fore fide made to the form of the
pintles.
'I he pintles and braces may next be drawn. In order
to which determine the place of the upper one, which
muft be fo difpofed that the ftraps fhall come round the
head of the ftandard, which is againft the head of the
ftern-poft on the gun-deck, and meet at the middle line.
By this means there is double fecurity both to the brace
and ftandard. I o obtain thofe advantages, it muff
therefore be placed about four inches above the wing-
tranfom : the fecond muft be placed juft below the gun-
deck fo as to bolt in the middle of the deck-tranfom,
and the reft may be fpaced equally between the lower
one, which may be about fix inches above the upper
edge of the keel. The number of them is generally
feven pair upon this clafs of flfips; but the number may
be regulated by the diftance between the Iccond and
upper one, making tnc diftance between the reft nearly
the fame. The length of all the braces will be found
by fitting off the length of the lower one, which may¬
be eight feet afore the back of the ftern-poft, and alfo
the length of the third, which is four feet and a half
afore the back of the ftern-poft ; and a line drawn from
the one extremity to the other will limit the interme¬
diate ones, as will appear on the iheer draught. The
braces will feem to diminish in length very much as
they go up-, but when meafured or viewed on the
fliape of the body, they will be nearly of an equal
length. The length of the ftraps of the pintles which
come
272
Application come upon tlie rudder may all be within four inches
of the fore- 0p t^e aft fltie 0f the rudder ; and the rudder be-
'toThe^on! ing a rtat Surface, they will all appear of the proper
itru6tion of lengths. . rj,, ,
Ships. II. Of the half breadth and body plans.— i he halt-
1 v 1 breadth plan muft be firft drawn. Then produce the
lower edge of the keel both ways, and let it alfo repre-
fent the middle line of the half-breadth plan. Produce
all the frames downwards, and alfo the lore and after
perpendiculars. I hen from the place in the Ihtei-plan,
where the height of breadth-lines interfeft the ftem,
fquare down to the middle line the fore and aft part of
the rabbet and the fore part of the ftem. Take from
the dimenfions what the ftem is fided at that piace, and
fet off half of it from the middle line in the half-breadth
plan, through which draw a line parallel to the middle
line through the three lines fquared down, and the half
breadth of the ftem will be reprefented in the half¬
breadth plan. Take the thicknefs of the plank of the
bottom which is 4^ inches, and deferibe the rabbet of
the ftem in the half-breadth plan.
From the points of interfe&ion of the height of
breadth lines with the counter timber at the fide, and
with the counter timber at the middle line, draw lines
perpendicular to the middle line of the half-breadth
•plan, from which fet off the half breadth of the counter
on the line firft drawn ; and from this point to the inter-
feftion of the line laft drawn, with the middle line draw
a curve, and the half breadth of the counter will be re¬
prefented at the height of breadth, which will be the
broadeft part of the ftern.
Take the main half breadth of timber dead flat from
the dimenfions, and lay it off from the middle line on
dead flat in the half-breadth plan. Take alfo from the
dimenfions the main half-breadth of every timber, and
fet off each from the middle line on the correfponding
timbers in the half-breadth plan. Then a curve drawn
from the end of the line reprefenting the half-breadth
of the counter through all the points, fet off on the tim¬
bers, and terminating at the aft part of the ftern, will
be the main half-breadth line. Take from the dimen¬
fions the top timber half-breadth, and deferibe the top-
timber half-breadth line in the half-breadth plan, in the
fame manner as the main half-breadth line.
Take from the dimenfions the half-breadth of the ri-
fing, and fet it off from the middle line on the corre¬
fponding timbers, in the half-breadth plan, obferving,
where the wTord out/ide is expreffed in the tables, the
half-breadth for that timber muft be fet off above or
on the outfide of the middle line. Then a curve drawn
through thefe points will be the half-breadth of nfing
Plate in the half-breadth plan. ,
ccccxcn. It will now be neceffary to proceed to the body plan.
35- Draw a horizontal line (fig. 3$.), which is called tlm
bafe line, from the right hand extremity of which erett
a perpendicular. 'Then fet off on the bafe line the
main half-breadth at dead flat, and ereft another per¬
pendicular, and from that fet off the main half-breadth
again, and ereft a third perpendicular. The firft per¬
pendicular, as already obferved, is called^the fide line
of the fore body ; the fecond the middle line j and the
third the fide line of the after body..
Take from the dimenfions the heights of the diago¬
nals up the middle, line, and fet them from the bafe up
the middle line in the body plan. Take alfo their di-
ftances from the middle line on the bafe, and fet them ApplicatioiJ
off. Set off alfo their heights up the fide lines, and”
draw the diagonals. I hen take from the ftieer plan the ^ tjie ^on
heights of the lower height of breadth-line, and fet them ftruftion ui
off *upon the middle line in the body plan 5 through JJV
thefe points lines are to be drawn parallel to the bale,
and terminating at the fide lines. In like manner pro¬
ceed with the upper height of breadth line.
The riling is next to be fet off on the body plan it
muft, however, be firft deferibed in the ftieer plan ;
therefore, the heights from the dimenfions, and
fet them off on the correfponding timbers in the Iheer
plan, and a curve deferibed through thefe points will
be the rifing line in the ftieer plan. Then take from
the dimenfions the rifing heights of dead flat. Set it
off in the body plan, and draw a horizontal line. Now
take all the rifing heights from the flieer plan, and fet
them off in the body plan from the line drawn for the
rifing height of dead flat, and draw horizontal lines
through thefe points. ’I ake from the half-breadth
plan the half breadths of the rifing, and fet them off
from the middle line in the body plan, and the centres
of the floor fweeps of the correfponding timbers will be
obtained. . , .
From the half-breadth plan take the mam . halt-
bread th lines, and fet them off from the middle line in
the body plan on the correfponding lines before drawn
for the lower height of breadth •, and from the extremi¬
ties of thefe lines fet off towards the middle line the
lengths of the lower breadth fweeps refpeaively.
'I''ake from the dimenfions the diftance of each frame
from the middle line on the diagonals, and fet them off
from the middle line on their refpeaive diagonal lines.
Now thefe diftances being fet off, and the lower breadth
and floor fweeps deferibed, the ftiape of the frames be¬
low the breadth line may eafily be drawn as follows :
Place one point of a compafs in the diftance fet off for
the length of the lower breadth fvveep, and extend the
other to the point which terminates the breadth., and
deferibe an arch of a circle downwards, which will in-
terfea the points fet off on the upper diagonal lines,
letting it pafs as low as convenient. Then fix one point
of the compaffes in the centre of the floor fweep, and
extend the other to the point fet off on the fourth diago¬
nal, which is the floor head 5 and deferibe a circle to
interfeft as many of the points fet off on the diagonals
as it will. Then draw a curve from the back of the
lower breadth fweep, through the points on the diago¬
nals, to the back of the floor fweep. Defcnbe alfo
another curve from the back of the floor fweep through
the points on the lower diagonals, and terminating at
the upper part of the rabbet of the keel, and that part
of the frame below the breadth will be formed. In like
manner deferibe the other frames.
Through the extremities of the frames at the lower
height of breadth draw lines parallel to the middle line,
and terminating at the upper height of breadth line, and
from thence fet off the upper breadth fweeps *, now hx
one point of the compafs in the centres of the upper
breadth fweeps fucceflively, and the other point to t e
extremities of the frames, and deferibe circles upwards.
Then from the flieer plan take off the heights of the
top-timber lines, and fet them off in the body plan,
drawing horizontal lines •, upon which fet off the top-
timber half-breadths taken from the correfponding tim-
SHIP-BUILDING.
wuication bcl’s in the half-breadth plan j and by defcribing curves
the foie- from the back of the upper breadth (weeps through the
'"h 'Von5 P°*nts ^et on feventh or upper diagonal; and in¬
ruction
Ships.
SHIP-BUILDING. ' 47.?
half breadth plan, and fet off the half breadths on the Application
0f terfe&ing the top-timber half-breadtlis, the timbers will
tiien be formed from the keel to the top of the fide.
The upper end of the timbers may be determined by
taking the feveral heights of the upper part of the top
fide above the top-timber line, and fetting them off
above the top-timber line on the correfponding timbers
in the body plan. The lower parts of the timbers are
ended at the rabbet of the keel as follows : With an ex¬
tent of four inches and a half, the thicknefs of the bot¬
tom, and one leg of the compaffes at the place where
the line for the thicknefs of the keel interfedls the bafe
line ; with the other leg deferibe an arch to interfeft the
keel line and the bafe. Then fix one point at the inter-
fedtion of the arch and keel, and from the point of in-
terfedlion of the keel and bafe deferibe another arch to
interfedl the former. Then from the interfedtion of
thefe arches draw one ftraight line to the interfedlion of
the keel and bafe, and another to the interfedlion of the
lower arch and the keel, and the rabbet of the keel
will be described at the main frame. All the timbers
in the middle part of the (hip which have no rifing ter¬
minate at the intcrfedlion of the upper edge of the rab¬
bet with the bafe line •, but the lower part of the tim¬
bers, having a rifing, end in the centre of the rabbet,
that is, where the two circles interfcdl. Thofe timbers
which are near the after end of the keel mull be ended
by fetting off the half breadth of the keel at the port in
the half breadth plan, and deferibe the tapering of the
keel. Then at the correfponding timbers take off the
half breadth of the keel j fet it off in the body plan,
and deferibe the rabbet as before, letting every timber
end where the two circles for its refpedlive rabbet in-
terfedl.
To deferibe the fide counter or (tern timber, take
the height of the wing tranfom, the lower counter, up¬
per counter, and top-timber line at the fide 5 from the
fliecr plan transfer them to the body plan, and through
thefe points draw horizontal lines. Divide the diftance
between the wing tranfom and lower counter into three
equal parts, and through the two points of divifion
draw two horizontal lines. Draw alfo a horizontal line
equidiftant from the upper counter and the top-timber
line in the (beer plan, and transfer them to the body
plan.
Now, from the point of interfedlion of the aft fide of
the Hern timber at the fide, with the wing tranfom at
the fide in the (heer plan, draw a line perpendicular to
the middle line in the half breadth plan. Draw alfo
perpendicular lines from the points where the upper and
lower tranfoms touch the (lern-poft •, from the points of
interfeflion of the ftern-timber with the two horizontal
lines drawn between, and from the interfeftion of the
ftern-timber with the horizontal line drawn between the
upper counter and top-timber line. Then curves muft
be formed in the half breadth plan for the (hape of the
body at each of thefe heights. In order to which, be¬
gin with the horizontal or level line reprefenting the
height of the wing tranfom in the body plan.* Lay a
(lip of paper to that line, and mark on it the middle
line and the timbers 3’7, 35, 33, and 29 transfer the
flip to the half-breadth plan, placing the point marked
on it for the middle line exaclly on the middle in the
Vol. XIX. Part I.
correfponding timbers 37, 3 c, 33, and 29, and defenbe } ier[01
a curve through theie points, and to intenect the per-^0 ^on
pendicular drawn from the (beer plan. In like manner ftrudtion of
proceed with the horizontal lines at the heights of the Ships.
counters, between the lower counter and wing tranfom,
above the upper counter and top-timber line ; and from
the interfeflions of the curve drawn in the half breadth
plan, with? the perpendicular lines drawn from the
(beer plan, take the diftances to the middle line, and
fet them off on the correfponding lines in the body
plan then a curve deferibed through the feveral points
thus fet off will be the reprefentative of the ftern-
timber.
The round-up of the wing tranfom, upper and lower
counter, may be taken from the (heer draught, and fet
off at the middle line above their refpedlive level lines
in the body plan, by which the round-up of each may
be drawn. The round-aft of the wing tranfom may
alfo be taken from the (heer plan, and fet off at the
middle line, abaft the perpendicular for the wing tran¬
fom in the half breadth plan, whence the round-aft of
the wing tranfom may be deferibed.
The after body being now finithed, it remains to form
the fore body •, but as the operation is nearly the fame
in both, a repetition is therefore unneceffary, except in
thofe parts which require a different procefs.
The fore mod timbers end on the ftem, and confe-
quently the method of defcribing the ending of them
differs from that ufed for the timbers ufed in the after*
body. Draw a line in the body plan parallel to the
middle line, at a diftance equal to the half of what
the ftem is fided. In the fheer plan take the height
of the point of interfeftion of the lower part of the
rabbet of the ftem with the timber which is required
to be ended, and fet it oft on the line before drawn in
the body plan. Then take the extent between the
points of interfedlion of the timber with the lower and
upper parts of the rabbet, and with one leg of the com¬
paffes at the extremity of the diftance laid off in the
body plan deferibe a circle, and the timbers may then
pafs over the back of this circle. Now, by applying a
fmall fquare to the timber, and letting the back of it in-
terfedt the point fet off for the lower part of the rabbet,
the lower part of the rabbet and the ending of the tim¬
bers will be deferibed.
The foremoft timbers differ alfo very much at the
head from thofe in the after body ; For finee the (hip
t arries her breadth fo far forward at the top-timber line,
it therefore oceafions the two foremoft frames to fall
out at the head beyond the breadth, whence they are
called hnuchle timbers. They are thus deferibed :
The height of the top-timber line being fet off in the
body plan, fet off on it the top half breadth taken from
the half breadth plan, and at that place draw a perpen¬
dicular ; then from the (heer plan take the height of
the top of the fide, and fet it off on the perpendicular
in the body plan : Take alfo the breadth of the rail at >
the top-timber line in the (heer plan, and fet it off be¬
low the top-timber line at the perpendicular line in the
body plan, and the flraight part of the knuckle timber
to be drawn will be determined. Then from the laft-
mentioned point fet off deferibe a curve through the
points fet off for the timber down to the upper breadth,
and the whole knuckle timber will be formed. It will
M m hence
S74 SHIP-BU
Application fjence be feen that thofe timbers forward will fall out
of the fore- beyond the main breadth with a hollow, contrary to the
going Rules ft of the t flde \vhich falls within the main breadth
to the con- ‘ ’
ftrudion of with a hollow. . , . r
Ships, The fore and after bodies being now formed, the wa-
V ' ter lines mult next be defcribed in the halt-breadth plan,
in order to prove the fairnefs of the bodies. In this
draught the water lines are all reprefented parallel to
the keel ; their heights may, therefore, be taken from
the Iheer plan, and transferred to the body plan, draw¬
ing horizontal lines, and the -water lines will be repre¬
fented in the body plan. In llnps that draw more wa¬
ter abaft than afore, the water lines will not be parallel
to the keel •, in this cafe, the heights muft be taken at
every timber in the flieer plan, and fet off on their cor-
refponding timbers in the body plan *, and curves being
defcribed "through the feveral points, will reprefent the
water lines in the body plan.
Take the diftances from the middle line to the points
-where the -water lines interfedl the different timoers in
the body plan, and fet them off on their correfponding
timbers in the half-breadth plan. From, the points
where the water lines in the fheer plan interfedl the
aft part of the rabbet of the fternpoft draw perpendi¬
culars to the middle line of the half-breadth plan, and
upon thefe perpendiculars fet off from.the middle line
the half thicknefs of the fternpoft at its correfponding
water line •, which may be taken from the body plan,
by fetting off the fize'of the port at the head and the
keel, and drawing a line for the tapering of it; and
where the line fo drawn interfedls the water lines, that
will be the half thicknefs required : then take an extent
in the compaffes equal to the thicknefs of the plank, and
fix one point where the half thicknefs of the poll m-
terfedls the perpendicular, and with the other, defeube
a circle, from the back of' which the water lines may
pafs through their refpeftive points fet off, and end at
the fore part of the half-breadth plan, proceeding in
the fame manner as with the after part. ^ ^ne ^r^VIl
from the water line to the point fet off for thehalr
thicknefs of the port will reprefent the aft part of the
rabbet of the port ; and in like manner the rabbet of
the ftem may be reprefented. The water lines being
all defcribed, it will be feen if the body is fair 5 and. if
the timbers require any alteration, it fhould be complied
with. v ,
The cant-timbers of the after body may next.be de¬
fcribed in the half-breadth plan ; in order to which the
cant of the fafhion-piece muft firft be reprefented. Ha¬
ving therefore the round aft of the wing tranfom re¬
prefented in the half-breadth plan, and alfo the fhape
of a level line at the height of the wing tranfom j then
fet off the breadth of the wing tranfom at the end,
which is ore foot four inches, and that will be the place
where the head of the faihion-piece will come : now to
■ determine the cant of it, the ftiape of the body muft be
confidered *, as it muft be canted in fuch a manner as
to preferve as great a ftraightnefs as is poffible for the
ftiape of the timber, by which means the timber will be
much ftronger than if it were crooked } the cant muft
alfo be confidered, in order to let the timber have as
little bevelling as poflible. Let, therefore, the heel of
the timber be fet off on the middle line, two feet afore
timber 35-, and then drawing a line from thence to the
point fet off on the level line for the wing tranfom, the
I L D I N G.
cant of the faftiion-piece will be defcribed, and will be Applic*tiw-
found fituated in the beft manner poflible to anfwer the^.^M
before-mentioned purpofes. . to the toi l
The cant of the faftiion-piece being reprefented, the ftruaion J
cant of the other timbers may now be eafily determi- Ships. I
ned. Let timber 29 be the foremoft cant timber in the
after body, and with a pencil draw- timber 28 } then
obferve how many frames there are between timber 28
and the faff/on-piece, wiiich will be found to be nine,
namely, 29, 3c, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35> 3^, and 37. Now
divide the diftance between timber 28 and the faihion-
piece on the middle line into 1 o equal parts : Divide
alfo the correfponding portion of the main half-breadth
lines into the fame number of equal parts 5 and ftraight
lines joining the correfponding points at the middle line
with thofe in the half-breadth line will reprefent the
cant timbers in the after body.
The line drawn for the cant of the faftiion-piece re-
prefents the aft fide of it, which comes to the end. of
the tranfoms ; but in order to help the converlion with
regard to the lower tranfoms, there may be two more
faftiion-pieces abaft the former ; therefore the foremoft
faftiion piece, or that which is already defcribed in the
half-breadth plan, may only take the ends of the three
upper tranfoms, which are, the wing, filling, and deck :
the middle faffion-piece may take the four next, and
the after faftiion-piece the lower ones : therefore fet off
in the half-breadth plan the Tiding of the middle and
after faftiion-piece, which may be 13 inches each 5 then
by drawing lines parallel to the foremoft faftiion-piece,
at the aforefaid diftance from each other, the middle and
after faftiion-piece will be reprefented in the half-breadth
plan.
The faffion-piece and tranfoms yet remain to be re¬
prefented in the ftieer plan ; in order to. which, let the
number of tranfoms be determined, which, for fo large
a buttock, may be feven below the deck tranfom: draw
them with a pencil, beginning with the wing, the upper
fide of which is reprefented by a level line at its height j
fet off its Tiding below that, and draw a level line for
the lower edge. The filling tranfom follows ; which
is merely for the purpofe of filling the vacancy between
the under edge of the wing and the upper part of the
deck plank : it may therefore be reprefented by draw-
ino- two level lines for the upper and lower edge, leaving
about two inches between the upper edge and lower
ed^e of the wing tranfom, and four inches between the
lower edge of the gun-deck plank ; then the deck tran¬
fom muft0be governed by the gun-deck, letting the un¬
der fide of the gun-deck plank reprefent the upper fide
of it, and fi tting off its fiding below that •, the under
edge may alfo be drawn : the tranfoms below the deck
may all be fided equally, which may be 11 inches;, they
muft alfo have a fufficient diftance between to admit the
circulation of the air to preferve them, which may be
about three inches.
The tranfoms being now drawn with a pencil, the fa-
fliion-piece muft next be deferibed in the ffeer plan, by
which the length of the tranfoms as they appear in that
plan will be determined. As the foremoft fafliion-
piece reaches above the upper tranfom, it may therefore
be firft defcribed : in order to which, draw a fufficient
number of level lines in the ffieer plan ;. or, as the wa¬
ter lines are level, draw therefore one line between the
upper water line and the wing tranfoxn, and one above
SHIP-BUILDING.
Application the wing tranfom at the intended height of the head of
T the fore- tlie fadtion-piece, which may be about five feet: then
o,g ^®stake the height of thefe two level lines, and transfer
ruftionof them to the body plan ; and take off two or three tim-
Ships, bers and run them in the half-breadth plan, in the fame
>-—manner as the water lines were done *, then from the
point where the line drawn for the cant of the fafiiion-
piece, in the half-breadth plan, interfefts the level line
drawn for the head of the faflrion-piece, draw up a per¬
pendicular to the faid line in the (beer plan, making a
point. Again, from the interfeftion of the cant line,
with the level line for the wing tranfom in the half¬
breadth plan, draw a perpendicular to the wing tranfom
in the flieer plan. Alfo draw perpendiculars from the
points where the cant line in the half-breadth plan in-
terfefls the level line below the wing tranfom, and alfo
the water lines to the correfponding lines in the (heer
plan j then a curve defcribed through thefe points will
be the reprefentation of the foremoft falhion-piece in the
(heer-plan. In the fame manner the middle and after
fafhion-pieces may be defcribed j obferving to let the
middle one run up no higher than the under part, of the
deck tranfom, and the after to the under fide of the
fourth tranfom under the deck. The tranfoms may now
be drawn with ink, as their lengths are limited by the
faffiion-pieces.
Neither the head nor the forefide of the fternpoft are
yet defcribed \ take, therefore, from the dimenfions, the
breadth of the poll on the keel, and fet it off on the
upper edge of the keel from the aft fide of port. The
head of the poll muff next be determined, which muff
juft be high enough to admit of the helm-poft tranfom
and the tiller coming between it and the upper deck
beam $ the height therefore that is neceffary will be one
foot nine inches above the wing tranfom. Now draw
a level line at that height, upon which fet off the breadth
of the fternpoft at that place, taken from the dimen¬
fions, and a line drawn from thence to the point fet off
on the keel will be the forefide of the fternpoft ; obfer¬
ving, however, not to draw the line through the tran¬
foms, as it will only appear between them. The inner
poll may be drawn, by fetting off its thicknefs forward
from the fternpoft, and drawing a ftraight line as be¬
fore, continuing it no higher than the under fide of the
wing tranfom.
The cant timbers in the after body being defcribed,
together with the parts dependent on them, thofe in the
fore body may be next formed ; in order to which, the
foremoft and after m oft cant timbers muft be fir ft deter¬
mined, and alfo the cant of the foremoft ones. The
foremoft cant timber will extend fo far forward as to be
named & ; the cant on the middle line may be one foot
four inches afore fquare timber W, and on the main half
breadth line one foot nine inches afore timber Y j in
which fituation the line may be drawn for the cant j
the aftermoft may be timber Q. The cant timbers
may now be defcribed in the fame manner as thofe in
the after body, namely, by fpacing them equally be¬
tween the cant timber in’ and the fquare timber P, both
on the main half-breadth, and middle lines, and draw¬
ing ftraight lines between the correfponding points, ob¬
ferving to let them run out to the top-timber half-
breadth line, where it comes without the main half¬
breadth line.
The hawfe pieces muft: next be laid down in the half¬
breadth plan j the fides of which muft: look fore and aft
with the {hip upon account of the round of the bow. Apphcat on
Take the Tiding of the apron, which may be about four
inches more than the item, and fet oft half of it from t0 tiie on_
the middle line, drawing a line from the main half itrudtion ol
breadth to the foremoit cant timber, which will repre- shlPs- t
lent the foremoft edge of the knight-head ; then trom v
that fet off the tiding of the knight-head, which may
be one foot four inches, and draw the aft fide of it.
The hawfe pieces may then be drawn, which are four
in number, by fetting off their fidings, namely, one foot
fix inches parallel from the knight-head and from each
other; and ftraight lines being drawn from the main
half-breadth line to the foremoft cant timber will repre¬
fen t them.
The hawfe holes ftiould be defcribed in fuch a man¬
ner as to wound the hawfe pieces as little as poffible j
they may therefore be placed fo that the joint of the
hawfe pieces (hall be in the centre of the holes, whence
they will only cut half the hawfe pieces. Take the di¬
menfions of the hawfe holes, which is one foot fix
inches, and fet off the foremoft one, or that next the
middle line, on the joint between the firit and fecond
hawfe piece ; then fet off the other on the joint between
the third and fourth hawfe piece ; and fmall lines being
drawn acrofs the main half breadth at their refpe&ive
places will reprefent the hawfe holes in the half-breadth
plan.
The hawfe holes fhould next be reprefented in the
ftieer plan. In this clafs of (hips they are always pla¬
ced in the middle between the cheeks ; therefore fet
off their diameter, namely, one foot fix inches, between
the cheeks, and draw lines parallel to the checks for
their upper and lower part. Then to determine their
fituation agreeable to the half breadth plan, w hich is
the fore and aft way, draw perpendiculars from their
interfeflions with the main half-breadth line to the lines
drawn between the cheeks, and their true fituations, the
fore and aft way, will be obtained ; and, by deferibing
them round or circular, according to the points fet off,
they will be reprefented as they appear in the flieer plan.
The apron may be drawn in the ftieer plan, fetting-
off its bignefs from the ftem, and letting it come fo low
that the fcarf may be about two feet higher than the
foremoft end of the fore foot; by which it will give Ihip
to the fcarfs of the ftem. It may run up to the head of
the ftem.
The cutting down ftiould next be drawn. Take there¬
fore from the tables of dimenfions the different heights
there expreffed, and fet them off from the upper edge
of the keel on the correfponding timbers in the ftieer
plan : then a curve defcribed through the points fet off,
from the inner poft aft to the apron forward, will be the
cutting down. Next fet off from the cutting down the
thicknefs of the timber ftrake, which is eight inches and.
a half, and a Curve defcribed parallel to the former will
reprefent the timber ftrake, from which the depth of
the hold is always meafured.
The kelfon is drawn, by taking its depth from the
dimenfions, and fet it off above the cutting down line j
and a curve defcribed parallel to the cutting down will
reprefent the kelfon.
The cutting down line being defcribed, the knee of
the dead wood abaft timber 27, being the after floor
timber, may then be reprefented. Set off the fiding
of the floor abaft it, and ereft a perpendicular in the
ftieer plan, which will terminate the foremoft end of
Mm2 the
1
276
S H I P-B U I L D I N G.
Application tne dead wood: then the fore, and aft arm of the knee
^dn^VuIe" ma-v t^ie ^ength °f '-he whole dead wood, and
To The Gon-^he up and down arm may reach to the under part of
jftru&ion of the lower tranfom ”, and the whole knee may be placed
Ships, in fuch a manner that the upper piece of the dead
^ ’ wood fliall bolt over it,'and be of as much fubftanee as
the knee itfelf: therefore the knee muft confequently
be placed its whole thicknefs below the cutting down
line reprefenting the upper part of the dead wood.
The fheer draught, the body, and half-breadth plan
are now finifhed, from w-hence the {hip may be laid
down in the mould loft, and alfo the whole frame erect¬
ed. As, however, the ufe of the di 'gonal lines in the
body plan has not been fufficiently explained, it is there¬
fore thought proper to fubjoin the following illuftration
, of them.
Mature and The diagonal lines in the body plan are mentioned
nfe of dia- in the tables of dimenfions merely for the putpofe of
«onal lines, forming the body therefrom 5 but after the body is
formed, they are of very principal ufe, as at their fta-
tions the ribbands and harpins which keep the body of
the fhip together while in her frames are all defcribed,
and the heads of the different timbers in the frame like-
wife determined.
The lowermoft diagonal, or N° 1. which is named
the lower Jirmarh, at which place the bevellings are ta¬
ken for the hollow of the doors 5 its fituation is gene¬
rally in the middle between the keel and the door fir-
mark.
Second diagonal is placed in the midfhips, about 18
inches below the door head, and is the ftation where the
floor ribband is placed in midfliips, and likewife the floor
harpin forward •, there is alfo a bevelling taken at this
diagonal all the way fore and aft, from which it is term¬
ed the floor flrmark.
Third diagonal, terminates the length of the floors,
and is therefore called the floor head. There are like-
wife bevellings taken at this diagonal as far forward and
aft as the floor extends. The placing of this diagonal
is. of the utmofl confequence to the ftrength of the fhip,
it being fo near to that part of the bulge which takes
the ground, and of confequence is always liable to the
greatefl ftrain : it fhould therefore be placed as much
above the bearing of the body in midfhips as could be
conveniently allowed by converfion of the timber ; but
afore and abaft it is not of fo much confequence.
Fourth diagonal is placed in the middle between the
floor head and the fifth diagonal, at which place a rib¬
band and harpin are ftationed for the fecurity of the firft
or lower futtock, from whence, it is named \\\% flrflfut-
tock fir mark. There are alfo bevellings taken at this
diagonal all afore and aft, which being part of the body
where' the timbers moft vary, occafions them to be the
greateft bevellings in the whole body.
Fifth diagonal terminates the heads of the firft fut-
tocks, and is therefore called the flrfl futtock head. It
ihould be placed at a convenient diftance above the
floor head, in order to give a fufficient fcarf to the
lower part of the fecond futtocks. There are likewife
bevellings for the timbers taken at this diagonal, all fore
and aft.
Sixth diagonal fhould be placed in the middle between
the firft futtock head and the feventh diagonal ; at
which place the ribband and harpin are ftationed for the
fupport of the fecond futtocks. Bevellings are taken at
4
tins diagonal all fore and aft. It is named the fecond Applicatk
futtock Jirmark, of the for-
Seventh diagonal terminates the fecond futtock heads
from the fore to the aftermoft floors, and afore and abaft ftruhlion *
them it terminates the double futtock heads in the fore Ships,
and aft cant bodies. It fhould be placed in midfhips, *•—-v—.
as much above the firft futtock head as the firft fut¬
tock is above the floor head : by which it gives the
fame fcarf to the lower part of the third futtock as the
firft futtock does to the fecond. There are bevellings
taken all fore and aft at this diagonal. It is named the
fecond futtock head.
Eighth diagonal is the ftation for the ribband and
harpin which fupports the third futtocks, and is there¬
fore placed between the fecond futtock head and ninth
diagonal. It is alfo a bevelling place, and is named the
third futtock flrmark.
Ninth and laft diagonal is placed the fame diftance
above the fecond futtock head as that is above the firft,
and terminates all the heads of the third futtocks which
are in the frames, as they come between the ports 5 but
fuch as are between the frames, and come under the
lower deck ports, muft run up to the under part of the
ports, as no fhort timbers fhould by any means be ad¬
mitted under the ports, which require the greateft pof-
fible ftrength. This diagonal is likewife a bevelling
place for the heads of the third futtocks, and is there-
called the third futtock head.
The fourth futtock heads are terminated by the un¬
der part of the upper deck ports all fore and aft, and
a ribband is placed fore and aft at the height of the up¬
per breadth line, another between the lower and upper
deck ports, and one at the top-timber line j which, with
the ribbands and harpins before mentioned, keep the
whole body of the fhip together, and likewife in its pro¬
per form and fhape.
It muft be obferved, that the. diagonal lines laid down
in the dimenfions will not correfpond to what has been
faid above upon diagonals, as they were drawn difere-
tionally upon the body for the purpofe of giving the
true dimenfions of it. Therefore, when the body is
drawn in fair, the firft diagonals (which fhould only be
in pencil) are to be rubbed out, and tbe proper diago¬
nals drawn with red ink, ftri&ly adhering to what has
been faid above.
SECT. III. Of the Inhoard Works of the Ship defenhed
in the preceding Sell ion.
Draughts of the outboard works being now con-
ftrufled,. in which every part is defcribed that is necef-
fary to enable the artift to put the fhip in her frames, we
muft now proceed to form another draught of the cavity
of the fhip or inboard works, which muft be fo contrived
that every thing within the fliip may be arranged in the
moft commodious manner and to the beft advantage.
It is ufual to draw the inboard works in the fheer-
draught-, but as this generally occafions much confufion, er\. Repoji
it is therefore tire beft and eafieft method to appropriate tory.
a draught to this particular purpofe.
Take from the flieer-draught the ftem, ftern-poft,
counter timbers, and keel, and deferibe them on an¬
other paper; draw in alfo the cutting down, kelfon,
apron, tranfoms, faftrion-pieces, and decks, and the Up¬
per line of the ftieer all fore and aft, alfo pafs the timbers
and ports..
The.
SHIP-BUILDING. 277
Application The beams come firft under confivieration, and fhould
;,f the fore-f0 difpofed as to come one under and one between
;;oing each port, or as near as can be to anfvver other tvorks
trudtion of of fhip 5 f,ut "'here it .happens that a beam cannot
Ships, poflibly be placed under the port, then a beam arm
■— v ; Ihould be introduced to make good the deficiency.
Every beam, and alfo the beam arms, fhould be kneed
at each end with one lodging and one hanging knee 5
and in thofe parts of the Ihip which require the knees
to be very acute, fuch as the after beams of the gun-
deck, and in fome {hips, whofe bodies are very fharp,
the foremoft beams of the gun-deck, there fhould be
knees of iron. Care fhould be taken always to let the
upper fide of the knees be below the furface of the
beams, in large (hips one inch and a half, and in fmall
{hips an inch, by which means the air will have a free
paflage between the knees and under part of the
deck.
In the converfion of the beams the fide next the lodg¬
ing knee Ihould be left as broad at the end of the beam
as can poffibly be allowed by the timber, the beam re¬
taining its proper fcantling at the end of the lodging
knee : by fo doing the lodging knees will be more with¬
out a fquare, which confequently makes them the more
eafy to be provided.
In lhips where the beams can be got in one piece,
they {hould be fo difpofed as to have every other one
with the butt end the fame way 5 for this reafon, that
the butts will decay before the tops. In large Ihips the
beams are made in two or three pieces, and are there¬
fore allowed to be flronger than thofe that are in one
piece. The beams in two pieces may have the fcarf
one-third of the length, and thofe in three pieces ihould
have the middle piece half the length of the whole
beam. The cuftomary way of putting them together
is to table them ; and the length of the tablings fhould
be one-half more than the depth of the beam. It is
very common to divide the tablings in the middle of
the beam, and that part which is taken out at the up¬
per fide to be left at the lower fide, and then kerfey or
flannel is put into the fcarf: but in this cafe the wa¬
ter is liable to lie in the fcarf, and muft be the means
of rotting the beams. If, however, the beams were ta¬
bled together in dovetails, and taken through from fide
to fide, putting tar only between them, which hardens
the wood ; then the water occafioned by the leaking
of the decks would have a free paflagc, and the beam
would dry again •, and this method would not be found
inferior in point of flrength to the other. The length
of the fore and aft arm of the lodging knee {hould ex¬
tend to the fide of the hanging knee next to it 5 but
there is no neceffity for that arm to be longer than the
other. In faftening the knees, care would be taken to
let one bolt pafs exactly through the middle of the
throat, one foot fix inches from each end, and the reft
divided equally between j obferving always to have the
holes bored fquare from the knee. The bolts for the
thwartfhip arms of both hanging and lodging knees
may go through the arms of each knee, and drive every
one the other Avay.
In order to draw the beams in the draught, take the
moulding of the lower deck beams, and fet it off below
the line reprefenting the deck at the fide, and draw a
line in pencil parallel thereto, which will reprefent the
under fide.of.the beams. In like manner reprefent the
under fide of the beams for the upper deck, quarter Application
deck, forecaftle, and roundhoufe. Then take the fiding
of the lower-deck beams, and place one under and one t;on_
between each port, all fore and aft, drawing them in 0f
pencil. Determine the dimenfions of the well fore Ships.
and aft, which is ten feet, and let it off abaft the beam 1 ■
under the eighth port, placing the beam under the ninth
port at that diftance : thofe two beams may then be
drawn in ink, and will terminate the extent of the well
the fore and aft way 5 and as a beam cannot go acrofs the
{hip at that place upon account of its being the well and
maft room, there muft therefore be a beam arm between
there two beams.
The main hatchway {hould then be determined, let¬
ting the beam that forms the fore part of the well
form the aft part of it, and the beam under the next
part may form the fore fide of it, which beam may alfo
be now drawn in ink : there {hould alfo be another
beam arm introduced in the wake of the main hatch¬
way.
The fore hatchway may be next determined 3 the fore
fide of which {hould range well up and down with the
after end of the forecaftle, and it may be fore and aft
about four-fevenths of the main hatchway. At the fore-
fidc of the fore hatchway there muft be a ladderway down
to the orlop, which may be as much fore and aft as the
beams will allow. The reft of the beams afore the fore
hatchway may remain as firft placed, there being no¬
thing in the way to alter the fliip. Then determine on
the after hatchway, the forefide of which comes to the
aft fide of the mainmaft room.
There {hould alfo be a hatchway, the forefide of
which may be formed by the aft fide of the beam un¬
der the twelfth port 3 which is for the conveniency of
the fpirit and fifti rooms : and there {hould be a ladder-
Avay abaft it to lead down to the cockpit. There may
be alfo another hatchway, the forefide of it to be form¬
ed by the aft fide of the beam under the eleventh port.
The fize of the ladder and hatchways muft be governed
by the beams, as when there is a good ftiift of beams
they {hould not be altered for ladder and hatchways,
unlefs it is the three principal hatcftiways, which muft;
always be of a proper fize, according to the fize of the
{hip.
The after capftan muft be placed between the twr»
hatchways laft deferibed, and the beams abaft may
Hand as they are already ftiifted, obferving only the.
mizenmaft. There fhould be a fmall fcuttle placed
afore the fecond beam from aft, for the convenience of
the bread room : it muft be on one fide of the middle
lines, as there is a carling at the middle under the four
or five after beams to receive the pillars for the fupport
thereof.
The bits may be placed, letting the forefide of the
after ones come againft the aft fide of the beam abaft
the third port, and the forefide of the foremoft ones
againft the next beam but one forward 3 then at the fore¬
fide of each bit there {hould be drawn a fmall fcutlle for
the conveniency of handing up the powder from the ma¬
gazine. The breaft hook Ihould alfo be drawn, which
may be three feet the moulding away, and fided nine-
tenths of the beams of the lower deck.
The gun-deck, beams, knees, &c. being deferibed j
in which, as well as all the decks having ports, the fame
precautions are to be ufed as in the gun-deck j and ob¬
ferving
278 S H I P - B U
Applicationferving to keep the beams ilpon one deck as nearly as
°oinh^ Rults P°®ble over the beams of the other, for the con ve¬
to the (fc^niency of pillaring, as they will then fupport each
ftmftion of other.
Ships. Xhe hatchways are to be placed exaftly over thofe
on the lower deck, each over each •, and therefore,
where there is a beam arm in the lower deck there
muft alfo be one above it in the upper deck, and the
fame in the middle deck in three-deck {hips. It com¬
monly happens in (hips of the line that there cannot be
a whole beam between the deck breaft hook and the
beam that fupports the ftep of the bowfprit, becaufe the
bowfprit palfes through that place : in this cafe, there
muft be a beam arm placed, letting the end come equal¬
ly between the beam and the breaft hook : but in {hips
that the bowfprit will allow' of a whole beam, then the
ports and the reft of the beams muft be eonfulted in or¬
der to fpace it ; and when it fo happens that the fore
maft comes in the w'ake of a port, then a beam arm muft
be neceffarily introduced.
Having placed the beams according to the difpofi-
tion of the other beams below, the ladderways ftiould
be contrived : there Ihould be one next abaft the fore
hatchway, which is a fingle ladderway } and one next
afore the main hatch, which is a double ladderway j
the ladders {landing the fore and aft way. There
Ihould alfo be another next abaft the after hatch, and
one over the cockpit correfponding with that on the
lower deck.
The capftans are next to be confidered ; the after
one is already placed on the lower deck, the barrel of
which muft pafs through the upper deck to receive the
whelps and drumhead there, it being a double capftan.
In (hips having three decks, the upper part of each
capftan is in the middle deck ; but in fhips Avith one
deck there is only this one capftan, the upper part of
Avhich is placed on the quarter deck. The foremoft
capftan fhould be placed in the moft convenient fpot, to
admit of its being loAvered doAvn to the orlop out of
the Avay of the long boat: it may therefore be placed
betAveen the main and fore hatclnvays ; the beam under
the fixth port of the loAver deck may form the aft fide
of its room, and the beams on each fide of it {hould be
placed exactly over or under the beams on the other
decks, and they {hould be at a diftance from each other
fufficient to let the drumheads pafs betAveen them. The
centre of the capftan {hould then be placed in the
middle betAveen the beams Avhich compofe its room }
and the partners {hould be fitted in fuch a manner as to
fhift occafionally when Avanted, Avhich is by letting them
be in trvo pieces fitted together. The partners on the
loAver deck, wherein the capftan fteps, muft be fupport-
ed by a pillar on the orlop deck, the loAver part of Avhich
may be fitted in an oak chock •, fo that when the pillar
is taken aAvay, and the capftan lovvered doAvn, that
chock ferves as a ftep for the capftan. Thofe tAVo
. beams on the orlop, by having the pillar and chock
upon them, have therefore the Avhole Aveight of the
capftan preffing downwards : for the fupport of them,
there {hould be a carling placed underneath the fore
and aft Avay, Avith three pillars, one under each beam,
and one between •, all of them being ftept in the kelfon,
by which the orlop deck will be well fupported in the
wake of the capftan, and the other decks Avill feel no
firain from it.
I L D I N G.
The fire hearth is next to be difpofed ; which is Applicatio-
placed differently according to the fize of the {hip. ^ of .the fort.;|
three-deckers it is found moft convenient to place it on ^° t^e
the middle deck 5 Avhence there is much more room un- Jtruaiono
der the forecaftle than there would have been had it Ships,
been placed there. In all tsvo-deck lhips it is placed » —
under the forecaftle, becaufe on the deck underneath the
bits are in the Avay. It is alfo under the forecaftle in
one-deck ihips, though confined between the bits : in
this cafe it {hould be kept as near as pofiible to the after
bits, that there may be more room between it and the
foremoft bits to make a good galley.
The pofitions of the main-topfail-ftieet bits are next
to be determined •, the foremoft of Avhich muft be fo
placed as to let its forefide come againft the aft fide of
the beam abaft the main hatcliAvay, and to pafs doAvn
to the loAver deck, and there ftep in the beams: admit¬
ting it to be a ftraight piece, it Avould come at the aft
fide of the lower deck beam the fame as it does at the
upper deck beam, in confequence of thofe tAvo beams
ranging avcII up and doAvn Avith each other : it muft
therefore have a caft under the upper deck beam, by
Avhich the loAver part may be brought fonvard fufficient
to flop in the loAver deck beam. The aftermoft muft
be placed againft the forefide of the beam abaft the
maft, and ftep on the beam beloAV ; but there is no ne-
c^llity to provide a crooked piece as before, for the.
beam of the upper deck may be moved a little farther
aft, till it admit of the bit {topping on the lower deck
beam, unlefs the beam comes under a port, as in that
cafe it muft not by any means be moved. The crofs
pieces to the bits {hould be on the forefide, and in
height from the upper deck about one third of the
height betAveen it and the quarter deck. With regard
to the heads of the bits, the length of the {hip’s Avafte
ffiould be confidered j and if there is length enough
from the forecaftle to the foremoft-bits to admit of the
fpjjtre geer being ftoAved thereon Avithout reaching far¬
ther aft, the quarter deck may then run fo far fonvard
that the head of the foremoft bits ffiall tenon in the
foremoft beam j this gives the mainmaft another deck,
and admits of the quarter deck being all that the long¬
er : but if there is not the room before mentioned, then
the quarter deck muft run no further forAvard than the
after bits, Avhich Avill then tenon in the foremoft beam;
and the foremoft bits muft have a crofs piece let on their
heads, Avhich is termed a Zior/e, and will be for the pur-
pofe of receiving the ends of the fpare geer.
The length of the quarter deck being uoav deter¬
mined, the beams are then to be placed. For this pur-
pofe the feveral contrivances in the quarter deck muft
be previoufly confulted. It is nectiffary to obferve, that
there are neither carlings nor lodges, the carlings of the
hatches excepted, in the quarter deck, round-houfe, and
forecaftle ; as they Avould Aveaken inftead of ftrengthen-
ing the beams, Avhich {hould be as fmall as the fize of
the {hip Avill permit, in order that the upper Avorks may
be as light as poffible. Hence, as there are to be nei¬
ther carlings nor lodges, the deck will require a greater
number of beams, and a good round up, as on the con¬
trary the deck Avill be apt to bend Avith its OAvn weight.
The moft approved rule is therefore to have double, the
number of beams in the quarter deck as there are in a
fpace of the fame length in the upper deck.
Then proceed to ftiift the beams to the beft advan¬
tage,
5
pplication
: the fore-
-jinji Hules
> the Con-
ruilion nf
Ships.
tage, confulting the hatchways, ladder-ways, marts, bits,
wheel, &c. With refpedl: to the ladder-ways on the
quarter decks of all (hips, there ftiould be one near the
fore part of the great cabin for the officers, and an¬
other near the foremoft end of the quarter deck, eon-
* lifting of double ladders for the conveyance of the men
up from the other decks in cafes of emergency and
like wife one on each lide of the fore part of the quarter
deck from the gangway : and in every fliip of the line
all the beams from the foremoft ladder-way to the after
one ffiould be open with gratings, both for the admiffion
of air, and for the greater expedition of conveying diffe¬
rent articles in the time of adion.
Two fcuttles are to be difpofed one on each fide of
the mainmaft, if it happens to come through the quar¬
ter deck, for the top tackles to pafs through, to hook
to the eye bolts drove in the upper deck for that pur-
pofe.
The fleering wheel ffiould be placed under the fore¬
part of the roundhoufe, and the two beams of the quar¬
ter deck, which come under it, ffiould be placed con¬
formable to the two uprights, fo that they may tenon
in them. The quarter deck beams flrould be kneed at
each end with one hanging and one lodging knee ;
which adds greatly to the ftrength of the fide. The
hanging knees which come in the great cabin may be
of iron j their vertical arms to be two-thirds of the
length of that of wood, and to reach the fpirketing. It
ffiould be obferved, that the beam abaft, which comes
under the fcreen bulkhead, Ihould round aft agreeable
to the round of the bulkhead, for the fupport of the
fame.
The forecaftle beams ftiould be placed according as
the works of the deck will admit. The hatchways are
therefore to be confidered firft. There Ihould be one
for the funnel of the fire hearth to pafs through, and
one for the copper to admit of vent for the fleam ; and
alfo one or two over the galley as the forecaftle will
admit of. The fore-topfail-ffieet bits fhould be fo dif¬
pofed as to come one pair on the fore and one on the aft
fide of the mart, to let into the fide of the forecaftle
beams, and ftep on the upper deck beams below-: there
ftiould alfo be a ladder-way at the fore part of the fore¬
caftle for the conveniency of the fore part of the (hip.
The beams may now be placed agreeable thereto,
their number being four more than there are in a fpace
in the upper deck equal in length to the forecaftle ;
and where there happens to be a wide opening between
the beams, as in the cafe of a hatchway, mart room,
&.c. then half a beam of fir may be introduced to make
good the deficiency. The foremoft beam ffiould be of
a breadth fufficient to take the aft fide of the inboard
arms of the catheads, as they are fecured upon this beam
by being bolted thereto. I>ery beam of the forecaftle
ffiould be kneed at each end with one hanging and one
lodging knee : the vertical arms of the hanging knees
ffiould reach the fpirketing, and the knees well bolted
and carefully clenched.
Proceed to the roundhoufe ; the fame things being
obferved with refpe£l to the beams as in the quarter
deck : for as the roundhoufe beams are fided very fmall,
it hence follows that they muft be near to each other.
Let therefore the number of beams on the roundhoufe
be four more than in the fame length of the quarter-
SHIP-BUILDING. 279
deck ; every other beam being of fir for lightnefs, and Application
every oak beam may be kneed at each end with one0^.1^6 ^ore*
hanging and one lodging knee j the hanging knees abaft 'the Coe"
may be of iron, their vertical arms to be in length two ftnidtion of
thirds of thofe of wood. The roundhoufe ffiould always Ships,
have a great round up, both for ftrength and convenien- » 1 r
cy. There muft be on the roundhoufe a fmall pair of
knee-bits on each fide of the mizenmaft, turned round
and fcarfed over each other, and bolted through the malt
carlings. There muft alfo be a companion on the round¬
houfe placed over the middle of the coach, in order to
give light thereto.
With regard to placing the roundhoufe beams, the
uprights of the fleering wheel and the mizenmaft are
to be obferved ; as when the beams which interfere with
thofe parts are properly fpaced, the reft may be difpofed
of at diferetion, or at an equal diftance from each other,
and letting the beam over the fcreen bulkhead have a
proper round aft, agreeable to the quarter deck beam
underneath.
1 he upper parts of the inboard Avorks being now de-
fcribed, proceed next to the lower parts, or to thofe
which come beloAV the loAver deck. Draw in the orlop,
by taking the heights afore, at midffiips, and abaft,
betAA’een that and the gun-deck, from the dimenfions,
and a cuiwe defcribed through thefe points Avill repre-
fent the upper part of the deck. Set off the thicknefs
of the plank below, and the under fide of the plank Avill
be reprefented. As this deck does not run quite for-
Avard and aft as the other decks, the length of it muff
be therefore determined ; for this purpofe let the after
beam be placed at a fufficient diftance from aft to ad-
mit of the bread rooms being of a proper fize for the
Ihip, which Avill be under that beam of the gun-deck
that comes at the fecond part from aft. The after
beam being drawn in, proceed to fpace the other beams,
placing them exa&ly under thofe of the gun-deck ; and
that Avhich comes under the foremoft beam of the gun-
deck may terminate the fore part of the orlop. Draw
the limber ftrake, by fetting off its thicknefs above the
cutting doAvn line, and aline draAvn parallel thereto Avill
reprefent the limber ftrake. That part of the orlop
which is over the after magazine, fpirit room, and fifti
room, and alfo that Avhieh is over the fore magazine, is
laid with thicker planks than the reft of the deck j
which is for the better fecurity of thofe places, the
planks being laid over the beams •, but in the midffiips,
from the fore part of the fpirit room to the aft par^of
the fore magazine, the beams are laid level Avith the fur-
face of the deck, and the planks are rabbeted in from
one beam to the other.
_ In order to reprefent the orlop as juft defcribed, the
dimenfions of the different- apartments above mentioned
muft be determined : Let the aft fide of the after beam
be the aft fide of the after magazine, and from thence
draw the bulkhead doAvn to the limber ftrake ; and the
forefide of the third beam may be the forefide of the af¬
ter magazine, drawing that bulkhead likewife, Avhich
will alfo form the aft fide of the fifli roorft ; the forefide
of the fiffi room may be drawn from the aft fide of the
fifth beam, which will alfo reprefent the aft fide of the
fpirit room ; then the forefide of the fpirit room may
be draAvn from the forefide of the fixth beam. Hence
from the forefide of the fixth beam quite aft the deck
will
280 SHIP-BUILDING.
Application will be reprcfented by llie two lines already drawn, and
of the fore-t^e Up{)er pJ(jc 0f beams will be reprefented by the
going Roles,
ITIJi IVwllCS t •
to the Con- ower iine* , r r n i 1 • ,
ItrucRion of Proceed next to the tore part ot the orlop, letting the
Ships, forefide of the after bits be the aft part of the foremoft
magazine, drawing the bulkhead thereof, which will
come to the aft fide of the fixth beam •, therefore, from
the fixth beam to the foremoil; end of the orlop, the
plank and beams will be reprefented juft in the fame
manner as before mentioned for the after part of the
orlop : then the midihip part of the deck will be re¬
prefented by letting the upper line be the upper fide of
the plank, and likewife the upper fide of the beams •,
and the lower line will reprefent the lower edge of the
plank, only drawing it from beam to beam, and obferv*
ing not to let it pafs through them.
The hatchways, &e. may now be reprefented on the
orlop, letting the main, fore, and after hatchway, be
exadtly under thofe of the gun deck •, there muft be
one over the fiih room, and one over the fpirit room*
There muft be two fcuttles over the after magazine for
the paiTage to the magazine and light room, i here
ihould alio be one afore the fourth beam from forward
for the paffage to the fore magazine, and one abaft the
fecond beam for the pafl'age to the light room.
The bulkheads for the fore and after parts of the
well may be drawrn from the lower deck beams to the
orlop, and from thence to the limber ftrake in the hold.
The (hot lockers may alfo be reprefented, having one
afore and one abaft the well : there fhould alfo be one
abaft the foremoft magazine, the ends of which may be
formed by the after bits. The iteps of the mafts may
be drawn in by continuing their centres down to the
limber ftrake ; and likewife two crutches abaft the mi-
zen ftep divided equally between that and the after part
of the cutting down : the breaft hooks may alfo be drawn,
letting them be five in number below the lower deck
hook, and all equally divided between that and the fore-
ftep. Hence every part of the inboard is deferibed as
far as neceffary.
Chap. V. Of the Method of Whole-moulding.
46
Method of
whole-
moulding.
Murray's
Ship-Build¬
ing.
47,
Applied to
a long boat
Plate
ccccxcm.
fig- 37-
Haying now finifhed the methods of laying down the
feveral plans of a {hip, any farther addition on this fub-
jeft'might appear unneceffary. We cannot, however,
with propriety, omit to deferibe the method called
whole-moulding, ufed by the ancients, and which ftill
continues in ufe among thofe unacquainted with the
more proper methods already explained. This method
will be illuftrated by laying down the feveral plans of
a long-boat 5 the length of the keel being 29 feet, and
breadth moulded nine feet*
Draw the ftraight line PO (fig. 37.) equal to 29
• feet, the extreme length of the boat, and alfo to repre¬
fent the upper edge of the keel. Let 0 be the ftation
of the midihip frame. From the points, P, 0, and O,
draw the lines PT, 0M, and OS, perpendicular to
PO. Make 0M, 0N, equal to the upper and lower
heights of breadth refpeftively at the main frame, PT
the height of breadth at the tranfom, and OS the height
at the ftem. Deferibe the curve TMS to reprefent the
iheer or extreme height of the fide, which in a (hip
would be called the upper height of breadth line, or up¬
per edge of the wale. Through the point N draw a
curve parallel to TMS, to reprefent the breadth of the Methods'!
upper ftrake of a boat, or lower edge of the wale if in
a Ihip. The dotted line TNS may alio be drawn to re-
prefent the lower height of breadth.
Set off the rake of the port from P to p, and draw
the line p t to reprefent the aft fide of the port; then
T t will reprefent the round-up of the traniom. Set off
the breadth of the port from p to r, and from T to
s, and draw the line r s to reprefent the forefide of tlnr
port, which may either be a curve or a ftraight line at
pleafure. Set up the height of the tuck from p to k.
Let £ X be the tlncknefs of the tranfom, and draw the
line ZX to reprefent the forefide of the tranfom.
There is given the point S, the height of the iheer
on the fortfide of the ftem ; now that fide of the ftem
is to be formed either by fweeps or fome other contri¬
vance. Set off the breadth of the ftem, and form the
aft fide of it.
Set up the dead-rifing from 0 to d, and form the ri-
fing line r i s. Draw the line KL parallel to PO to
reprefent the lower edge of the keel, and another to re¬
prefent the thicknefs of the plank or the rabbet. The
rabbet on the poft and ftem may alfo be reprefented ;
and the ftations of the timbers affigned, as 0, (l), I, 2,
3, 4, 5> 6, 7, 8, 9 ; and 0, (A), A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H 5 and the iheer plan will be completed.
The half-breadth plan is to be formed next ; for this'
purpofe the perpendiculars TP, 9, 8, See. muft be pro¬
duced. Upon M0 produced fet off the half breadth
from the line KL to R (fig* 38*) j fet off alfo the half Fig. 38.
breadth at the tranfom from K to b, and deferibe the
extreme half breadth line £ RX, making the forepart
of the curve agreeable to the propofed round of the
tranfom. a
We may next proceed to form the timbers in the
body plan/ Let AB (fig. 39.) be the breadth mould-Fig. 39-
ed at 0. Erecl the perpendicular CD in the middle
of the line AB draw the line m n diiiant therefrom
the half thicknefs of the poll:, and xy the half thicknefis
of the ftern. Then take off the feveral portions of
the perpendiculars 0, 1, 2, &c. intercepted between
the upper edge of the keel and the rifing line in the
(beer plan, and fet them up from C upon the line CD ^
through thefe points draw lines parallel to AC take off
alfo the feveral lower heights of breadth at 0, 1, 2, &c.
from the ftieer plan 5 and fet them up from C upon the
middle line in the body plan j and draw lines parallel to
AC through thefe points : Then take off the feveral
half breadths correfponding to each from the floor plan :
and fet them off on their proper half-breadth lines from
the middle line in the body plan.
Conftruft the midftiip frame by Problem V. the for nr
of which will in fome meafure determine the form of
the reft. For if a mould be made on any fide of the
middle line to fit the curve part of it, and the rifing
line, or that marked bend mould (fig. 40.) and laid in Tig.
fuch a manner that the lower part of it, which is ftraight,
may be fet upon the feveral rifing lines, and the upper
part juft touch the point of the half breadth in the
breadth line correfponding to that rifing upon which
the mould is placed, a curve may then be drawn by
the mould to the rifing line. In this manner we may
proceed fo far as the nfing line is parallel to the lower
height of the breadth line. Then a hollow mould muft
be made, the upper end of which is left ftraight, as
v that
S H I P-B U
•Method that marked hollow mould (fig. 40.). This is applied
,f Whole- Jn a manner, that feme part of the hollow may
moulding., touc}1 t]ie {jt|e 0£ the keel, and the ftraight part touch
the back of the curve before deferibed by the bend
mould ; and^ beginning abaft, the ftraight part tvill al¬
ways come lower on every timber, till w'e come to the
midtliip timber, when it comes to the fide of the keel.
Having thus formed the. timbers, fo far as the whole
mouldings will ferve, the timbers abaft them are next
formed. Their half breadths are determined by the
ftieer and floor plans, which are the only fixed points
through which the curves of thele timbers muft pafs.
Some form thefe after timbers before the whole is
moulded, and then make the hollow mould, which will
be ftraighter than the hollow of either of thefe timbers.
It is indifferent which are firft formed, or what methods
are ufed ; for after the timbers are all formed, though
every timber may appear very fair when confidered by
kfelf, it is uncertain what the form of the fide will be.
In order to find which, we muft form feveral ribband
and water lines \ and if thefe do not make fair curves,
they muft be reftified, and the timbers formed from
thefe ribband and water lines. In ufing the hollow
mould, when it is applied to the curve of each tim¬
ber, if the ftraight part is produced to the middle
line, we (hall have as many points of interfedlion as
there are timbers 5 and if the heights above the bafe be
transferred to the correfponding timbers in the (heer
plan, a curve palling through thefe points is what is
called a rijingJlrait. This may be formed by fixing
a point for the aftermoft timber that is whole moulded,
and transferring that height to the Iheer plan. The
curve mull pafs through this point, and fall in with the
riling line fomewhere abaft dead flat *, and if the feve¬
ral heights of this line be transferred from the Iheer to
the middle line in the body plan, thefe points will re¬
gulate what is called the hauling down of the hollow
mould.
The timbers in the after body being all formed, thofe
in the fore body are formed, in the fame manner, by
transferring the feveral heights of the riling and breadth
lines from the {heer to the body plans ; the half
breadths correfponding to each height muft alfo be
transferred from the floor to the body plan. The fame
hollow mould will ferve both for the fore and after
body 5 and the level lines, by which the water lines to
prove the after body were formed, may be produced into
the fore body, and by them the ’water lines to prove the
fore body may be deferibed.
Another method of proving the body is by ribband
lines, which are formed by fe&ions of planes inclined
to the ftieer plan, and interfering the body plan diago¬
nally, as before obferVed, of which there may be as many
■as may be judged neceffary. As this has been already
explained, we lhall therefore lay down only one, repre-
fented in the body plan by the lines marked d i a.
Thefe are drawn in fuch a manner as to be perpendi¬
cular to as many timbers as conveniently may be. After
they are drawn in the body plan, the feveral portions
of the diagonal intercepted between the middle line
and each timber muft be transferred to the floor plan.
Thus, fix one foot of the compaffes in the point where
the diagonal interfefls the middle line in the body plan j
extend the other foot to the point where the diagonal in-
terfefts the timber 5 for example, timber 9 : Set off the
Vol, XIX. Part I.
I L D ] N G. 2S1
fame extentupon the perpendicular reprefentingthe plane
of timber 9 from the point where it interfects the line <^10Uy^1g_
KL'on the floor plan : in like manner proceed with all 1 ,
the other timbers both in the fore and after body *, and
thefe flrall have the points through which the curve muft
pafs. If this ftiould not prove a fair curve, it muft be
altered, obferving to conform to the points as nearly
as the nature of the curvfe will admit : fo it may be car¬
ried within one point, and without another, according
as we find the timbers will allow. lor after all the.
ribband lines are formed, the timbers muft, if needful,
be altered by the ribband lines : this is only the reverfe
of forming the ribband lines j for taking the portions
of the feveral perpendiculars intercepted between the
line KL and the curve of the ribband line in the floor
plan, and fetting them off upon the diagonal from
the point where it interfefts the middle line, we ftiall
have the points in the diagonal through which the
curves of the timbers muft pafs. Thus the diftance
between the line KL and the ribband at timber 3 on
the floor plan, when transferred to the body plan, will
extend on the diagonal from the middle line to the
point where the curve of timber 3 interfects that dia¬
gonal. The like may be faid of all the other timbers }
and if feveral ribband lines be formed, they may be fo
contrived that their diagonals in the body plan (hall
be at fuch diftances, that a point for every timber be-
ing given in each diagonal, will be fufficient to deter¬
mine the form of all the timbers.
In ftationing the timbers upon the keel for a boat,
there muft be room for two futtocks in the fpace be¬
fore or abaft 0 •, for which reafon, the diftance between
thefe two timbers will be as much more than that be¬
tween the other as the timber is broad. Here it is
between 0 and (A) ; which contains the diftances be¬
tween 0 and (1), and the breadth of the timber be-
fides.
The timbers being now formed, and proved by rib¬
band and Water lines, proceed then to form the tranfom,
faftiion-pieces, &c. by Problem VI.
This method of whole-moulding will not anfwer for
the long timbers afore and abaft. They are generally
canted in the fame manner as thofe for a {hip. In or¬
der to render this method more complete, we fhall here
deferibe the manner of moulding the timbers after they
are laid down in the mould loft, by a riling fquare, bend,
and hollow mould. »
It Was ftiown before how to form the timbers by the
bend and hollow moulds on the draughtv The fame
method muft be ufed in the loft ; but the moulds muft
be made to their proper -fcantlings in real feet and
inches. Now when they are fet, as before diredled, for
moulding each timber, let the middle line in the body
plan be drawn acrofs the bend mould, and draw a line
acrofs the holloW mould at the point where it touches
the upper edge of the keel-, and let them be marked
With the proper name of the timber, as in fig. 40. l ire
graduations of the bend mould will therefore be exaftly
the fame as the narrowing of the breadth. Thus-,
the diftance between 0 and 7 on the bend mould is
'equal to the difference between the half breadth of tim¬
ber 7 and that of 0. The height of the head of each
timber is likewife marked on the bend mould, and alfo
the floor and breadth firmarks. The floor firmark is
in that point where a ftraight edged batten touches the
N n back
82 SHI P-B U I L D I N G.
Method back of the bend mould, the batten being fo placed
of Whole- as tf) toucb the lower edge of the keel at the fame
t —_l11^'. time. The feveral rilings of the floor and heights of
the cutting down line are marked on the rifing fquare,
and the half breadth of the keel is fet off from the fide
of it.
The moulds being thus prepared, we (hall apply them
to mould timber 7. The timber being firft properly
fided to its breadth, lay the bend mould upon it, fo as
may beft anfwer the round according to the grain of
the wood } then lay the rifing fquare to the bottom of
the bend mould, fo that the line drawn acrofs the bend
mould at timber 7 may coincide with the line repre-
fenting the middle of the keel upon the rifing fquare \
and draw a line upon the timber by the fide of the
fquare, or let the line be fcored or cut by a tool made
for that purpofe, called a rafeing knife (e) j this line fo
rafed will be the fide of the keel. Then the fquare
muft be moved till the fide of it comes to 7 on the
bend mould, and another line muft be rafed in by the
fide of it to reprefent the middle of the keel. The
other fide of the keel mufi. likewife be rafed after the
fame manner, and the point 7 on the rifing fquare be
marked on each fide of the keel, and a line rafed acrofs
at thefe points to reprefent the upper edge of the keel.
From this line the height of the cutting-down line at
7 muft be fet up, and then the rifing fquare may be ta¬
ken away, and the timber may be rafed by the bend
mould, both infide and outfide, from the head to the
floor firmark, or it may be carried lower if neceffary.
After the firmarks and head of the timbers are marked,
the bend mould may likewife betakenaway, and thenthe
hollow mould applied to the back of the fweep in fuch a
manner that the point 7 upon it may interfeft the upper
fide of the keel, before fet off by the rifing fquare ; and
Avhen in this pofition the timber may be rafed by it,
•which will cotnplete the outfide of the timbers. The
infide of the timbers may likewife be formed by the
hollow mould. The fcantling at the keel is given by
the cutting down before fet off. I he mould muft be
fo placed as to touch the fweep of the infide of the tim¬
ber formed before by the bend mould, and pafs through
the cutting down point.
The ufe of the firmarks Is to find the true places of
the futtocks ; for as they are cut oflf three or four
inches ftiort of the keel, they muft be fo placed that
the futtock and floor firmarks may be compared and co¬
incide. Notwithftanding which, if the timbers are not
very carefully trimmed, the head of the futtock may
be either within or without its proper half breadth ; to
prevent which a half breadth ftaff is made ufe of.
The half breadth ftaff may be one inch fquare, and
of any convenient length. Upon one fide of it are fet
off from one end the feveral half-breadths of all the
timbers in the after body, and thofe of the fore body
upon the oppofite fide. On the other two fides are let
off the feveral heights of the ftieer, the after body on
one fide, and the fore body on its oppofite. Two fides
of the ft aff are marked half breadths, and the other two
fides heights of the Jheer.
The ftaft' being thus prepared, and the floor timbers
faftened on the keel, and levelled acrofs, the futtocks Pra&rce
muft next be faftened to the floor timbers j but they Ship,
muft be fet firft to their proper half breadth and height., u^‘ng^
The half breadth ftaff, with the afliftance of the ram¬
line *, ferves to fet them to the half breadth j for as * See nexJ
the keel of a boat is generally perpendicular to the ho-chapter,
rizon, therefore the line at which the plummet is fuf-
pended, and which is moveable on the ram line, will be
perpendicular to the keel. Whence we may by it fet
the timbers perpendicular to the keel, and then fet them
to their proper half breadths by the ftaff: and when
the two firmarks coincide, the futtock will be at its
proper height, and may be nailed to the floor timbers
and alfo to the breadth ribband, which may be fet to
the height of the ftieer by a level laid acrofs, taking the
height of the ftieer by the ftaff from the upper fide of
the keel j by which means we fliall difcover if the rib¬
band is exactly the height of the flieer; and if not, the
true height may be fet off by a pair of compaffes from
the level, and marked on the timbers.
Chap. VI. Of the Practice of Ship-Building.
The elevation, projeftion, and half-breadth plans, of
a propofed ftiip being laid down on paper, we muft next
proceed to lay down thefe feveral plans on the mould
loft of the real dimenfions of the fliip propofed to be
built, and from which moulds for each feparate part are
to be made. The method of laying down thefe plans,
from what has been already faid, will, it is prefumed, be
no very difficult talk to accompliffi, as it is no more than
enlarging the dimenfions of the original draughts; and
with refpect to the moulds, they are very eafily formed
agreeable to the figure of the feveral parts of the ffiip
laid down in the mould loft.
Blocks of wood are now to be prepared upon which
the keel is to be laid. Thefe blocks are to be placed
at nearly equal diftances, as of five or fix feet, and in
fuch a manner that their upper furfaces may be exadlly
in the fame plane, and their middle in the fame ftraight
line. This laft is eafily done by means of a line ftretch-
ed a little more than the propofed length of the keel j
and the upper planes of thefe blocks may be verified by
a long and ftraight rule; and the utmoft care and pre¬
caution muft be taken to have thefe blocks properly
bedded. Each block may be about fix or eight inches
longer than the keel is in thicknefs; their breadth from
12 to 14 inches, and their depth from a foot to a foot
and half.
The dimenfions of the keel are to be taken from the
mould loft, and the keel is to be prepared accordingly.
As, however, it is feldom poflible to procure a piece
of wood of fufficient length for a keel, efpecially if for
a large fliip, it is, therefore, for the moft part neceffary
to compofe it of feveral pieces, and thefe pieces are to
be fcarfed together, and fecurely bolted, fo as to make
one entire piece. It muft, however, be obferved, that
the pieces which compofe the keel ought to be of fuch
lengths, that a fcarf may not be oppofite to the ftep of
any of the mafts. Rabbets are to be formed on each
fide of the keel to receive the edge of the planks next
to
The term rafeing is ufed when any line is drawn by fqch an inftrument inftead of a pencil.
3
S H I P-B U
praflice to it, or garboard drake, and the keel is to be laid on
of Ship- tjie ^F).
buihiing. ^ {tem, and the pod, and the feveral tranfoms be-
'v longing to it, are to be prepared from the moulds, and
rabbeted in like manner as the keel, to receive the ends
of the plank. The tranloms are to be bolted lo the
pod at their middle, each at its relpeftive height, ta¬
ken from the elevation in the mould loft, and the ex¬
tremities of the tranfoms are to be firmly connedled with
the fadiion-pieces. Both dem and pod are then to be
erefted, each at its refpeftive extremity of the keel.
The tenons at the heel of each being let into mortifes
prepared to receive them, and being let to their proper
rakes or angles with the keel, are to be fupported by
props or diores. Pieces of wood called dead wood are
to be laid upon and fixed to the upper fide of the keel
towards the fore and aft parts of it; the deepnefs of
the dead rvood increafing with its didance from the mid¬
dle, agreeable to the propofed form of the cutting-
down line.
A line is to be dretched from the middle of the head
of the dem to that of the pod, called the ram line,
upon which is a moveable line with a plummet affixed
to it. The midlhip and other frames are to be erected
upon the keel at their proper dations. The extremities
of each frame are fet at equal didances from the vertical
longitudinal feflion of the {hip, by moving the frame
in its own plane until the plumb-line coincides with a
mark at the middle between the arms of each frame •,
and although the keel is inclined to the horizon, yet
the frames may alfo be fet perpendicular to the keel by
means of the plumb-line. The diores which are fup-
porting the frames are now to be fecurely fixed, that the
pofition of the frames may not be altered. The rib¬
bands are now to be nailed to the frames at their pro¬
per places, the more effedtually to fecure them ; and the
p]ate intermediate vacancies between the frames filled up with
cccclxxxxiv, filling timbers. For a perfpedlive view of a diip framed,
fig- *• fee fig. 2.
The frames being now dationed, proceed next to
fix on the planks, of which the wales are the principal,
being much thicker and dronger than the red. The
harpins, which may be confidered as a continuation of
the wales at their fore ends, are fixed acrofs the hawfe
pieces, and furround the fore part of the diip. The
planks that inclofe the (hip’s fides are then brought about
the timbers; and the clamps, which are of equal thick-
nefs with the wales, fixed oppofite to the wales within
the diip. Thefe are ufed to fupport the ends of the
beams, and accordingly dretch from one end of the diip
to the other. The thick duff or drong planks of the
bottom within board are then placed oppofite to the
feveral fcarfs of the timbers, to reinforce them through¬
out the drip’s length. The planks employed to line the
Ihip, called the ceiling or foot-waling, is next fixed in
the intervals between the thick duff of the hold. The
beams are afterwards laid aerofs the diip to fupport the
decks, and are connedled to the fide by lodging and
hanging knees: the former of which are exhibited at F,
I L B I N G. 283
Plate CLXIX. See alfo the article t>E'CK ; and the Prance
hanging-knees, together with the breadth, thicknefs, hiding
and pofition of the keel, door timbers, futtocks, top-1 —^ i
timbers, wales, clamps, thick duff, planks within and
without, beams, decks, &.c.
The cable bits being next erefted, the curlings and
ledges, reprefented in Plate CLXIX. are difpofed be¬
tween the beams to drengthen the deck. The water¬
ways are then laid on the ends of the beams throughout
the diip’s length, and the fpirketing fixed clofe above
them.—The upper deck is then planked, and ihefring
placed under the gunnel, ox planjheer, in the waid.
Then proceed next to plank the quarter-deck and
forecadle, and to fix the partners of the mads and cap-
derns with the coamings of the hatches. The breajl-
fwoks are then bolted acrofs the dem and bow within-
board, the dep of the foremad placed on the kelfon,
and the riders fayed to the infide of the timbers, to re¬
inforce the fides in different parts of the diip’s length.
The pointers, if any, are afterwards fixed acrofs the hold
diagonally to fupport the beams •, and the crotches da¬
tioned in the after hold to unite the half timbers. The
feps of the mainmad and capderns are next placed f,
the planks of the lower decks and orlop laid ; the navel-
hoods fayed to the hawfe holes j and the knees of the
head, or cut-water, conne£led to the dern. The figure
of the head is then erefted, and the trail-hoard and
checks fixed on the fide of the knee.
The taffarel and quarter pieces, which terminate the
Ihip abaft, the former above and the latter on each fide,
are then difpofed, and the dern and quarter galleries
framed and fupported by their brackets. The pumps,
with their well, are next fixed in the hold j the limber
boards laid on each fide of the kelfon, and the garboard
frake fixed on the diip’s bottom next to the heel with¬
out.
The hull being thus fabricated, proceed to feparate
the apartments by bulkheads or partitions, to frame
the port-lids, to fix the catheads and chefs-trees j to
form the hatclnvays and fcuttles, and fit them with pro¬
per covers or gratings. Next fix the ladders at the dif¬
ferent hatchways, and build the manger on the lower
deck, to carry off the water that runs in at the hawfe-
holcs when the diip rides at anchor in a fea. The
bread-room and magazines are then lined ; and the
gunnel, rails, and gangways fixed on the upper part of
the Ihip. The cleats, kevels, and ranges, by which the
ropes are fadened, are afterwards bolted or nailed to the
fides in different places.
The rudder, being fitted with its irons, is next hung
to the dern-pod, and the tiller or bar, by wffiicb it is
managed, let into a mortife at its upper end. The
feuppers, or leaden tubes, that carry the wrater off from
the decks, are then placed in holes cut through the
diip’s fides ; and the Jlandards bolted to the beams and
fides above the decks to which they belong. The poop
lanthorns are lad fixed upon their cranes over the dern,
and the bilge-ways ox cradles placed under the bottom to
conduft the diip deadily into the water whild launching.
N n 2 As
(f) In diips of war, which are a long while in building, it has been found .that the keel is often apt to rot be¬
fore they are finidied. Upon this account, therefore, fome builders have begun with the door timbers, and added
"the keel afterwards.
)
284 S H I P-B U
Improve- t]te various pieces which have been mentioned
the^Mafts a^ove are explained at large in their proper places, it is
and Rud- therefore fuperfluous to enter into a more particular de-
der. feription of them here.
Chat. VII.
Of Improvements
Rudder.
in the Mafs and
4s
Improve- An account of a method for reftoring mails of {hips
ments in vvhen wounded, or otherwife injured, in an taiy, cheap,
mails. and expeditious manner, by Captain Edward Pakenham
of the royal navy, lias been publifhed in the tenth vo-
Of wound- lume of the Tranfaclions of the Society for the Encou-
ed mails, by ragtment of Arts, &c. Captain Pakenham introduces
Pak^h; n invent^°n n’hh the following obfervations :
Page 209 ' Among the various accidents which' drips are liable
to at fea, none call more for the attention and exertion
of the officer than the ipeedy refitting of the mails ;
and having obferved, in the courfe of rail war, the very
great deilrudlion made among the lower mails of our
Ihip’s from the enemy’s mode of fighting, as well as the
very great expence and delay in refitting a fieet after
an adiion, particularly acrofs the Atlantic—a very Ample
expedient has fdggeiled itfelf to me as a refource in part •,
which appears fo very fpeedy and fecure, that the capa¬
city of the meaneft failor will at once conceive it. I
therefore think it my duty to dale my ideas of the ad¬
vantages hkely to refult from it \ and I ffiall feel my-
felf exceedingly happy Ihould they in any wife contribute
to remedy the evil.
“ My plan, therefore, is, to have the heels of all
lower mails fo formed as to become the heads : but it
is not the intention of the above plan to have the fmall-
eft alteration made 'in the heels of the prefent lower
mails •, for as all line-of-battle ffiips mails are nine inches
in diameter larger at the heel than at the head, it will
follow, that by letting in the treffel-trees to their pro¬
per depth, the mail will form its own checks or hounds *,
and I flatter myfelf the following advantages will refult
from the above alteration.
“ Firft, I mull beg to obferve, that all line-of-battle
fhips bury one-third of their lower mails, particularly
three-deckers ; it therefore follows, that if the wounds
are in the upper third, by turning the mail fo as to
make the heel the head, it will be as good as new ; for,
in eight aflions I was prefent in laft war, I made the
following obfervations :
“ That in the faid ailions fifty-eight lower mails were
wounded, and obliged to be flufted, thirty-two of
which had their wounds in the upper third, and of courfe
the ffiips detained until new mails were made. And
when it is confidered that a lower mail for a 90 or 74
Hands government in a fum not lefs, I am informed,
than 'Zoool. or 2300I. the advantages acrofs the At¬
lantic refulting from the aforefaid plan will be particu¬
larly obvious j not to mention the probability of there
being no fit fpars in the country, which was the cafe in
the inftances of the Ifis and Princefs Royal *, and as
I was one of the lieutenants of the Ifis at that time,
I am more particular in the circumftance of that ffiip.
The Ifis had both her lower mails wounded above the
cathar pins in her atlion with the Caefar, a French 74 •,
and as there were no fpars at New York, the Ifis was
detained five weeks at that place.—Now, if her mails
had been fitted on the plan I have propofed, I am con-
I L D I N G.
fident ihe would have been ready for fea in 48 hours ; Improve,
and as a further proof, I beg leave to add, that the t”eei^s 1U (
whole fleet, on the glorious 12th of April, had not the .^RucR
leail accident of any confequence except what befel p.ev.
their lower mails, which detained them between eight ,—y—“
anck en weeks at Jamaica. v
“ The delay of a ftiip while a new mail is making,
and probably the fleet being detained for want of that
ihip, which frequently occurred in the courfe of laft
war, the taking of ffiipwrights from other work, with a
variety of inconveniences not neceflary to mention here,
muft be obvious to every officer that has made the fmall-
eft obfervations on fea-attions.
“ You will further obferve, that this fubftitute is
formed on the moil Ample principle, fitted to the mean-
eft capacity, and calculated to benefit all fliips, from a
firft-rate down to the fmalleft merchantman, in cafes of
an accident by fljot, a fpiing, a rottennefs, particularly
as thefe accidents generally happen in the upper third
of the mail and above the cheeks.
“ It might probably be objefted, that a difficulty and
fome danger might ariie from the wounded part of the
mail being below 5 but this will at once be obviated,
when it is remembered, that as the wounded part is be¬
low the wedges, it may with cafe be both fiihtd, caicd,
and fecured, to any fize or degree you pleafe, with the
addition of its being wedged on each deck.”
Fig. 41. reprefents a mail of a firft-rate in its proper Fate
ft ate, the figures reprefenting its thicknefs at the differ- ccj-cxciu
ent diviiions.
Fig. 42. the fame mail inverted, the heel forming the Fig. 42.
head, and the treffel-trees let into their proper depth,
* the additional thicknefs of the mail forming its own
cheeks.
Fig. 43. the propofed mail, the figures reprefenting Fig. 43.
the thicknefs of the mail in the propofed alterations }
a, the heel made fquare ; h, the letting in of the treftel-
trees ; c, the third proportion of thicknefs continued up
to where the fourth is in the prefent mail, or at leait
fome little diftance above the lower part ol the cheeks,
which is always looked upon as the weakeft part of tire
mail } and by its being fo proportioned, the mail, when
turned, will be nearly as ftrong in the partners as be¬
fore.
As the expence of a mail is much greater than is ge¬
nerally imagined, it is therefore thought proper to fuK-
join the following ftatement of the feveral articles ufed
in making a 74 gun ihip’s mainmaft.
Value.
Fifties for a fpindle, 21 inches, 2 nails of
two mails, - - L. 101
Two fide fifties, 22 inches, 2 ditto,
Fore and aft fifties, 22 inches, 2 nails of
one mail, -
Fifti "V 21 { inches, 1 nail of half a mail,
> On the fore part
Iron j 3 qrs. 1 9 lbs.
Aries load baulk, 2 loads 22 feet,
Brtadthning 1 2 loads 7 feet,
> Dantzie fir timber.
F Cheeks j 4 loads 2 feet,
4 Iron, 5 cw't. 2 qrs. 24 lb.
Knees, elm timber, 13 feet,
Iron, 2 qrs. 14, lb. - - -
66
29
1
12
11
20
8
o
o
3
IQ
I X
Popers on
Naval Ar
rbaetlvre{
9-part 2.
5
2
1
18
o
J5
*7
10
5
9
5
7
4
o
2
6
Carried over L. 385 17 8
S B I P - B U
Jmpro^- Value.
ments in Brought over L. 385 17 8
thd RudS Hoops and bolts on the body, i3cwt.
der.U ' I qr. 16 lb. - > - - 1815 O
—•v-—' Trefl'el-trees, rtraight oak timber, fecond
fort, 2 loads 10 feet, - - 1024
Iron, 3 qrs. lolb. - - - 136
Crofs trees, ftraight oak timber, fecond
fort, 1 load 12 feet, - - -
Iron, 2 qrs. 2 lb.
Cap, elm timber, 1 load 24 feet,
Iron, 2 CAVt. 141b.
Fullings, holders, bollins, and Dantzic
fir, X load 2 feet, - - 5 7 8
Workmanfhip, - - - - 78 6 Q
5 *4
o 14
4 6
2 19
Main-topmaft of a 74 gun fhip,
Main-top-gallant-mart,
L- S13 6
50 16
8 xi
Principles
if Naval
Architec¬
ture, p. 50.
5°
Mr Gor-
lon’s plan
)f building
nails.
'§■ 44-
’g- 45-
ig- 46-
In order to lefien the enormous expence of mails, a
propofal was made fame years ago to conftrufl them
hollow *, and the author having premifed feveral experi¬
ments which he had made, proceeds as follows :
“ Galileo taught us, that the refiftance or ftrength
of a hollow cylinder is to that of a full cylinder, con¬
taining the fame quantity of matter, as the total diame¬
ter of the hollow one is to the diameter of the full one j
and thefe experiments Chow us, that the ilrength or re¬
finance of two or more pieces of wood, fattened toge¬
ther at each end, and connedled by a pillar, pillars, or
framing, increafes, at lead to a certain degree, c&ieris
paribus, as the didance between them and number of
pillars, provided the force is applied in the line or direc¬
tion of the pillars.
“ It is furprifing that this difcovery of Galileo has not
been made fubfervient to more ufeful purpofes. It is
particularly applicable to the condrufiion of mads, as
not requiring that the hollow cylinder dxould be made
of one folid piece of wood (g).
“ However, the foregoing experiments teach us, that
the fame advantages may be obtained by other forms be-
fides that of a cylinder ; and that perhaps not only in a
fuperior degree, but likewife with greater facility of exe¬
cution •, as by adopting a fquare figure, but more parti¬
cularly by condructing them of feparate pieces of wood,
placed at proper didances from each other, in the fol¬
lowing or any other manner that may be found mod
convenient. Fig. 44, 45, and 46. exhibit each the
tranfverfe feflion of a mad, in which the fmall circles
reprefent the trees or upright pieces of wood, and the
lines the beams or framing of wood, which are employ¬
ed at proper places and at proper didances from each
other, for connefting them together. Perhaps folid
frames of wood, placed at proper didances from each
other, and filling up the whole dotted fpace, would an-
fwer better j in which event, the mad could be drong-
I L D 1 N G. 285
ly hooped with iron at thofe places, and the upright- Improye-
trees formed fquare, or of any other convenient form. the'iviafh
“ It will be evident to thofe acquainted with this amj ru(j_
fubjedl, that fuch mads would be greatly dronger than der.
common ones containing the fame quantity oi materials. '—■ v
It is likewife evident that they would be lefs apt to
fpring, as being fupported on a more extended bafe, and
affording many conveniences for being better fecured }
and that they might be condrucled of tuch wood as at
prefent would be deemed altogether improper for mads:
a circumdance of importance to Britain at all times, but
more particularly now, when there is fuch difficulty in
procuring wood proper for the kind of mads in common
ufe.” ' 51
An improvement in the rudder has lately taken place An im-
in feveral drips, particularly in fome of thofe in the fer- Fovemcr.t
vice of the Ead India Company. It will, however, be^16 ruc"
neceffary previoudy to defcribe the ufual form of the
rudder, in order to drow the advantages it pofleffes when
condrudfed agreeable to the improved method.
N° I. (fig. 47.) reprefents the rudder according to Papers on
the common method of condrudfion ; in which AB is
the axis of rotation. It is hence evident that a fpace part t >
confiderably greater than the tranfverfe fedfion of the fig. 47,
rudder at the counter mud be left in the counter for the
rudder to revolve in. Thus, let CAB (N° 2.) be the
fedlion of the rudder at the counter •, then there mud
be a fpace fimilar to CDE in the counter, in order that
the rudder may be moveable as required. Hence, to
prevent the water from wadiing up the rudder cafe, a
rudder coat, that is, a piece of tarred canvas, is nailed
in fuch a manner to the rudder and counter as to co¬
ver the intermediate fpace : but the canvas being con¬
tinually wadied by the fea, foon becomes brittle, and
unable to yield to the various turns of the rudder with¬
out breaking •, in which cafe the drip is of courfe left
pervious to the waves, even of three or four feet high $
in fa£l, there are few men bred to the fea who have not
been witneffes to the bad effefts of fuch a fpace being
left fo ill guarded againd the droke of the waves; and
many diips have, with great probability, been fuppofed
to founder at fea from the quantity of water (hipped
between the rudder and counter.
It was to remedy this defeat that the alteration above
alluded to took place 5 which confids in making the
upper part AFG (fig. 48. N° 1.) of the rudder ABF) Fig. 4S.
cylindrical, and giving that part at the fame time a
cad forward, fo that the axis of rotation may by that
means be the line AD, pading as ufual from E to D,
through the centres of the braces which attach the rud¬
der to the dern-pod, and from E to A through the
axis of the cylinder AFG, in order that the tranfverfe fec-
tion KH (N° 2.) at the counter may be a circle revolv¬
ing upon its centre •, in which cafe the fpace of half an
inch is more than fudicient between the rudder and the
counter, and confequently the necedity of a rudder coat
entirely done away. But as it was forefeen, that if the
rudder
(g) The drength of thefe cylinders -would be dill further augmented by having- folid pieces of wood placed
within them at proper didances, and fecurely fadened to them, in the fame manner, and on the fame principles,
that nature has furnidred reeds with joints ; and for anfwering, in fome rcfpe&s, the fame purpofe as the pillars
in the experiments alluded to.
I
286
SHIP-BUILDING.
Load-wa- rudder by an accident was unfliipped, this alteration
ami Sid Ps ^'g^t endanger the tearing away of the counter, the
T’an-w-olV hole is made much larger than the tranfverfe fedlion of
».—-y— - the cylindric part of the rudder, and the Ipace between
filled up with pieces of -wood fo fitted to the counter as
to be capable of withftanding the fhock of the fea, but
to be eafily carried away with the rudder, leaving the
counter under fuch circumftances, in as fafe a flate as
it would be agreeable in the prefent form of making rud¬
ders in the navy.
Chap. VIII. Upon the Pofition of the Load-ivater
Line, and the Capacity of a Ship.
See Hydro- The weight of the quantity of ivater difplaced by the
dynamics, bottom of a fhip is equal to the weight of the fhip with
its rigging, provifions, and every thing on board. If,
therefore, the exaft weight of the fhip Avhen ready for
Tea be calculated, and alfo the number of cubic feet in
the (hip’s bottom below the load-water line, and hence
the weight of the water (lie difplaces; it -will be
known if the load-tvater line is properly placed in the
draught.
Ship-Byild- The pofition of the {hip in the draught may be either
er's Repo- on an even keel, or to draw moft rvater abaft j but an
J*tory. even j.eel js judged to be the beft pofition in point of
velocity, when the fhip is conftrufted fuitable thereto,
that is, when her natural pofition is fuch. For when
a fhip is conftrufted to fwim by the ftern, and when
brought down to her load-water made to fwim on an
even keel (as is the cafe with moft (hips that are thus
built), her velocity is by that means greatly retarded,
and alfo her ftrength greatly diminifhed : for the fore¬
part being brought down lower than it fhould be, and
the middle of the fhip maintaining its proper depth in
the water, the after part is by that means lifted, and
the fhip is then upon an even keel : but in confequence
of her being out of her natural pofition, the after part
is always placed downwards with a confiderable drain,
which will continue till the fhip’s fheer is entirely
broken, and in time would fall into its natural pofition
again : for which reafon we fee fo many fliips with bro¬
ken backs, that is, with their {beers altered in fuch a
manner that the flieer rounds up, and the higheft part
is in the midfhips.
Such are the difadvantages arifing from not paying
a due attention to thofe points in the conftruftion of a
draught; therefore, when the load-water line is found
to be fo fituated at a proper height on the draught, ac-
x'ording to the xveight given for fuch a fhip, and alfo
draxvn parallel to the keel, as fuppofing that to be the
beft failing trim, the next thing is to examine whether
the body is conftrufled fuitable thereto, in order to
avoid the above-mentioned ill confequences.
In the firft place, therefore, we muft divide the fhip
equally in two lengthwife betw’een the fore and after
perpendiculars ; and the exa£l number of cubic feet in
the whole bottom beneath the load-water line being
known, we muft find whether the number of cubic feet
in each part fo divided is the fame j and if they are
found to be equal, the body of the fhip may then be
faid to be confirucled in all refpecls fuitable to her fwirn- Losd-wa.
ming on an even keel, let the ftiape of the body be te,r Lwe
whatever it will ; and which will be found to be her a£ ci‘tP :
natural pofition at the load-xvater line. But if either
of the parts fhould contain a greater number of cubic
feet than the other, that part which contains the great-
eft will fwim the moft out of the water, and confe-
quently the other will fwim deepeft, fuppofing the fhip
in her natural pofition for that conftru£tion. In order,
therefore, to render the fhip fuitably conftru&ed to the
load-water line in the draught, which is parallel to the
keel, the number of cubic feet in the lefs part muft be
fubtra&ed from the number contained in the greater
part, and that part of the body is to be filled out till
it has increafed half the difference of their quantities,
and the other part is to be drawn in as much : hence
the two parts will be equal, that is, each. will eontam
the fame number of cubic feet, and the fhip’s body will
be conftru&ed in a manner fuitable to her fwimming on
an even keel.
If it is propofed that the fhip laid down on the
draught (hall not fwim on an even keel, but draw more
■water abaft than afore, then the fore and after parts of
the fhip’s body below the load-water line are to be
compared j and if thefe parts are unequal, that part
which is leaft is to be filled out by half the difference,
and the other part drawn in as much as before.
It will be neceffary, in the firft place, to calculate the
weight of a fhip ready equipped for fea, from the know¬
ledge of the weight of every feparate thing in her and
belonging to her, as the exa£t weight of all the timber,
iron, lead, mafts, fails, rigging, and in fliort all the
materials, men, provifions, and every thing elfe on board
of her, from which we fhall be able afterwards to judge
of the’ truth of the calculation, and xvhether the load-
water line in the draught be placed agreeable thereto.
This is indeed a very kborious tafk, upon account of
the feveral pieces of timber, &c. being of fo many dif¬
ferent figures, and the fpecific gravity of fome of the
timber entering the conftru&ion not being precifely de¬
termined. _ .
In order to afcertain the weight of the hull, the tim¬
ber is the firft thing which comes under ccnfideration :
the number of cubic feet of timber contained in the
■whole fabric muft be found ; which we (hall be able to
do by help of the draught and the principal dimenfions
and fcantlings ; obferving to diftinguifh the different
kinds of timber from each other, as they differ cenfidei-
ably in weight, then the number of cubic feet contain¬
ed in the different forts of timber being reduced into
pounds, and added, will be the weight of the timber.
In like manner proceed to find the weight of the iron,
lead, paint, &c. and the true weight of the whole will
In reducing quantity to weight, it may be obferved See tfyir:
that a cubic foot of oak is equal to 66 pounds, and thvdJnamlcs
fpecific gravity of the other materials is as follows :
Water being
Lead is
Iron
IOOO
11345
7643
Oak is
Dry elm
Dry fir
891.89
702.70
648.64
An
S H I P-B U I L D I N G.
I ioad-wa-
ter Lille jn Ejiwiate of the Weight of the Eighty Gun Ship in
rldtv5 Pktes CCCCXC. and CCCCXCI. as ft ted for Sea,
Capac y' with Six Months Proviftons.
(down.
Plates
iccccxc.
CCCCXCI.
Iidie'weight Oak timber at 661b. to
of the eigh- the cubic foot
ty gun fliip Fir timber at 48 lb. to
before laid f00|-
Elm timber at 52 lb. to 1
the cubic foot
Carve work and lead work
Iron work, rudder irons,
chain-plates, nails, &c
Pitch, tar, oakum, and 7
paint J
Cook-room fitted with fire ?
hearth _y
Weight of the Hull.
N° of lbs. Tons. Lbs.
} 484973
4457
520
Sum
! 200802
213936
27040
4651
88254
17920
16123
3568726
1428 2082
95 II36
160
12
2
39
8
171
894
7 443
I593 406
Weight of the Furniture.
N°oflbs.
Complete fet of mails and yards,
with the fpare geer
Anchors with their Hocks, and 7
mafter’s llores
Egging
Sails, complete fet, and fpare
Cables and hawfers
Blocks, pumps, and boats
Sum
16100c
39996
69128
32008
73332
62056
43752o
Tons. Lbs.
71 i960
17 1916
30 1928
14 648
32 1692
27 lSl6
195 720
Weight of the Guns and Ammunition.
Guns with their carriages
Powder and (hot, powder barrels, 7
&c. f
Implements for the powder
Ditto for guns, crows, handfpikes, 7
&c. ...
Sum
377034
116320
6500
21573
521427
168 714
51 2080
2 2020
9 I4I3
232 1747
Weight of the Officers Stores, &c.
Carpenter’s ftores
Boatfwain’s llores
Gunner’s llores • - _ _
Caulker’s llores
Surgeon and chaplain’s effefls
Sum
20187
21112
8964
5200
11096
66559
Weight of the Provifions.
Provifions for fix months for 700
9 27
9 952
4 4
2 720
4 2136
29 I599
men, with all their equipage
^ ater, calks, and captain’s table
1
Sum
858970
9339°
1792870
383 1050
416 2060
800 870
Weight of the Men, &c.
Seven hundred men with their
effedls, including the officers
and their effefts
Ballall ...
Sum
}
N° of lbs.
316961
1478400
1795361
fon*. Lbs.
141 1121
660
8oi 1121
287
Load-wa¬
ter Line
and Ship’s
Capacity.
Recapitulation.
The hull
The furniture
Guns and ammunition
Officers llores
Provifions
Weight of the men and ballalt
Sum
3568726
437520
521427
66559
1792870
i79536i
r593 406
195 720
232 1747
29 J599
800 870
801 1121
8182463
3652 1983
Agreeable to the above ellimate, we find that the
eighty gun ffiip, with every thing on board and fit for
fea, when brought down to the load-water line, weighs
8,182,463 pounds, or nearly 3653 tons. It may now
be known if the load-water line in the draught be pro¬
perly placed, by reducing the immerfed part of the bo¬
dy into cubic feet. For if the eighty gun ffiip, when
brought down to the load-water line, weighs 3653
tons, the quantity of water difplaced mull alfo be 3653
tons: now a cubic foot of fait water being fuppofed to
weigh 74 pounds, if therefore 8182463 be divided by
74, the quotient is 110573, number of cubical feet
which ffie mull difplace agreeable to her weight.
It is now neceflary to find the number of cubic feet
contained in the ffiip’s bottom below the load-water
line by calculation. If the bottom was a regular folid,
this might be very eafily done j but as it is otherwife,
we mull be fatisfied with the following method by ap¬
proximation, firft given by M. Bouguer.
Take the lengths of every other of the lines that re- Method of
prefent the frames in the horizontal plane upon the up-calculating
per water line j then find the fum of thefe together,the contents
with half the foremoll and aftermoll frames. Now mul-
tiply that fum by the dillance between the frames, and diip.
the product is the area of the water line contained be¬
tween the foremoll and aftermoll frames: then find the
area of that part abaft the after frame, which forms a
trapezium, and alfo the poll and rudder find alfo the
area of that part afore the foremoft frame, and alfo of
the Hem and gripe; then thefe areas being added to
that fir ft found, and the fum doubled, will be the area
of the furface of the whole water line. The reafon of
this rule will be obvious to thofe acquainted with the
firlt principles of mathematics.
The areas of the other waterline may be found in the
fame manner: then the ium of all thele areas, except
that of the uppermoil and lowermoit, of which only one
half of each mull be taken, being multiplied by the di¬
llance between the water lines (thefe lines in the plane
of elevation being equidillant from each other), and the
produft will be the folid content of the fpace contained
between the lower and load-water lines.
Add
2'8 8
SHIP-BUILDTNG.
Load-wa¬
ter Line
Add the area of the lower water line to the area of
, , the upper fide of the keel j multiply half that fum by
Capacity.5 the diftanee between them, the product will be the fo-
u—y—lid content of that part between the lower water line
and upper edge of the keel, fuppofing them parallel to
each other. But if the lower water line is not parallel
to the keel, the above half fum is to be multiplied by
the ditfance between them at the middle of the (hip.
The folid contents of the keel mull be next found,
by multiplying its length by its depth, and that produ£l
by the breadth. Then the fum of thefe folid contents
will be the number of cubic feet contained in the im-
merfed part of the (hip’s bottom, or that part below the
load-water line.
Determination of the number of Cubic Feet contained in
the Bottom of the Eighty-Gun Ship. See Plates
CCCCXC. and CCCCXCI.
• 54
Applied to The fore body is divided into five, and the after bo-
the eighty- jy jnto teri) eqUal parts in the horizontal plane •, be¬
gun ilnp. ^i(jes tjie parts contained between the foremoft timber
and the Item, and the aftermoft timber and the poll.
The plane of elevation is alfo divided into five equal
parts by water lines drawn parallel to the keel. Ihefe
water lines are alfo defcribed upon the horizontal
plane.
It is to be obferved that there muft be five inches add¬
ed to each line that reprefents a frame in the horizontal
plane for the thicknefs of the plank, that being nearly a
mean between the thicknefs of the plank next the water
and that on the lower part of the bottom.
•5
fid
-a
H
Upper Water Line abaft Dead Flat.
frame dead flat is 24 feet 10 inches, one-
half of which is - -
frame (4) -
frame 3 - ~ ~
frame 7 - * •
frame 11
frame 15
frame 19
frame 23 - - *
frame 27 - - *
frame 31 - _ ” r
frame 35 is 16 feet 3 inches, the half of
which is - - ~
Ft. In.
12
24
24
24
24
24
24
23
22
20
8
5
10
10
10
10
9i
5
10
9
11
Sum - • "
Diftance between the frames
Produft
Area of that part abaft frame 35
    rudder and poft
Sum
236 7
io it
2582
78
H
Second Water Line abaft Dead Flat.
'frame dead flat is 23 feet lof inches, the
half of which is - -
frame (4) - - -
frame 3 - - -
frame 7 -
< frame 11 -
frame 15
frame 19 - - *
frame 23
frame 27 " ' '
frame 31
frame 35 is
which is
Ft. In.
Lnad-ty;;
ter Lin}
and Shid
Capacit(
8 feet 6 iitches, the half of
2fl
23
23
23
23
23
22
20
*7
ioi-
IOf
IO-J
lot
8i
3i
5
10
8
4 3
Sum - - -
Diftance between the frames
Produdt
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poft;
Sum
219 7|
10 11
2397 4
31 7
5 5
2434 4
2
Area of the 2d water line from dead flat aft 4868 8
Third Water Line abaft Dead Flat.
'frame dead flat is 22 feet if inches—half 11
«
ri3
'“O
H
frame (4)
frame 3 - - "
frame 7 - - -
frame 11
frame 15
fratne 19
frame 23
frame 27 - - ‘
frame 31 -
frame 35 is 4 feet 3 inches—half
22
22
22
22
21
20
J9
.16
11
2
it
it
it
1
5
8i
3t
5
2t
It
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poft
190 8£
10 11
2081 8
14 5t
5 6
2101 7t
2
Area of the 3d water line from dead flat aft 4203
Fourth Water Line abaft Dead Flat.
2666
2t
2
Area of the load water line from dead flat
aft -
5332 5
frame dead flat is 20 feet I inch-
frame (4) ■
, frame 3
1 frame 7
frame 11
t frame 15
Carry over
-half
i
10
20
20
I9
!9
ro
oi
1
1
11
7i
o
108 9
Brought
S H I P - B U I L D I N G.
Load-wa¬
ter Line
and Ship’s
Capacity.
Brought over
f frame 19 - - .
j frame 23 - - -
<{ frame 27 - - -
jj j frame 31
W frame 3 5 is I foot 11^ inches—half
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poll
Ft. In.
108 9
17 7f
14 10
10 11
5 11
o 1 if
159 o
IG II
1735
9
5
1750
Area bf the 4th water line from dead flat aft 3501
Fifth or Lower Water Line abaft Dead Flat*
' frame dead flat is 17 feet 2 inches—-half 8
frame (4) - -
frame 3
frame 7 -
frame. 11
frame 15 -
frame 19
frame 23
frame 27 - -
frame 31 -
frame 35 is 1 foot 2f inches—half
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poft
Area of the 5th or lower water line from
dead flat aft - - -
Half the area of the load water line
Area of the fecond water line
Area of the third water line
Area of^the fourth water line
Half the area of the lower water line
Sum - - - -
Diftance between the water lines
Content in cubic feet between the lower
and load-vvater lines
Area of the lower water line 2678 10
Area of the upper fide of the keel 206 4
l?
17
17
16
15
13
8
4
2
o
121
10
7
2
2
1
4
4
1
9
10
11
7i
i°i
11
1330 2
4 H
4 64-
1339 5
2
2678 10
2666 24
4868 8*
4203 3
35°i °
1339 5
16578 6i
4 1
67695 Si-
Sum - - 2885
Half - - 1442
Diftance between the lower wa¬
ter line and the keel - 4
Cub. feet contained between low -
er rvater line and the keel 5890 61 5890 6i
Content of the keel, lower part of rudder,
and falfe keel - - 464 3
Cubic feet abaft the midlhip frame under
water when loaded - - 74050
Vol. XIX. Part I.
Upper or Load Water Line afore Dead Flat.
Ft.
« f frame dead flat is 24 feet 10 inches—half 12
} frame E
'S j frame I
Z 1
frame N
J frame -
(_ frame W is 15 feet 1 inch—half
Sum - - -
Dillance between the frames
Product - -
Area of the part afore frame W
Item and knee.
Sum -
Multiply by - - -
Area of the load water line from dead flat
forward -
In.
5
24 10
24 84
24 o
21 ioi
7 64
115 4-4
10 11
1259 6
80 3
4 o
1343 9
2
2687 6
■5 | frame E
la j frame I - - -
{ frame N - -
<d j frame Q - -
frame W is 11 feet 11 inches—half
Sum ...
Diftance between the frames
Product - - -
Area of the part afore frame W, with the
Item and knee
23 10
23
22
Sum
Area of the fecond water line from dead flat
forward - 2435
Third Water Line afore Dead Flat.
frame dead flat is 22 feet i4 inch—half 11
frame E - - 22
frame I - „ _ 21
frame N - - - 20 ■
frame (f - - - 16
_ frame W is 7 feet—half - - 3
rC
H
Sum
Diftance between the frames
Product - - - 1031 10
Area of the part afore W, with the Item and
gripe - - - 25 10
Sum
1057
Area of the third water line from dead flat
forward . . _ 2115 4
O o Fourth
289
Load-wa¬
ter Line
and Ship’s
Capacity.
Second Water Line afore Dead Flat.
rt f frame dead flat is 23 feet 1 o4 inches—lialf 11 I if
19 11
5 1 if
107 5?
10 11
“73 9
43 9
1217 6
2
of
1
8
1
i4
6
94
10 11
290
Load wa¬
ter Line
and Ship’s
Capacity.
S H I P-B U
Fourth Water Line afore Dead Flat.
4->
05
U
•JD
H
'frame dead flat is 20 feet I inch—half
frame E - - -
frame I - -
frame N - - "
frame Q - - *
__ frame W is 2 feet nine inches—half
Ft. In.
10 Ov
20 O-J
3
5
I L D I N G.
Cubic feet contained between the lower and Ft.
load water lines - •• - 33^34 a
Cubic feet contained between lower water Y ~
line and keel . - - - 2692
Content of the keel and falfe keel - 196
19
16
II
I
2
4 a
Sum -
Diftance between the frames
Produft -
Area of part before W, with the ftem and
gripe - -
Sum -
Area of fourth water line from dead flat for¬
ward - - *
78 3f
10 11
863 61
2
1727 if
Fifth Water Line afore Dead Flat.
Ft. In
_ frame dead flat is 17 feet 2 inches—half 8 7
| frame E - - -
^ <| frame I - - -
S | frame N - - -
W ^ frame Q is 5 feet—half
16 9
14 10
10 9!
Sum
Diftance between the frame
Produfl
Area of part afore Q
ftem and knee
Sum
Area of the fifth or lower water line from
dead flat forward
Area of the upper fide of the keel
Sum - - ■ '
Half - - -
Diftance between the lower water line and
keel -
53 51
10 11
583 7
26 2f
5 11
615 9
2
1231
87
1218
659
Content of the part contained between the
lower water line and the keel in cub. feet 2692
Half of the area of the load water line 1343
Area of the fecond water line - 2435
third water line - 2115
fourth water line - I727
Half the area of the fifth or lower water line 615
In. Tonnage ot’„
71
6
Content afore midfhip frame under water
when loaded - - 3^5 23
Content abaft midfliip frame - 74c5°
Content under Avater
Weight of a cubic foot of fait Avater
110573 10
74lbs.
Weight of the Avhole (hip with every thing
onboard - - - 8182463.8^81
As the Aveight of the flap, Avith every thing on board,
found by this calculation, is equal to that found by efti-
mate j it hence appears that the Avater line is properly
placed in the draught. It uoav only remains to find
Avhether the body is conftrudled fuitably thereto, that
is, Avhether the {hip Avill be in her natural pofition when
brought doAvn to that line. For this purpofe a perpen¬
dicular muft be ereifted 27 feet $ inch, abaft dead flat,
Avhich will be the middle between the two .perpendicu¬
lars and the place Avhere the centre of gravity (hould
fall, that the {hip may fAvim on an even keel. The fo-
lidity of that part of the bottom contained betAveen the
faid perpendicular and dead flat is then to be calculated,
Avhich will be found to be 25846 feet 7 inches.
Solidity of the bottom afore dead flat 3^523 4^n•
w  betAveen the middle and dead flat 25846 7
Solid content of the fore part of the bot¬
tom ... 62369
Solidity of the bottom abaft dead flat 74050
 between the middle and dead flat 25846
11
6
7
7i
9
o
4
Sum - - - 8236 Hi
Diftance between the water lines - 41
Solid content of the aft. part of the bot. 48203 11
- fore part of the bottom 62369 11
Difference -
Half
Hence the after part of the {hip’s bottom is too lean
by 7083 cubic feet, and the fore part as much too full.
The after part muft therefore be filled out until it has
received an addition of 7^83 feet, and the fore part
muft be drawn in till it has loft the fame quantity, and
the bottom Avill then be conftrufted fuitable to the
{hip’s fwimming on an even keel.
Chap. IX. Of the Tonnage of a Ship.
This is a queftion of equal importance and difficul- Proper me-
ty. By the tonnage of a {hip is meant the weight ofthod ofcal-
every thing that can with fafety and expediency be ta-^aungt^
ken on board that ftiip for the purpofe of conveyance ; a
it is alfo called the flip's burthen; and it is totally
different from the Aveight of the whole as {he floats in
the water. It is perhaps beft expreffed by calling it the
weight of the cargo. It is of importance, becaufe it is by
this that the merchant or freighter judges of the fitnefs
of
55
Tonnag«
a Ship.
SC
Common
tide.
S H I P-B U
ofof the -{hip for his purpofe. By this government judge
of the {hips requifite for tranfport fervice, and by this
are all revenue charges on the fhip computed. It is no
lefs difficult to anfwer this queftion by any general rule
which ffiall be very exadt, becaufe it depends not only
on the cubical dimenfions of the {hip’s bottom, but
alfo on the fcantling of her whole frame, and in ffiort
on the weight of every thing which properly makes
part of a {hip ready to receive on board her cargo.
The weight of timber is variable •, the fcantling of the
frame is no lefs fo. We muft therefore be contented
with an average value which is not very remote from
the truth •, and this average is to be obtained, not by
any mathematical difcuffion, but by obfervation of the
burthen or cargo actually received, in a great variety of
cafes. But fome fort of rule of calculation muft be
made out. This is and muft be done by perfons not ma¬
thematicians. We may therefore expedi to find it inca¬
pable of being reduced to any principle, and that every
builder will have a different rule. Accordingly the rules
given for this purpofe are in general very whimfical,
meafures being ufed and combined in a way that feems
quite unconnedled with ftereometry or the meafurement
of folids. The rules for calculation are even affedted
by the interefts of the two parties oppofitely concerned
in the refult. The calculation for the tonnage by which
the cuftoms are to be exadled by government are quite
different from the rule by which the tonnage of a tranf¬
port hired by government is computed j and the fame
{hip hired as a tranfport will be computed near one half
bigger than when paying importation duties.
Yet the whole of this might be made a very fimple
bufinefs and very exadt. When the {hip is launched,
let her light water line be marked, and this with the
cubical contents of the immerfed part be noted down,
and be ingroffed in the deed by which the property of
the ffiip is conveyed from hand to hand. The weight
of her mafts, fails, rigging, and fea-ftores, is moft eafily
obtained ; and every builder can compute the cubical
contents of the body when immerfed to the load water
line. The difference of thefe is unqueftionably the bur¬
then of the {hip.
It is evident from what has been already faid in the laft
chapter, that if the number of cubic feet of water which
the ffiip difplaces when light, or, which is the fame, the
number of cubic feet below the light water line, found
by the preceding method of calculation, be fubtradled
from the number of cubic feet contained in the bottom
below the load water line, and the remainder reduced
to tons by multiplying by 74, the number of pounds in
a cubic foot of fea water, and divided by 2240, the
number of pounds in a ton, the quotient will be the
tonnage.
But as this method is very troublefome, the follow¬
ing rule for this purpofe is that which is ufed in the
king’s and merchants fervice.
Let fall a perpendicular from the forefide of the ftem
at the height of the hawfe holes (h), and another per¬
pendicular from the back of the main poll at the height
I L £> 1 N G. ' 291
of the wing tranfom. From the length between thefe Tonnage (ft
two perpendiculars deduct three-fifths of the extreme , a t
breadth (1), and alfo as many times 2-§- inches as there
are feet in the height of the wing tranfom above the
upper edge of the keel 5 the remainder is the length of -
the keel for tonnage. Now multiply this length by
the extreme breadth, and the product by half the ex¬
treme breadth, and this laft produft divided by 94 is
the tonnage required.
Or, multiply the length of the keel for tonnage by
the fquare of the extreme breadth, and the produtt di¬
vided by 188 will give the tonnage.
Calculation of the Tonnage of an Eighty Gun Ship.
I. According to the true method.
The weight of the {hip at her launching Tons.
draught of water - - I593
The weight of the furniture - 195
The weight of the {hip at her light wa¬
ter mark -
The weight of the ftiip at the load wa¬
ter mark -
Real burthen
II. By the common rule.
Length from the forefide of the ftem at
the height of the hawfe holes, to the
aft fide of the main poft, at the height
of the wing tranfom
Three-fifths of
57' .
lbs Calculation
406 ot~ t^ie ton''
ion n.a£e of the
' J eighty gun
 tliip.
the
extreme breadth
29 f. 9^ in.
Height of the wing tranfom
is 28 f. 4 in. which mul¬
tiplied by 2-t inches is 6
Sum - 36
Length of the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
Produft
Half the extreme breadth
81-
6
1788 1126
3652
1864 857
Ft. Inch,
185 10
36 6
149
49
^7416
24
ioi
10
94)i84i85 81
Burthen according to the common
rule - . »
Real burthen - *
Difference - -
I959 929
1864 857
95 72
58
Hence an eighty gun ftiip will hot carry the ton- The com-
nage ffie is rated at by about 95 tons. As the body of11!011 rule
this fliip is fuller than in fliips of war in general, there isf0nnage*of
therefore a nearer agreement between the tonnages found fliips of war
by the two different methods. It may be obferved that greater,
fliips of war carry lefs tonnage than they are rated at by aHd of I^er"
the common rule, and that moft merchant ftiips carry kfan^“Ps
O 0 2 athe’truth.
(h) In the merchant fervice this perpendicular is let fall from the fore fide of the ftem at the height of the wing
tranfom, by reafon of the hawfe-holes being generally fo very high in merchant ftiips, and their ftems alfo having
a great rake forward.
(1) The breadth underftood in this place is the breadth from outfide to oUtfide of the plank. <
292
Tonnage ef a great deal more. In confirmation of this, it is thought
3. Ship. 4-Ia/^ <-11 lir\tnc i'\£ (lllTYS. Wlttl
proper to fubjoin the dimenfions of feveral ihips, with
the tonnage calculated therefrom.
SHIP-BUILD IN G.
Tonnage
Real tonnage
806 109(5 Tonnage ij,
984 1670 a shlP-
i. Audacious of feventy-four guns.
Length on the gun deck
Length of the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
Depth of the hold
C" afore
Launching draught of water j
, r C afore
Load draught of water -t
The weight of the {hip at her launching
draught of water
The weight of the furniture
168 f. O in.
138 o
46
J9
12
I7
20
21
1509 t. 6781bs.
120 1500
Weight of the fhip at her light water
mark
Weight of the (hip at her load water
1629 2178
mark
2776 498
Real burthen
1146 560
By the common rule.
Length of the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
138 f. o in.
46 9
Produ6t
Half the extreme breadth
6451
23
94)150803
Tonnage according to the common rule 1604 643
Real burthen - - * 1146 560
Difference
458 83
132!. 8 in.
105 O
38
16
2. An Eaji Indiaman.
Length between the perpendiculars for¬
ward and aft
Length of the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth - -
Depth in hold
Launching draught of water { abaft
r afore
Load draught of water -j
The weight of the {hip at her launching
draught of water - 6021. 2ii61bs.
The weight of the furniture - 50 124
Weight of the {hip at her light water
mark - - 653
Weight of the {hip at her load water
mark - - ^37 1670
7
11
19
20
O
O
10
10
8
8
Real burthen
Keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
By the common rule.
984 1670
105 f,
38
Product
Half extreme breadth
3999
19
94)75810
Difference
J?8 574
3. A Cutter.
Length of the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
Lauching draught of water
Load draught of water "Fabaft
The weight of the cutter at her launch-
ing
Weight of the furniture
58f. oin.
29 o
5 10
9 8
9 0
12 o
147 t. 640lbs.
9 !99
Weight of the cutter at her light water
mark - - 839
Weight of the cutter at her load water
mark - - 266 1970
Real burthen - - 1101131
By the common rule.
Keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
58 f.
29
Product
Half extreme breadth
1682
I4i
94)24389
Tonnage by the common rule
Real tonnage
259 1024
no 1131
Difference
148 2133
The impropriety of the common rule is hence mani-
feft, as there can be no dependence on it for afcertaining •
the tonnage of veffels.
We fhall now fubjoin the following experimental me¬
thod of finding the tonnage of a {hip.
Conftrua a model agreeable to the draught of the Exp^men
propofed Ihip, to a fcale of about one-fourth of an inch ta] meth0d
to a foot, and let the light and load water lines beofdeter-
marked on it. Then put the model in water, and load mining the
it until the furface of the water is exaftly at the light
water line ; and let it be fufpended until the water
drains off, and then weighed. Now fince the weights of
fimilar bodies are in the triplicate ratio of their homolo¬
gous dimenfions, the weight of the Ihip when light is,
therefore, equal to the product of the cube of the num¬
ber of times the {hip exceeds the model by the weight
of the model, which is to be reduced to tons. Hence,
if the model is conftrudled to a quarter of an inch fcale,
and its weight expreffed in ounces j then to the con-
ftant logarithm 0.4893556, add the logarithm of the
weight of the model in ounces, and the fum will be the
logarithm of the weight of the {hip in tons.
Again, the model is to be loaded until the furface of
the water coincides with the load water line. . Now the
model being weighed, the weight of the {hip is to be
found by the preceding rule : then the difference be¬
tween the weights of the fhip when light and loaded
is the tonnage required;
5
SHIP-BUILDING.
linage of It will alfo be worth while to add the following ex-
. Ship. a& rule of Mr Parkins, who was many years foreman
  ' 0f the Ihipwrights in Chatham dockyard.
I.
For Men of War.
Take the length of the gun-deck from the rabbet of
the ftem to the rabbet of the ftern poll. of this is
to be aflumed as the length for tonnage, = L.
Take the extreme breadth from outfide to outlide of
the plank 5 add this to the length, and take of the
fum } call this the depth for tonnage, ~ D,
Set up this height from the limber ftrake, and at
that height take a breadth alfo from outfide to outfide
of plank in the timber when the extreme breadth is
found, and another breadth in the middle between that
and the limber ftrake 5 add together the extreme
breadth and thefe two breadths, and take -y of the fum
for the breadth for tonnage, =r D.
Multiply L, D, and B together, and divide by 49.
The quotient is the burthen in tons.
The following proof may be given of the accuracy
of this rule. Column I. is the tonnage or burthen by
the king’s meafurement •, col. 2. is the tonnage by this
rule *, and, col. 3. is the weight actually received on
board thefe ftiips at Blackftakes :
Victory
London
Arrogant
Diadem
Adamant
Dolphin
Amphion
Daphne
100 guns.
90
74
64
50
44
32
20
2162
1845
1614
1369
1044
879
667
429
i839
'SIS
1308
1141
870
737
554
329
1840
1677
J3 !4
965
886
758
549
374
2. For Ships of Burthen.
_ 293
alfo the additional weight neceflary to bring her down Scale of
to the load water line _ _
In order to conftruft this fcale for a given fhip, it is
neceflary to calculate the quantity of water difplaced by
the keel, and by that part of the bottom below each
water line in the draught. Since the areas of the feve-
ral water lines are alx-eady computed for the eighty-gun
fhip laid dorvn in Plates CCCCXC. and CCCCXCJ.
the contents of thefe parts may hence be eafily found
for that fliip, and are as follow.
Draught of Water.
Water difplaced in
Cubic feet. | tons. lbs.
Keel and falfe keel
Dift. bet. keel
and 5th w.line
Sum
Dift. 3th and 1
4th w. line J
Sum
Dift. 4th and")
3d wr. line J
Sum
Dift-. 3d and 7
2d w. line jj"
Take the length of the lower deck from the rabbet
of the ftem to the rabbet of the ftern-poft ; then -j-f- of
this is the length for tonnage, = L.
Add the length of the lower deck to the extreme
breadth from outfide to outfide of plank ; and take yT
of the fum for the depth for tonnage, rr D..
Set up that depth from the limber ftrake, and at this
height take a breadth from outfide to outfide. Take
another at | of this height, and another at 3- of the
height. Add the extreme breadth and thefe three
breadths, and take- the 4th of the fum for the breadth
for tonnage, r= B.
Multiply L, D, and B, and divide by 36J. The
quotient is the burthen in tons-
This rule refts on the authority of many fuch trials,
as the following:
King’s Aflually
Meafm. Rule. reed, on bd,
Northington Indiaman 676 1053 1064
Granby Indiaman 786 1179 1179
Union coallier 193 266 289
Another coallier 182 254 277
Chap. X. Of the Scale cf Solidity.
^By this fcale the quantity of water difplaced by the
bottom of the fhip, for which it is conftrufted, anfwer-
ing to a given draught of water, is eafily obtained j and
Sum
Dift. 2d and
1 ft w. line
Sum
2 f. 3 in,
4 1
6 4
4 1
660.9
8583.il
9243.101
18657.8!!
5
4 1
279OI-7vs-
23574-6!if
14 6
4 1
18 7
4 1
51476-21
27812.1^
79288.311
31 285.711
22 8 110573.nl
21
283
i855
i233
3°5
616
848
828
921
778
1676
*795
1700
918
1231
I775
2619
I033
766
1218
3652 1984!
Conftruft any convenient fcale of equal parts to re- -
prefent tons, as fcale N° 1. and another to reprefeht
feet as N° 2. Plate
Draw the line AB (fig. 36.) limited at A, but pro- ccccxcir.
ducedIndefinitely towards B. Make AC equal to the 60
depth of the keel, 2 feet 3 inches from fcale N° 2. and
through C draw a line parallel to AB, which will re-fcaie 0f f0l
prefent the upper .edge of the keel; upon which fet offlidity for
C c equal to 2X tons 1855 lbs. taken from fcale N° I.1!6 dup
Again, make AD equal to the diftance between the e‘8^lty
lower edge of the keel and the fifth water line, namely, ^unSi
6 feet 4 inches, and a line drawn through D parallel to
AB will be the reprefentation of the lower water line j
and make D b equal to 305 tons 848'lbs. the corre-
fponding tonnage. . In like manner draw the other wa¬
ter lines, and lay off the correfppnding tonnages ac¬
cordingly: then through the points A, c, b, e,fg,
h, draw the curve Ac b efg k. Through h draw // B
perpendicular to AB, and it will be the greateft limit
of the quantity of water exprefled in tons difplaced by
the bottom of the fliip, or that when {he is brought
dowrn to the load water line. And fince the {hip dif-
places 1788 tons at her light water-mark, take there¬
fore that quantity from the fcale N° 1. which being
laid upon AB from A to K, and KL drawn perpendi¬
cular to AB, will be the reprefentation of the light
water
294
Scale of water line for tonnage.
. pleted.
(jj Let it now be required to find the number of cubic
Ufe of the feet difplaced when the draught of water is 17 feet, and
above feale. the number of additional tons neceffary to bring her
down to the load water mark.
Take the given draught of water 17 feet from the
fcale N° 2, which laid from it will reach to I; through
which draw the lime IMN parallel to AB, and inter¬
fering the curve in AC ; then the diftance IM applied
to the fcale N6 1, will meafure about 2248 tons, the dil-
placement anfwerable to that draught of water ; and
MN applied to the fame fcale will meafure about 1405
tons, the additional weight neceffary to bring her down
to the load water mark. Alfo the neareft diftance be¬
tween M and the line KL will meafure about 460 tons,
the weight already on board.
It will conduce very much to facilitate this operation
to divide KB into a fcale of tons taken from the fcale
N° 1, beginning at B, and alfo h L, beginning at //.
Then when the draught of water is taken from the fcale
N° 2, and laid from it to I, as in the former example,
and IMN drawn parallel to AB, and interfering the
curve in M. Now through M draw a line perpendicu¬
lar to AB, and it will meet KB in a point reprefenting
the number of tons aboard, and alfo // L in a point de¬
noting the additional weight neceffary to load her.
Again, if the weight on board be given, the corre-
fponding draught of water is obtained as follows.
Find the given number of tons in the fcale KB,
through which draw a line perpendicular to AB ; then
through the point of interferion of this line with the
curve draw another line parallel to A.B. Now the
diftance between A and the point v^here the parallel
interfered AH being applied to the fcale N° 2, will
give the draught of water required.
Any other cafe to which this fcale may be applied
will be obvious.
Book II. Containing the Properties of Ships, &c.
Chap. I. Of the Equilibrium of Ships.
Since the preffure of fluids is equal in every direc¬
tion, the bottom of a (hip is therefore ared upon by
the fluid in which it is imttierfed j which preffure, for
any given portion of furface, is equal to the produr of
that portion by the depth and denfity of the fluid : or
it is equal to the weight of a column of the fluid whofe
Bafe is the given furface, and the altitude equal to the
diftance between the furface of the fluid and the centre
of gravity of the furface preffed. Hence a floating
body is in equilibrio between two forces, namely, its
gravity and the vertical preffure of the fluid j the hori¬
zontal preffure being deftroyed.
Plate Let ABC (fig. 49.) be any body immerfed in a fluid
ccccxcxv. -whofe line of floatation is GH : hence the preffure of
the fluid is exerted on every portion of the furface of the
immerfed part AFCH. Let EF, CD be any two fmall
portions contained between the lines ED, FC, parallel
to each other, and to the line of floatation GH : then
the preffure exerted upon EF is expreffed by EFXIE, Equiliki.
IK being the depth of EF or CD 5 the denfity of the ot |
fluid being fuppofed equal to 1. In like manner the . 'P5, 1
preffure upon CD is equal to CD X IK. Now fince the !
preffure is in a direftion perpendicular to the furface,
draw therefore the line EL perpendicular to EF, and
DM perpendicular to DC, and make each equal to the
depth IK, below the furface. Now tire effort or preffure
of the fluid upon EF will be expreffed by EF x EL,
and that upon CD by CD X DM. Complete the paral¬
lelograms ON, QS, and the preffure in the direflion
EL is refolved into EN, EO, the firft in a horizontal,
and the fecond in a vertical direflion. In like manner,
the preffure in the direction DM is refolved into the
preffures DS, D£L Hence the joint effedt of the pref-
fures in the horizontal and ^vertical directions, namely,
EF X EN, and EF X EO, will be-equal to EF X EL :
For the fame reafon, CD X DP + CD X DQrrCD X
DM. But the parts of the preffures in a horizontal di¬
rection EF X EN, and CD x DP, are equal. For, be-
caufe of the fimilar triangles ENL, ERF, and DPM,
, EL EF , DM DC
DSC, we have —r and Hence DM
’ EN IR DP Cb
X CS--DPX DC, and ELxFR=ENxEF. Now
fince EL=DM, and FR=:CS, therefore ELxFRrr
DM x CS=DP X DC = EN X EF. Hence fince EF X
ENrrrDP X CD, the effeCts of the preffures in a horizon¬
tal direction are therefore equal and contrary, and con-
fequently deftroy each other.
The preffure in a vertical direction is reprefented by
EO X EF, DQ X DC, &c. which, becaufe of the fimi¬
lar triangles EOL, ERF, and DLM, DSC, become
EL x ER, DM x DS, &c. or IK x ER, IK x DS, &c.
By applying the fame reafoning to every other portion
of the furface of the immerfed part of the body, it is
hence evident that the fum of the vertical preffures is
equal to the fum of the correfponding difplaced columns
•jof the fluid* ^
Hence a floating body is preffed upwards by a force-phe weight
equal to the weight of the quantity of water difplaced jof a fliip
and fince there is an equilibrium between this force ande(lualt0
the weight of the body, therefore the weight of a float-t*iat
ing body is equal to the Weight of the difplaced fluid ^vater ,jif„
(k). Hence alfo the centre of gravity of the body placed,
and the centre of gravity of the difplaced fluid are in 63
the fame vertical, otherwife the body would not be atAlu*tIie,
n centre 01
, gravity of
both are in
Chap. II. Upon the Efforts of the Water to bend a the fame
Veffel. vertica1.
When it is faid that the preffure of the water upon Theorie
the immerfed part of a veffel counterbalances its weight,complette^
it is fuppofed that the different parts of the veffel are fo^c'^flr
clofely connefted together, that the forces which aft j'an(ia’ted
upon its furface are not capable of producing any change, Watfori. j
For We may eafily conceive, if the connection of the
parts were not fufficiently ftrong, the veffel would run
the rilk either of being broken in pieces, or of fuffering
fome alteration in its figure.
The veffel is in a fituation fimilar to that of a rod
AB
S H I P-B U I L D I N G.
Hence the fcale will be com-
(k) Upon this principle the weight and tonnage of the 80 gun fliip laid down were calculated.
S H I P - B U I L D I N C.
«4
[iecaufe
a (hip’s
Hsgtog.
|d fag.
:®jrts of AB (fig. 50.), which being a£ted upon by the forces
ie Water A C c, D r/, B b, may be maintained in equilibrio,
VehVl11 ProV^e^ ^ ^as a bitficient degree of ftiifnefs : but as
—_j foon as it begins to givo way, it is evident it mufl bend
in a convex manner, fince its middle would obey the
forces C c and D d, while its extremities would be ac¬
tually drawn downwards by the forces A a and B b.
The veflel is generally found in fuch a fituation j and
fince fimilar efforts continually aft whilft the veffel is
immerfed in the water, it happens but too often that
the keel experiences the bad effeft of a ftrain. It is
therefore very important to inquire into the true caufe
of this accident.
For this purpofe, let us conceive the velfel to be di¬
vided into two parts by a tranfverfe feftion through
the vertical axis of the veffel, in which both the centre
Plate of gravity G (fig. 51.) of the whole veflel and that of
•cccxcv. the immerfed part are fituated: fo that one of them
HS' 51* will reprefent the head part, and the other that of the
ftern, each of which will be confidered feparately. Let
g be the centre of gravity of the entire weight of the
firfi:, and 0 that of the immerfed part correfponding.
In like manner, let y be the centre of gravity of the
whole after part, and w that of its immediate portion.
Now it is plain, that the head will be afted upon by
the two forces g m and 0 //, of which the firft will prefs
it down, and the latter pufh it up. In the fame man¬
ner, the Hern will be prefled down by the force y y.. and
pufhed by the force a v. But thefe four forces will
maintain themfelves in equilibrium, as well as the total
forces reunited in the points G and O, which are equi¬
valent to them 5 but whilft neither the forces before
nor thofe behind fall in the fame direftion, the veflel
will evidently fuftain efforts tending to bend the keel
upwards, if the two points 0 u are nearer the middle
than the two other forces g m and y y. A contrary
effeft would happen if the points 0 and u were more dis¬
tant from the middle than the points g and y.
But the firft of thefe two caufes ufually takes place
almoft in all veflels, fince they have a greater breadth
towards the middle, and become more and more narrow
towards the extremities j whilft the weight of the veffcl
is in proportion much more confiderable towards the
extremities than at the middle. From whence we fee,
that the greater this difference becomes, the more alfo
will the veffel be fubjeft to the forces which tend to
bend its keel upwards. It is therefore from thence
that we muft judge how much ftrength it isneceffary to
give to this part of the veffel, in order to avoid fuch a
confequence.
If other circumftances would permit either to load the
veflel more in the middle, or to give to the part immer¬
fed a greater capacity towards the head and ftern, fuch
an effeft would no longer be apprehended. But the
deftination of moft veffels is entirely oppofite to fuch an
arrangement: by which means we are obliged to {Length¬
en the kneel as much as may be neceffary, in order to
avoid fuch a difafter.
We fhall conclude this chapter with the following
praftical obfervations on the hogging and fagging of
{hips by Mr Hutchinfon of Liverpool :
“ When fhips with long floors happen to be laid a-
dry upon mud or fand, which makes a folid refiftance
againft the long ftraight floors amidfhips, in comparifon
with the two {harp ends, the entrance and run meet with
■ \iiual
' man-
J t, P-13
little fupport, but are prefled down lower than the flat
of the floor, and in proportion hogs the ftiip amid¬
fhips j which is too well known from experience to oc-
cafion many total Ioffes, or do fo much damage by
hogging them, as to require a vaft deal of trouble and
expence to fave and repair them, fo as to get the hog
taken out and brought to their proper fheer again : and
to do this the more effeftually, the owners have often
been induced to go to the expence of lengthening them j
and by the common method, in proportion as they add
to the burden of thefe fhips, by lengthening their too
long ftraight floors in their main bodies amidftiips, fo
much do they add to their general weaknefs to bear
hardfhips either on the ground or afloat j for the fcant-
ling of their old timber and plank is not proportionable
to bear the additional burden that is added to them.
“ But defefts of this kind are belt proved from real
and inconteftable fafts in common praftice. At the
very time I was writing upon this fubjeft, I wras called
upon for my advice by the commander of one of thofe
ftrong, long, ftraight floored Ihips, who was in much
trouble and diftraftion of mind for the damage his ftiip
had taken by the pilot laying her on a hard, gentle Hop¬
ing fand, at the outfide of our docks at Liverpool where
it is common for Ihips that will take the ground to lie
for a tide, when It proves too late to get into our wret
docks. After Recommending a proper {hip carpenter, I
went to the ftiip, which lay with only a fmall keel, yet
was greatly hogged, and the butts of her upper works
{trained greatly on the lee fide ; and the feams of her
bottom, at the lower futtock heads, vaftly opened on the
weather fide : all which {trained parts were agreed upon
not to be caulked, but filled with tallow, putty, or clay,
&c. with raw bullocks hides, or canvas, nailed with bat-
tons on her bottom, which prevented her finking ivith
the flow of the tide, without hindering the prelfure of
water from righting and doling the feams again as ftie
floated, fo as to enable them to keep her free with
pumping. This veflel, like many other inftances of
fliips of this conftruftion that I have known, was faved
and repaired at a very great expence in our dry repair¬
ing docks. And that their bottoms not only hog up¬
wards, but fag (or curve) downwards, to dangerous and
fatal degrees, according to the ftrain or preflure that
prevails upon them, will be proved from the following
fafts:
“ It has been long known from experience, that when
fhips load deep with very heavy cargoes or materials
that are flowed too low, it makes them fo very labour-
fome at fea, when the waves run high, as to roll away
their mails ; and after that misfortune caufes them to
labour and roll the more, fo as to endanger their work¬
ing and ftraining themfdves to pieces: to prevent
which, it has been long a common praftice to leave
a great part of their fore and after holds empty, and to
flow them as high as poflible in the main body at mid-
fhips, which caufes the bottoms of thefe long ftraight-
floored ftiips to fag downwards, in proportion as the
weight of the cargo flowed there exceeds the preffure of *
the water upwards, fo much as to make them danger^
oufly and fatally leaky.
“ I have known many inftances of thofe ftrong ftiips
of 500 or 600 tons burdens built with long ftraight
floors, on the eaft coaft of England, for the coal and
timber trade, come loaded with timber from the Baltic
to
295
Efforts of
the Water
to bend a
Veffel.
296
Efforts of
•tlie Water
to bend a
Veffel,
SHIP-BUILDIN G.
to Liverpool, where they commonly load deep with
rock fait, which is too heavy to fill their holds, fo that
for the above reafons they flowed it high amidihips,
and left large empty fpaces in their fore and after holds,
which caufed their long ftraight floors to fag down¬
wards, fo much as to make their hold flaunchions amid-
fhips, at the main hatchway, fettle from the beams three
or four inches, and their mainmafls fettle fo much as
to oblige them to let up the main rigging when rolling
hard at fea, to prevent the marts being rolled away } and
they were rendered fo leaky as to be obliged to return
to Liverpool to get their leaks flopped at great expence.
And in order to fave the time and expenee indifcharg-
ing them, endeavours were made to find out and flop
their leaks, by laying them afhore dry on a level fand;
but without effedl : for though their bottoms were thus
fagged down by their cargoes when afloat, yet when
they came a-dry upon the fand, fome of their bottoms
hogged upwards fo much as to raife their mainmafts and
pumps fo high as to tear their coats from their decks j
fo that they have been obliged to difcharge their car-
«roes, and give them a repair in the repairing dock, and
in fome to double their bottoms, ts enable them to carry
their cargoes with fafety, flowed in this manner. From
this caufe I have known one of thefe ftrong fhips to
founder.
“ Among the many inftances of fhips that have been
•diftreffed by carrying cargoes of lead, one failed from
hence bound to Marfeilles, which was foon obliged to
put back again in great diftrefs, having had four feet
water in the hold, by the commander’s account, owing
to the fhip’s bottom fagging down to fuch a degree as
made the hold ftaunchions fettle fix inches from the
lower deck beams amidfhips 5 yet it is common with
thefe long ftraight floored fhips, when thefe heavy car¬
goes are difeharged that make their bottoms fag down,
then to hog upwards : fo that when they are put into a
dry repairing dock, with empty holds, upon ftraight
blocks, they commonly either fplit the blocks clofe fore
and aft, or damage their keels there, by the whole
weight of the fliip lying upon them, when none lies up¬
on the blocks under the flat of their floors amidfhips,
that being hogged upwards •, which was the cafe of this
fhip’s bottom *, though fagged downwards fix inches by
her cargo, it was now found hogged fo much that her
keel did not touch the blocks amidfhips, which occafion-
ed fo much damage to the after part of the keel, as to
oblige them to repair it; which is commonly the ca^e
with thefe fhips, and therefore deferving particular
notice.” .
In order to prevent thefe defecls in llups, they
Ihould all be built with their floors or bottoms length-
wife, to form an arch with the projefting part down¬
wards, which will naturally not only contribute greatly
to prevent their taking damage by their bottoms hog¬
ging and draining upwards, either aground or afloat, as
has been mentioned, but will, among other advantages,
be a help to their failing, fleering, flaying, and waring.”
Chap. III. Of the Stability cf Ships.
When a veffel receives an impulfe or preflure in a
horizontal direftion, fo as to be inclined in a fmall
degree, the veffel will then either regain its former
pofition as the preffure is taken off, and is in this cafe
faid to be poffeffed of liability ; or it will continue in Stability 0;
its inclined Hate •, or, laftly, the inclination will increafe Ships,
until the veffel is overturned. With regard to the firft
cafe, it is evident that a fufficient degree of liability is
neceffary in order to fuflain the efforts of the wind ; but
neither of the other two cafes muft be permitted to
have place in veffels.
Let CED (fig. 52.) be the feaion of a.fhip paffing Fig.
through its centre of gravity, and perpendicular to the
flieer and floor plans j which let be in equilibrium in a
fluid ; AB being the water line, G the centre of gra¬
vity of the whole body, and g that of the immerfed
part AEB. Let the body receive now a very fmall
inclination, fo that a E b becomes the immerfed part,
and r its centre of gravity. From y draw y M perpen¬
dicular to ab, and meetings G, produced, it neceffaiy^
in M. If, then, the point M thus found is higher
than G the centre of gravity of the whole body, the
body will, in this cafe, return to its former pofition,
the preffure being taken off. If the point M coin^
cides with G, the veffel will remain in its inclined
Hate ; but if M be below G, the inclination of the
veffel will continually increafe until it is entirely over-
fet.
'{The point of interfeaion M is called the metacenter,
and is the limit of the altitude of the centre of gravity
of the whole veffel. Whence it is evident, from what
has already been faid, that the ftability of the veffel in-
creafes with the altitude of the metacenter above the
centre of gravity ; But when the metacenter coincides
with the centre of gravity, the veffel has no_ tendency
whatever to move out of the fituation into which it may
be put. Thus, if the veffel be inclined either to the right
or left fide, it will remain in that pofition until a new
force is impreffed upon it: in this cafe, therefore, the
veffel would not be able to carry fail, and is hence un¬
fit for the purpofes of navigation. If the metacenter
is below the common centre of gravity, the veffel will
inftantly overfet.
As the determination of the metacenter is of the ut-
moft importance in the conftru6lion of fhips, it is there¬
fore thought neceffary to illuftrate this fubjeft more par¬
ticularly.
Let AEB (fig. 52.) "be a feaion of a fhip perpen¬
dicular to the keel, and alfo to the plane of elevation,
and palling through the centre of gravity of the fhip,
and alfo through the centre of gravity of the immerfed
part, which let be g.
Now let the fhip be fuppofed to receive a very fmall
inclination, fo that the line of floatation is a, b, and y
the centre of gravity of the immerfed part « E From
y draw y M perpendicular to a b, and interfering GM
in M, the metacenter, as before. Hence the preffure of
the water will be in the direftion y M.
In order to determine the point M, the metacenter,
the pofition of y with refpea to the lines AB and g G,
muft be previoufly afeertained. For this purpofe, let
the fhip be fuppofed to be divided into a great number
of ferions by planes perpendicular to the keel, and pa¬
rallel to each other, and to that formerly drawn, thefe
planes being fuppofed equidiflant. Let AEB (fig. 53*) Fig. 53
be one of thefe feaions, g the_centre of gravity of the
immerfed part before inclination, and y the centre of
gravity of the immerfed part when the fhip is in its
inclined flate •, the diftance g y between the two centres
of
S H I P-B U I L D I N G,
'Bezout's
Mecba-
tique, art.
lability of of gravity in each fe&ion is to be found. Let AB be
Ships, i;ne 0f floatation of the (hip when in an upright
» ftate, and ab the water line when inclined. Then, be-
caufe the weight of the fhip remains the fame, the
quantity of water difplaced will alfo be the fame in both
cafes, and therefore AEB—a E b, each fuftaining the
fame part of the whole weight of the fhip. From each
of thefe take the part AE b, which is common to
both, and the remainders AO a, BO b will be equal $
and which, becaufe the inclination is fuppofedveryfmall,
may be confidered as reftilineal triangles, and the point
O the middle of AB.
Now, let H, I, K, be the centres of gravity of the
fpaces AO«, AE and BO £, refpe&ively. From
thefe points draw the lines H /$, I /, and K k, perpen¬
dicular to AB, and let IL be drawn perpendicular to
EO. Now to afcertain the diftance y q o{ the centre
of gravity y of the part a E from the line AB, the
momentum of « E £ with refpeft to this line muft be
put equal to the difference of the momentums of the
parts AE Z>, AO a, which are upon different fides of
AB *. Hence aE^Xyy? °r AEBxy?—AE^>
XI i—AO rt X H /i. But fince g is the common centre
of gravity of the two parts AE£, BOZ», we have there¬
fore AEBx,? 0=AE£xI 2+BOZ>xK E Hence
by expunging the term AEZ»Xl 2 from each of thefe
equations, and comparing them, we obtain AEBXy?
=AEB xg O—BO t- X K k—AO a x H /$.
Now, flnce the triangles AO a, BO b, are fuppofed
infinitely fmall, their momentums or produfls, by the
infinitely little lines H h, K k, will alfo be infinitely
fmall wTith refpeft to AEB X.? O •, which therefore be¬
ing reje&ed, the former equation becomes ABXyy
“AEBx^O? and hence yq—gO. "Whence the
centres of gravity y, being at equal diftances below
AB, the infinitely little line y g is therefore perpendicu¬
lar to EO. For the fame reafon ^y, fig. 52. may be
confidered as an arch of a circle whofe centre is M.
To determine the value of gy, the momentum of
a E£ with refpeft to EO muft be taken, for the fame
reafon as before, and put equal to the momentums of
the two parts AO a, AE b; and we {hall then have
a EZ<X£y, or AEB XJT y—AEB x IL-{-AO axO //.
But fince g is the common centre of gravity of the two
fpaces AE b, BO£, we ftiall haveAE^xIL—BO £
X0£:=0, or AE^x IL=rBO£ X OE Hence AEB
X^y=:BO bxO k-^-KO axO h=2^S>ObxOk; be-
caufe the two triangles AO a, BO are equal, and that
the diftances Ok, Oh, are alfo evidently equal.
Let a? be the thicknefs of the feftion reprefented by
ABC. Then the momentum of this feftion will be
2 BO bxxxOk, which equation will alfo ferve for
each particular feflion.
Now let f reprefent the fum of the momentums of
all the feftions. Hence f, X x Y. g V—f 2
BOZ>XtfXO£. Noav the firft member being the
fum of the momentums of each fe&ion, in proportion
to a plane paffmg through the keel, ought therefore to
be equal to the fum of all the feftions, or to the volume
of the immerfed part of the bottom multiplied by the
diftance g y. Hence V reprefenting the volume, we
{hall have VXg Y—fi 2 BO £X^ X O L
In order to determine the value of the fecond member
of this equation, it may be remarked, that -when the
fhip is inclined, the orieiual plane of floatation CBPQ
Vol. XIX. Part I.
297
(fig. 54.) becomes C Now the triangles NI n, Stability of
BO b, being the fame as thofe in figures 52. and 53. j, S^]PS- t
and as each of thefe triangles has one angle equal, they j-g
may, upon account of their infinite fmallnefs, be confi¬
dered as fimilar j and hence BO b : NI n : : OB,*
: IN!*; whence BOxNI//. Moreover, we
1N|*
have (fig. 53.) O i'rrfOB, for the points K and k
may be confidered as equidiftant from the point O :
JO£|
whence BO £ X O ^
IN :
X NI n.
rOBjJ
Hence V X ,§■ v—f 4   X ^ X NI «. From this e-
IN|*
quation the value of ^ y is obtained.
To find the altitude g M (fig. 53.) of the meta-Fig. 55.
center above the centre of gravity of the immerfed part
of the bottom, let the arc NS be deferibed from the
INxNS
centre I Avith the radius IN; thenNI«—-
Now
fince the tAVro ftraight lines y M, g M are perpendicular
to a n and AN refpe£tr-ely, the angles M and NI «
are therefore equal; and the infinitely little portion gy,
which is perpendicular to g M, may be confidered as an
arch deferibed from the centre M. Hence the two fee-
tors NIS, <§-My are fimilar; and therefore ^ M : ^y : :
INx^y. and confeqUentl)r
IN : NS. Hence NS
NI n —
IN|* Xgy
2^ M
former equation, and reduced,
|OB|3xvX^y
g M
g M
Noav this being fubftituted in the
Ave have V Xg V—f
But fince g M and g y are the
Hence g Mz=l^ ^
Let
fame, Avhatever fe&ion may be under confideration, the
equation may therefore be expreffed thus, V xg y=
'■b r 3 -»
y—OB, and the equation becomes g M — -y —
Whence to have the altitude of the metacenter above
the centre of gravity of the immerfed part of the bot¬
tom, the length of the fetftion at the water-line muft be
divided by lines perpendicular to the middle line of this
fe&ion into a great number of equal parts, fo that the
portion of the curve contained between any tAvo adja¬
cent perpendiculars may be confidered as a ftraight line.
I hen the fum of the cubes of the half perpendiculars or
ordinates is to be multiplied by the diftance between
the perpendiculars, and tAvo-thirds of the produft is to
be divided by the volume of the immerfed part of the
bottom of the ftiip.
It is hence evident, that while the feftor at the Ava-
ter line is the fame, and the Volume of the immerfed part
of the bottom remains alfo the fame, the altitude of the
metacenter Avill remain the fame, Avhatever may be the
figure of the bottom.
Chap. IV. 0/~ the Centre of Gravity of the immer-
fed Part of the Bottom of a Ship.
The centre of gravity* of a fhip, fuppofed homo-#See ^
geneous, and in an upright pofition in the Avater, is in a chunks,
P p vertical
Fig. s6-
66
Diftance
the
centre of
gravity
from the
item or
item.
gS S H I P-B U
Centre of vertical feftion pafiing through the keel, and dividing
Gravity. jx^p jn^0 ^vvo equal and Ihnilar parts, at a certain di-
v fiance from the ftern, and altitude above the heel.
In order to determine the centre of gravity of the
immerfed part of <1 (hip’s bottom, we muft begin with
determining the centre of gravity of afe£tion of the (hip
parallel to the keel, as ANI3FPB (fig. bounded
by the parallel lines AB, DK, and by the equal and
fimilar curves AND, BPF.
If the equation of this curve were known, its centre
of gravity would be eafily found : but as this is not the
cafe, let therefore the line CE be drawn through the
middle C, E, of the lines AB, DF, and let this line
CE be divided into fo great a number of equal parts
by the perpendiculars IH, KM, bcc. that the arches of
tlie curves contained between the extremities of any two
adjacent perpendiculars may be confidered as ftraight
lines. The momentums of the trapeziums DTH!,
TKMH, &c. relative to the point E, are then to be
found, and the fum of thefe momentums is to be divided
by the fum of the trapeziums, that is, by the furface
ANDFPB.
The dillance of the centre of gravity of the trape-
. _ 4IEx(DF+2TH)
* Seat's ziam THFD from the Point E 13 - DF+TPI*:
Mt-rba- -por the pame rea{-on? an(l becaufe of the equality of the
lines IE, IL, the diftance of the cef.tre of gravity of
the trapezium TKMH from the fame point E will be
4IEx (TH + 2KM) , T17 4IEx(4™+5KM)
 ■fHTKMT+ ’ TH + KM.
In like manner, the diflance of the centre of gravity of
the trapezium NKMP from the point ■ E will be
4IEx(KM + 2NP) , 4IEx(7KM + 8NP)
1 km+'sf"+2 ^or ot+np
&c.
Now, if each diflance be multiplied by the furface of
the eorrefponding trapezium, that is, by the produft of
half the fura of the two oppofite fides of the trapezium
into the common altitude IE, we (hall have the momen-
tumsof thefe trapeziums, namely, 4 X (DF-)-2l H),
ilFp X (4 TH+ 5 KM) 4 ^ X (7 KM -f 8 NP),
&c. Hence the ’fum of thefe momentums will be ^
nr=x (DF+6TH+ 12KM + 18NP + 24QS+14
AB). Whence it may be remarked, that if the line
CE be divided into a great number of equal parts, the
factor or coefficient of" the laft term, which is here 14,
will be = 2 + 3 («—2) or 3 «—4, « being the number
of perpendiculars. Thus the general ex predion of the
fum of the momentums is reduced to IE|J X (4^F-f~
TH + 2 KM + 3 NP + 4 Q.s +> &c* 
I L D I N G.
mque, art
'■J9-
67 lEx(4DF+TH-f 2KM-f 3NP + ,&c.2-7-^xAB)
Sale for
the diftance1
of the cen¬
tre of gra¬
vity from
one of the
extreme
onVinates.
ber of ordinates minus four j then the fecond ordinate,
twice the third, three times the fourth, &c. the fum (
will be a firft term. Then to half the fum of the ex¬
treme ordinates add all the intermediate ones, and the
fum will be a fecond term. Now the firft term divided
by the fecond, and the quotient multiplied by the in¬
terval between two adjacent perpendiculars, will be the
dillance fought.
Thus, let there be feven perpendiculars, whofe va¬
lues are 18, 23, 28, 30, 30, 21, o, feet refpeftively, and
the common interval between the perpendiculars 20
feet. Now the fixth of the firft term 18 is 3 j and as
the lad term is o, therefore to 3 add 23, twice 28 or
56, thrice 30 or 90, four times 30 or 1 20, five times
21 or 105 ; and the fum is 397. Then to the half of
18-j-o, or 9, add the intermediate ordinates, and the
fentreof 1
Gravity,
307 v 20 7040
fum will be 141. Now = 59 feet
four inches nearly, the diftance of the centre of gravity
from the firft ordinate.
Now, when the centre of gravity of any feflion is
determined, it is eafy from thence to find the centre of
gravity of the folid, and confequently that of the bottom
of a (hip. g.
The next ftep is to find the height of the centre ofHpightof
gravity of the bottom above the keel. For this pur- the centre
pofe the bottom muft be imagined to be divided into of gravity
feftions by planes parallel to the keel or water-line, the
(figs. 57, 58.). Then the folidity of each portion con-F-g ’
tained between two parallel planes will be equal to half
the fum of the two oppofed furfaces multiplied by the
diftance between them *, and its centre of gravity will
be at the fame altitude as that of the trapezium abed,
(fig. 58.), which is in the vertical fe&ion paffing
through the keel. It is hence obvious, that the fame
rule as before is to be applied to find the altitude of the
centre of gravity, with this difference only, that the
word perpendicular or ordinate is to be changed into
fe£lion. Hence the rule is, to the fixth part of the
lowed feElion add the produEl of the fixth part of the
uppermoft feElion by three times the number of feElions
minus four •, the fecond feftion in afeending twice the
third, three times the fourth, &c. the fum will be a
firft term. To half the fum of upper and lower fec-
tions add the intermediate ones, the fum will be a fecond
term. Divide the firft term by the fecond, and the
quotient multiplied by the diftance between the fedlions
will give the altitude of the centre of gravity above the
keel
X AB
* The’ area of the figure ANDFPB is equal to IE
x (I.DF 4- TH -{- KM -f- NP +, &c -f 4 AB) •,
hence the diftance EG of the centre of gravity G
from one of the extreme ordinates DF is equal to
■^TjF^prrTT^pK^rifrNP^-y^
Whence the following rule to find the diftance of the
centre of gravity G from one of the extreme ordinates
DF. To the fixth of the firft ordinate add the fixth
of the laft ordinate multiplied by three times the num-
4,
With regard to the centre of gravity of a (hip, whe¬
ther it is confidered as loaded or light, the operation
becomes more difficult. The momentum of every dif¬
ferent part of the fliip and cargo muft be found fepa-
rately with refpeEl to a horizontal and alfo a vertical
plane. Now the fums of thefe two momentums being
divided by the weight of the (hip, will give the altitude
of the centre of gravity, and its diftance from the ver¬
tical plane ; and as this centre is in a vertical plane paf¬
fing through the axis of the keel, , its place is therefore
determined. In the calculation of the momentums, it
muft be obferved to multiply the weight, and not the
magnitude of each piece, by the diftance of its centre
of gravity.
A more eafy method of finding the centre of gravity
of*
S H I P- B U
rentreof of a fhip is by a mechanical operation, as follows : Con^
Gravity. fi;rUL^ a block of as light wood as poflible, exaftly fimilar
to the parts of the propofed draught or (hip, by a feale
L media- °f about one-fourth of an inch to a foot. The block is
I ical me- then to be fufpended by a filk-thread or very fine line,
I jbod for placed in different fituations until it is found to be in a
^the”" ^ate e<lu^ibrium, and the centre of gravity will be
,entre of pointed out. The block may be proved by faftening
navity of the line Avhich fufpends it to any point in the line join-
f i fhip. jng the middles of the (tern and pod, and weights are
to be fufpended from the extremities of this middle line
at the (lem and pod. If, then, the block be properly
conftmfted, a plane paffing through the line of fufpen-
fion, and the other two lines, will alfo pafs through the
keel, dem, and pod. Now, the block being fufpended
in this manner from any point in the middle line, a line
is to be drawn on the block parallel to the line of fuf-
penfion, fo that the plane paffing through thefe two lines
may be perpendicular to the vertical plane of the drip
in the direction of the keel. The line by which the
block is fufpended is then to be removed to fome other
I L D I N G. *99
convenient point in the middle line ) and another line
is to be drawn on the block parallel to the line fufpend-; ^ ^ +
ing it, as before. Then the point of inter(e£fion of this
line with the former will give the polition of the centre
of gravity on the block, which may now be laid down
in the draught.
Chap. V. Application of the preceding Rules to the
Deterrtrination of the Centre of Gravity and the
Height of the Metacenter above the Centre of Gra¬
vity of a Jhip of 74 Guns.
In fig. ifp. are laid down the feveral feftlons in a ho- S9*
rizontal diredlion, by planes parallel to the keel, and at
equal didances from each other, each didance being io
feet o inches 4 parts.
I. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the Upper
Horizontal Scdiion.
To find the didance of the centre of gravity of the
plane 8 ^ 0 G from the fird ordinate 8 g.
Ordinates.
Feet. In. Pts.
14 9 o
17 I
18 9
19 10
20 7
21
21
21
21
21
21
20 10
19 9
I? 4
I3 * 3
Double Ord.
Feet. In Pts.
29 6 O
34 3
37 6
39 8
41
42
43
43
43
43
42 8
41 9
39
34
26
id Faflors.
of
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
J3
id Prodmds.
Feet. In. Pts.
2d Faftors. 2d Produ&s.
Feet. In. Pts.
4 11.
34 3
75
119
165
211
258
303
346
389
426 8
459 3
474 °
45i 9
^ ((3x15)—4)*$ 179
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
o|
14 9
34 3
37 6
39 8
4T 3
42
43
43
43
43
42 8
41 9
39 6
34 9
*3 1
291
Now^—s
1 3
1
582
3897 3 1
554 4 3
2897 • 2 c
Xio o 4=: 0  ^x 10-03=70. c.
554. 4 _3 554-25 ^ J
Hence the didance of the centre of gravity of double the plane S g 0 G from the fird ordinate, Feet.
8 gt is - - - - - - 70.5
13-5
Didance of this ordinate from the aft fide of ftern-pod,
Didance of the centre of gravity from the aft fide of pod,
Didance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR g 8 from its ordinate AR,
Didance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the dern-pod,
Didance of the centre of gravity of this plane from the aft-fide of the dern-pod,
Didance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium G 0 y y from its ordinate G 0,
Didance of this ordinate from the aft-fide of the pod,
Didance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft-fide of the pod,
Didance of the centre of gravity of the fetdion of the dern-pod from the aft part of the pod,
Didance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the dern from the aft-fide of the pod,
P p 2
84.O
8.42
O.58
9.0
5-44
•159.22
0.29
169.76
The
3°o
Centre of
Gravity.
S H I P-B U I L D I N G.
The areas of thefe feveral planes, calculated by the common method, will be as follow :
Centre of
Gravity.
5558.90 for that of the plane, and its momentum 5558.9 X 84 = 466947.6000
199.13 for that of double the trapezium AR^ 8, and its momentum 199.13 X 9 = 1792.1700
214.59 for that of double the trapezium G 0 y y, and its momentum 214.59 X I59*22 ::::: 34I67-0236
0.77 for that of the feftion of the flern-poft, and its momentum 0.77 X 0.29 = ^
0.77 for that of the feftion of Uae Hem, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 =
0.2233
130.7152
5974.16 Sum
503°37*7321
303°37-7321. __ g4>2, the diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole fe&ion from the aft fide
5974.16
©f the ftern-poft.
II. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the Second Horizontal SeBion,
To find the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8/« G from its firft ordinate 8/1
Ordinates. Double Ord. I. Faftors. 1. Produfts. 2. Faft. 2. Produas.
Feet.
II
15
17
18
19
20
21
21
21
20
20
In. Pts.
2 3
*9
18
15
3
5
10
10
7
o
2
o
10
6
10
6
9
Feet. In. Pts
22 4 6
30 6
34 10
37 8
39 9
41
42
42
42
41
41 1
39 8
37
31
1
2
3
4
5
6
9
10
11
12
13
Feet. In. Pts.
3 8 9
30 6
69 8
113 1
159 0
205 10
252 3
296 4
336 8
376 1
410 10
436 4
444 0
410 7
oi
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Feet. In. Pts,
II23
30 6
34 10
37 8
39 9
4r
42
42
42
41
41
39 8
37 o
31 7
11 29
22 5 6 ((3x15)—4) 153 S 6
oi
11
273 2 3 546 4 6
3698 5 3
523 11 6
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8fn G from its firft ordinate 8 n is-
3698
2- x 10.0.4—3X 10.03 =
523 ii 6 523*95 a
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the ftern-pott
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the above plane from the aft fide of poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR/'8 from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of ftern-poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft:
8.95
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium before the ordinate G n from that ordinate
Diftance of that ordinate from the aft fide of the poft:
5-74
I53-78
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poll
I59-52
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the ftern-poft from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fe&ion of the ftem from the aft fide of the poft
0.29
169.76
The
S H I P-B U I L D I N G.
i Centre of
Gravity.
301
Centre of
Gravity.
The areas of thefe feveral planes being calculated, will be as follow
5255.22 for that of the plane %fnG, and its momentum 5255.22 X 84,29 ::::
153.11 for that of double the trapezium AR_/8, and its momentum 153.11x8.95 =
182.40 the area of the trapezium before, and its momentum 182.40X 159*52 =
0.77 the area of the feftion of the fternpoft, and its momentum 0.77 X0.29 =
0.77 the area of the feftion of the Item, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 =:
5592.27 Sum '
442962.4938
I37°-3345
29096.4480
0.2233
130.7152
473560.2148
Now 473_5^°-2I48 _ g 6g tjie diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole fe&ion from the aft-fide of the
5952.27
ftern-poft.
III. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the Third Horizontal SeElion.
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane % e mG from its firft ordinate 8 c.
Ordinates.
Feet. In. Pts.
676
Double Ord. I ft Fa&ors.
Feet. In. Pts.
II
*5
17
18
x9
*9
20
20
19 8
19 1
18 1
16 3
*3
8
*3
23
3°
34
36
38
39
40
40
39
38
36
32 7 6
26 4 6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1 ft Produ&s.
Feet. In. Pts.
2 2 6
2d Fadl. 2d Products.
Feet. In. Pts.
676
23
60
102
146
192
237
280
320
354
382
397 ™
391 6
342 10
46 J6 9 o ((3Xi5)—4)xf = 114 5 6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
23
3°
34
36
38
39
40
40
39
38
36
S2
26
8
242 5 3 484 10 6
3347
469 10 6
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 emG from its firft ordinate 8 e is- =2
4347 o 6 3347.04
—A ^Xio o 4 — Ao./ ^ x 10.03= - - - 71.44
469 10 6 ^ 469.87 ~ ^ ' ‘t*
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft - - - - 13.5
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of this plane from the aft fide of the poft is - 84.94
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR e 8, from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
8.03
0.58
8.61
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from its ordinate G m - 5.19
Diftanee of this ordinate from the aft fide of the peft ..... 153.78
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft » 158.97
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the poft from the aft fide of the poft - 0.29
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feilion of the ftem from the aft fide of the poft » 169.76
3 The
v
302
Centre of
Gravity,
S H I P-B U I L D I N G.
The areas of thefe feveral planes will be found to be as follow :
4712.7961 for that of double the plane 8emG, and its momentum 4712.7961 X 84.94=
93.84 the area of double the trapezium AR 3<? 88, and its momentum 93.84x8.61 =
131.1 for the area of foremoft trapezium, and its momentum 131.1 X :
0.77 the area of the fefrion of the poft, and its momentum 0.77 XO-29—
0.77 the area of the fe£tion of the Item, and its momentum O.77 X 169.76=
Centre of
Gravity.
400304.9007
807.9624
20840.967
O.2233
130.7152
422084.7706
4939.2761 Sum -
tv-qw 422o84-77o6:::. gr 4r the diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole fe&ion from the aft fide of
4939.2761
the poft.
IV. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the Fourth Horizontal SeBwn.
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 J /G from its firft ordinate 8 i.
Ordinates.
Feet. In. Pts.
3 3
7 9
11 11
14 8
3
4
1
5
3
16
17
18
18
18
17 10
17 2
i c 10
13 6
9 7
Double Ord.
Feet. In. Pts.
670
15 6
23 10
29 5
32 6
34 9
36 3
36 10
36 6
5 4 9
35
34
31
27
*9
10
I. Faflors.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1a
13
I. Products,
Feet. In. Pts.
I I
15 6
2. Faff.
47 8
88 4
130 .0
173 11
217 9
257 10
292 o
322 1
340 10
348 9
324 o
250 3
ci
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2. Produfts.
Feet. In. Pts.
3 3 6
15 6
23 10
29 5
32 6
34 9
36 3
36 10
36 6
35
34
31 8
27 o
9 6 ((3X15) —4)x| 73 8 ”
J9
5
205 7 6 411 3
2883 11 o
402
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8d/G from its firft ordinate 8 d is
288Lii_oXIO 0 4=25!^xjo.o3= - - - - 7i.8j
402 6 9 40 *.50
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the plane from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR d 8 from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from its ordinate G/
Diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the poft from its aft fide -
Diftance of the centre ©f gravity of the feftion of the item from the aft fide of the po -
*3-5
85-3J
7.89
0.58
8.47
4*8 3
153-78
158.61
0.29
169.76
The
SHIP-BUILDING.
Centre of
Gravity. '
The areas of thefe feveral planes being calculated, will be as follow
4037.6768 for that of double the plane 8 r//G, and its momentum 4037.6768 X 85-35 =
51.12 the area of double the trapezium AR d 8, and its momentum 51.12 X 8.47 =
79.16 the area of the foremoft trapezium, and its momentum 79.16X 158.61 =:
0.77 the area of the fe&ion of the poft, and its momentum 0.77X0.29 =
0.77 the area of the fe&ion of the ftem, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 =
4169.4968 Sum - - -
3 ?773 c.2074
Then  >- — = 8 5.80, the diftance of the fourth horizontal feftion from the aft fide of the ftern-poIL
4169.4968 J ’ r
V. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the Fifth Horizontal SeElion.
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 e £ G from its firft ordinate 8 c.
Ordinates. Double Ord. 1. Factors.
1. Produ&s. 2. Fa£t. 2. Produ&s.
Feet. In. L.
I90
4 6
8 3
11 8
13 10
J5 3
16 o
16 5
16 3
J5 '9
14 10
12 10
9 §
6 1
Feet. In. L.
360
O
6
4
9
16
23
27 8
30 6
32 o
32 10
32 6
31 6
29 8
25 8
19
12
3 3 0
5
3
6 6
of
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Feet. In. L.
070
9 o
33 o
70 1
no 10
152 6
192 3
229 10
260 o
Feet. In. L.
°((3 X 15)—4) X
283 6
296 8
282 9
233 6
l59 3
166 6 3 333 o 7
44 5 o
2358 3 0
of
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
i-.
Of
1 9
9 o
16 6
23 4
27 8
3° 6
32 o
32 10
32 6
31 6
29 8
25 8
J9 5
12 3
3 3 0
328
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 c £ G from its firft ordinate is ——i—?
328 o 6
23 i;8.2 c
X 10 o 4 = ~^Q ^ x 10.03 = -
303
Centre of
Gravity.
344615.7149
432.9804
i2555*5676
0.2233
130.7152
357735-2074
328.04
72.10
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the plane from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR c 8 from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of poft - - -
Diftance of centre of gravity of trapezium from aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from its ordinate G h
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of poft - -
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feflion of the poft from the aft fide of poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fe£lion of the Item from the aft fide of poft
I3-5°
85.60
7.42
0.58
8.00
4.22
153-78
158.00
0.29
169.76
The
SHIP-BUILDING.
3°4
Centre of
Gravity.
Tlie areas of thefe feveral planes being calculated, will be as follow :
'2200.2412 for the area of double the plane 8 ch G, and its momentum 3290.2412 X 85*6—
31.21 the area of double the trapezium AR c 8, and its momentum 31.2,1 x8=
42.43 t^ie area ^ie f°reinoft trapezium, and its momentum 42.43 X I5^=
0.77 the area of the feftion of the poll, and its momentum O.77 XO-29—
O.77 the area of the fedlion of the item, and its momentum O.77 X 169.76—
Centre r
Gravity
281644.6467
249.68
6703.94
O.2233
130.7152
3365.4212 Sum
288729.2052_
Now
Item.
288729.2052
85.79, the diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole fe£hon from the aft fide of the
3365.4212
VI. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the Sixth Horizontal Seclion
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 & f G from its firft ordinate 8 b.
Ordinates. Double Ord.
Feet.
1
2
4
7
10
12
13
13
13
12
10
7
4
2
In.
o
5
5
3
1
1
3
9
7
8
6
1
7
10
L.
O
o
o
6
9
3
o
9
o
o
6
o
3
6
Feet. In.
2 O
4
8
14
20
24
26
27
27
25
21
14
9
5
10
10
7
3
2
6
7
2
4
1
2
2
9
L.
O
O
o
o
6
6
o
6
o
o
o
o
6
o
Fa&ors.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1. Products.
Feet. In.
O 4
4 IO
8
9
2
o
o
4
4
o
1°
10
6
9
!7
43
81
121
159
193
217
228
210
155
no
74
L.
o
o
0
0
o
6
o
6
o
o
o
o
o
o
69 31 6 X ((3X15)—4^ X§ 21 4 3
2. Fa£t.
Oa
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
c|
2 Produ6ls.
Feet. In.
I 0
IO
4
8
14
20
.24
26
27
27
25
21
14
9
5
10
7
3
2
6
7
2
4
1
2
2
9
6
L.
o
o
o
o
6
6
o
6
o
o
o
o
6
o
232
117 4 3 234 8 6 1639 9 3
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane % b v G from its firft ordinate 8 £ is
1639 9 3
X 10 o 4
1639.77
232 13 232.14
Diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of poft
X 10.03 =
70.84
13*5°
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of the plane from the aft fide of the poft is
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium AR b 8 from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from the ordinate G i
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the poft from its aft fide
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fedion of the item from the aft fide of the poft
The areas of thefe planes will be found to be as follow :
2? 28.3642 for that of double the plane 8 6 f G, and its momentum 2328.3642 + 84.34 = ^
^21.52 for the area of double the trapezium AR b 8, and its momentum 21.52 X 7*46 —
j <.04 the area of the foremoft trapezium, and its momentum 15.04 X i56-7 =
0.77 the area of the feaion of the poft, and its momentum O.77 X 0.29 = ^
0.77 the area of the fe&ion of the ftem, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 —
2366.4642 Sum
84-34
6.88
0.58
7.46
2.92
I53-78
156.70
0.29
169.76
196374.2366
160.5392
2356.7680
0.2233
130.7152
199022.4823
NoW
/
SHIP-BUILDING;
Gravity. Now — ^4-1) diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole from the aft fide of the poll.
I - *
VII. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the Seventh Horizontal SeBion.
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 a // G from its firft ordinate 8 a.
3°S
Centre of
Gravity.
Ordinates. Double Ord. I. Faftors.
I. Produ&s. 2. Fadt. 2. Produdts.
Feet. In. Lin.
O 8 O
I I
1 7
1 to
2 I
2 I
I 10
i 8
i i
9
8
8
8
8
6
6
9
3
o
9
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Feet. In. Lin.
I40
3
3
9
2
2
9
4
2
6
4
4
4
4
of
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Feet. In Lin.
0 2 8
2 3
6 6
II 4
16 10
20 10
22 9
9
10
11
12
*3
23
*7
!3
J3
14
16
*7
of
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
. Feet. In. Lin.
080
8
4 o ((3x15)—4)** 9 1 4 of
0
o
6
6
o
6
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
18
36 5 6
205 4 6
35
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double
this plane from its firft ordinate is — ^ ^ fx 10 O 4
35
.205.37
X 10.83=
35;12
The diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of
poft = -
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of
this plane from the aft fide of the poft is
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the
redlangle AR a 8 from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of
the poft - - - -
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this rect¬
angle from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fore-
moft redtangle from its ordinate 7' 7 e 7'
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of
the poft » - -
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this reCt-
angle from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fec-
tion of the poft from its aft fide
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fec-
tion of the Item from the aft fide of the
poft -
58.65
13-50
72-I5
6-45
0.58
.7-03
1.25
I53-78
I55-03
O.29
169.76
o-77.
°-77,
9 2
5I5-4747
0.2233
Now, the areas of thefe feveral plans being calculated
will be as follows.
352.2536, the area of double the plan
8 a /£ G, and its momentum
352.2536x72-15= 25415
17.1570, the area of double the reCtan-
gle AR a 8, and its mo¬
mentum 17.1570 X 7.03= 120.6137
3-3250, the area of the foremoft reCt-
angle, and its momentum
3.3250 x 155-03=
the area ot the feCtion of the
poft, and its momentum
0.77X0.29=
the area of the feCtion of the
ftem and its momentum
0.77X166.76= 130.7152
374-2756 Sum 26182.1242
26182.1242
I hen - = 69.95, the diftance of the
374.2756
centre of gravity of the whole feCtion from the aft fide
of the poft.
VIII. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the
Eighth Plane.
This plane is equal in length to the feventh horizon¬
tal plane, and its breadth is equal to that of the keel.
The diftance between the feventh and eighth planes is
three feet, but which is here taken equal to 2 feet 11§
inches.
Vol. XIX. Part I,
Diftance
306
S H I P - B U
Centre of Diftance between the aft fide of the poft and
the firft ordinate
Fourteen intervals between the fifteen ordi¬
nates, each interval being 10.03 ^ee^
Diftance of the laft ordinate from the fore foot
Hence the length of the eighth plane is
Which multiplied by the breadth
The produft is the area of this plane
The diftance of its centre of gravity from the
aft fide of the poft, being equal to half its
length, is
*3-5
140.42
2.2
i i;6.i2
i-33
208.
I L D I N G.
Hor. Planes. ill Facft.
208.00
374.27
2366.46
3365-42
4169.50
4939-27
5592.27
5974.16^(3x8)—4) X |
lit Produces, ad Faift. ad ProdinSs.
1
2
3
4
5
6
34-6?
374.27
4732.92
10096.26
16678.00
24696.35
33553-62
i99i3-87
o!
78.06
The centres of gravity of thefe eight planes being
found, the diftance of the centre of gravity of the bot¬
tom of the ftiip from the aft fide of the poft, and alfo
its altitude, may from thence be e fily determined.
From the principles already explained, the diftance of
the centre of gravity of the bottom from the aft fide of
the poft, is equal to the fum of the momentums of an
infinite number of horizontal planes, divided by the fum
of thefe planes, or, which is the fame, by the folidity
of the bottom. As, however, we have no more than
eight planes, we muft therefore conceive their momen¬
tums as the ordinates of a curve, whofe diftances may
be the fame as that of the horizontal planes. Now the
fum of thefe ordinates minus half the fum of the extreme
ordinates being multiplied by their diftance, gives the
furface of the curve ; of which any ordinate whatever
reprefents the momentufn of the horizontal plane at the
fame altitude as thefe ordinates 5 and the whole furface
will reprefent the fum of the momentums of all the hori¬
zontal planes.
104.00 ,
374-27
2366.46
3365-42
4169.co
4939-27
5592-27
2987.08
23898.27
Centre of
Gravity.
IIOO79.96
Now ^X2-95=i3-588» t1ie height of the
23090.27
centre of gravity of the bottom of the (hip above the
lower edge of the keel.
We have now found the diftance of the centre of gra¬
vity of the bottom of the (hip from the aft fide of the
poft, and its altitude above the lower edge of the keel.
Hence the ftiip being fuppofed* in an upright petition,
this centre of gravity will necefiarily be in the vertical
longitudinal feftion which divides the (hip into two equal
and fimilar parts j the pofition of this centre is therefore
determined. y0
It now remains to find the height of the metacenter Petermiiw.
above the centre of gravity ; the expreffion for this alti- bon of the
4 fylx height of
tude, as found in Chap. III. is ■ 5 which we (hail the meta-
c V center
now apply to determine the metacenter of the ftiip of above the
74 guns, whofe centre of gravity we have already found.
Ord. of, the Plane of Floatation. Cub. of Ordinates.
Hor. Planes. Fail.
5974.16 04
5592-27 I
4939.27 I
4169.50 I
3365-42 I
.2366.46 I
374-^7 1
208.00 04
Products.
2987.08
5592-2
4939.27
4169.50
336542
2366.46
374-27
i04.<ro
Momentums. Fail.
503537-73
7473560.21
422084.77
357735-21
288729.20
199022.48
21682.12
16236.48
23898.27
Oy
1
1
1
i
1
1
04
Produdls.
251518.80
473560.21
422084.77
357735-21
288729.20
199022.48
21682.12
8118.24
2022451.09
Feet. Inches.
14 9. O
J7
18
1
9
19 10
20 7
21
21
21
21
21
]Sjow ^B \T/C9 = 84.63, the diftance of the centre
23898.27
of gravity of the bottom of the ftiip from the aft fide of
the poft.
The height of the centre of gravity of the bottom
above the lower edge of the keel may be determined by
the fame principles. Thus,
To one-fixth of the lowermoft horizontal fe&ion add
the produft of one-fixth of the uppermoft fe&ion by
three times the number of fedtions minus four the fe-
cond fedtion in afeending, twice the third, three times
the fourth, &c.; and to half the fum of the extreme
planes add all the intermediate ones. Now the firft of
thefe fums, multiplied by the diftance between the planes
or fedtions, and divided by the fecond fum, gives the
altitude of the centre of gravity of the bottom of the
ftiip above the lower edge of the keel as required.
21 7
7
7
4
20 10
19 9
17 4
13 1
291
o
o
6
9
3
9
9
6
o
6
o
6
Feet and dec. of Foot.
14.7
17.1
18.7
19.8
20.6
21.2
21.5
21.7
21-7 '
21.7
21-3
20.9
I9.7
17.4
I3-1
3209.046
5000.211
6591.797
7762.392
8741.816
9595-7°3
9938-375
10289.109
10289.109
10289.109
9663-597
9129.329
77°3-734
5268.024
2248.091
291.1
Ordinate at 10.03 feet abaft the ordi¬
nate 8 £-,=4, of which the cube is
64, and 64 X i
Ordinate at 10.03 a^re ^ie or(^"
nate G 0=6, cube of which is 216
and 2i6Xi
Sum
Diftance between the ordinates
Produdt - - -
115719.442
32»
108.
115859.442
10.03
1162070.20326
Produdt
S H I P-B U I L D I N G.
3°7
entre of Produft . - - 1162070.203 26
uravity. Half the cube of the after-
moft ordinate - 32.
Half the cube of the thick-
nefs of the Item - 0.14
Sum - - 32*I4
Dillance between the ordinates 3.0
Produft - 96.42
Half the cube of the fore-
moft ordinate - 108.
Half the cube of the thick-
nefs of the Item - .14
Sum - - 108.14
Dittance between the ordinates 5.5
Product - 594-77
fx - - 1162761.39326
Zfy*x - - 2325522.78652
\fyiK - - 775174.26217
The folidity of the bottom is 2527!- tonszr 70018.67
cubic feet : hence 2—1.07 feet, the
V 70018.67
altitude of the metacenter above the centre of gravity
»f the bottom of the (hip.
APPENDIX.
‘ When a (hip is built, (he mull be fitted with mails,
yards, fails, ropes, and blocks, or, in other words, ihe
mull be rigged before (he can go to fea. To complete
this article, it may therefore be thought neceffary to
treat of the art of rigging veffels ; but we have elfe-
where (fee MAST-Rigging, Rope-Making, and Sail)
ihown how the feveral parts of a fhip’s rigging are
made ; and the art of putting them properly together,
fo as to make the ihip beft anfwer the purpofe for which
ihe is intended, depends upon a juft knowledge of the
impulfe and refiftance of fluids, and of the theory and
pra&ice of feamanfhip. See RESISTANCE of Fluids
and Seamanship). Nothing, therefore, of the fubjeft
is left to us here, except we were to ftate in few words
the progreflive method of rigging (hips -, but there is no
one undeviating mode which is purfued, as the nature of
the operation is fuch that all the parts of it may be ad¬
vancing at the fame time. We ihall therefore take our
leave of fhips and [hip-building with a few general ob-
fervations on fail-making, and refer our readers for far¬
ther information to the very elegant work on the FJe-
ments and Praflice of Rigging and Seamanfhip in two
volumes quarto.
Sails are made of canvas, of different textures, and are
extended on or between the mails, to receive the wind
that forces the veffel through the water. They are
quadrilateral or triangular, as has been elfe where de-
fcribed, and are cut out of the canvas cloth by cloth.
The width is governed by the length of the yard, gaff,
boom, or ftay j the depth by the height of the mail.
In the valuable work to which we have juft referred, Appendix-
the following dire6iions are given for cutting fails. ^ f
“ The width and depth being given, find the number
of cloths the width requires, allowing for feams, tabling
on the leeches, and flack cloth ; and, in the depth, al¬
low for tabling on the head and foot. For fails cut
fquare on the head and foot, with gores only on the
leeches, as fome topfails, &c. the cloths on the head,
between the leeches, are cut fquare to the depth ; and
the gores on the leeches are found by dividing the depth
of the iail by the number of cloths gored, which gives
the length of each gore. The gore is fet down from a
fquare with the oppofite felvage ; and the canvas being
cut diagonally, the longeft gored fide of one cloth
makes the ftiorteft fide of the next j confequently, the
firft gore being known, the reft are cut by it. In thfe
leeches of topfails cut hollow, the upper gores are long¬
er than the lower on* s *, and in fails cut with a roach
leech, the lower go/es are longer than the upper ones.
This muft be regulated by judgment, and care taken
that the whole of the gores do not exceed the depth of
the leech. Or, by drawing on paper the gored fide of
the fail, and delineating the breadth of every cloth by
a convenient fcale of equal parts of an inch to a foot,
the length of every gore may be found with precifion.
Sails, gored with a fvveep on the head or the foot, or
on both, have the depth of their gores marked on the
felvage, from the fquare of the given depth on each
cloth, and are cut as above ; the longeft felvage of one
ferving to meafure the ftiortell felvage of the next, be¬
ginning with the firft gored cloth next the middle in
fome fails, and the firft cloth next to the mail leech in
others. For thofe gores that are irregular no drift rule
can be given ; they can only be determined by the judge¬
ment of the fail-maker, or by a drawing.
“ In the royal navy, mizen topfails are cut with Elements
three quarters of a yard hollow in the foot; but, in the n,!d Prac~
merchant fervice, top and topgallant fails are cut%with *1™ °f
more or lefs hollow in the foot. Flying jibs are cut atfdSca-
with a roach curve on the ftay, and a three-inch gore majijkip,
in each cloth, fhortening from the tack to the clue.vo^-p-91.
Lower ftudding-fails are cut with fquare leeches, and
topmaft and topgallant-maft ftudding fails wuth goring
leeches.
“ The length of reef and middle bands is governed by
the width of the fail at their refpeftive places -, the leech-
linings, buntline-cloths, top-linings, maft-cloths,and cor¬
ner-pieces, are cut agreeably to the depth of the fail;
each cloth and every article fhould be properly marked
with charcoal, to prevent confufion or miftake. Sails
that have bonnets are cut out the whole depth of the
fail and bonnet included, allowing enough for the ta-
blings on the foot of the fail and head and foot of the
bonnet. The bonnet is cut off after the fail is fewed to¬
gether. If a drabler is required, it is allowed for in the
cutting out the fame as the bonnet.
When the cloth is thus properly cut, the different
pieces are to be joined together in the form of a fail j
and for doing this properly we have the following di¬
rections in the work already quoted. “ Sails have a
double flat feam, and fhould be fewed with the beft
Englifh made twine of three threads, fpun 360 fathoms
to the pound, and have from one hundred and eight to
one hundred and fixteen flitches in every yard in length.
The twine for large fails, in the royal navy, is waxed
&q2 by
SHIP-BUILDING.
3°3
Appendix, by hand, with genuine beeswax, mixed with one fixth
l~'—v part of clear turpentine j and, for fmall fails, in a mix¬
ture made with bees wax 4 lb. hogs lard 5 lb. and
clear turpentine 1 lb. In the merchant fervice, the twine
is dipped in tar (l), foftened with a proper proportion
of oil.
“ It is the erroneous practice of fome failmakers
not to few the feams any farther than where the edge
is creafed down for the tabling ) but all fails {hould
be fewed quite home to the end, and, when finilhed,
fliould be well rubbed down with a rubber. In the
merchant fervice learns are fometimes made broader at
the foot than at the head, being ftronger. Broad
feams are not allowed to be made on courfes, in the
royal navy, but goring leeches are adopted in lieu of
them. Boom-mainfails and the fails of Hoops generally
have the feams broader at the foot than at the head.
The feams of eourfes and topfails are ftuck or Hitched
up, in the middle of the feams, along the whole length,
with double feaming twine •, and have from 68 to 72
Hitches in a yard. In the merchant fervice it is common
to Hick the feams with two rows of Hitches, when the
fail is half worn, as they will then lad till the fail is
worn out.
“ The breadth of the feams of courfes, topfails, and
other fails, in the royal navy, to be as follow, viz. cour¬
fes and topfails, for 50 gun Hiips and upwards, one inch
and a half, and for 44 gun Hiips and under, one inch
and a quarter, at head and foot; all other fails, one inch
at head and foot.
“ The tablings of all fails are to be of a proportion¬
able breadth to the fize of the fail, and fewed at the
edge, with 68 to 72 Hitches in a yard. JLhofe for the
heads of main and fore courfes to be four to fix inches
wide for fprit courfes and mizens, drivers, and other
boom fails, 3 to 4 inches wide ; for topfails, 3 inches to
4 inches and a half; topgallant and fprit topfails, 3
inches •, royal fails, 2 inches and a half} jib and other
Hayfails, 3 inches to 4 inches and a half, on the flay or
hoifl j and for fludding fails, 3 inches 104 inches on the
head. Tablings on the foot and leeches of main and
fore courfes to be 3 inches to 3 inches broad j fprit
eourfe and topfails, 3 inches } topgallant and fprit top-
fails, 2 inches and a half; royals, 2 inches ; fore leeches
of mizen, driver, and other boomfails, 3 inches and a half
to 4 inches } after leech, 3 inches; and on the foot 2 or
3 inches. Tablings on the after leech of jibs and other
Hayfails to be from 2 to 3 inches broad ; and, on the
foot, 2 to 2 inches and a half: on fludding lail leeches
one inch and a half to two inches and a half; and on the
foot, from one to two inches.
« Main and fore courfes are lined on the leeches,
from clue to earing, with one cloth feamed on and fluck
or Hitched in the middle, and have a middle band half
way betweeq the lower reef band and the foot, alfo four
buntline cloths, at equal diflances between the leeches,
the upper ends of which are carried under the middle
band, that the lower fide of the band may be tabled up¬
on or fewed over the end of the buntline pieces. They
have like wife two reef bands; each in breadth one third
of the breadth of the canvas; the upper one is one fixlh Appendix,
of the depth of the fail from the head, and the lower v —1
band is at the fame diflance from the upper one ; the
ends go four inches under the leech linings, which are
feamed over the reef bands. All linings are feamed on,
and are fluck with 68 to 72 flitches in a yard.
“ Main, fore, and mizen topfails have leech linings,
mafl and top-linings, buntline cloths, middle bands, and
reef bands. The leech linings are made of one breadth
of cloth, fo cut and fewed as to be half a cloth broad
at the head, and a cloth and a half broad at the foot;
the piece cut out being half the breadth of the cloth at
one end, and tapering to a point at the other. I he
middle bands are put on half way between the lower
reef and foot, the buntline cloths join the top-linings,
and the buntline cloths and top-linings are carried up to
the lower fide of the middle band, which is tabled on
them. The maft lining is of two cloths, and extends
from the foot of the fail to the lower reef, to receive the
beat or chafe of the maft. I he middle band is made of
one breadth of canvas, of the fame number as the. top¬
lining. It is firft folded and rubbed down, to make a
creafe at one third of the breadth ; then tabled on the
fidvage, and ftuck along the creafe ; then turned down,
and tabled and ftuck through both the double and Angle
parts, with 68 to 72 flitches in a yard. It is the opi¬
nion of many, that middle bands ftiould not be put on
until the fail is half worn.
“ Main and fore topfails have three and fometimes
four reef bands from leech to leech, over the leech li¬
nings ; the upper one is one eighth of the depth of the
fail from the head, and they are the fame diftance afun-
der in the royal navy, but more in the merchant fervice.
The reef bands are each of half a breadth of canvas put
on double ; the firft fide is ftuck twice, and the laft turn¬
ed over, fo that the reef holes may be worked upon the
double part of the band, which is alfo ftuck with 68 to
72 flitches in a yard.
“ The top-lining of topfails is of canvas, N° 6 or 7.
The other linings of this, and all the linings of other
fails, (hould be of the fame quality as the fails to which
they belong.
“ Top-linings and maft cloths are put on the art fide,
and all other linings on the fore-fide, of fails. Mizens
are lined with one breadth of cloth from the clue five
yards up the leech, and have a reef band fewed on, in
the fame manner as on other fails, at one fifth the depth
of the fail from the foot; they have alfo a nock-piece
and a peek-piece, one cut out of the other, fo that each
contains one yard. Mizen topfails of 50 gun ihips and
upwards have three reefs, the upper one is one eighth
of the depth of the fail from the head, and the reefs are
at the fame diftanee afunder. Mizen topfails of {hips
of 44 guns and under have two reefs one feventh part
of the depth of the fail afunder, the upper one being at
the fame diftance from the head. Main and main top
ftudding fails have each one reef, at one eighth of
the depth of the fail from the head. Reef bands
{hould not be put on until the fail is fewed up, a
contrary pra&ice being very erroneous. Lower ftay-
(l) The dipping of the twine in tar, we are perfuaded, is a very bad praaice, for the reafon afligned in RoPi
Making. See that article, N° 32.
SHIP BUILDING. PLATE CCCCLXXXZV
PIKUKS of Hie ITULU.
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SHIPBUILDING.
PLATE rrCCLXXXJJ.
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SHIP BUILDING
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SHIP BUILDING
PLATE CCCCXCIl
Feet.
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ppemlix. falls, fore top and main top ftayfails, and flying jibs,
■-nr"—' have clue-pieces two yards long. Square tack ftayiails,
have half a breadth of cloth at the fore part, with a
clue-piece containing two yards, and a peek-piece, con¬
taining one yard.
“ Sails have two holes in each cloth, at the heads
and reefs of courfes, topfails, and other fquare fails ;
one hole in every yard in the flay of flying jibs, and
one in every three quarters of a yard in the flays of
fquare tack and other llayfails. Thefe are made by an
inflrument called a pegging <nv/, or a ftabber, and are
fenced round by Hitching the edge to a fmall grommet,
made with log or other line j when finifhed, they
fliould be well ilretched or rounded up by a pricker or
a marline fpike. Reef and head holes of large fails have
grommets of twelve-thread line, worked round with 18
to 21 flitches ; fmaller fails have grommets of nine-
thread line, with 16 to 18 flitches, or as many as fhall
cover the line, and fmaller holes in proportion. The
holes for marling the clues of fails and the top brims of
topfails have grommets of log-line, and fhould have
from 9 to 11 flitches •, twelve holes are worked in each
cloth. Main courfes have marling holes from the clue
to the lower bow line cringle up the leech, and from
the clue to the firfl buntline cringle on the foot. Fore
courfes have marling holes one-eighth of the depth of
the fail up the leech, and from the clue to the firfl
buntline cringle at the foot. Main and fore topfails
have marling holes three feet each way from the clue
and at the top-brims. Spritfails, mizen topfails, lower
flayfails, main and fore top flayfails, and jibs, have
marling holes two feet each way from the clues. All
other fails are fewed home to the clues. Marling holes
of courfes are at three-fourths of the depth of the tab-
lings at the clues from the rope, and thofe of topfails
are at half the depth of the tablings at the clues and top
brim from the rope.”
The rope, which is fewed on the edges of fails to
prevent their rending, and which is called bolt-ropey
fhould be well made of fine yarn, fpun from the bell
Riga rhine hemp well topt, and fewed on with good
Englifli made twine of three threads, fpun 200 fathom
to the pound 3 the twine in the royal navy is dipped in
I L D I N G. 309
a compolition made with bees-wax 4 lbs. hogs lard Appendix-
j lbs. and clear turpentine one pound 3 and in the mer-
chant fervice, in tar foftened with oil. They fhould be
lloved in a Hove by the heat of a flue, and not in a ba¬
ker’s oven or a Hove tub 3 and tarred in the bell Stock¬
holm tar. The flexibility of them Ihould be always con-
fidered, in taking in the flack, which mult reft bn the
judgment of the failmaker.
“ Bolt ropes of courfes, topfails, and all other fails,
Ihould be neatly fewed on through every buntline of the
rope 3 and, to avoid ftretching, the rope mull be kept
tightly twilled while fewing on, and care taken that
neither too much nor too little flack is taken in 3 they
are to be crofs Hitched at the leeches every twelve inches
in length 3 at every feam, and in the middle of every
cloth at the foot,-with three crofs-ftitches : four ciofs-
Hitches Ihould be taken at all beginnings and fallen in os
off 3 the firH Hitch given twice, and the lail three times.
Small fails have two crofs flitches at every feam, and three
at every faflening off.
“ On main and fore courfes two inches flack cloth
Ihould be allowed in the head and foot, and one inch and
a half in the leeches, in every yard in length. Topfails
are allowed 3 inches flack in every cloth in the foot,
one inch and a half in every yard in the leech, and two
inches in every cloth left open in the top-brim. Mi¬
zen courfes have two inches flack in every yard in the
foremofl leech, but none in the after leech or foot.
Spritlail courfes have no flack cloth. Jibs have four
inches flack in every yard in the flay, one inch in every
cloth in the foot, and none in the leech. Stayfails have
three inches flack in every yard in the flay, one inch in
every cloth in the foot, but none in the leech. Topgal¬
lant fails have two inches flack in every cloth in the foot,
and one inch in every yard in the leech. Studding fails
have an inch and a half flack in every yard in goring
leeches, but no flack in fquare leeches, and one inch in
every cloth in the head and foot.”
Thefe diredlions for failmaking, we truft may be ufe-
ful. They are indeed very general, but the failmaker
will find every inftrudtion that he can want in the Ele¬
ments of Rigging and Seamanjhip, a work which we
therefore recommend to his attention.
SHI
hip. SHIPPS Form Gauge, an inflrument recommended by
Mr Hutchinfon as fit to afcertain any alteration in the
bottom of a fhip, by its hogging or fagging 3 and alfo
to regulate the flowage of a {hip.
“ All (hips (fays he) of any confequence are built
with ftaunchions fixed from the kelfon to the middle of
all the lower-deck beams fore and aft, in order to fup-
port them in their exa£t, regular height, as well as the
whole frame of the fhip in the regular form in which fhe
■was built upon the flocks 3 yet notwithftanding thefe
ftaunchions, it is proved from experience that our fhips
bottoms, hitherto, by the preffure of water, and impro¬
per ftowage, have generally been hogged upwards, or
fagged downwards, and moft about the midfhip frame
or main body of the fhip, which is commonly about the
fore part of the main hatchway 3 which naturally makes
I
S H I
it the bell place at which to fix the fhip’s form gauge, Ship,
where either the hogging or fagging of her bottom may -y—-
be obferved and feen fooneft and beft, to regulate the
ftowage of heavy materials to the greateft advantage, fo
as to keep her bottom nearly in the fame form in which
fhe was built.
“ The gauge I recommend is nothing more than a
narrow plate of iron divided into inches and quarters
like the Hide of a carpenter’s rule. Let this' be fixed
to the after fide of the ftaunchion now mentioned with
its upper end projeding two or three inches above the
ftaunchion 3 a groove being cut out for it in the after
fide of the lower-deck beam, and a mark being made
(when the fhip is on the flocks) at the part of the beam
which correfponds to the o on the gauge. When the
fhip alters in her fhape, the gauge will Aide up and
down-
SHI t 310 1
down in tills groove, and the quantity of hogging or rolled away,
lagging will be pointed out on the gauge by the mark
on the beam. The ftowage may then be fo managed
as to bring this mark to coincide again with the o, or
to approach it as near as we fee neceflary.”
SHIP-Money, was an impolition charged upon the
ports, towns, cities, boroughs, and counties of this
realm, in the reign of King Charles I. by writs, com¬
monly called Jhip-writt, under the great feal of Eng¬
land, in the years 163 5 and 1636, for the providing
and furniftiing of certain Ihipsfor the king’s fervice, &c.
which was declared to be contrary to the laws and fta-
tutes of this realm, the petition of right and liberty of
the fubjeft, by itat. 17 Car. I. c. 14. See Bluckjlone-s
Commentaries, vol. iv. p. 30.
SHIP-Shape, according to the fafhion of a Ihip, or in
the manner of an “expert failor ; as, I he malt is not
rigged Ihip-lhape ; Trim your fails Ihip-lhape.
Stowing and Trimming of SHIPS, the method of dif-
poling of the cargo in a proper and judicious manner in
the hold of a Ihip.
A (hip’s failing, fleering, flaying, and wearing, and
being lively and comparatively eafy at fea in a ftorm,
depends greatly on the cargo, ballaft, or other mate¬
rials, being properly flowed, according to their weight
and bulk, and the proportional dimenfions of the built
of the Ihip, which may be made too crank or too ftiff
to pafs on the ocean with fafety. Thefe things render
this branch of knowledge of fuch confequence, that rules
for it ought to be endeavoured after, if but to prevent,
as much as poflible, the danger of a Ihip overfetting at
- fea, or being fo labourfome as to roll away her marts,
See. by being improperly flowed, which is often the
cafe. v
When a (hip is new, it is prudent to confult the
builder, who may be fuppofed beft acquainted with a
Ihip of his own planning, and moft likely to judge what
her properties will be, to advife how the cargo or mate¬
rials, according to the nature of them, ought to be dif-
pofed of to advantage, fo as to put her in the beft fail¬
ing trim •, and at every favourable opportunity after¬
wards it will be proper to endeavour to find out her.beft
trim by experiment.
Ships muft differ in their form and proportional di-
menfions*, and to make them anfwer their different pur-
pofes, they will require different management in the
ftowage, which ought not to be left to mere chance, or
done at random, as goods or materials happen to come
to hand, which is too often the caufe that fuch impro¬
per ftowage makes Ihips unfit for fea : therefore the
ftowage fhould be confidered, planned, and contrived,
according to the built and properties of the {hip, which
if they are not known ftiould be inquired after. If (lie
is narrow and high-built in proportion, fo that (he will
not fluff herfelf without a great weight in the hold, it
is a certain fign fuch a (hip will require a great part of
heavy goods, ballaft, or materials, laid low in the hold,
to make her ftiff enough to bear fufficient fail without
being in danger of overfetting. But if a (hip be built
broad and low in proportion, fo that the is ftiff and will
fupport herfelf without any weight in the hold, fuch a
{hip will require heavy goods, ballaft, or materials, flow¬
ed higher up, to prevent her from being too ftiff and
labourfome at fea, fo as to endanger her marts being
SHI
and the hull worked
loofe and made Shm
leaky.
In order to help a {hip’s failing, that (he ftiould be
lively and eafy in her pitching and afeending motions,
it Ihould be contrived by the ftowage, that the princi¬
pal and weightieft part of the cargo or materials fhould
lie as near the main body of the (hip, and as far from
the extreme ends, fore and aft, as things will admit of.
For it ihould be confidered, that the roomy part of our
{hips lengthwife forms a fweep or curve near four times
as long as they are broad *, therefore thofe roomy parts
at and above the water’s edge, which are made by a
full harping and a broad tranfom to fupport the ihip
fteady and keep her from plunging into the fea, and
alfo by the entrance and run of the fhip having little or
no bearing body under for the preffure of the water to
fupport them, of courfe Ihould not be flowed with hea¬
vy goods or materials, but all the neceffary vacancies,
broken ftowage, or light goods, Ihould be at thefe ex¬
treme ends fore and aft; and in proportion as they are
kept lighter by the ftowage, the {hip wull be more lively
to fall and rife eafy in great feas ; and this will contri¬
bute greatly to her working and failing, and to prevent
her from {training and hogging *, for which reafon it is a
wrong practice to leave fuch a large vacancy in the main
hatchway, as is ufual, to coil and wrork the cables,
which ought to be in the fore or after hatchway, that
the principal weight may be more eafily flowed in the
main body of the fhip, above the flatteft and loweft
floorings, where the preffure of the water afts the more
to fupport it.
Improved Capfan of SHIPS.—A capftan has been
contrived by Mr Bofwell, which works without re¬
quiring the meffenger or cable coiled around it, to be
ever forged an operation v'hich is neceffary with com¬
mon capftans, and is always attended with delay, and
frequently with danger. This capftan has been appro¬
ved by fome gentlemen connected with the Britifo
navy. A model of this machine was prefented to the
Society for the Encouragement of Arts, and Mr Bof¬
well received the gold medal of the fociety for his in¬
vention *. - &Tranf.h
For the information of thofe unacquainted with ma-1^°7- ^ ^
ritime affairs, Mr Bofwell gives an account of the man- 26^’
ner in which cables are hauled on board of large {hips.
For the purpofe of {hewing the advantage of his impro¬
ved capftan, cables, he obferves, above a certain diame¬
ter are too inflexible to admit of being coiled round a
-capftan *, in {hips where cables of fuch large dimenfions
are neceffary, a fmaller cable is employed for this pur¬
pofe, which is called the meffenger, the two ends of
which are made fall together fo as to form an endlefs
rope, which, as the capftan is turned about, rolls round
it in unceafing fucceflion, parting on its courfe to the
head of the {hip, and again returning to the capftan.
To this returning part of the meffenger, the great cable
is made faft by a number of fmall ropes called nippers,
placed at regular intervals ; thefe nippers are applied,
as the cable enters the hawfe hole, and are again re¬
moved as it approaches the capftan, after which it is
lowered into the cable tier.
The meffenger, or any other rope coiled round the
capftan, muft defeend a {pace at every revolution equal
to the diameter of the rope or cable ufed 3 this circum-
ftance
2
SHI
[ ]
S H I
Ship, fence brings the coils in a few turns to the bottom of
’nr””' the capftan, when it can no longer be turned round, till
the coils are loofened and raifed up to its other extre¬
mity, after which the motion proceeds as before. This
operation of (hifting the place of the coils of the mef-
fenger on the capftan is called furgitig the tneffenger.
It always caufes confiderable delay ; and when the mef-
fenger chances to flip in changing its pofition, which
fometimes happens, no fmall danger is incurred by thofe
who are employed about the capftan.
One method of preventing the neceflity of furging,
by placing a horizontal roller beneath the meffenger
when it firft enters on the capftan, adds confiderably to
the labour in turning the capftan, and the great fri«ftion
which the meffenger muft fuffer, muft occafion a very
great wear and injury to the meffenger.
Another method to prevent furging was, that for
which Mr Plucknet obtained a patent. In this way a
number of upright lifters, placed round the capftan,
were made to rife in fucceflion as the capftan turned
round by a circular inclined plane placed beneath them •,
a method Mr Bofwell thinks fuperior to the former ;
but ftill the wear of the meffenger from the lateral
frhftion in riling againft the whelps of the capftan re¬
mains undiminiftied.
A third method propofed by Captain Hamilton, left
the lateral fritlion, and wear of the meffenger againft
the whelps of the capftan, as great as in the others, hav¬
ing alfo the inconvenience of caufing the coils to be¬
come loofe as they afcend, the upper part of the barrel
being nearly one third lefs in the diameter than the
lower part.
In Mr Bofwell’s method of preventing the neceflity
of furging, none of the lateral fridftion of the meffenger
or cable againft the whelps of the capftan, can poflibly
take place, and of courfe the wear of the meffenger oc-
calioned thereby will be entirely avoided, while it per¬
forms its purpofe with a lefs moving power than any of
them.
His method conlifts in the Ample addition of a fecond
fmaller barrel or capftan of lefs dimenAons to the large
one; beflde which it is to be placed in a Amilar manner,
and which need not in general exceed the Aze of a half
barrel calk. The coils of the meflenger are to be
paffed alternately round the large capftan and this fmall
barrel, but with their direction reverfed in the different
barrels, fo that they may crofs each other in the inter¬
vals between the barrels, in order to have the more ex-
tenAve contaft with, and better gripe on each barrel.
To keep the coils diflinft, and prevent their touching
each other in pafling from one barrel to the other, pro-
je&ing rings are faftened round each barrel at a diftance
from each other equal to about two diameters of the
meffenger, and the thicknefs of the ring.. Thofe rings
Ihould be fo Axed on the two barrels that thofe on one
barrel Ihould be exa&ly oppoAte the middle of the in¬
tervals between thofe on the other barrel*, the only cir-
cumftance which requires particular attention in the
conftruftion of this capftan. The rings Ihould proje£l
about as much as the meffenger from the barrels, which
may be formed with whelps, and in every other refpe<ft,
not before mentioned, in the ufual manner for capftan
barrels. The fmall barrel ftiould be furnifhed with fall-
ing palls as well as the large one 5 a Axed iron fpindle
afcending from the deck will be the beft for it, as it
will take up lefs room. The fpindle may be fecured ^''p-
below the deck, fo as to bear any ftrain, as the fmall 'r“
barrel need not be much above half the height of the
large barrel; the capftan bars can eaAly pafs over it in
heaving round, when it is thought At to ufe capftan bars
on the fame deck with the fmall barrel. As two turns
of the meffenger round both barrels will be at leaft equi¬
valent to three turns round the common capftan, it
will fcarcely ever be neceffary to ufe more than four
turns round the two barrels.
That which prevents the lateral fri&ion of the mef¬
fenger in Mr Bofwell’s double capftan is, that in it each
coil is kept diftinft from the reft, and muft pafs on to
the fecond barrel before it can gain the next elevation
on the Arft, by which no one coil can have any influence
in raiflng or deprefling another 5 and what each fepa-
rate coil defcends in a Angle revolution it regains as
much as is neceffary in its paffage between the barrels
when in the air, and free from all contaft with any part
of the apparatus, it attains a higher elevation without a
poflibility of friftion or wear.
It is equally applicable in large and in fmaller veffels,
in the former of which meffengers are neceffary, from
the Aze of the cables j but in the latter alfo, where
cables can be managed with thefameeafeas meffengers.
The fame principle may be alfo eaAly applied to wind-
laffes, by having a fmall horizontal barrel placed parallel
to the body of the windlafs, and having both fltted with
rings in the fame way as is propofed for the capftan.
The place for the fmall horizontal barrel is forward, juft
before the windlafs, and it Ihould alfo be furnilhed with
catch polls.
BeAdes the advantages now ftated, the improved cap¬
ftan is Ample in its conftru&ion, can be Atted up at fmall
expenee, is eaAly repaired, and requires but little room.
A reprefents the common capftan ; B, another of
fmaller dimenAons $ C, the coils of the meffenger pafling
alternately round the large and fmall capftans, but with
the direftion reverfed on the different barrels, fo that
they may crofs each other in the interval between them ;
DDDD, are projefting rings round each barrel, fo Axed
on the two barrels, that thofe on one barrel fhould be
exattly oppoAte the middle of the intervals between
thofe on the other barrel.
Machine for meafuring a SHIP'S Way.—We have
already defcribed a variety of machines or inftruments
which have been propofed for this purpofe under the
article Log. In this place, therefore, we ftiall conflne
ourfelves to the machine invented by Francis Hopkin-Traw/kr-
fon, Efq. Judge of the Admiralty in Pennfylvania. tions of the
After having ftiown the fallacies to which the common
log, and alfo that particular kind of inftrument invent-
ed by M. Saumarez, are liable, he proceeds to defcribe vol. u. p.
his own machine as follows : 160.
This machine, in its moft Ample form, is reprefonted I!la,:o-
by flg. 5. wherein AB is a ftrong rod of iron moveableC CC xxxm’
on the fulcrum C. D is a thin circular palate of brafs
rivetted to the lower extremity of the rod. E a hori¬
zontal arm connected at one end with the top of the
rod AB by a moveable joint F, and at the other end
with the bottom of the index H, by a like moveable
joint G. H is the index turning on its centre I, and
travelling over the graduated arch K ; and L is a
ftrong fpring, bearing againft the rod AB, and con-
ftantly countera&ing the preffure upon the palate D.
The
Plate
ccccxeiv.
%• 5*
Fig- 5*
Fig. 6.
Fig 7-
SHI [ 312 ] SHI
The rod AB fhould be applied clofe to the cut-wattr
or item, and fhould be of fueh a length that the palate
13 may be no higher above the keel than is neceilary to
fecure it from injury when the veffel is aground, or fails
in ihoal water. As the bow of the fhip curves inward
towards the keel M, the palate D will be thrown to a
diitance from the bottom of the veffel, although the
perpendicular rod to which it is annexed lies clofe to
the bow above ; and therefore the palate will be more
fairly acted upon. The arm E iliould enter the bow
fomewhere near the hawfe hole, and lead to any con¬
venient place in the forecaftle, where a fmooth board or
plate may be fixed, having the index H, and graduated
arch K, upon it.
It is evident from the figure, that as the ihip is
Urged forward by the wind, the palate D will be pref-
fed upon by the refilling medium, with a greater or lefs
force, according to the progreflive motion of the Ihip j
and this will operate upon the levers fo as to immediate¬
ly affedt the index, making the lead increafe or diminu¬
tion of the fhip’s way vilible on the graduated arch $
the fpring L always counteracting the preffure upon
the palate, and bringing back the index, on any relax¬
ation of the force impreffed.
This machine is advantageoufiy placed at the bow of
the lhip, where the current firft begins, and adts fairly
upon the palate, in preference to the Item, where the
tumultuous doling of the water caufes a wake, vifible
to a great diitance. The palate D is funk nearly as
Ioav as the keel, that it may not be influenced by the
heaping up of the water and the dafliing of the waves
at and near the water line. The arch K is to afcertain
how many knots or miles Hie would run in one hour at
her then rate of failing. But the graduations on this
arch mult be unequal j becaufe the refiltance of the
fpring L will increafe as it becomes more bent, fo that
the index will travel over a greater fpace from one to
five miles than from five to twelve. Laltly, The palate,
rod, fpring, and all the metallic parts of the inllrument,
fliould be covered with a Itrong varnilh, to prevent rult
from the corrofive quality of the fait water and fea-air.
This machine may be confiderably improved as fol¬
lows : Let the rod or fpear AB (fig. 5.) be a round
rod of iron or Heel, and inftead of moving on the ful¬
crum or joint, as at C, let it pafs through and turn
freely in a focket, to which focket the moveable joint
muff be annexed, as reprefented in fig. 6. The rod
muft have a Ihoulder to bear on the upper edge of the
focket, to prevent its flipping quite down. The rod
mult alfo pafs through a like focket at F, fig. 5. The
joint of the lower focket muft be fixed to the boAV of
the Ihip, and the upper joint or focket muft be connect¬
ed with the horizontal arm E. On the top of the up
permoft focket let there be a fmall circular plate, bear¬
ing the 32 points of the mariner’s com pafs $ and let
the top of the rod AB come through the centre of this
plate, fo as to carry a fmall index upon it, as is repre¬
fented in fig. 7. This fmall index muft be fixed to the
top of the rod on a fquare, fo that by turning the in¬
dex round the plate, the rod may alfo turn in the foc-
kets, and of couTe carry the palate D round Avith it;
the little index always pointing in a direction with the
face of the palate. The fmall compafs plate fliould not
be fattened to the top of the focket, but only fitted
tightly on, that it may be moveable at pleafure. Sup-
pole then the intended port to bear S. W. from the Ship,
place of departure, the palate muft be turned on the foe -
ket till the fouth-weft point therein looks direCtly to
the lliip’s bow ; fo that the fouth-weft and north-eaft
line on the compafs plate may be precifely parallel Avith
the fliip’s keel, and in this pofition the plate muft
remain during the whole voyage. Suppofe, then, the
Ihip to be failing in the direCt courfe of her intended
voyage, wdth her bowfprit pointing fouth-weft. Let the
little index be brought to the fouth-Aveft point 'on the
compafs plate, and the palate D will neceffarily prefent
its broad face toAvard the port of deftination ; and this it
muft ahvays be made to do, be the Ihip’s courfe Avliat it
may. If, on account of unfavourable winds, the Ihip is
obliged to deviate from her intended courfe, the little
index muft be moved fo many points from the fouth-
Aveft line of the compafs plate as the compafs in the
binnacle lhall Ihow that Ihe deviates from her true courfe $
fo that in whatever direction the Ihip lhall fail, the pa¬
late D will ahvays look full to the fouth-weft point of
the horizon, or toAvards the port of deftination, and
confequently Avill prefent only an oblique furface to the
refilling medium, more or lefs oblique as the Ihip devi¬
ates more or lefs from the true courfe of her voyage. As,
therefore, the refiftance of the water will operate lefs
upon the palate in an oblique than in a direCt pofition,
in exaCt proportion to its obliquity, the index H
will not ihoAV hoAV many knots the veffel runs in her
then courfe, but Avill indicate how many Ihe gains in
the direCt line of her intended voyage.—Thus, in
fig. 9. if the Ihip’s courfe lies in the direction of the Fig. p,
line AB, but Ihe can fail by the wind no nearer than
AC j fuppofe, then, her progreftive motion fuch as to
perform AC equal to five knots or miles in an hour,
yet the index H will only point to four knots on the
graduated arch, becaufe Ihe gains no more than at that
rate on the true line of her voyage, viz. from A to B.
Thus Avill the difference betAveen her real motion and
that pointed out by the index be ahvays in proportion
to her deviation from her intended port, until ihe fails
in a line at right angles thereAvith, as AD } in Avhich
cafe the palate Avould prefent only a thin lharp edge to
the refilling medium, the preffure of which ihould not
be fufficient to overcome the friCtion of the machine
and the bearing of the fpring L. So that at Avhatever
rate the Ihip may fail on that line, yet the index will
not be affeCted, Ihowing that Ihe gains nothing on her
true courfe. In this cafe, and alfo when the veffel is
not under way, the aCtion of the fpring L Ihould caufe
the index to point at O, as reprefented by the dotted
lines in fig. and 8.
As the truth of this inftrument muft depend on the
equal preffure of the refilling medium upon the palate
D, accord?, ig to the Ihip’s velocity, and the propor¬
tionable aCtion of the fpring L, there Ihould be a pin
or fcreAV at the joints C and F, fo that the rod may be
readily unihipped and taken in, in order to clean the
palate from any foulnefs it may contraCl, which Avould
greatly increafe its operation on the index H, and there¬
by render the graduated arch falfe and uncertain.
Further, the fpring L may be expofed too much to
injury from the fait water, if fixed on the outfide of the
lliip’s bow. To remedy this, it may be brought under
cover, by conftruCting the machine as reprefented by
fig. 8. w here AB is the rod, C the fulcrum or centre ?-
• of
SHI [ ' 3
of its motion, D the palate, E the horizontal arm
' leading through a fmall hole into the forecaftle j M is
a ftrong chain fattened at one end to the arm E, and at
the other to a rim or barrel on the wheel G, which by
means of its teeth gives motion to the femicircle I and
index H. The fpring L is fpiral, and enclofed in a box
or barrel, like the main-fpring of a watch. A fmall
chain is fixed to, and paffing round the barrel, is faften-
ed by the other end to the fuzee W. This fuzee is
connected by its teeth with the wheel G, and counter-
a£ts the motion of the palate D. N, N, are the two
fockets through which the rod AB pafles, and in which
it is turned round by means of the little index R. S
is the fmall compafs plate, moveable on the top of the
upper focket N. The plate S hath an upright rim
round its edge, cut into teeth or notches, fo that when
the index R is a little raifed up, in order to bring it
round to any intended point, it may fall into one of
thefe notches, and be detained there •, otherwife the
preffure of the water will force the palate D from its
oblique pofition, and turn the rod and index round to
the diredtion in which the ftiip fiiall be then failing.-—
Should it be apprehended that the palate D, being
placed fo far forward, may affedf the (hip’s fteerage, or
obftrudt her rate of failing, it fliould be confidered that
a very fmall plate will be fufficient to work the machine,
as one of three or four inches in diameter wmuld pro¬
bably be fufficient, and yet not large enough to have
any fenfible effcdf on the helm or fhip’s w’ay.
The greateff difficulty, perhaps, will be in gradua¬
ting the arch K, (if the machine is conftru&ed as in
fig. 5.) ; the unequal divifions of which can only be af-
certained by adtual experiment on board of each {hip
refpedtively, inafmuch as the accuracy of thefe gradu¬
ations will depend on three circumftances, viz. the pofi¬
tion of the fulcrum C with refpedt to the length of the
rod, the fize of the palate D, and the ftrength or
bearing of the fpring L. When thefe graduations,
however, are once afeertained for the machine on board
of any one veffel, they will not want any future alte¬
rations, provided the palate D be kept clean, and the
fpring L retains its elafticity.
But the unequal divifions of the graduated arch will
be unneceffary, if the machine is conftrudted as in fig. 8. j
for as the chain goes round the barrel L, and then
winds through the fpiral channel of the fuzee W, the
force of the main fpring muft operate equally, or nearly
fo, in all pofitions of the index, and confequently the
divifions of the arch K may in fuch cafe be equal.
After all, it is not expe&ed that a {hip’s longitude
can be determined to a mathematical certainty by this
inftrument. The irregular motions and impulfes to
which a (hip is continually expofed, make fuch an ac¬
curacy unattainable perhaps by any machinery : But if
it fliould be found, as we flatter ourfelves it will on fair
experiment, that it anfwers the purpofe much better
than the common log, it may be confidered as an aequi-
fition to the art of navigation.
It fhould be obferved, that in afeertaining a (hip’s lon¬
gitude by a time-piece, this great inconvenience occurs,
that a fmall and trifling miftake in the time makes a
very great and dangerous error in the diftance run :
Whereas the errors of this machine will operate no far¬
ther than their real amount; which can never be great
VOL. XIX. Part I,
13 ] SHI
or dangerous, if corre6Ied by the ufual obiervations
made by mariners for corredting the common log.
A like machine, made in its fimple form (as at fig. 5),
fo conltrudted as to (hip and unfhip, might oceafionally
be applied alongfide about midfliips, in order to afeer-
tain the leeway j which, if rightly (hown, will give the
(hip’s precife longitude. As to fea currents, this and
all other machines hitherto invented muft be fubjecl to
their influence ; and proper allowances muft be made
according to the (kill and knowledge of the navigator.
Laftly, fome diferetion will be neceflary in taking ob-
fervations from the machine to be entered on the log¬
book : that is, the moft favourable and equitable mo¬
ment (hould be chofen for the obfervation ; not whilft
the (hip is rapidly defeending the declivity of a wave,
or is fuddenly checked by a ftroke of the fea, or is in
the very adt of plunging. In all cafes, periods may be
found in which a (hip proceeds with a true average
velocity ; to difeover which, a little experience and at¬
tention will lead the (kilful mariner.
It has been obferved of the machine now deferibed,
that an ingenious mechanic would probably conftrudt it
to better advantage in many refpedts. The author only
meant to fugged the principle ; experiment alone can
point out the beft method of applying it. He is fen¬
fible of at lead one deficiency, viz. that the little index
R, fig. 4. will not be ftrong enough to retain the palate
D in an oblique pofition when the (hip is failing by the
wind ; more efpecially as the compafs plate S, in whofe
notched rim the index R is to fall, is not fixed to, but
only fitted tight on the focket N. Many means, how¬
ever, might be contrived to remedy this inconvenience.
SHIP-Wreck A French author has lafely proposed
fome methods of faving the lives of perfons fhipwrecked
near the coaft. He obferves, that the moft propei:
means for faving the crews of (hipwrecked veffels is,
to eftablifti a rope of communication from them to the
(hore. To a bomb or cannon ball iliould be fattened
the end of a rope, extended afterwards in a zig-zag di¬
rection before the mortar or cannon, or fufpended on a
piece of wood raifed feveral feet. But as it was necef-
fary to know if the cord would not break by the force
of the explofion and the velocity of the motion, the au¬
thor thought it proper to confult profeiTional men. He
accordingly wrote to fome officers of tlie artillery in gar-
rifon at La Fere in France, and they almoft all replied
that the rope would infallibly break.
Not deeming this anfwer fatisfaftory, he happily con¬
ceived the idea of making the experiment on a fmall
feale. He caufed a piece of the barrel of a mulket to
be filed into the form of a (mall mortar of 18 lines in
length internally ; and having tied a packthread to a
common Ball of lead, he made an experiment which
perfectly fucceeded, as did many others which he after¬
wards repeated, even with the ftrongeft charges of
powder. This fuccefs he communicated to the officers of
artillery, who replied, that there was a great difference
between a quarter of an ounce of powder and four or
five pounds employed for a bomb ; and were ftill of opi¬
nion that the rope would break.
Having already made experiments, he was ftill dif-
pofed to doubt the truth of this affertion, and therefore
tried a four-inch mortar with a ball of the fame calibre,
and 18 ounces of powder with a rope only three or
H r four
Ship
II
Shire.
* Phil. Mag,
vol. iv.
p. 247.
S H I
four lines in diameter, and his fuccefs ivas equally flat¬
tering as before. Thefe experiments were repeated by
order of government at La Fere, four times with an
eight inch mortar, and three times with one of twelve
inches, all of which happily fucceeded. I he fame
author goes on to obferve ;
‘i It ought to be remembered, that a veffel is never
call away, or penlhes on the coaft, but becaufe it is
driven thither againll the will of the captain, and by
the violence of the waves and the wind, which almoft
always blows from the fea towards the fhore, without
which there would be no danger to be apprehended :
confequently in thefe circumfiances, the wind comes al-
wavs from the fea, either direftly or obliquely, and
blows towards :he Ihore.
“ ill, A common paper kite, therefore, launched
from the veflel and driven by the wind to the fliore,
would be fufficient to favc a crew of 1500 feamen, if
fuch were the number of a {hip of war, I his kite
would convey to the fhore a flrong packthread, to the
end of which might be affixed a cord, to be drawn on
board by means of the firing of the kite j and with this
cord a rope, or as many as fhould be neceflfary, might
be conveyed to the {hip.
“ 2d, *A fmall balloon, of fix or feven feet in diame¬
ter, and raifed by rarefied air, would be alfo an excellent
means for the like purpofe. Being driven by the wind
from the vefiel to the fliore, it would carry thither a
firing capable of drawing a cord with which feveral
ropes might be afterwards conveyed to the veflel. Had
not the difeovery of Montgolfier produced any other
benefit, it would be entitled on this account to be con-
fidered as of great importance.
“ 3dly, A fky-rocket, of a large diameter, would be
of equal fervice. It would alfo carry, from the veffel
to the fhore, a firing capable of drawing a rope after it.
“ Laftly, A fourth plan for faving the crew of a fhip-
wrecked veflfel, is that of throwing from the veffel into
the fea an empty calk with a cord attached to it. The
wind and the waves would drive the cafk to the fhore,
and afford the njeans of eflablifliing that rope of com¬
munication already mentioned.”
The author juft quoted fays, that he announced his
difeovery in a French journal in January 1794. It is,
however, to be obferved, that the method he propofes of
conveying a rope to the fhore, by faftening it to a bullet
or bomb, to be afterwards fired from a cannon or mor¬
tar, was propofed fome years ago by a ferjeant or of¬
ficer o', artillery at Woolwich, and it is faid, fimilar ex¬
periments were made at Portfmouth, and fucceeded*.
SHIRAUZ. See Schiras.
SHIRE, L a Saxon word fignifying a divifion ; but
a county, cotnitalus, of the fame import, is plainly deri¬
ved from colnes, “ the count of the Franks j” that is,
the earl or alderman (as the Saxons called him) of the
fhire, to whom the government of it was entrufted. T his
lie ufually exercifed by his deputy, ftill called in Latin
vice-comes, and in Englifli the Jberif,. fhrieve, ov jhire-
reeve, fignifying the “ officer of the fhire upon whom,
in procefs of time, the civil adminiftration of it totally
devolved. In fome counties there is an intermediate di¬
vifion between the (hire and the hundred 5 as lathes in
Kent and rapes in SuflTex, each of them containing about
three or four hundred a-piece. Thefe had formerly
their lathe-reeves and rape-reeves, a&ing in fubordina-
S H O
tion to the {hire-reeve. Where a county is divided into Shir?
three of thefe intermediate jurifdidlions, they are called II
trithings, which were anciently governed by a trithing ■ S oa^
reeve. Thefe trithings ftill {ubiift in the large county
of York, where, by an eafy corruption, they are deno¬
minated ridings; the north, theeaft, and the weft ridings.
SHIRL, Shorl, or Cockle, a fpecies of mineral.
See Schorl, Mineralogy Index.
SHIRT, a loofe garment, commonly of linen, worn
next the body.—Some doubt the propriety of changing
the linen when a perfon is fick. Clean linen promotes
perfpiration j and it may be renewed as often as the pa¬
tient pleafes, whether the diforder be of the acute or the
chronical kind. Except during a crifis in fevers, whilft
the patient is in a fweat, a change of linen, if well dried
and warmed, may be daily ufed.
Shirts were not worn by the Jews, Greeks, or Romans,
but their place was fupplied by thin tnnicce of wool.
The want of linen among the ancients made frequent
wafhings and ablutions neceffary.
SHIVER, a name given by miners to fome of the
ftrata which accompany coal. See Schistus, Minera¬
logy Index.
SHIVERS, in the fea language, names given to the
little rollers, or round wheels of pulleys.
SHOAD, among miners, denotes a train of metal¬
line ftones, ferving to diredl them in the difeovery of
mines.
SUOAD-Stones, a term ufed by the miners of Cornwall
and other parts of this kingdom, to exprefs fuch loofe
maffes of ftone as are ufually found about the entrances
into mines, fometimes running in a ftraight courfe from
the load or vein of ore to the furface of the earth.
Thefe are ftones of the common kinds, appearing to
have been pieces broken from the ftrata or larger maf¬
fes ; but they ufually contain mundic, or marcafitic mat¬
ter, and more or lefs of the ore to be found in the mine.
They appear to have been at fome time rolled about in
water, their corners being broken off, and their furface
fmoothed and rounded.
The antimony mines in Cornwall are always eafily dif-
covered by the fhoad-ftones, thefe ufually lying up to
the furface, or very nearly fo $ and the matter of the
ftone being a white fpar, or debafed cryftal, in which
the native colour of the ore, which is a fhining bluiih
black, eafily difeovers itfelf in ftreaks and threads.
Shoad-ftones are of fo many kinds, and of fuch va¬
rious appearances, that it is not eafy to deferibe or know
them *, but the miners, to whom they are of the greateft
ufe in the tracing or fearching after new mines, diftin-
guifti them from other ftones by their weight; for if
very ponderous, though they look ever fo muen like
common ftones, there is great reafon to fufpedl that they
contain fome metal. Another mark of them is their be¬
ing fpongy and porous j this is a fign of eipecial ufe in
the tin countries } for the tin fhoad-ftones are often fo
porous and fpongy, that they referable large bodies
thoroughly calcined. There are many other appear¬
ances of tin fhoads, the very hardeft and firmeft ftones
often containing this metal.
When the miners, in tracing a fhoad up hill, meet
with fuch odd ftones and earths that they know not
well what to make of them, they have recourfe to van¬
ning, that is, they calcine and powder the ftone, clay,
or w hatever elfe is fuppofed to contain the metal j and
“ then
[ 3‘4 1
S H O
[ 3i5 ]
S H O
Shoad
II
Shoe.
then "vvafhing it in an inftrument, prepared for that pur-
pofe, and called a vanning Jhovel, they find the earthy
matter avafhed away, and of the remainder, the ftony or
gravelly matter lies behind, and the metalline matter at
the point of the (hovel. If the perfon who performs
this operation has any judgment, he eafily difcovers not
only what the metal is that is contained in the (hoad,
but alfo will make a very probable guefs at what quan¬
tity the mine is likely'to yield of it in proportion to the
ore.
SHOAL, in the fea language, denotes a place where
the water is (hallow ; and likewife a great quantity of
fifties, fuch as a fhoal of herrings.
SHOCK, in Eleffricitij. The effecl of the explofion
of a charged body, that is, the difcharge of its ele£tri-
city on any other body, is called the eleBric Jhock.
SHOE, a covering for the foot, ufually of leather.
Shoes, among the Jews, were made of leather, linen,
ruih, or wood; thofe of foldiers were fometimes of brafs
or iron. They were tied with thongs which pafled un¬
der the foies of the feet. To put off their (hoes was an
aft of veneration; it was alfo a fign of mourning and
humiliation : to bear one’s (hoes, or to untie the latchets
of them, was confidered as the meaneft fervice.
Among the Greeks (hoes of various kinds were ufed.
Sandals were wrorn by women of diftinftion. The La¬
cedemonians wore red (hoes. The Grecian (hoes gene¬
rally reached to the middle of the leg. The Romans
ufed two kinds of (hoes; the ca/ceus, which covered the
whole foot fomewhat like our (hoes, and was tied above
with latchets or firings; and the folea or flipper, which
covered only the foie of the foot, and was fafiened with
leathern thongs. The calceus was always worn along
with the toga when a perfon went abroad: flippers were
put on during a journey and at feafis, but it was reckon¬
ed effeminate to appear in public with them. Black
(hoes were worn by the citizens of ordinary rank, and
white ones by the women. Red (hoes were fometimes
worn by the ladies, and purple ones by the coxcombs
of the other fex. Red (hoes were put on by the chief
magiftrates of Rome on days of ceremony and triumphs.
The (hoes offenators, patricians, and their children, had
a crefcent upon them which ferved for a buckle ; thefe
were called calcei lunati. Slaves wore no (hoes; hence
they were called cretati from their dufty feet. Phocion
alfo and Cato Uticenfis went without (hoes. The toes
of the Roman (hoes were turned up in the point; hence
they were called calcei rojlrati, repandi, &c.
In the 9th and 10th centuries the greateft princes of
Europe wore wooden (hoes, or the upper part of lea¬
ther and the foie of wood. In the reign of William
Rufus, a great beau, Robert, furnamed the horned, ufed
(hoes with long (harp points, fluffed with tow, and
twifted like a ram’s horn. It is faid, the clergy, being
highly offended, declaimed againft the long-pointed
(hoes with great vehemence. The points, however,
continued to increafe till, in the reign of Richard II.
they were of (b enormous a length that they were tied
to the knees with chains, fometimes of gold, (bmetimes
of filver. The upper parts of thefe (hoes in Chaucer’s
time were cut in imitation of a church window. The
long-pointed (hoes were caUed crackowes, and continued
in faftiion for three centuries in fpite of the bulls of
popes, the decrees of councils, and the declamations of
the clergy. At length the parliament of England in-
terpofed by an aft A. D. 1463, prohibiting the ufe of
(hoes or boots with pikes exceeding two inches in length,
and prohibiting all (hoemakers from making (hoes or
boots with longer pikes under fevere penalties. But
even this was not fufficient: it was neceffary to denounce
the dreadful fentence of excommunication againft all
who wore (hoes or boots with points longer than two
inches. The prefent faftuon of (hoes w^as introduced in
1633, but the buckle was not ufed till 1670.
In Norway they ufe (hoes of a particular conftruftion,
confiiting of two pieces, and without heels; in which
the upper leather (its clofe to the foot, the foie being'
joined to it by many plaits or folds.
The {hoes or flippers of the Japanefe, as we are in¬
formed by Profeffor Thunberg, are made of rice-ftraw
w’oven, but fometimes for people of difiinftion of fine
(lips of ratan. The (hoe confifis of a foie, without up¬
per leather or hind-piece ; forwards it is croffed by a
ftrap, of the thicknefs of one’s finger, which is lined
with linen ; from the tip of the (hoe to the ftrap a cy¬
lindrical (bring is carried, which paffes between the great
and fecond toe, and keeps the (hoe fail on the foot.
As thefe (hoes have no hind-piece, they make a noife
when people walk in them like flippers. When the Ja¬
panefe travel, their (hoes are furnilhed with three firings
made of twifted draw, with which they are tied to the
legs and feet, to prevent them from falling off. Some
people carry one or more pairs of (hoes with them on
their journeys, in order to put on new, when the old
ones are rrorn out. When it rains, or the roads are.
very dirty, thele (hoes are foon wetted through, and one
continually fees a great number of worn-out (hoes lying
on the roads, efpecially near the brooks, where travel¬
lers have changed their (hoes after waftiing their feet.
Inftead of thefe, in rainy or dirty weather they wear
high wooden Hogs, which underneath are hollowed out
in the middle, and at top have a band acrofs like a ftir-
rup, and a firing for the great toe; fo that they can
walk without foiling their feet. Some of them have
their draw (hoes fattened to thefe wooden clogs. The
Japanefe never enter their houfes with their (hoes on ;
but leave them in the entry, or place them on the bench
near the door, and thus are always barefooted in their
houfes, fo as not to dirty their neat mats. During the
time that the Dutch live at Japan, when they are fome¬
times under an obligation of paying vifits at the houfes
of the Japanefe, their own rooms at the faftory being
likewife covered with mats of this kind, they wear, in¬
ftead of the ufual (hoes, red, green, or black flippers,
which, on entering the houfe, they pull off: however,
they have (lockings on, and (hoes made of cotton (luff
with buckles in them, which (hoes are made at Japan,
and can be waflied whenever they are dirty. Some
have them of black fatin, in order to avoid wafhing
them.
SHOE of an Anchor, a fmall block of wood, convex
on the back, and having a fmall hole, fufficient to con¬
tain the point of the anchor fluke, on the forefide. It
is ufed to prevent the anchor from tearing or wounding
the planks on the (hip’s bow, when afeending or de-
feending; for which purpofe the (hoe Aides up and down
along the bow between the fluke of the anchor and the
planks, as being preffed clofe to the latter by the weight
of the former.
To SHOE an Anchor, is to cover the flukes with a
R r 2 broad
Shoe.
S H O
t 316
Shoe,
Shoe¬
makers.
broad liiangular piece of plank, whofe area or fuperfiees
is much larger than that of the flukes. It is intended
to give thp anchor a ftronger and furer hold of the bot¬
tom in very foft and oozy ground.
SHOEMAKERS machine for working at in a
{landing pofture. A machine for this purpofe was
invented by Mr Thomas Parker, who, on the 22d of
November, 1804, attended a committee appointed by
the Society of Arts, and informed them that he had
made ufe of this apparatus for twelve months, and found
it very ufeful. He obferved that all the work of thoe-
making may be done with it Handing 5 but that in fome
parts thereof he found an advantage in uflng along with
it a high ftool 5 and that prior to the ufe of this ma¬
chine, he never faw or heard of a limilar invention ; and
that he found it of great fervice to his health.
He eflimated the coil of fuch a machine at two
Shoe¬
makers
guineas.
Plate Plate CCCCXCVI. fig. I. T, a bench Handing on
ecccxcvi. £our legs, about four feet from the ground.
‘ V, A circular cufhion affixed to the bench, in the
centre of which cufhion is an open fpace quite through
the bench, through which hole a leather flrap U is
brought up from below. This flrap holds the work and
lafl firm upon the cuffiion in any pofition required, by
means of the workman’s foot placed upon the treadle W.
X, Shews the lafl upon the cuffiion, with the flrap
holding it firm.
, Y, An implement ufed in doling boots.
Z, A fmall flat leather cufnion, ufeful in adjufting
the laft and ftrap.
L, The fhoe-laft ffiewn feparate from the cufhion.
The round cufhion is formed of a circular piece of wood,
covered writh leather or fluffed with wool or hair to give
it fome elafticity.
Another machine for the fame purpofe has been in¬
vented by Mr Holden of Fettleworth in Suffex, and
the following account of it was prefented to the Society
of Arts. He obferves that the fitting pofture had fo
greatly injured his health, as to render it neceffary to
give up his bufinefs, and in this difficulty he invented
the machine which he found toanfwerthe purpofe fully,
as it enabled him to refume his work with the recovery
of his health. He recommends it as the quickeft way
of clofing all the thread work, and he adds, that he has
made 1800 or 2000 pairs of fhoes with the machine,
and ftill continues to employ it. The following is a
defeription of the machine.
Fig, 2. Fig. 2. A, the bed for the clofing block, and to lay
the ffioe in, whilft fewing.
B, The clofing block.
C, A loofe bed to lay the fhoe in whilft ftitching •,
the lower part of which is here exhibited reverfed, to
fhew how it is placed in the other bed A.
D, The hollow or upper part of the loofe bed C, in
which the fhoe is laid while ftitching.
E, A table on which the tools wanted are to be laid.
F, An iron femicircle, fixed to each end of the bed
A, to allow the bed to be raifed or deprefled. This half
circle moves in the block G.
H, Another iron femicircle, with notches, which
catch upon a tooth in the centre of the block, to hold
the bed in any angle required. This femicircie moves
fide wife on two hooks in ftaples at each end of the bed.
I^The tail or ftexn of the bed A, moving in acylin-
4
] S H O
drical hole in the pillar, enabling the bed to be turned
in any required direftion, and which, with the move¬
ment F, enables the operator to place the fhoe in any
pofition neceffary.
K, the pillar, formed like the pillar of a clawtable,
excepting the two fide legs being in a diredt line, and
the other leg at a right angle with them.
L, The femicircle H, Ihewn feparately, to explain
how it is connefled with the ftaples, and how the notches
are formed.
M, The tail or ftem of the bed A, and the lower
part of the bed N, fhewn feparately, to explain how the
upper part of the bed is raifed or depreffed occafion-
ally.
Horfe-SHOE. See Farriery, N° 13i.
SHOOTING, in the military art. See Artillery,
Gunnery, and Projectiles.
Shooting, in fportmanfhip, the killing of game by sllooting
the gun, with or without the help of dogs. fportman- ]
Under this article we ihall lay down all the rulesfliip.
which are neceffary to be obferved in order to ren¬
der one accomplilhed and fuecefsful in the art of fhoot-
ing- 2
The firft thing which the fportfman ought to attend oirfdions I
to is the choice of his fowling-piece. Conveniency re-for choo-
quires that the barrel be as light as poffible, at the fame fing a fowlJ
time it ought to poffefs that degree of ftrength which111? Plece-
will make it not liable to burfl. Experience has pro¬
ved, that a thin and light barrel, which is of equal
thicknefs in every part of its circumference, is much lefs
liable to burft than one which is confiderably thicker
and heavier, but which, from being badly filed or bored,
is of unequal ftrength in different places.
It is alfo of importance to determine of what length
the barrel ought to be, in order to acquire that range
which the fportfman has occafion for. On this fubjetk
we have received the following information from an ex¬
perienced fportfman. We have, at different times, com¬
pared barrels of all the intermediate length between 28
and 40 inches, and of nearly the fame caliber, that is to
fay, from 22 to 26; and thefe trials were made both by
firing the pieces from the fhoulder, and from a firm
block, at an equal diftance, and with equal weights of
the fame powder and of the fame {hot.
To avoid every poffibility of error, the quires of paper
at which we fired were fixed againft planks inftead ot
being placed againft the wall. From thefe trials fre¬
quently repeated, we found that the {hot pierced an
equal number of ffieets, whether it was fired from a
barrel of 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, or 40, inches in length.
Nay more, we have compared two barrels of the fame
caliber, but one of them 33, and the other 66 inches
long, by repeatedly firing them in the fame manner as
the others, at different diftances from 45 to 100 paces,
and the refults have always been the fame, i. e. the barrel
of 33 inches drove its {hot through as many ffieets of
paper as that of 66 did. The conclufion from all this
is, that the difference of 10 inches in the length of the
barrel, which feems to be more than is ever inlifled up¬
on among fportfmen, produces no fenfible difference in
the range of the piece; and therefore, that every one
may pleafe himfelf in the length of his barrel, without
either detriment or advantage to the range.
It may appear as an objeftion to this, that a duck-gun
which is five or fix feet long kills at a greater diftance
than
Nava i , Signals .
4
aliber.
jck.
s H O [3
ihooting. than a fowling-piece j but this is not owing to its length,
but to its greater weight and thicknefs, which give it
fuch additional ftrengtb, that the thot may be increafed,
and the charge of powder doubled, trebled, and even
quadrupled. But a barrel of five or fix feet length
oper would be very inconvenient for fowling. Thofe who
ngth of confult the appearance of the piece, lightnefs, and the
e barrel. eafe -with which it is managed, will find that a barrel
from 32 to 38 inches will anfwer bell.
The next thing to be confidered is, of what dimen-
fions the caliber or bore of a fowling-piece ought to be.
This matter has been fubjedted to experiment, and it
has been found, that a barrel of 22 or 24, which is the
largeft caliber ufually employed in fowding-pieces, throws
its Ihot as clofely as one of the fmallelt caliber, viz. of
30 or 32 (a).
ength and As to the length and form of the flock, it maybe
nn of the laid down as a principle, that a long flock is preferable
to a firort one, and at the fame time rather more bent
than ufual 5 for a long flock fits firmer to the fhoulder
than a fhort one, and particularly fo when the fhooter
is accuflomed to place his left hand, which principally
fupports the piece, near to the entrance of the ramrod
into the flock.
It is certain, however, that the flock may be fo form¬
ed as to be better fuited to one man than another. For
a tall, long-armed man, the flock of a gun fliould be
longer than for one of a lefs flature and fhorter arm.
That a flraight flock is proper for him who has high
flioulders and a firort neck; for, if it be much bent, it
would be very difficult for him, efpecially in the quick
motion required in fhooting at a dying or running ob-
jedl, to place the butt of the gun-flock firmly to the
fhoulder, the upper part alone would in general be fix¬
ed ; which would not only raife the muzzle, and confe-
quently flroot high, but make the recoil much more fen-
fibly felt, than if the whole end of the flock were firm¬
ly placed on his fhoulder. Befides, fuppofing the fhoot¬
er to bring the butt home to his fhoulder, he would
fcarcely be able to level his piece at the objedt. On
the contrary, a man with low fhoulders, and a long
neck, requires a flock much bent; for if it is ftraight,
he will, in the a£l of lowering his head to that place of
the flock at which his cheek flrould reft in taking aim,
feel a conftraint which he never experiences, when by
the effect of the proper degree of bent, the flock lends
him fome afliftance, and, as it were, meets his aim half
way.
Having now defcribed the fowling-piece which has
been found to anfwer beft, it will next be proper to give
fome inftru£lions for the choice of gunpowder, fhot, and
wadding.
The various kinds of gunpowder are well known j
but, in the opinion of fome experienced fportfmen, Her-
vey’s battle-powder is the beft. Thofe who with to ex¬
amine the ftrength of powder, may determine it by dry¬
ing fome of it very well, and then trying how many
fheets of paper it will drive the fliot through, at the di-
ftance of 10 or 12 yards. In this trial we fliould be
6
j ft gun-
| vder.
17 ] S H O
careful to employ the fame fized fhot in each experiment, | Shooting. ^
the quantity both of the fhot and the powder being re- v
gulated by exadl weight 5 otherwife we cannot, even in
this experiment, arrive at any certainty in comparing
the ftrength of different powders, or of the fame powder
at different times. 7
Powder ought to be kept very dry, for every degree To be kept
of moifture injures it ; and if confiderable, the faltpetre ^
is diffolved, and the intimate combination of the feveral
ingredients is entirely deftroyed. It is obferved, that
after firing with damp pow'der the piece becomes very
foul, which feems to arife from the diminution of the
activity of the fire in the explofion. Flafks of copper
or tin are much better for keeping powder in than thofe
made of leather, or than fmall calks. Their necks
ought to be fmall and well flopped with cork. 8
The patent milledJhot is now very generally ufed, and
is reckoned fuperior to any other. The fize of the11
fhot mull vary according to the particular fpecies of
game which is the objeft of the fportfman’s purfuit, as
well as be adapted to the feafon. In the firft month of
partridge (hooting, N° i. is moft pfoper ; for fince at this
time the birds fpring near at hand, and we feldom fire
at more than the diflance of 40 paces, if the fhooter
takes his aim but tolerably well, it is almofl impoflible
for a bird at this diftance to efcape in the circle which
the fhot forms.
As hares fit clofer, and are thinly covered with fur at
this feafon, they may eafily be killed with this fhot at
30 or 35 paces. N° I. is equally proper for fhooting
fnipes or quails. About the beginning of October,
when the partridges are ftronger, N° 3. is the moft pro¬
per fhot to be ufed. Many fportfmen ufe no other du¬
ring the whole feafon. The dire£lions which have now
been given refer only to the patent fliot.
We fliall now fubjoin a table, which will fliew at one
view the number of pellets compofing an ounce weight
of each fort of fhot, the patent and the common, begin¬
ning with the fmalleft fize.
Patent Shot.
N° 8.
7
X
1
2
3
4
5
Ne
1 ounce
id.
(B) jd.
id.
id
id.
id.
id.
ounce
id.
id.
id.
id.
id.
id.
Common Shot.
620
480
300
220
180
157
83
350
260
233
190
140
no
95
For a fowling-piece of a common caliber, which is Proporu'on
from 24 to 30 balls to the pound weight, a dram and a°* powder
quarter,™11?101 iix
* tn<& cluirgc*
(a) In fpeaking of the fize of the caliber, we mean by 22 or 24, that fo many balls exaflly fitting it weigh
juft one pound j and every caliber is marked in the fame way.
(b) The reader will obferve that the patent fhot has no N° 6, the X being fubftituted in its place, and that
the numbers do not follow each other in the order of progreflion; The reafon of this we cannot affign.
TO
■Wadding,
S H O [31
^Shooting. ^ quarter, or at moft a dram and a half, of good powder j
^ T v and an ounce, or an ounce and a quarter of (hot, is fuf-
ficient. But when fhot of a larger fize is ufed, fuch as
N° 5. the charge of fhot may be increafed one-fourth,
for the purpofe of counterbalancing in feme degree what
the fize of the fhot lofes in the number of pellets, and
alfo to enable it to garnifh the more. For this purpofe
the fportfman will find a meafure marked with the proper
gauges very convenient to him. An inftrument of this
nature has been made by an ingenious artift of London,
Egg, of the;' Haymarket.
A confequence of overloading with fhot, is the pow¬
der has not fufficient ftrength to throw it to its propsr
diftance for if the object fired at be diftant, one-half
of the pellets compofing the charge, by their too great
quantity and weight, will ftrike againft each other, and
fall by the way 5 and thofe which reach the mark will
have fmall force, and will produce but little or no ef-
fe£t.
' The ufe of the wadding is to carry the fhot in a body
to a certain diitance from the muzzle of the piece. It
ought to be of foft and pliable materials. The belt kind
of wadding, in the opinion of an experienced fowler, is
a piece of an old hat; but this cannot be obtained in
fufficient quantity. Next to it nothing is better than
foft brown paper, which combines fupplenefs with con¬
fidence, moulds itfelf to the barrel, and never falls to
the ground within I 2 or 15 paces from the muzzle of
the piece. Tow anfwers very well, and cork has been
extolled for poffeffing the peculiar "virtue of increafing
the range and clofenefs of the fhot.
The wadding ought to be quite clofe in the barrel,
but not rammed too hard ; for if it be rammed too clofe,
or be of a rigid fubftance, the piece will recoil, and the
fhot will fpread too much. On the other hand, if the
wadding be very loofe, or is compofed of too foft mate¬
rials, fuch as wool or cotton, the difeharge will not pof-
fefs proper force.
In loading a piece, the pow’der ought to be {lightly
rammed down by only preffing the ramrod two or three
to be flight-t;mes on the wadding, and not by drawing up the ram-
down*1”^ r9(i and then returning it into the barrel with a jerk of
the arm feveral times. For when the powder is vio¬
lently compreffed, fome of the grains mufl be bruifed,
which will prevent the explofion from being quick, and
will fpread the fhot too wide. In pouring the powder
into the barrel, the meafure ought to be held fo as that
the powder may fall moft readily to the bottom. That
no grains may adhere to the fides of the barrel, the
butt-end of the piece may be ftruck againft the ground.
The fhot ought never to be rammed down with force :
it is fufficient to ftrike the butt-end of the gun againft
the ground as before. Then the wadding is to be put
down gently. A fportfman ought never to carry his
gun under his arm with the muzzle inclined downwards,
for this pradlice loofens the wadding and charge too
12 much.
Directions Immediately after the piece is Tired it ought to be re-
i f°r while the barrel is ftill warm, there is no
m ring. {jan^er any nio;fture lodging in it to hinder the pow¬
der from falling to the bottom. As it is found that the
coldnefs of the barrel, and perhaps the moifture con-
denfed in it, diminifhes the force of the powder in the
firft ftiot; it is proper to fire off a little powder before
the piece is loaded. Some prime before loading, but
5
11
Powder
and (hot
8 ] 5 H O
this is not proper unlefs the touch-hole be very large. Shooting,
After every difeharge the tcuch-hole ought to be prick-"1 » —1
ed, or a fmall feather may be inferted to clear away any
humidity or foulnefs that has been contradled.
The fportfman having loaded his piece, muft next
prepare to fire. For this purpofe he ought to place
his hand near the entrance of the ramrod, and at the
fame time grafp the barrel firmly. The muzzle ftiould
be a little elevated, for it is more ufual to ftioot low
than high. This direction ought particularly to be at¬
tended to when the object is a little diftant ; becaufe
{hot as well as ball only moves a certain diftance point
blank, when it begins to deferibe the curve of the pa¬
rabola. 13
Pradtice foon teaches the fportfman the proper di-Prance u
ftance at which he ffiould ihoot. The diftance at which
he ought itifallibly to kill any kind of game with patentt“r
ftiot, N° 3. provided the aim be well taken, is from 25kill,
to 3 q paces for the footed, and from 40 to 45 paces for
the winged, game. Beyond this diftance even to 50 or
55 paces, both partridges and hares are fometimes kill¬
ed ; but in general the hares are only {lightly wounded,
and carry away the {hot; and the partridges at that di¬
ftance prefent fo fmall a furface, that they frequently
efcape untouched between the fpaces of the circle. Yet
it does not follow that a partridge may not be killed
with N° 3. patent {hot at 60 and even 70 paces diftance,
but then thefe ffiots are very rare. 14 i
In {hooting at a bird Hying, or a hare runhing acrofs, How the 1
it is neceffary to take aim before the objeft in proper-t01‘
tion to its diftance at the time of firing. If a partridge a
flies acrofs at the diftance of 30 or 35 paces, it will be
fufficient to aim at the head, or at moft but a fmall
fpace before it. If it be 50, 60, or 70 paces diftant, it
is then requifite to aim at leaft half a foot before the
head. The fame praftice ought to be obferved in
{hooting at a hare, rabbit, or fox, when running in a
crofs direction ; at the fame time making due allowance
for the diftance and fwiftnefs of the pace. Another
thing to be attended to is, that the {hooter ought not
involuntarily to ftop the motion of the arms at the mo¬
ment of pulling the trigger ; for the inftant the hand
flops in order to fire, howrever incnnfiderable the time
be, the bird gets beyond the line of aim, and the {hot
will mifs it. A fportfman ought therefore to accu-
ftom his hand while he is taking aim to follow the ob¬
ject. When a hare runs in a ftraight line from the
{hooter, he ffiould take his aim between the ears, other-
wife he rvill run the hazard either of miffing, or at
leaft not of killing dead, or as it is fometimes called
clean. 15
A fowling-piece ffiould not be fired more than 20 or Every part:
25 times without being waffied ; a barrel when foul nei-^^Y^
ther ffioots fo ready/nor carries the ftiot fo far as whent|ean and
clean. The flint, pan, and hammer, fhould be well dry.
wiped after each {hot ; this contributes greatly to make
the piece go off quick ; but then it ihould be done with
fuch expedition, that the barrel may be reloaded whilft
warm, for the reafons we have before advanced. I he
flint ftiould be frequently changed, without waiting un¬
till it miffes fire before a nerv one is put in. Fifteen or
eighteen {hots, therefore, ffiould only be fired with the
fame flint ; the expence is too trifling to be regarded,
and by changing it thus often much vexation will be
prevented.
S H O
[ 3
Shooting.
16
Then and
;o\v game
■; to be
■night for-
1 i?
jjgsfit
• fport.
li
| reftions
1 training
' Jointer,
A gun alfo fhould never be fired with the prime of
J the preceding day j it may happen that an old priming
will fometimes go off well, but it will more frequently
contra# moifture and fuze in the firing j then the ob¬
ject will moft probably be miffed, and that becaufe the
piece was not frefh primed.
For the information of the young fportfman we fhall
add a few more general dire£tions. In warm weather
he ought to feek for game in plains and open grounds,
and in cold weather he may fearch little hills expofed
to the fun, along hedges, among heath, in Itubbles,
and in paftures where there is much furze and fern. The
morning is the beft time of the day, before the dew
is exhaled, and before the game has been difturbed.
The colour of the fhooters drefs ought to be the fame
with that of the fields and trees 5 in fummer it ought to
be green, in winter a dark gray. He ought to hunt as
much as poflible with the wind, not only to prevent the
game from perceiving the approach of him and his dog,
but alfo to enable the dog to fcent the game at a greater
diftance.
He fhould never be difcouraged from hunting and
ranging the fame ground over and over again, efpeci-
ally in places covered with heath, brambles, high grafs,
or young coppiee wood. A hare or rabbit will fre¬
quently fuffer him to pafs feveral times within a few
yards of its form without getting up. He fhould be
ftill more patient when he has marked partridges into
fuch places, for it often happens, that after the birds
have been fprung many times, they lie fo dead that
they will fuffer him almoft to tread upon them before
they will rife. Pheafants, quails, and woodcocks, do the
fame.
He ought to look carefully about him, never pafling
a bufh or tuft of grafs without examination ; but he
ought never to ftrike them with the muzzle of his gun
for it will loofen his wadding. He who patiently beats
and ranges his ground over again, without being dif¬
couraged, will always kill thegreateft quantity of game;
and if he is fhooting in company, he will find game
where others have palled without difcovering any.
When he has fired he fhould call in his dog, that he
may not have the mortification to fee game rife which
he cannot {hoot. When he has killed a bird, inftead
of being anxious about picking it up, he ought to fol¬
low the reft of the covey with his eye till he fee them
fettle.
Three fpecies of dogs are capable of receiving the
proper inftruftion, and of being trained. Thefe are
the fmooth pointer, the fpaniel, and the rough pointer.
The laft is a dog with long curled hair, and feems to
be a mixed breed of the water-dog and the fpaniel.
The fmooth pointer is aftive and lively enough in his
range, but in general is proper only for an open coun¬
try.
The. greateft part of thefe dogs are afraid of water,
brambles, and thickets j but the fpaniel and the rough
pointer are eafily taught to take the water, even in cold
weather, and to range the woods and rough places as
well as the plain. Greater dependence may therefore be
had on thefe two laft fpecies of dogs than on the fmooth
pointer.
The education of a pointer may commence when he
is only five or fix months old. The only leffons which
he can be taught at this time are to fac/i and carry any
19 ] S H O
thing when defired to come in when he runs far off, Shootings
and to go behind when he returns j ufing, in the one ^ f
cafe, the words here, come in, and in the other back or
behind. It is alfo necefl'ary at this period to accuftom
him to be tied up in the kennel or liable $ but he ought
not at firft to be tied too long. He fhould be let loofe
in the morning, and faftened again in the evening.
When a dog is not early accuftomed to be chained, he
difturbs every perfon in the neighbourhood by howling.
It is alfo of importance that the perfon who is to train
him fhould give him his food.
When the dog has attained the age of 10 or 12
months, he may be carried into the field to be regularly
trained. At firft he may be allowed to follow his own
inclination, and to run.after every animal he fees. His,
indifcriminating eagernefs will foon abate, and he will
purfue only partridges and hares. He will foon become
tired of following partridges in vain, and will content
himfelf after having fluftied them to follow them with
his eyes. It will be more difficult to prevent him from
following hares.
All young dogs are apt to rakethat is, to hunt with
their nofes clofe to the ground, to follow birds rather
by the track than by the wind. But partridges lie
much better to dogs that wind them, than to thole that
follow them by the track. The dog that winds the
fcent approaches the birds by degrees and without di-
fturbing them j but they are immediately alarmed when*
they fee a dog tracing their footfteps. When you per¬
ceive that your dog is committing this fault, call to hint
in an angry tone hold up; he will then grow uneafy and
agitated, going firft to the one fide and then to the.
other, until the wind brings him the fcent of the birds.
After finding the game four or five times in this way, he
will take the wind of himfelf, and hunt with his nofe
high. If it be difficult to corre# this fault, it will be-
neceffary to put the puzzle peg upon him. This is of
very fimple conftruftion, confiding only of a piece of
oak or deal inch board, one foot in length, and an inch
and a half in breadth, tapering a little to one end 3 at
the broader end are two holes running longitudinally,
through which the collar of the dog is put, and the
whole is buckled round his neck ; the piece of wood be¬
ing projefted beyond his nofe, is then faftened with a
piece of leather thong to his under jaw. By this means
the peg advancing feven or eight inches beyond his
fnout, the dog is prevented from putting his nofe to the
ground and.raking.
As foon as the young dog knows his game, you muft
bring him under complete fubjedlion. If he is traftable,
this will be eafy 3 but if he is ftubborn, it will be necef-
fary to ufe the trafb cord, which is a rope or cord of 20
or 25 fathoms in length faftened to his collar. If he re-
fufe to come back when called upon, you rnuft check
him fmartly with the cord, which will often bring him
upon his haunches. But be fure you never call to him
except when you are within reach of the cord. After re¬
peating this feveral times he will not fail to come back
when called 3 he ought then to be careffed, and a bit of
bread fhould be given him. He ought now conftantly
to be tied up, and never unchained, except when you
give him his food, and even then only when he has done
fomething to deferve it.
The next ftep will be to throw down a piece of
bread on the ground, at the fame moment taking hold
of
S H O t 320 ] S H O
SKooting. of the dog by the collar, calling out to him, “ take
heed,—foftly.” After having held him in this manner
for fome fpace of time, fay to him, “ feize—lay hold.”
If he is impatient to lay hold of the piece of bread be¬
fore the fignal is given, correft him gently with a fmall
whip. Repeat this leffon until he “ takes heed” well,
and no longer requires to be held fatt to prevent him
from laying hold of the bread. When he is well ac-
cuftomed to this manege, turn the bread with a flick,
holding it in the manner you do a fowling-piece, and
having done fo, cry feixe. Never fufifer the dog to eat
either in the houfe or field without having firft made
him take heed in this manner.
Then, in order to apply this lelfon to the game, fry
fmall pieces of bread in hogs lard, with the dung of par¬
tridge ; take thefe in a linen bag into the fields, llub-
bles, ploughed grounds, and pallures, and there put the
pieces in feveral different places, marking the fpots with
little cleft pickets of wood, which will be rendered more
diftinguifhable by putting pieces of card in the nicks.
This being done, call off the dog and conduct him to
thefe places, always hunting in the wind. After he has
caught the feent of the bread, if he approaches too near,
and feems eager to fall upon it, cry to him in a mena¬
cing tone, “ take heed ;” and if he does not flop imme¬
diately, correfl him with the whip. He w ill foon com¬
prehend what is required of him, and will Hand.
At the next leffon, take your gun charged only with
powder, walk gently round the piece of bread once or
twice, and fire inftead of cnyxugfei'ze. The next time
of pra£lifing this leflon, walk round the bread four or
five times, but in a greater circle than before, and con¬
tinue to do this until the dog is conquered of his impa¬
tience, and will Hand without moving until the fignal is
o-iven him. When he keeps his point well, and ftands
Ready in this leflbn, you may carry him to the birds •,
if he run in upon them, or bark when they fpring up,
you muff cor reft him; and if he continue to do fo,
you muff return to the fried bread j but this is feldom
neceffary.
When the dog has learned by this ufe' of the bread
to take heed, he may be carried to the fields with the
trafh-cord dragging on the ground. When he fprings
birds for the firft time, if he runs after them or barks,
check him by calling out to him, take heed. If he point
properly, carefs him ; but you ought never to hunt
I0 without the chord until he point {launch,
and pre- If the dog runs after fheep, and it be difficult to cure
venting his him, couple him with a ram, and then whip the dog as
running af- as you can follow him. His cries will at firft
ter fheep. t]ie ram . he will run with all his fpeed, and drag
the dog along with him ; but he will at length take
courage, turn upon the dog, and butt him feverely with
his horns. When you think the dog is fufficiently chaf-
■tifed, untie him : he will never run at ffieep again.
Having now7 given a few general inftruftions concern¬
ing the beft method of training pointers, we ftiall fub-
join a few obfervations refpefting the moft common fpe-
cies of game, the partridge, pheafant, groufe, wood¬
cock, fnipe, and wild duck.
. 20 Partridges pair in the fpring, and lay their eggs (ge-
tions con- nerally from 15 to 20) during May and part of June,
ceming the The young begin to fly about the end of June, and
partridge, their plummage is complete in the beginning of Oftober.
The male has a confpicuous horfe flioe upon his breaft,
an obtufe fpur on the hinder part of the leg, which di- Shooting;
ftinguifli him from the female. He is alfo rather lar- ’ r—<
ger.
When a fportfman is (hooting in a country where
the birds are thin, and he no longer choofes to range
the field for the bare chance of meeting with them,
the follpwing method will (how him where to find them
on another day. In the evening, from funfet to night¬
fall, he (hould poft himfelf in a field, at the foot of a
tree or a buffi, and there wait until the partridges begin
to call or juck, which they always do at that time j
not only for the purpofe of drawing together when fe-
parated, but alfo when the birds compofing the covey
are not difperfed. After calling in this manner for
fome little fpace of time, the partridges will take to
flight •, then, if he mark the place where they alight,
he may be affured they will lie there the whole night,
unlefs difturbed. Let him return to the fame poft the
next morning by break of day, and there watch a
while 5 being careful to keep bis dog in a ftring, if he
is not under perfeft command.
As foon as the dawn begins to peep, the partridges
will begin to call, and foon afterwards will perform the
fame manoeuvre as on the preceding evening y that
is, after having called a while, they will take their
flight, and will moft commonly fettle at a little diftance.
There in a few minutes they will call again, and fome-
times take a fecond flight, but that will be to no great *
diftance. Then as foon as the fun is rifen, and the
fportfman can fee to (hoot, he may caft off his dog and
purfue them.
The pheafant is of the fize of a common dunghill pheafaot.]
cock, and lays its eggs generally in the woods, the
number of which is xo or 12.
Pheafants are accounted ftupid birds ; for when they
are furprifed they will frequently fquat down like a rab¬
bit, fuppofing themfelves to be in fafety as (bon as their
heads are concealed ; and in this way they will fome-
times fuffer themfelves to be killed with a (lick. They
love low and moift places, and haunt the edges of thofe
pools which are found in woods, as well as the high
grafs of marffies that are near at hand j and above all,
places w'here there are clumps of alders. 2I
Groufe, or moor-game, are found in Wales, in the Groufe.
northern counties of England, and in great abundance
in Scotland. They chiefly inhabit thofe mountains and
moors which are covered with heath, and feldom de-
feend to the low grounds. They fly in companies of
four or five braces, and love to frequent moffy places,
particularly in the middle of the day or when the wea¬
ther is warm. In purfuing this game, when the pointer
fets, and the fportfman perceives the birds running with
their heads ereft, he muft run after them as faff as he
can, in the hope that he may get near enough to (hoot
when they rife upon the wing ; for he may be pretty
certain they will not lie well that day. As thefe birds
are apt to grow foon putrid, they ought to be drawn
carefully the inftant they are (hot and fluffed with any
heath, and if the feathers happen to be wetted they muft
be wiped dry. 13.
The woodcock is a bird of paffage j it commonly ar- Woodcock
rives about the end of Oftober, and remains until the
middle of March. Woodcocks are fatteft in December
and January, but from the end of February they are
lean. At their arrival they drop anywhere, but after¬
wards
*4
Snipe.
. lS
iVild duck.
S H O [ 32
SlK'otin^. wards take up their refidence in copfes of nine or ten
-—v ' years growth. They feldom, however, it ay in one
place longer than 12 or 15 days. During the day, they
remain in thofe parts of the woods where there are void
fpaces or glades, picking up earth-worms and grubs
from the fallen leaves. In the evening they go to drink
and waih their bills at pools and fprings, after which
they repair to the open fields and meadows for the night.
It is remarkable, that when a woodcock fprings from a
wood to go into the open country, he always endeavours
to find fome glade or opening, which he follows to the
boundaries of the wood. At his return he purfues the
feme path a good way, and then turns to the right or
left oppofite to fome glade, in order to drop into a
thick part of the wood, where he may be flickered from
the wind. He may therefore be watched with advan¬
tage in thefe -narrow pafles and little alleys on the edges
of woods which lead to a pool or fpring, or he may be
watched in the dulk of the evening near the pools which
he frequents.
The fnipe is a bird of palfage as well as the wrood-
cock. This bird is fcarcely worth (hooting till the
froft commences. In the month of November they be¬
gin to grow fat. Snipes, like woodcocks, frequent
(prings, bogs, and marfliy places, and generally fly
againfl: the wind. The flant and crofs (hots are rather
difficult, as the birds are fmall and fly very quickly.
The fportfman ought to look for them in the diredtion
of the wind j becaufe then they will fly towards him,
and prefent a fairer mark.
The wild duck is alfo a bird of paffage, and arrives
here in great flocks from the northern countries in the
beginning of winter. Still, however, a great many re¬
main in our mar flies and fens during the whole year, and
breed.
The wild duck differs little in plumage from the tame
duck, but is eafily diftinguiflied by its fize, which is
lefs j by the neck, which is more (lender $ by the foot,
which is fmaller •, by the nails, which are more black j
and above all, by the web of the foot, which is much
finer and fofter to the touch.
In the fummer feafon, when it is known that a team
of young duck's are in a particular piece of water, and
juft beginning to fly, the fportfman is fare to find them
early in the morning dabbling at the edges of the pool,
and amongft the long grafs, and then he may get very
near to them : it is ufual alfo to find them in thofe
places at noon.
In the beginning of autumn almoft every pool is fre¬
quented by teams of ivild ducks, which remain there
during the day, concealed in the ruffies. If thefe pools
are of fmall extent, two (hooters, by going one on each
fide, making a noife and throwing ftones into the ruflies,
will make them fly up j and they will in this way fre¬
quently get (hots, efpecially if the pool is not broad,
and contrails at one end. But the (ureft and moft fuc-
cefsful way, is to launch a fmall boat or trow on the
pool, and to traverfe the ruffies by the openings which
are found ; at the fame time making as little noife as
poffible. In this manner the ducks will fuffer the fportf-
men to come fufficiently near them to (hoot flying j and
it often happens that the ducks, after having flown, up,
only make a circuit, return in a little time, and again
alight upon the pool. Then the fportfmen endeavour
a fecond time to come near them. If feveral (hooters
Vol. XIX. Part I.
1 ] • S H O
are in company, they fhould divide ; two fliould go in Shooting
the boat, whilft the others fpread themfelves about the
edge of the pool, in order to (hoot the ducks in their
flight. In pools which will not admit a trow, water-
fpaniels are abfolutely neceffary for this fport.
In winter they may be found on the margins of little
pools *, and when pools and rivers are frozen up, they
muft be watched for in places where there are fprings
and waters which do not freeze. The fport is then
much more certain, becaufe the ducks are confined to
thefe places in order to procure aquatic herbs, which
are almoft their only food at this period,
SHOP-LIFTERS, are thofe that (leal goods privately
out of (hops j which, being to the value of 5s. though
no perfon be in the (hop, is felony without the benefit
of clergy by the 10 and 11 W. HI. c. 23.
SHORE, a place waftied by the fea, or by fome large
river.
Count Marfigli divides the fea-(hore into three por¬
tions : the firft of which is that traft of land which the
fea juft reaches in ftorms and high tides, but which it
never covers ; the fecond part of the (hore is that which
is covered in high tides and ftorms, but is dry at other
times ; and the third is the defcent from this, which is
always covered with rvater.
The firft part is only a continuation of the continent,
and fuffers no alteration from the neighbourhood of the
fea, except that it is rendered fit for the growth of fome
plants, and wholly unfit for that of others, by the feline
fleams and impregnations : and it is fcarce to be con¬
ceived by any, but thofe who have obferved it, how far
on land the effedls of the fea reach, fo as to make the
earth proper for plants which will not grow without
this influence ; there being feveral plants frequently
found on high hills and dry places, at three, four, and
more miles from the fea, which yet would not grow un-
lefs in the neighbourhood of it, nor will ever be found
elfewhere.
The fecond part or portion of the (hore is much
more affefled by the fea than the former, being fre¬
quently waffied and beaten by it. Its produclions are
rendered felt by the water, and it is covered with fend,
or with the fragments of (hells in form of fend, and in
fome places with a tartarous matter depofited from the
water •, the colour of this whole extent of ground is
ufually duflcy and dull, efpecially where there are rocks
and ftones, and thefe covered with a (limy matter.
The third part of the fliore is more affedled by the
fea than either of the others 5 and is covered with an
uniform cruft of the true nature of the bottom of the
fea, except that plants and animals have their refidence
in it, and the decayed parts of thefe alter it a little.
Shore, Jane, the celebrated concubine of the li¬
centious King Edward IV. was the wife of Mr Matthew
Shore, a goldfmith in Lombard-ftreet, London. Kings
are feldom unfuccefsful in their amorous purfuits 5 there¬
fore there was nothing wonderful in Mrs Shore’s remo¬
ving from Lombard-ftreet to ftiine at court as the royal
favourite. Hiftorians reprefent her as extremely beauti¬
ful, remarkably cheerful, and of moft uncommon gene-
rofity. The king, it is faid, was no lefs. captivated
with her temper than with her perfon : (lie never made
ufe of her influence over him to the prejudice of any
perfon j and if ever (he importuned him, it -was in fa¬
vour of the unfortunate. After the death of Edward,
S f (he
Shore
S H O [ 322 ] S H O
ftie attached herfelf to the lord Haftings ", and when
Richard III. cut off that nobleman as an obftacle to
t his ambitious fchcmes, Jane Shore was arrefted as an
accomplice, on the ridiculous accufation of witchcraft.
This, however, terminated only in a public penance $
excepting that Richard rifled her of all her little pro¬
perty : but whatever feverity might have been exercifed
towards her, it appears that fhe was alive, though fuf-
ficiently wretched, under the reign of Henry VIII.
when Sir Thomas More faw her poor, old, and (hrivel-
l«d, without the leaft trace of her former beauty. Mr
Rowe, in his tragedy of Jane Shore, has adopted the
popular ftory related in the old hiftorical ballad, of her
perifhing by hunger in a ditch where Shoreditch now
ffands. But Stow affures us that ftreet was fo named
before her time.
SHORL. See Schorl, Mineralogy Zar/tx,
SHORLING and Morling, are words to diftin-
guifh fells of fheep ; fborling being the fells after the
fleeces are thorn off the fheep’s back *, and morling the
fells flead off after they die or are killed. In fome
parts of England, they underftand by a Jhorling a theep
whofe face is thorn off j and by a morling, a theep that
dies.
SHORT, James, an eminent optician, was born in
Edinburgh on the xoth of June O. S. in the year 1710.
At ten years of age, having loft his father and mother,
and being left in a ftate of indigence, he was receiv¬
ed into Heriot’s hofpital, (fee EDINBURGH, Public
Buildings, N° 16.) where he foon difplayed his mecha¬
nical genius, in conftrufting for himfelf, little chefts,
book-cafes, and other conveniences, with fuch tools as
fell in his way. At the age of twelve he was removed
from .the Hofpital to the High School, where he thow-
ed a confiderable tafte for claflical literature, and gene¬
rally kept at the head of his forms. In the year 1726
he was entered into the univerftty, where he paffed
through the ufual courfe of education, and took his
mafter’s degree with great applaufe'.
I' By his friends he was intended for the church ; but
after attending a courfe of theological leftures, his
mind revolted from a profeflion svhich he thought little
i'uited to his talents ; and he devoted his whole time to
mathematical and mechanical purfuits. He had been
fortunate enough to have the celebrated M‘Laurin for
his preceptor •, who having foon difeovered the bent of
his genius, and made a proper eftimate of the extent of
his capacity, encouraged him to profecute thofe ftudies
in which nature had qualified him to make the greateft
figure. Under the eye of that eminent mafter, he be¬
gan in 1732 to conftruft Gregorian telefcopes j and, as
the profeffor obferved in a letter to Dr Jurin, “ by tak¬
ing care of the figure of his fpecula, he was enabled to
give them larger apertures, and to carry them to greater
perfection than had ever been done before him.” (See
Optics, N° 89.).
In the year 1736 Mr Short was called to London,
at the defire of Queen Caroline, to give inftruftions in
mathematics to William duke of Cumberland 5 and im¬
mediately on his appointment to that very honourable
office he rvas elected a fellow of the royal fociety, and
patronized by the earls of Morton and Macclesfield.
In the year 1739 he accompanied the former of thofe
noble lords to the Orkney ifles, where he v'as employed
xn aJl ufting the geography of that part of Scotland; and
3-
happy it was for him that he was fo employed, as he Short
might other wife have been involved in a feuffle which 11.
took place between the retainers of Sir James Stewart,
of Barra and the attendants of the earl, in which fome
of the latter xvere dangeroufly wounded.
Mr Short having returned to London, and" finally
eftabliffied himfelf there in the line of his profeflion, xvas
in 1742 employed by Lord Thomas Spencer to make
for him a refledlor of 12 feet focus, for which he re¬
ceived 600 guineas. He made feveral other telefcopes
of the fame focal diftance with greater improvements
and higher magnifiers ; and in 1752 finiffied one for the
king of Spain, for which, with its whole apparatus, he
received 1 200I. This was the nobleft inftrument of the
kind that had then been conftrufted, and perhaps it ha.s
never yet been furpaffed except by the aftonilhing re-
fledlors of Herfchel. See Telescope.
Mr Short ufed to vifit the place of his nativity once
every two or three years during his refidence in Lon¬
don, and in 1766 he vifited it for the laft time. On
the 15th of June 1768 he died, after a very ftiort ill-
nefs, at Newington Butts, near London, of a mortifica¬
tion in his bowels, and was buried on the 22d of the
fame month, having completed, within a few days, his
fifty-eighth year. He left a fortune of about 20,oool.
of which 15,000!. was bequeathed to two nephews, and
the reft in legacies to his friends. In gratitude for the
fteady patronage of the earl of Morton, he left to his
daughter the lady Mary Douglas, afterwards countefs of
Aboyne, 1000I. and the reverfion of his fortune, ftiould
his nephews die without iffue ; but this reverfionary le¬
gacy the lady, at the defire of her father, generoufly re-
linquiffied by a deed in favour of Mr Short’s brother
Mr Thomas Short and his children. Mr Short’s emi¬
nence as an artift is univerfally known, and xve have of¬
ten heard him fpoken of by thofe xvho were acquainted
xvith him from his youth, as a man of virtue and of very
amiable manners.
SHORT-Uund Writing. See STENOGRAPHY.
SHORT-Jointed, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to be
ffiort-jointed that has a ffiort paftern ; when this joint,
or the paftern is too ffiort, the horfe is fubjedt to have
his fore legs from the knee to the cornet all in a ftraight
line. Commonly your ffiort-jointed horfes do not ma¬
nege fo well as the long-jointed j but out of the manege
the ffiort-jointed are the beft for travel or fatigue,
SHORT-Sightednefs, a certain defedl in vifion, by which
objedls cannot be diftindlly feen, unlefs they are very
near the eye. See Optics, N° 142.
SHORTFORD, q. d. fore-clofe, an ancient cuftom
in the city of Exeter, when the lord of the fee cannot
be anfwered rent due to him out of his tenement, and
no diftrefs can be levied for the fame. The lord is then
to come to the tenement, and there take a ftone, or
fome other dead thing off the tenement, and bring it
before the mayor and bailiff, and thus he muft do feven
quarter days fuccefiively ; and if on the feventh quarter-
day the lord is not fatisfied of his rent and arrears, then
the tenement {hall be adjudged to the lord to hold the
fame a year and a day *, and forthwith proclamation is
to be made in the court, that if any man claims any
title to the fame tenement, he muft appear xvithin the
year and day next following, and fatisfy the lord of the
laid rent and arrears : but if no appearance be made,
and the rent not paid, the lord comes again to the
court,,
IShortford,
Shot.
S H O t
court, and prays that, according to the cuftom,
faid tenement be adjudged to him in his demefne as
' of fee, which is done accordingly, fo that the lord hath
from thenceforth the faid tenement, with the appurte¬
nances to him and his heirs.
SHOT, a denomination given to all forts of balls for
fire-arms: thofe for cannon being of iron, and thofe for
guns, piftols, &c. of lead. See Shooting.
Cf/fe Shot formerly confided of all kinds of old iron,
nails, mufket-balls, Hones, &c. ufcd as above.
Shot of a Cable, on fhip-board, is the fplicing of two
cables together, that a {hip may ride fafe in deep waters
and in great roads; for a fhip will ride eafier by one {hot
of a cable, than by three Ihort cables out ahead.
Grape-SHOT. See GHAPE-Shot.
Patent-milled SHOT is thus made : Sheets of lead,
whofe thicknefs cofrefponds with the fize of the {hot
required, are cut into fmall pieces, or cubes, of the
form of a die. A great quantity of thefe little cubes
are put into a large hollow iron cylinder, which is mount¬
ed horizontally and turned by a winch 5 when by their
fri&ion againft one another and againft the fides of the
cylinder, they are rendered perfectly round and very
fmooth. The other patent {hot is call; in moulds, in the
fame way as bullets are.
SHOT Flagg on, a fort of flaggon fomewhat bigger than
ordinary, which in fame counties, particularly Derby-
ftiire, it is the cullom for the hoft to ferve his guefts in,
after they have drank above a {hilling.
Small Shot, or that ufed for fowling, {hould be well
fized, and of a moderate bignefs : for Ihould it be too
great, then it flies thin, and fcatters too much ; or if
too fmall, then it hath not weight and flrength .to pe¬
netrate far, and the bird is apt to fly away with it. In
order, therefore, to have it fuitable to the occafion, it
not being always to be had in every place fit for the pur-
pofe, we {hall fet down the true method of making all
forts and fizes under the name of mould-jhot.. Its prin¬
cipal good properties are to be round and folid.
Take any quantity of lead you think fit, and melt it
down in an iron veflel \ and as it melts keep it flirring
with an iron ladle, Ikimming off all impurities whatfo-
ever that may arife at the top : when it begins to look
of a greenilh colour, ftrew on it as much auripigmentum
or yellow orpiment, finely powdered, as will lie on a
{hilling, to every 12 or 14 pound of lead ; then ftirring
them together, the orpiment will flame.
The ladle {hould have a notch on one fide of the
brim, for more eafily pouring out the lead } the ladle
muff remain in the melted lead, that its heat may be the
fame with that of the lead, to prevent inconveniences
which otherwife might happen by its being either too
hot or too cold : then, to try your lead, drop a little of
it into water, and if the drops prove round, then the
lead is of a proper heat j if otherwife, and the {hot have
tails, then add more orpiment to increafe the heat, till
it be found fufficient.
Then take a plate of copper, about the bignefs. of a
trencher, which muft be made with a hollownefs in the
middle, about three inches compafs, within which muft
be bored about 40 holes according to the fize of the
fhot which you intend to call: the hollow bottom {hould
be thin •, but the thicker the brim, the better it will re¬
tain the heat. Place this plate on a frame of iron, over
■& tab or veffel of water, about four inches from the wa-
323 ] S H O
the ter, and fpread burning coals on the plate, to keep the
lead melted upon it: then take fome lead and pour .it ^
gently on the coals on the plate, and it will make its
way tlirough the holes into the water, and form itfelf
into {hot;' do this till all your lead be run through
the holes of the plate, taking care, by keeping your
coals alive, that the lead do not cool, and fo flop up the
holes.
While you are calling in this manner, another perfon.
with another ladle may catch fome of the {hot, placing
the ladle four or five inches underneath the plate in the
water, by which means you will fee if they are defec¬
tive, and redtify them.
Your chief care is to keep the lead in a juft degree
of heat, that it be not fo cold as to flop up the holes
in your plate, nor fo hot as to caule the {hot to crack 1
to remedy the heat, you muft refrain working till it is of
a proper coolnefs ; and to remedy the coolnefs of your
lead and plate, you muft blow your fire; obferving,
that the cooler your lead is, the larger will be your {hot;
as the hotter it is, the fmaller they will be.
After you have done calling, take them out of the
water, and dry them over the fire with a gentle heat,
ftirring them continually that they do not. melt; when
dryr, you are to feparate the great {hot from the fmall,
by the help of a fieve made for that purpofe, according
to their feveral iizes. But thofe who would have very
large Ihot, make the lead trickle with a ftick out of the
ladle into the water, without the plate.
If it flop on the plate, and yet the plate be not too
cool, give but the plate a little knock, and it will run
again ; care muft be had that none of your implements
be greafy, oily, or the like ; and when the {hot, being
feparated, are found too large or too fmall for your pur¬
pofe, or otherwife imperfeft, they will ferve again at the
next operation.
The fizes of common {hot for fowling are from N° 1
to 6, and fmaller, which is called muftard feed, or duft
{hot ; but N° 5 is fmall enough for any {hooting what-
foever. The N° 1 may be ufed for wild geefe ; the
N° 2 for ducks, widgeons, and other water-fowl; the
N° 3 for pheafants, partridges after the firft month,
and all the fen-fowl ; the N° 4 for partridges, wood¬
cocks, &c.; and the N° 5 for fnipes and all the fmaller
birds.
Tin-Cafe SHOT, in artillery, is formed by putting a
great quantity of fmall iron Ihot into a cylindrical tin-
box called a cannifter, that juft fits the bore of the gun.
Leaden bullets are fometimes ufed in the fame manner ;
and it muft be obferved, that whatever number or fizes
of the {hots are ufed, they muft weigh with their cafes
nearly as much as the {hot of the piece.
SHOVEL, Sir Cloudesly, a diftinguiftied Britilh
admiral, was born about the year 1650, of parents in the
lower rank of life. He was put apprentice to a ftioe-
maker ; but difliking this profeflion, he abandoned it a
few years after, and went to fea. He was at firft a cabin
boy with Sir Chriftopher Mynns, but applying to the
ftudy of navigation with indefatigable induftry, his {kill
as a feaman foon raifed him above that ftation.
The corfairs of Tripoli having committed great out¬
rages on the Englifti in the Mediterranean, Sir John
Narborough was lent in 1674.10 reduce them to rea-
fon. As he had received orders to try the effedts of
negociation before he proceeded to hoftilities, he fent Mr
S f * Shovel,
Shot,
Shovel.
s H O [ 32+ ] S H R
Shovel, who was at that time a lieutenant in his fleet,
to demand fatisfaftion. The Dey treated him with
a. great deal of difrefpeft, and fent him back without
an anfwer. Sir John difpatched him a fecond time,
with orders to remark particularly the lituation of things
on fliore. The behaviour of the Dey was worfe than
ever. Upon Mr Shovel’s return, he informed Sir John
that it would be poflible, notwithftanding their fortifi¬
cations, to burn all the fliipsin the harbour. The boats
were accordingly manned, and the command of them
given to Lieut. Shovel, who feized the guardlhip, and
burnt four others, without lofing a man. This adlion
fo terrified the Tripolins, that they fued for peace.—
Sir John Narborpugh gave fo favourable an account of
tliis exploit, that Mr Shovel was foon after made captain
of the Sapphire, a fifth rate Ihip.
In the battle of Bantry-Bay, after the revolution^ he
commanded the Edgar, and, for his gallant behaviour
in that aif ion, was foon after knighted by KingWilliam.
Next year he was employed in tranfporting an army in¬
to Ireland; a fervice w'hich he performed with fo much
diligence and dexterity, that the king raifed him to
the rank of rear-admiral of the blue, and delivered his
commiffion with his own hands. Soon after he was
made rear-admiral of the red, and fhared the glory of
the victory at La Hogue. In 1694, he bombarded
Dunkirk. In I7°3> he commanded the grand fleet in
the Mediterranean, and did every thing in his power
to aflifi: the Plroteftants who were in arms in the Ce-
venne^.
Soon after the battle off Malaga, he wras prefented
by Prince George to Queen Anne, who received him
gracioufly, and next year employed him as commander
in chief.
In 1705 he commanded the fleet, together with the
earl of Peterborough and Monmouth, which was fent
into the Mediterranean; and it was owing to him chief¬
ly that Barcelona was taken. After an unfuccefstul
attempt upon Toulon, he failed for Gibraltar, and from
thence homeward with a part of the fleet. On the 22d
of Oftober, at night, his fliip, with three others, was
cafl; aw^ay on the rocks of Scilly. All on board perifh-
ed. His body was found by fome fifliermen on the
illand of Scilly, who ftripped it of a valuable ring, and
aftenvards buried it. Mr Paxton, the purfer of the
Arundel, hearing of this, found out the fellows, and
obliged them to difcover where they had buried the
body. He carried it on board his own thip to Portf-
mouth, from whence it was conveyed to London, and in¬
terred with great lolemnity in Weftminfter Abbey. A
monument was afterwards eredled to his memory by the
direction of the queen. He married the widow of his
patron, Sir John Narborough, by whom he left twro
daughters, co heireffes.
SHOVELER, a fpecies of Anas. See Anas, Or¬
nithology Index.
SHOULDER-BLADE, a bone of the Ihoulder, of a
triangular figure, covering the hind part of the ribs,
called by anatomifts the fcapuia and omoplata. See Ana¬
tomy.
SHOUT', Clamour, in antiquity, was frequently
ufed on ecclefiaftical, civil, and military occafions, as a
fign of approbation, and fometimes of indignation.—
Thus as Cicero, in an affembly of the people, was ex-
pofing the arrogance of L. Antony, who had had the
2
impudence to caufe himfelf to be infcribed the patron Shout
of the Romans, the people on hearing this raifed a fhout I!
to fliow their indignation. In the ancient military dif- ^irew<burl
cipline, fliouts were ufed, I. Upon occafion of the ge-
neral’s making a fpeech or harangue to the army from
his tribunal. This they did in token of their approving
what had been propofed. 2. Before an engagement, in
order to encourage and fpirit their own men, and fill
the enemy with dread. This is a praftice of great an¬
tiquity ; befides which, it wants not the authority of
reafon to fupport it; for as mankind are endowed with
two fenfes, hearing and feeing, by which fear is raifed
in the mind, it may be proper to make ufe of the ear
as well as the eye for that purpofe. Shouts were aHo
raifed in the ancient theatre, when what was adted pleaf-
ed the fpedtators. It was ufual for thofe prefent at the
burning of the dead to raife a great fhout, and call
the dead perfon by his name before they fet fire to the
pile.
SHOWER, in Meteorology, a cloud condenfed into
Rain.
SHREWMOUSE. See Sorex, Mammalia In¬
dex.
SHREWSBURY, the capital of Shropfliire in Eng¬
land. This town, the metropolis of the county, grew
up out of the ruins of Uriconium, anciently a city, now
a village called Wroxeter, about four miles from it. The
Saxons called it Scrobbes Berig, from the fhrubs that
grew about it ; and from thence the prefent name of
Shrewjbury is fuppofed to have been formed. It is
pleafantly fituated upon a hill near the Severn, over
which there are two handfome bridges. It wTas a place
of note, in the Saxon times; after which it was granted"
by William the Conqueror, together with the title of
ear/and moft of the county, to Roger de Montgomery^
who built a caftle upon the north fide of it, where the
Severn that encompaffes it on all other fides, leaves an
opening. His fon Robert built alfo a wall acrofs this
neck of land, when he revolted from Henry I. We
learn from doomfday-book, that at that time, when a
widow of this town married, fhe paid 20 {hillings to the
king, and a virgin 10. The above-mentioned Roger
founded alfo, and endowed here, a Benedidtine mona-
ftery and a collegiate church. When old age came up¬
on him, he quitted the world, and fpent the reft of his
days as a monk in the abbey, and when he died was in¬
terred in its church. From the hiftory of this church
and monaftery, it appears that ecclefiaftical benefices
about that time w'ere hereditary. The abbey became
fo rich afterwards, that the abbot was mitred, and fat in
parliament. Befides this abbey, in after times there -were
three others, viz. a Francifcan, Dominican, and Augu-
ftin ; and likewife two collegiate churches, one dedi¬
cated to St Chad and the other to St Mary. In the
conteft between the emprefs Maud and Stephen, this
town and its governor William Fitz-Allan fided with
the emprefs. In Henry Ill.’s time, a part of it was
burnt down by the Welch ; and in Richard IE’s reign
a parliament was held in it. At a place called Battle¬
field. near this town, Henry Percy the younger, furnam-
ed Hotfipur, was killed in an engagement with Henry
IV. againft whom he had rebelled. The king after¬
wards built a chapel upon the fpot, and endowed it for
the fupport of two priefts to pray for the fouls of the
flain. Two of Edward IV.’s fons were born here ;
namely,
jrrewfbury
II
iropllnre.
S H B: [ 325 ]
namely, Richard, duke of York, whom Perkin War- in Staffordlhire.
beck afterwards perfonated, and who wras murdered in
the Tower ; and George Plantagenet, who died before
his brothers. Here firft broke out the fweating-fick-
nefs, which carried off great numbers fo fuddenly, that
thofe who were feized with it either died or recovered
in the fpace of 24 hours. In the beginning of the civil
wars, King Charles I. came hither, and formed an army,
■with which he marched towards London ; but was met
by the parliament’s forces at Edgehill. He continued
here from the 20th of September to the 12th of Octo¬
ber, during which time he was joined by Prince Rupert,
and many of the gentry and nobility of thefe parts.
This town anciently gave title of earl to the Montgo¬
meries, and afterwards to the Talbots, by whom it is
ftill retained. Here is a free grammar-fchool, with three
mafters, and feveral ulhers, well endowed by Edward
VI. and Queen Elizabeth, and not inferior to many
colleges in the univerfities. It has a good library and
chapel, and there are feveral fcholarlhips appropriated
to it in the univerfity of Cambridge. Plere are alfo fe¬
veral hofpitals, alms-houfes, and charity-fchools. This
town is one of the molt flouriihing in England, having
two great weekly markets for corn, cattle, and provi-
fions; and another for Welch cottons and flannels, of
which great quantities are fold. A great trade is car¬
ried on with the Welch, who bring their commodities
hither, as to the common mart of both nations. The
town is large and well-built, and the fituation extreme¬
ly pleafant. There is a very beautiful walk called the
quarry, between the town walls and the Severn, delight¬
fully lhaded with rows of lime-trees, fo that it is not
inferior to the Mall in St James’s Park. Ihe town is
alfo noted for its gallantry and politenefs, being full of
gentry, for whom there are always balls and affemblies
once a-week all the year round.—Here is a fine houfe
and gardens, which belonged to the earl of Bradford }
and in the neighbourhood, at Wroxeter, the Roman
highway, called Watling-ftreet, may be feen for feveral
miles, where Roman coins are frequently found. In
Shrewfbury are x 2 incorporated trading companies } and
the corporation has a power to try even capital caufes of
xtfelf, except high treafon. It is faid that thigh-bones
of dead men have been found here a yard long, and
teeth three inches round and three long.
SHRIKE. See Lanius, Ornithology Index.
SHRIMP. See Cancer, Entomology Index.
SHRINE, in Ecclejiaftical Hiffory, a cafe or box to
hold the relics of fome faint.
SHROPSHIRE, a county of England, bounded
on the fouth by Worcefterfhire, Herefordlhire, and
Radnorfhire •, on the north, by Chefliire ; on the call,
by Staffordlhire } on the weft, by Montgomery (hire and
Denbigh (hire, in Wales. Its length is between 49 and
50 miles, its breadth about 38, and its circumference
about 210. It is an inland county, containing 890,000
acres, 167,639 inhabitants, and 15 hundreds, in which
are 170 parifties, and 15 market towns. It makes a
part of three bifhoprics, viz. Hereford, Coventry and
Litchfield, and St Afaph. Some part of it lies on the
north, and fome on the fouth fide of the Severn. Be-
fides the Severn, it is alfo watered by the Temd or Te-
fidiauc, as it is called in Welch, which flows from the
mountains of Radnorftxire ; and by the Tern, which has
its rife and name ffom one of thofe pools called tearnesx
S H R
...    All thefe abound with fiff, efpecially
trouts, pikes, lampreys, graylings, carp, and eels. 1 he ^ j
air, efpecially upon the hills, with which the coun y
abounds, is very wholefome. There is as great a diver-
fity of foil as in moft other counties. On the hills,
where it is poor, is very good pafture lor (heep 5 and m
the low grounds, where it is very rich, along the Severn
in particular, there is plenty of grafs for bay and black
cattle, with all forts of corn, ihis county is abundant¬
ly provided with fuel, having in it many extenfive
mines of coal j it has alfo mines of lead and iron. Over
moft of the coal-pits in this county lies a ftratum or
layer of blackifti porous rock, of which, by grinding
and boiling, they make pitch and tar, which are rather
better than the common fort for caulking (hips, as they
do not crack, but always continue dole and fmooth.
Quarries of lime-ftone and iron-(tone are common in the
county, and the foil in many places is a reddiflx clay.
The abundance of coal and iron-ftone in this county has
given rife to numerous manufaftories.
As it lies upon the borders of Wales, it was ancient¬
ly full of caftles and walled towns. On the fide next
that country there was an almoft continued line of
caftles, to guard Uie county againft the inroads and de¬
predations of the Welch. I he borders here, as thole
between England and Scotland, wore called marches,
and there were certain noblemen entitled burones ttiur-
chue, marchiones de marchia Walhce, “ lords of the
marches, or marquiffes of the marches of V ales, who
were veiled with a fort of palatine jurifdidlion, held
courts of juftice to determine controverfies, and enjoyed
many privileges and immunities, the better to^ enable
and encourage them to protect the county againft the
incurfions of the Welch, and to maintain order amongil
the borderers *, but they often abufed their power, and
were the greateft of tyrants.
As to the ecclefiaftieal government of the county,
the far greater part, namely, all that belongs to the bi-
Ihoprics of Hereford, and of Litchfield and Coventry,
is under the jurifdiction and vifitation of the archdeacon
of Shrewibury or Salop, and is divided into feveral
deanries.
The Oxford circuit includes in it this county, which
fends 12 members to parliament, viz. two for the (hire,
and two for each of the following towns, Shrewfbury,
Ludlow, Wenlock, and BRhop’s Cattle.
SHROVE-Tuesday, is the Tuefday after Quin-
quagefima Sunday, or the day immediately preceding
the firft of Lent j being fo called from the Saxon word
fhrive, which fignifies “ to confefs.” Hence Shrove-
Tuefday fignifies Confeffion-1 uefday j on which day
all the people in every parifli throughout England
(during the Romifti times) were obliged to confeis their
fins, one by one, to their own parilh priefts, in their own
parifh-churches j and, that this might be done the more
regularly, the great bell in every parilh was rung at ten
o’clock (or perhaps fooner), that it might be heard by
all, and that they might attend, according to the cuf-
tom then in ufe. And though the Rorailh religion has
now given way to the Proteftant religion, the cuftom
of ringing the great bell in our ancient pariflx-churches,
at lead in fame of them, ftill remains, and obtains in
and about London the name of Pancake bell j perhaps,
becaufe after the conieflion it w as cuftom ary for the fe¬
veral perfons to dine on pancakes or fritters. Moft
churches,.
Shrove
S H 11 [ 326 ] S I A
churches, indeed, have rejefted that cuflom of ringing
the bell on Shrove-Tuefday *, but the ufage of dining
on pancakes or fritters, and luch like provifion, itill
continues.
SHROUDS (fcrud Sax.), a range of large ropes ex¬
tending from the mail-heads to the right and left fide of
the Ihip, to fupport the malts, and enable them to carry
fail, &c.
The fhrouds as well as the fails are denominated from
the malts to which they belong. Thus they are the
main, fore, and mizen Ihrouds; the main-top-maft, fore-
top-maft, or mizen-top malt Ihrouds 5 'and the main-top¬
gallant, fore-top-gallant, or mizen-top-gallant Ihrouds.
The number of Ihrouds by which a malt is fuftained, as
well as the fize of rope of which they are formed, is al¬
ways in proportion to the fize of the malt and the weight
of the fail it is intended to carry.
Bowfprit Ihrouds are thofe which fupport the bowfprit.
Bumkin Ihrouds are thofe which fupport the bumkins.
Futtock Ihrouds are (hrouds which connect the efforts
of the topmaft fhrouds to the lower (hrouds. Bentinck
Ihrouds are additional Ihrouds to fupport the malts in
heavy gales. Preventer Ihrouds are fimilar to bentinck
Ihrouds, and are ufed in bad weather to eafe the lower
rigging. See Mast and Sait.
SHRUB,yratex, a little, low, dwarf tree, or a woody
vegetable, of a fize lefs than a tree 3 and which, inltead
of one fingle Item, frequently from the fame root puts
forth feveral fets or Items. See Plant and Tree. Such
are privet, phillyrea, holly, box, honey-fuckle, &c.
Shrubs and trees put forth in autumn a kind of buttons,
or gems, in the axis of the leaves 3 thefe buttons are as
fo many little ova, which, coming to expand by the
warmth of the following fpring, open into leaves and
•flowers. By this, together with the height, fome diltin-
guilh fhrubs from fuff rut ices, or under Ihrubs, which are
low bullies, that do not put forth any of thefe buttons,
as fage, thyme, &c.
The two hardieft fhrubs we are pofleffed of are the
ivy and box 3 thefe Hand the feverity of our fharpeft
winters unhurt, while other Ihrubs perifh, and trees
have their folid bodies fplit and torn to pieces. In the
hard winter of the year 1683, thefe two Ihrubs fuffered
no injury any where 3 though the yews and hollies,
which are generally fuppofed very hardy, were that
winter in fome places killed, and in others ftripped of
their leaves, and damaged in their bark. Furze-bullies
were found to be fomewhat hardier than thefe, but they
fometimes perifhed, at leaft down to the root. The
broom feemed to occupy the next ftep of hardinefs be¬
yond thefe. This lived where the others died, and
where even this died, the juniper Ihrubs wrere fometimes
found unhurt. This laft is the only fhrub that ap¬
proaches to the hardinefs of the box and ivy, but even
it does not quite come up to them 3 for while they fuffer
nothing in whatever manner they are expofed, the ju¬
niper, though it bears cold well under the Ihelter of
other trees, yet cannot bear the viciflitudes of heat and
cold 3 infomuch that fome juniper (limbs were found half
dead and half vigorous 3 that fide which faced the
mid-day fun having perilhed by the fucceflive thawings
and freezings of its fap 3 while that which was not ex¬
pofed to the viciflitudes of heat had borne the cold per-
i< £lly well. Such Ihrubs as are not hardy enough to de¬
fy the winter, but appear half dead in the fpring, may Shrub
often be recovered by Mr Evelyn’s method of beating || |
their branches with a (lender hazel-w'and, to ftrike off ^‘am’
the withered leaves and buds, and give a free paffage to
the air to the internal parts. Where this fails, the me¬
thod is to cut them down to the quick, and if no part of
the trunk appears in a growing condition, they mull be
taken off down to the level of the ground. Philofophi*
cal Tranfadtions, N° 165.
SHUTTLE, in the manufadlures, an inflrument ufed
by the weavers, which guides the thread it contains,
either of woollen, (ilk, flax, or other matter, fo as to make
it form the woofs of fl uffs, cloths, linens, ribbands, &c.
by throwing the (buttle alternately from left to right,
and from right to left, acrofs between the threads of the
warp, which are ftretched out lengthwife on the loom.
In the middle of the fhuttle is a kind of cavity, called
the eye or chamber of the (buttle 3 wherein is inclofed
the fpoul, which is a part of the thread deftined for the
woof 3 and this is wound on a little tube of paper, rulh,
or.other matter.
The ribband-weaver’s (buttle is very different from
that of molt other weavers, though it ferves for the
fame purpofe : it is of box, fix or feven inches long,
one broad, and as much deep ; (hod with iron at both
ends, which terminate in points, and are a little crooked,
the one towards the right, and the other towards the
left, reprefenting the figure of an c/3 horizontally placed.
See Weaving.
SI ALOGOGUES, medicines which promote the (a-
livary difeharge. 1
SIAM Proper, by fome called Upper, (to diftinguifliBoundarie:
it from the Lower Siam, under which are often inclu-exteDl
ded Laos, Cambodia, and Malacca), is bounded on the
north by the kingdoms of Pegu and Laos ; on the eafl:
by Cambodia and Cochin-China 3 on the fouth by Ma¬
lacca and the bay of Siam ; and on the weft by the
ocean. But as the opinions of geographers are extreme¬
ly various concerning the fituation and extent of moft of
the inland countries of Alia and Africa, neither the ex¬
tent nor boundaries of Siam are yet accurately known.
By fome it is fuppofed to extend 550 miles in length,
and 250 miles in breadth 3 in fome places it is not
above 50 miles broad. 3
The winds blow here from the fouth upon the coaft Weather,
of Siam, in March, April, and May 3 in April the rains
begin, in May and June they fall almoft without cea-
fing. In July, Auguft, and September, the winds blow
from the weft, and the rains continuing, the rivers over¬
flow their banks nine or ten miles on each fide, and for
more than 150 miles up the dream. At this time,
and more particularly in July, the tides are fo ftrong
as to come up the river Menan as far as the city of
Siam, which is fituated 60 miles from its mouth 3 and
fometimes as far as Louvo, which is 50 miles higher.
The winds blow from the wreft and north in Odlober,
when the rain ceafcs. In November and December the
winds blow dry from the north, and the waters being
in a few days reduced to their ancient channels, the
tides become fo infenfible, that the neater is frefli at the
mouth of the river. At Siam there is never more than
one flood and one ebb in the fpace of 24 hours. In
January the wind blows from the eaft, and in February
from the eaft and fouth. When the wind is at eaft,
the
S I A
>iam.
3 ,
1 retable
J Euc-
t ii.
Dt5
iption
inha-
the current fets to the weft 5 and, on the contrary,
when the wind is at weft, the currents run to the eaft-
wrard.
As this country is fituated near the tropic, it muft
neceflarily be very hot; but yet, as in other places
nearly of the fame latitude, when the fun is vertical and
Ihines with a moft intenfe heat, the inhabitants are fo
Ikreened by the clouds, and the air is fo refrelhed by a
deluge of rain that overflows the plains which the peo¬
ple chiefly inhabit, that the heat is very fupportable.
The cooleft wind blows in December and January.
The vegetable produce of this country is chiefly rice
and wheat, befides tropical and a few European fruits.
The Siamefe prepare the land for tillage as foon as the
earth is fufficiently moiftened by the floods. They plant
their rice before the waters rife to any confiderable
height, and, as they rife flowly, the rice keeps pace
with them, and the ear is always above the water. They
reap their corn when the water retires, and fometimes
go ii> boats to cut it while the waters are upon the
ground. They alfo fow rice in feveral parts of the king¬
dom that are not overflowed, and this is thought better
tafted, and will keep longer than the other •, but they
are forced to fupply thefe fields conftantly with water,
while the rice is growing, from bafms and ponds that lie
about them.
They have no European fruits except oranges, le¬
mons, citrons, and pomegranates. They have bananas,
Indian figs, jaques, durions, mangoes, mangoftans, ta¬
marinds, ananas, and cocoa nuts j they have alfo abun¬
dance of pepper and fugar-canes. The mountains are
covered with trees which make good marts. The ve¬
getable of greateft ufe in the country is the bamboo,
which grows chiefly in marfliy foils, and is often found
of a prodigious fize. Cotton trees are found in great
numbers j and others that yield capoc, a very fine cot¬
ton wool, but fo Ihort as to be unfit for Ipmning,
though it anfwers very well for fluffing mattreffes and
pillows. "N
There is no country where elephants abound more
than in Siam, or where they are held in greater venera¬
tion. They have a few horfes, fheep, and goats, be¬
fides oxen and buffaloes ; but they have no good ani¬
mal food except the flefh of hogs, their beef and mutton
being of a very indifferent quality.
The Siamefe are of fmall ftature, but well proportion-
■ed ; their complexions are fwarthy : the faces of both
the men and women are broad, and their foreheads, fud-
denly contrading, terminate in a point, as well as their
chins. I hey have fmall black eyes, hollow jaws, large
mouths, and thick pale lips. 1 heir teeth are dyed
black, their nofes are fhort and round at the end, and
they have large ears, which they think very beautiful.
Their hair is thick and lank, and both fexes cut it fo
fliort that it reaches no lowrer than their ears ; the wo¬
men make it ftand up on their foreheads; and the men
fhave their beards.
People of diftindlion wear a piece of calico tied about
their loins, that reaches down to their knees.—The men
ring up this cloth between their legs, and tuck it into
their girdles, which gives it the appearance of a pair of
reeches. They have alfo a muffin Hurt without a col¬
lar, with wide fleeves, no wriftbands, and the bofom
open* In winter they wear a piece of fluff or painted
[ 327 1
s 1 A
linen over their fhoulders, like a mantle, and wind it Siam,
about their arms. ty—
The king of Siam is diftinguifted by wearing a vert
of brocaded fatin, with ftraight fleeves that reach down
to the wrift, under fuch a fhirt as we have juft defcri-
bed, and it is unlawful for any fubjedt to wear this
drefs unlefs he receives it from the king. They wear
flippers with piked toes turned up, but no ftockings..
T he king fometimes prefents a military veil to the ge¬
nerals ; this is buttoned before, and reaches to the
knees j but the fleeves are wide, and come no lower
than the elbows. All the retinue of the king, either in
war or in hunting, are clothed in red. I he king wears
a cap in the form of a fugar-loaf, encompaffed by a co¬
ronet or circle of precious ftones, and thofe of h'is officers
have a circle of gold, filver, or of vermilion gilt, to dif-
tinguifh their quality j and thefe caps are faftened with a
ftay under the chin j they are only worn when they are
in the king’s prefence, or when they prefide in courts of
juftice, and on other extraordinary occafions. They
have alfo hats for travelling ; but, in general, few peo¬
ple cover their heads notw'ithftanding the fcorching heat
of the fun.
The women alfo wrap a cloth about their middle,
which hangs down to the calf of their legs. They co¬
ver their breafts with another cloth, the ends of which
hang over their flioulders. But they have no garment
correfponding to a ftiift, nor any covering for their
heads but their hair. T he common people are al-
moft naked, and wear neither flioes nor flippers. The
women w'ear as many rings on the three lalt fingers of
each hand as they can keep on, and bracelets upon their
wrifts and ancles, with pendants in their ears ftiaped like
a pear.
For an inferior to ftand before a fuperior is deemed Manners
infolent 5 and therefore flaves and people of inferior and cut-
rank fit upon their heels, with their heads a little in-toms
dined, and their joined hands lifted up to their fore¬
heads. In pa fling by a fuperior they bend their bodies,
joining their hands, and lifting them towards their heads
in proportion to the refpedt they would fhow. When
an inferior pays a vifit, he enters the room ftooping,
proftrates himfelf, and then remains upon his knees*
fitting upon his heels without fpeaking a word till lie
is addrelfed by the perfon whom he vifits 5 for he that
is of the higheft quality muft always fpeak firft. If a
perfon of rank vifits an inferior, he walks upright, and
the matter of the houfe receives him at the door, and
waits on him fo far when he goes away, but never far¬
ther.
The higheft part of the houfe is efteemed the moft
honourable, and no. perfon cares to lodge under ano¬
ther’s feet. The Siamefe indeed have but one ftory,
but the rooms rife gradually, and the innermoft, which
are the higheft, are always the moft honourable. When
the Siamefe arnbaffador came to the French court
fome of his retinue were lodged in a floor over the am-
baffador’s head 5 but they no fooner knew it, than they
were ftruck with the greateft confternation, and ran
down tearing their hair at the thoughts of being guil- '
ty. of what they confidered as fo unpardonable a
crime.
The Siamefe never permit fueh familiarities as are
praftifed by gentlemen in Europe. Eafinefs of accefs,
and
Siam.
Genius and
S I A [32
and affability to inferiors, is in that part of the world
thought a fign of weaknefs, and yet they take no no¬
tice of fome things which may be looked, upon as ill
breeding among us j fuch as belching in company,
which no man endeavours to prevent or fo much as
holds his hand before his mouth. I hey have an extra¬
ordinary refpeft for the head, and it is the greateif af¬
front to ftroke or touch that of another perfon.j nay,
their cap muff not be ufed 'with too much familial ity j
for when a fervant carries it, it is put on a flick and held
above his head j and when the matter ftands ftUl the
flick is fet down, it having a foot to (land upon. Ihey
alfo {how their refped by lifting their hands to the
head j and therefore, when they receive a letter from
any one for whom they have a great rcfpect, they im¬
mediately hold it up to their heads, and fometimes lay
it upon their heads. . 1 i c
They are efteemed an ingenious people, and though
difpofitions. ratjier in(i0lent than aftive in difpofltion, they are not
addifted to the voluptuous vices which often accompa¬
ny a ftate of eafe, being remarkably chafte and tempe¬
rate, and even holding drunkennefs in abhorrence.—-
They are, however, accounted infolent towards their
inferiors, and equally obfequious to thofe above, them j
the latter of which qualities appears to be particularly
inculcated from their earlieft youth. In general, their
behaviour is extremely modeft, and they are averie to
loquacity. Like the Chinefe, they avoid {peaking in
the firft perfon : and when they addrefs a lady, it is al¬
ways with fome refpeftful epithet, inflnuating perfonal
accomplHhments. .
No man in this country learns any particular trade,
but has a general knowledge of all that are commonly
praftifed, and every one works fix months for the king
by rotation j at which time, if he fliould be found per-
feftly ignorant of the bufinefs he is fet about, he is
doomed°to fuffer the baftinado. The confequence of
this burdenfome fervice is, that no man endeavours
to excel in his bufinefs, left he ftiould be obliged to
pradlice it as long as^ he lives for the benefit of the
crown. .
The government of this country is. extremely op-
nreflive, the king being not only fovereign but proprie¬
tor of all the lands, and chief merchant likewife j by
which means he monopolizes almoft the whole traffic,
to the great prejudice of his fubje£ts. ihe crown is
faid to be hereditary, but it is often transferred by re¬
volutions, on account of the exorbitant abufe of power
in thofe who exercife the royal office. In his palace,
the king is attended by women, who not only prepare
his food, and wait on him at table, but even perform
the part of valets, and put on all his clothes, except his
caii which is confidered as too facred to be touched by
any hand but his own. He ffiows himfelf to the people
only twice a-year, when he diftributes his alms to the
talapoins or priefts : and on thofe occafions he always
appears in an elevated fituation, or mounted on the back
cf an elephant. When he takes the diverfion of hunt¬
ing, he is as ufual attended by his women on foot, pre¬
ceded by a guard of 200 men, who drive all the people
from the roads through which they are to pafs ; and
•when the king flops, all his attendants tall upon their
IO faces on the ground. . . , .
Forms of All their proceedings in lavr are committed to wri-
procefs. ting, and none is fuffered to exhibit a chaige againit
9
Govern.
ment.
8 ] S I A
another, without giving fecurity to profecute it, and Siam
anfwer the damages if he does not pro\ e the fact againft n
the perfon accufed. When a perfon intends to profe¬
cute another, he draws up a petition, in which he fets
forth his complaint, and prefents it to the nm, or head
of the band to which he belongs, who tranfmits it to
the governor j and if the complaint appears frivolous,
the profecutor, according to the laws of the country,
ffiould be puniffied ; but the magiflrates generally en¬
courage profecutions on account of the perquifites they
bring to their office.
Every thing being prepared for hearing, the parties
are feveral days called into court, and perfuaded to
agree 5 but this appears to be only a matter of form.
At length the governor appoints a day for all parties
to attend ; and being come into court, the clerk reads
the procefs and opinion of his affociates, and then the
governor examines upon what reafons their opinions are
founded j which being explained to him, he proceeds
to pafs judgment. r
When fufficient proofs are wanting, they have re-Trial
eourfe to an ordeal trial, like that of our Saxon ance-deal
ftors : both the plaintiff and the defendant, walk upon
burning coals, and he that efcapes unhurt is adjudged
to be in the right: fometimes the proof is made by put¬
ting their hands in boiling oil 5 and in both thefe trials,
by fome peculiar management, one or the other is faid
to remain unhurt. They have alfo a proof by water,
in which he who remains longeft under it is efteemed in¬
nocent. They have another proof, by fwallowing pills,
which their priefts adminifter with fevere imprecations ;
and the party who keeps them in his ftomach without
vomiting is thought to be innocent.
All thefe trials are made in the prefence of the magi-
ftrates and people j and the king himfelf frequently di-
refts them to be performed, when crimes come before
him by way of appeal. Sometimes he orders both the
informer and prifoner to be thrown to the. tigers : and
the perfon that efcapes by his not being feized upon by
thofe beafts, is fufficiently juftified. . _ 14
They maintain the doftrine of tranfmigration, belie-Rehgioi
ving in a pre-exiftent ftate, and that they {hall pafs into0P1Iuon
other bodies till they are fufficiently purified to be re¬
ceived into paradife. They believe likewife that the
foul is material, but not fubjett to the touch} that it
retains the human figure after quitting'a body of that
fpecies 5 and that when it appears to perfons with whom
it was acquainted, which they fiappofe it to do, the
wounds of one that has been murdered will then be vi-
fible. They are of opinion that no man will be eter¬
nally punifhed •, that the good, after feveral tranfmigra- .
‘ tions, will enjoy perpetual happinefs } but that thole
who are not reformed will be doomed to tranfmigration
to all eternity. They believe in the exiftence of a Su¬
preme Being j but the objects of their adoration are de¬
parted faints, Avhom they confider as mediators or inter-
ceffors for them 5 and to the honour of this numerous j
tribe both temples and images are erefted. 4
The men of this country are allowed a plurality oti a
women •, but excepting one, who is a wife by contract,
the others are only concubines, and their children deem¬
ed incapable of any legal inheritance. Previous to eve¬
ry nuptial contraft, an aftrologer rauft be coniulted,
who calculates the nativity of the parties, and deter¬
mines whether their union is likely to prove iortunate
14
unerals.
IS
ivers.
16
fcrip-
m of the
pital.
SIB [ 329
of otherTvife. When his prognoftication is favourable,
the lover is permitted to vifit hismiltrefs three times, at
the lail of which interviews the relations being pre-
fent, the marriage portion is paid, when, without any
religious ceremony performed, the nuptials are reckon¬
ed complete, and foon after confummated. A few days
after the talapoin vifits the married couple, fprinkles
them with water, and repeats a prayer for their pro-
fperity.
The pra&ice in Siam refpe&ing funerals, is both to
burn and bury the dead. The corpfe being laid upon
the pile, it is fuffered to burn till a confiderable part is
confumed, when the remainder is interred in a burying-
place contiguous to fome temple. The reafun which
they give for not burning it entirely to allies is, that
they fuppofe the deceafed to be happy when part of
his remains efcapes the fire. Inltead of a tombftone,
they ere£l a pyramid over the grave. It was formerly
the cuftom to bury treafure with the corpfe *, but long¬
er experience evincing, that the facrilegious light in
which robbing the graves was confidered did not pre¬
vent the crime, they now difcontinue the ancient prac¬
tice, and in Head of treafure bury only painted papers
and other trifles.
The two principal rivers are the Menan and the Me-
con, which rife in the mountains of Tartary, and run
to the fouth ; the former palling by the city of Siam,
falls into the bay of the fame name, in the 13th de¬
gree of north latitude ; and the latter running through
Laos and Cambodia, difcharges itfelf into the Indian
ocean in the 9th degree of north latitude.
The capital of the country is Siam, called by the na¬
tives Siyothoya, fituated in the xoifl; degree of call longi¬
tude, and in the 14th degree of north latitude, being al-
molt encompafled by the branches of the river Menan.
It is about 10 miles in circumference within the walls,
but not a fixth part of the ground is occupied by Jpuild-
ings. In the vacant fpaces there are near 300 pagodas
or temples, round wThich are fcattered the convents of
the priefts and their burying-places. The ftreets of the
city are fpacious, and fome have canals running through
them, over which is a great number of bridges. The
houfes Hand on pillars of the bamboo cane, and are
built of the fame materials : the communication between
different families, during the winter feafon, being car¬
ried on as in other tropical countries by means of boats.
The grounds belonging to the feveral tenements are fe-
parated by a palifado, within which the cattle are houfed
in barns, eredled likewife upon pillars, to preferve them
from the annual inundation.
SIBBALDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of pentandria, and to the order of pentagynia ;
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 35th order,
SenticofiE. See Botany Index.
SlBENICO, or Sebenico, the name of a city and
province of Dalmatia. The province of Sibenico runs
along the fea for more than 30 miles $ reaches in fome
places above 20 miles within land, and comprehends
above 70 iflands. The city of Sibenico is fituated near
the mouth of the river Cherca, in the gulf of Venice,
55 miles north of Spalatto, and 25 fouth-eaft of Zara.
E. Long. 16° 46', N. Lat. 440 17'. It belongs to the
Venetians, It is defended on one fide by a caftle, which
held out againfi: repeated attacks of the Turks, and to¬
wards the fea by a fort.
Vol. XIX, Part I.
Siberia.
] SIB
SIBERIA, a large country, comprehending the moft
northerly parts of the Ruffian empire in Alia. It is v J
bounded on the call by the eaftern ocean \ on the fouth Bourdar;es
by Great Tartary j on the weft by Ruflia j and on the anci extent,
north by the Frozen ocean. It is about 2000 miles in
length from eaft to weft, and 750 miles in breadth trom
north to fouth 2
At what time this country was firft inhabited, or Conquerei'
by whom it was peopled, we are entirely ignorant j tl"6
but writings have been found in it when it was dil'cover liu®ans*
ed, which fhows that it muft have been early known to
a civilized people *. The Ruffians, from whom wTe have * Bell's
received our knowledge, knew nothing of it before the Travels*
middle of the 16th century. In the reign of John Bafi-
lovvitz I. indeed, an incurfion had been made into Sibe¬
ria, and fome Tartar tribes fubdued ; butthefe conquefts
were not permanent; and we hear of no further com¬
munication between Ruflia and Siberia till the time of
John Bafilowitz II. It was opened again at that time*
by means of one Anika Strogonoff, a Ruffian merchant,
who had eftablithed fome falt-werks at a town in the
government of Archangel. This man carried on a.
trade with the inhabitants of the north-weft parts of
Siberia, who brought every year to the town above
mentioned large quantities of the fineft furs. Thus
he acquired a very confiderable fortune in a Ihort time j
when at laft the czar, perceiving the advantages which
would accrue to his fubjebts from having a regular in-
tercourfe with Siberia, determined to enlarge the com¬
munication which was already opened. With this view
he fent into Siberia a body of troops, which croifed the
Yugorian mountains, that form part of the north-eaftem
boundary of Europe. They feem, however, not to have
paffed the Irtifh, or to have penetrated farther than the
weftern branch of the river Oby. Some Tartar tribes
were laid under contribution, and a chief named Tediger
confented to pay an annual tribute of 1000 fables. But
this produced no lafting advantage to Ruflia ; for, foon
after, Yediger was defeated and taken prifoner by
Kutchum Khan, a defcendant of the great Jenghiz
Khan : and thus the allegiance of this country to Ruf-
fia wras difiblved.
For fome time Ave hear of no further attempts made
by the Ruffians on Siberia j but in 1577 ^ founda¬
tion of a permanent conqueft was laid by one Yermac
Temofeeflf, a Coffack of the Don. This man Avas at
firft the head of a party of banditti who infefted the
Ruffians in the province of Cafan j but being defeated
by the troops of the czar, he retired Avith 6oco of his
folloAvers into the interior parts of that province. Con¬
tinuing his courfe ilill eaftivard, he came to Orel, the
moft eafterly of all the Ruffian fettlements. Here he
took up his Avinter quarters : but his reftlefs genius
did not fuffer him to continue for any length of time
in a ftate of ina&ivity j and from the intelligence, he
procured concerning the fituation of the neighbouring
Tartars of Siberia, he turned his arms toAvards that;
quarter.
Siberia Avas at that time partly divided among a num- State^of
ber of feparate princes, and partly inhabited by the vari- Siberia at
ous tribes of independent Tartars. Of the former Kut-the time
chum Khan was the moft poAverful fovereign. His do-
minions confifted of that traft of country Avhich now queft,0*1"
forms the fouth-weftern part of the province of Tobollk j
and ftretched from the banks of the Irtifh and Oby to
L t thofe
SIB [ 330 ] SIB
Siberia, thofe of the Tobol and Tura. His principal refidence
v ” ''' was at Sibir, a fmall forlrefs upon the river IrtHh, not
far from the prefent town of Tobolfk, and of which
fome ruins are Hill to be feen. After a courfe of unre¬
mitted fatigue, and a feries of victories which almoft ex¬
ceed belief, but of which we have not. room to give the
detail, our intrepid adventurer difpoffeffed this prince of
his dominions, and feated himfelf on the throne of Sibir.
The number of his followers, however, being greatly
reduced, and perceiving he could not depend on the
affection of his new fubjefts, he had recourfe to the czar
of Mufcovy, and made a tender of his new acquifitions
to that monarch, upon condition of receiving immediate
and effectual fupport. This propofal was received with
the greateft fatisfaftion by the czar, who granted him a
pardon for all former offences, and fent him the required
fuccours. Yermac, however, being foon after drowned
in an unfuccc^sful excurfion, the Ruffians began to lofe Siberia,
their footing in the country. Rut freflr reinforcements
being feafonably fent, they not only recovered their
ground, but puffed their conquefts far and wide j wbere-
ever they appeared, the Tartars were either reduced or
exterminated. New towns were built, and colonies were
planted on all fides. Before a century had well elapfed,
all that vail tra£l of country now called Siberia, which
ft retches from the confines of Europe to the Eaftern
ocean, and from the Frozen fea to the prefent frontiers
of China, was annexed to the Ruffian dominions.
The air of Siberia is, in general, extremely piercing, ciimatw
the cold there being more fevere than in any other part
of the Ruffian dominions. The Siberian rivers are
frozen very early, and it is late in the fpring before the
ice is thawed (a). If the corn does not ripen in Auguft,
there is little hope of a harveft in this country j and in
the
(a) M. Gmelin, M. Muller, and two other philofophers, fet out in the year 1733 to explore the dreary regions
of Siberia, by defire of the emprefs Anne of Ruffia. After fpending nine years and a half in obferving every
thing that was remarkable, they returned to Peterffurgh j and an account of this journey Avas publiffed by M*
Gmeli-n. In order to examine how far the froft had penetrated into the ground, M. Gmelin, on the 18th of
June, at a place called Jacutia, oidered the earth to be dug in high ground 5 they found mould to the depth of
11 inches, under which they met with loofe fand to two feet and a half further, after which it grew harder, and
at half a foot deeper fo hard as fcarcely to give way to the tools j fo that the ground {till remained unthawed at
not lefs than the depth of four feet. He made the fame experiment in a lower fituation ; the foil was 10 inches
deep, after that a loofe fand for twTo feet and ten inches, below which all was frozen and hard. At Jacutia the
inhabitants preferve in cellars feveral forts of berries, which they reckon among their dainties, perfectly good and
frefli the whole year, though thefe cellars are fcarcely a fathom deep. At the fortrefs of Argun, in little more
than 50 degrees of latitude, the inhabitants relate that the earth in many places is never thawed above a yard and
a half, and that the internal cold of the earth will fcarcely permit a well to be dug, of which they bring an inftance
that happened not long before the author’s arrival at that place. They defigned to fink a w^ell near a houfe at
fome diftance from the river Argun, for which purpofe they thawed the earth by degrees, and dug fome fathoms
till they had penetrated a fathom and half below the level of the river, but found no ipring. Hence perhaps we
may venture to affert, that befides the great elevation of the earth in thefe countries, there is another caufe, per¬
haps latent in the earth itfelf, of this" extraordinary cold, naturally fuggefted to us by confidering the-cavity
of an old filver mine at Argun, which being exhaufted of its ore, now ferves the inhabitants in fummer time for
a cellar to keep their provifions: this place is fo extremely cold as to preferve fleffi meats from putrefaftion in the
hotteft fummers, and to fink the mercury in De Lifie’s theremometer to 146 and 147. The author travelling
from Nerfchoi towards Argun, to vifit the works of the filver mines in that place, Auguft 1735? came to the river
Orkija, near Solonifchaia, on July the firft, from whence he arrived a little before dark at the village of Seventua,
diftant'from the river 27 leagues. In this journey he and his fellow travellers for more than four leagues felt it
vaftly cold j foon after they came into a warm air, which continued fome leagues; after which the cold returned 5
and thus are travellers fubjefted to perpetual viciffitudes of warmth and cold. But it is obferved in general, that
the eaftern parts are colder than the weftern, though fituated in the fame latitude j for as in thofe eaftern regions
fome trafts of land are much colder than the reft, their effedls muft be felt by the neighbouring parts. And this
conjecture is favoured by the thermometrical obfervations made with M. de L’lfle’s inftrument in all parts of
Siberia, in which the mercury was depreffed to the 226th degree, even in thofe parts that lie very much towards
the fouth, as in the territory of Selinga, which faid degree anfvvers in Fahrenheit’s thermometer to about 55-5
below o, but the fame thermometer fometimes indicated a much greater cold. At the fort of Kiringa, on
February 10. 1738, at 8 in the morning, the mercury flood at 240, which anfwers nearly to 72 below o in
Fahrenheit’s. On the 23d of the fame month it was a degree lower. At the fame place, December 11. at three
in the afternoon, it flood at 254 in De Lifle’s thermometer, and very near 90 in Fahrenheit’s ; on December 29.
at four in the afternoon, at 263 j on November 27. at noon, at 270; January 9. at 275, which feveral depreffions
anfwer in Fahrenheit’s to 99.44, 107.73, and 113.65 *, on January 5. at five in the morning, at 262 j an hour after
at 281, but at eight o’clock it returned to 250, and there remained till fix in the afternoon, and then rofe by
degrees till an hour before midnight, when it flood at 202. So that the greateft depreffion of the mercury anfwers
in Fahrenheit’s thermometer to 120.76 degrees below o, which is indeed very furprifing, and what nobody ever
imagined before. While this cold lafted at Jenifea, the fparrows and magpies fell to the ground, ftruck dead, as
it were, with the froft, but revived if they were foon brought into a warm room. The author was told alfo that
numbers of wild beafts were found in the woods dead and ftiff with the froft, and feveral travellers had their blood
and juices quite frozen in their veffels. The air itfelf at that time was fo difmal, that you would think it changed
to ice, as it was a thick fog, which was not diffinable by any exhalations, as in the fpring and autumn, and the
author could fcarcely Hand three minutes in the porch of his houfe for the cold-.
,'ibena.
.5
il and
jducs.
6
ild
afts.
SIB [33
the province of Jenifeific it is fometimes covered with
1 fnow before the peafants can reap it. To defend the
inhabitants againft this extreme feverity of the climate,
Providence feems more liberally to have dealt out to
them wood for fuel and furs for clothing. As the win¬
ter days in the north parts of Siberia laft but a few
hours, and the ftorms and flakes of fnow darken the
air fo much, that the inhabitants, even at noon, cannot
fee to do any thing without artificial lights, they fleep
away the greateft part of that feafon.
Thefe fevere winters are rapidly fucceeded by fum-
mers, in which the heat is fo intenfe that the Tungu-
fians, who live in the province of Jakutfk, go almofl:
naked. Here is fcarcely any night during that feafon j
and towards the Frozen ocean the fun appears conti¬
nually above the horizon. The vegetables and fruits of
the earth are here extremely quick in their growth.
The whole traft of land beyond the 60th degree of
north latitude is a barren wafte •, for the north part of
Siberia yields neither corn nor fruits; though barley is
known frequently to come to perfe&ion in Jakutfk.—
For this reafon, the inhabitants of the northern parts
are obliged to live on filh and flefli, but the Ruffians are
fupplied with corn from the fouthern parts of Siberia,
where the foil is furprifingly fertile. The countries be¬
yond the lake of Baikal, efpecially towards the eaft, as
far as the river Argun, are remarkably fruitful and plea-
fant ; but fuch is the indolence of the inhabitants, that
feveral fine trafts of land, which would make ample
returns to the peafant for cultivating them, lie negleft-
■ed. The paftures are excellent in this country, which
abounds in fine horned cattle, horfes, goats, &c. on
•which the Tartars chiefly depend for fubfiftence. How¬
ever, there are feveral fteppes, or barren waftes, and un¬
improvable tracts in thefe parts ; and not a Angle fruit
tree is to be feen. There is great variety of vegetables,
and in feveral places, particularly near Krafnoia Slobo-
da, the ground is in a manner overrun with afparagus
of an extraordinary height and delicious flavour. The
bulbs of the Turkifti bundes, and other forts of lilies,
are much ufed by the Tartars inftead of bread. This
want of fruit and corn is richly compenfated by the
great quantities of wild and tame beafts, and fowls, and
the infinite variety of fine fifti which the country af¬
fords (b).
In that part of Siberia which lies near the Icy fea,
as well as in feveral other places, are woods of pine,
larch, and other trees 5 befides which, a confiderable
quantity of wood is thrown afliore by the waves of
the Icy fea $ but whence it comes is not yet afeer-
tained.
Befides the wild fowl with which Siberia abounds,
there is a prodigious number of quadrupeds, fome of
1 1 SIB
which are eatable, and others valuable for their fkins | Siberia,
or furs. v
The animals moft valued for their fldns are the black
fox, the fable, the hyena, the ermine, the fquirrel, the
beaver, and the lynx. The flein of a real black fox
is more efteemed than even that of a fable. In the
country near the Frozen ocean are alio blue and white
foxes. The fineft fables come from Nertlhinlk and Ja-
kutlk, the inhabitants of which places catch thern in
the mountains of Stannowoi Krebet. The tributary
nations were formerly obliged to pay their taxes in the
fkins of foxes and fables only. But now the fkins of
fquirrels, bears, rein-deer, &c. and fometimes money,
are received by way of tribute j and this not only from
thofe who live near the Lena, but alfo in the govern¬
ments of Ilinfk, Irkutzk, Selenginfk, and Nertfhinfk.
When the Tartars firft became tributary to Rufiia, they
brought their furs indiferiminately as they caught them,
and among them were often fables of extraordinary
value j and formerly, if any trader brought with him
an iron kettle, they gave him in exchange for it as
many fables as it would hold. But they are now better
acquainted with their value. They fell their fables to
fmugglers at a very high price, and pay only a ruble in¬
ftead of a fkin to the revenue officers, who now receive
more ready money than fables by way of tribute. The
fubje&s plead the fcarcity of furs, and indeed not with¬
out fome appearance of truth. ^
Siberia has ftill other and more valuable treafures than Minerals,
thofe we have yet mentioned. The filver mines of Ar¬
gun are extremely rich ; the filver they produce yields
fome gold, and both of thefe are found among the cop¬
per ore of Koliwan. This country is alfo particularly
rich in copper and iron ore. The former lies even up¬
on the furface of the earth ; and confiderable mines of
it are found in the mountains of Piftow, Koliwan, Plo-
fkau, Wofkerefenfk, Kufwi, Alepaik, and feveral others,
and in the government of Krafnoiarfk (c). Iron is ftill
more plentiful in all thefe places, and very good ; but
that of Kamenfki is reckoned the belt. Several hun¬
dred thoufand puds of thefe metals are annually ex¬
ported from the fmelting houfes, which belong partly
to the crown, and partly to private perfons. Moft of
them lie in the government of Catharinenburg. The
Tartars alfo extraft a great quantity of iron from the
ore.
The topazes of Siberia have a fine luftre j and in open Precious
fandy places, near the river Argun, as well as on the ftoncs.
banks of other rivers and lakes, are found fingle fmall
pieces of agate. Here are alfo carnelians and green
iafper with red veins. The latter is chiefly met with
in the deferts of Gobilkoi.
The famous marienglas, or lapis fpecularis, great Marien.
T t 2 quantities
(B) The oak, though frequent in Ruflia, it is faid. is not to be found through this vaft region nearer than the
banks of the Argun and Amur, in the dominions of China. The white poplar, the afpen, the black poplar, the
common fallow', and feveral fpecies of the willow, are very common. 1 he Norway and filver fir form great fo-
refts } but the former does not grow beyond the 60th degree of north latitude, and the latter not beyond 58 de¬
grees. To this drearv region of Siberia, Europe is indebted for that excellent fpecies of oats called Avena Sibi~
nca ; and our gardens are enlivened with the gay and brilliant flowers brought from the fame country.
(cl The copper mines of Koliwan, from which gold and filver are extracted, employ above 40,000 people.
The filver mines of Nertfhinfk, beyond Lake Baikal, employ above 14,000. The whole revenue arifing from
thefe mines, according to Mr Coxe, is not lefs than 679,182k 13s’
S I B
Siberia.
[ 332 1
SIB
IO
Magnets.
11
Salt lakes
and fpring:
12
Curiofities.
13.
Mountains
quarttities of which are dug up in Siberia, is by fome
called Mufcovy or Ruffian glafs. It is a particular
fpecies of tranfparent ftone, lying in ftrata like fo many
fheets of paper. The matrix or ftone in which it is
found, is partly a light yellow quartz, or marcafiia, and
partly a brown indurated fluid } and this ftone contains
in it all the fpecies of the marienglas. To render the
marienglas fit for ufe, it is fplit with a thin two-edged
knife j but care is taken that the laminae be not too
thin. It is ufed for windows and lanterns all over Si¬
beria, and indeed in every part of the Ruffian empire,
and looks very beautiful; its luftre and clearnefs fur-
pafling that of the fineft glafs, to which it is particularly
preferable for windows and lanterns of {hips, as it will
ftand the explofion of cannon. It is found in the great-
eft plenty near the river Witim.
Siberia affords magnets of an extraordinary fize, and
even whole mountains of loadftone. Pit-coal is alfo
dug up in the northern parts of this country. The
kamennoe maflo, a yellowifti kind of alum, un&uous and
fmooth to the touch, like tophus, is found in the moun¬
tains of Krafnoiarik, Ural, Altaifh, Jenifea, Baikal, Bar-
gulik, Lena, and feveral others in Siberia.
In this country are not only a great number of frelh
water lakes, but likewife feveral whofe waters are fait $
and thefe reciprocally change their nature, the fait fome-
times becoming frelh, and the frelh changing intofaline.
Some lakes alfo dry up, and others appear where none
were ever feen before. The fait lake of Yamulha, in
the province of Tobollk, is the moft remarkable of all,
for it contains a fait as white 3s fnow, confifting entirely
of cubic cryftals. One finds alfo in Siberia faline fprings,
fait w'ater brooks, and a hill of fait.
Siberia affords many other things which deferve notice.
That ufeful root called rhubarb grows in vaft quantities
near the city of Seleginlk. The curious mammuth’s bones
and horns, as they are called, which are found along the
banks of the Oby, Jenefei, Lena, and Irtilh, are unquef-
tionably the teeth and bones of elephants. But w’hether
thefe elephants teeth and bones were conveyed to thefe
northern regions by the general deluge, or by any other
inundation, and were by degrees covered with earth, is
a point which might lead us into long and very fruitlefs
difquifitions ; w7e lhall therefore only obferve, that fuch
bones have likewife been found in Ruffia, and even in
feveral parts of Germany. A kind of bones of a ftill
larger fize than thefe have alfo been dug up in Siberia,
and feem to have belonged to an animal of the ox kind.
The horn of the whale called narwhal has been found
in the earth near the rivers Indigirka and Anadir 5 and
the teeth of another fpecies of whales, called wolrofs,
about Anadirfkoi. The latter are larger than the com¬
mon fort, which are brought from Greenland, Archan¬
gel, and Kola.
The chain of Siberian mountains reaches from that
of Werchoturie towards the fouth as far as the neigh¬
bourhood of the city of Orienburg, in a continued ridge,
under the name of the Uralian mountains j but from
thence it alters its direction weftward. Thefe mountains
are a kind of boundary between Ruflia Proper and Si¬
beria. Another chain of hills divides Siberia from the
country of the Calmucks and Mongolians.—Thefe moun¬
tains, between the rivers Irtilh and Oby, are called the
Altaic or Golden Mountains, which name they after¬
wards lofe, particularly between the river Jenefei and
the Baikal lake, where they are called the Sayanian Siberia,
mountains. ||
The inhabitants of Siberia confift of the Aborigines t
or ancient inhabitants, the Tartars, and Ruffians, com- k
puted at 3,500,000. Inhabitant;
Some of thefe nations have no other religion but that
of nature 5 others are Pagans or Mahometans, and lome
of them have been converted to Chriftianity, or rather
only baptifed by the Ruffian miflionaries.
SIBTHORPIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of didynamia, and to the order of angiofpermia •,
and in the natural fyftem claffed with thofe the order of
which is doubtful. See BotanY Indtx.
SIBYLS, in pagan antiquity, certain women faid
to have been endowed with a prophetic fpirit, and to
have delivered oracles, Ihowing the fates and revolu¬
tions of kingdoms. Their number is unknown. Plato
fpeaks of one, others of two, Pliny of three, Ablian of^nfr*y
four, and Varro of ten ; an opinion which is univerfally Lotion-
adopted by the learned. Thefe ten Sibyls generally re-ary.
fided in the following places, Perfia, Libya, Delphi,
Cumae in Italy, Erythraea, Samos, Cumae in Aiolia,
Marpeffa on the Hellefpont, Ancyra in Phrygia, and
Tiburtis. The moft celebrated of the Sibyls is that of
Cumae in Italy, whom fome have called by the different
names of Amalthaea, Demiphile, Herophile, Daphne,
Manto, Phemonoe, and Deiphobe. It is faid, that
Apollo became enamoured of her, and that to make her
fenfible of his paflion he offered to give her whatever
(he ftiould afk. The Sibyl demanded to live as many
years as (he had grains of fand in her hand, but unfor¬
tunately forgot to alk for the enjoyment of the health,
vigour, and bloom, of which (he was then in pofleflion.
The god granted her requeft, but ftie refufed to gra¬
tify the paflion of her lover though he offered her per¬
petual youth and beauty. Some time after fhe became
old and decrepit, her form decayed, melancholy palenefs
and haggard looks fucceeded to bloom and cheerfulnels.
She had already lived about 700 years when Alneas
came to Italy, and, as fome have imagined, (he had three
centuries more to live before her years were as numerous
as the grains of fand which flie had in her hand. She
gave ALneas inftru£Hons how to find his father in the
infernal regions, and even conduced him to the en¬
trance of hell. It was ufual for the Sibyl to write her
prophecies on leaves, which ftte placed at the entrance of
her cave •, and it required particular care in fuch as con-
fulted her to take up thefe leaves before they were dif-
perfed by the w'ind, as their meaning then became in-
comprehenfible. According to the moft authentic hi-
ftorians of the Roman republic, oneTof the Siby ls came
to the palace of Tarquin the Second, with nine volumes,
which fhe offered to fell for a very high price. The mo¬
narch difregarded her, and fhe immediately difappeared,
and foon after returned, when ftie had burned three of
the volumes. She afked the fame price for the remain¬
ing fix books; and when Tarquin refufed to buy them,
fhe burned three more, and ftill perfifted in demanding
the fame fum of money for the three that wTere left.—
This extraordinary behaviour aftonifhed Tarquin ; he
bought the books, and the Sibyl inftantly vanifhed, and
never after appeared to the world. Thefe books were
preferved with great care by the monarch, and called
the Sibylline verfes. A college of priefts was appointed
to have the care of them j and fuch reverence did the
Romans
Sibyls
II
! Sicily-
SIC [ 33
Romans entertain for tliefe prophetic books, that they
were confulted with the greateft folemnity, and only
when the date feemed to be in danger. When the ea-
pitol was burnt in the troubles of Sylla, the Sibylline
verfes which were depofited there perifhed in the con¬
flagration ; and to repair the lofs which the republic,
feemed to have fuftained, commiflioners were immediate¬
ly fent to different parts of Greece to colledf whatever
verfes could be found of the infpired writings of the SU
byls. The fate of thefe Sibylline verfes which were
collefted after the conflagration of the capitol is un¬
known. There are now many Sibylline verfes extant,
but they are reckoned univerfally fnurious •, and it is evi¬
dent that they were compofed in the fecond century by
fome of the followers of Chriftianity, who wilhed to con¬
vince the heathens of their error, by aflifting the caufe
of truth with the arms of pious artifice.
SI CERA, a name given to any inebriating liquor by
thef Helleniftic Jews. St Chryfoftora, Theodoret, and
Theophilus of Antioch, who were Syrians, and who
therefore ought to know the fignification and nature of
“ ficera,” affure us, that it properly fignifies palm-wine.
Pliny acknowledges, that the wine of the palm-tree was
very w'ell known through all the eaft, and that it was
made by taking a bulhel of the dates of the palm-tree,
and throwing them into three gallons of water ; then
fqueezing out the juice, it would intoxicate like wine.
The wine of the palm-tree is white : when it is drunk
new, it has the tafte of the cocoa, and is fweet as honey.
When it is kept longer, it grows fironger, and intoxicates*
After long keeping, it becomes vinegar. ,
SICILIAN, in Mujic, denotes a kind of gay fpright-
ly air, or dance, probably invented in Sicily, foraewhat of
the nature of an Englifh jig •, ufually marked with the
characters or It confifts of two drains 5 the firft
O 8
T of four, and the feeond of eight, bars or meafures.
iundaries SICILY, is a large ifland in the Mediterranean fea,
id extent, adjoining to the fouthern extremity of Italy, and ex¬
tends from latitude 36° 25' to latitude 38° 25', and
from longitude 12° 30' to longitude 160 5' eafl from
London. Its greateft length 210 miles, breadth 133,
circumference 600 j its form triangular, the three an¬
gles being the promontories of Pelorum, Pachynum, and
Lilybaeum, or, as they are now called, the Faro, Capo
Paifaro, and Capo Boco. It is divided from Italy by
the ftraits of Medina, reaching from the tower of Fa¬
ro, which is the moft northerly part of the ifland, to
the Capo del!' Armi, or the Cape of Arms, the moft fouth¬
ern part of Calabria. Thefe ftraits, by the Latins cal¬
led Fretum Siculum, by the Italians // Faro di Mejfina,
and by us the Faro of Me fin a, are between x 2 and 15
miles over in the broadeft places, and in the narroweft
about a mile and a half; infomuch that when Medina
was taken by the Carthaginians, many of the inhabi¬
tants are faid to have faved themfelves by fwimming to
the oppofite coaft of Italy. Hence has arifen an opini¬
on that the ifland of Sicily was originally joined to the
continent, but afterwards feparated by an earthquake
or fome other natural caufe. This feparation, however,
is reckoned by the moft judicious among the ancients
2 to be fabulous ; and they content themfelves with fpeak-
1 iftorydu- ing of it as a thing faid to have happened,
tfous ^ Anciently this ifland was called Sicama, Sicilia, and
e°(us Trinacria or Triquetra ; the two former it had from the
3 ] SI c
Sicani and Siculi, who peopled a confiderable part of'
the country ; the two latter from its triangular figure. 4
Its firft inhabitants, according to the moft refpedlable
ancient authors, xvere the Cyclopes and Lseftrigones,.
who are faid to have fettled in the countries adjoining
to Mount Etna ; but of their origin w-e know nothing,
except what is related by the poets. After them came
the Sicani, who called themfelves the original inhabi¬
tants of the country ; but feveral ancient hiftorians in¬
form us that they came from a country in Spain wa¬
tered by the river Siconus. Diodorus, however, is of
opinion, that the Sicani were the moft ancient inhabi¬
tants of this ifland. He tells us that they were in pof-
feflion of the whole, and applied themfelves to cultivate
and improve the ground in the neighbourhood of Etna,
which was the moft fruitful part of the ifland : they
built feveral fmall towns and villages- on the hills to fe-
cure themfelves againft thieves and robbers j and were
governed, not by one prince, but each city and diftriift
by its own king. Thus they lived till Etna began to
throw out flames, and forced them to retire to the weft-
ern parts of the ifland, which they continued to inhabit
in the time of Thucydides. Some Trojans, after the
deftruftion of their, city, landed in the ifland, fettled
among the Sicani, and built the cities of Eryx and E-
gefta, uniting themfelves with them, and taking the
general name of Elymi or Elymaei. They were after¬
wards joined by fome Phocenfes, who fettled here on
their return from the fiege of Troy.
After the Sicani had for many ages enjoyed an un-
difturbed pofieflion of the whole of Sicily, or fuch parts
of it as they chofe to inhabit, they were vifited by the
Siculi, who were the ancient inhabitants of Aufonia
properly fo called } but being driven out from thence
by the Opici, they took refuge in the ifland of Sicily.
Not being contented with the narrow bounds allowed
them by the Sieani, they began to encroach upon their
neighbours; upon which a war enfuing, the Sicani were
utterly defeated, and confined to a corner of the ifland*
the name of which was now changed from Sicania into
that of Sicilia.
About 300 years after the arrival of the Siculi, the
ifland firft began to be known to the Greeks, who efta-
bliflied various colonies, and built many cities in diffe¬
rent parts of the ifland ; and it is only from the time
of their arrival that we have any hiftory of the ifland,
The firft of the Greeks that came into Sicily, were the
Chalcidians of Eubcea, under the conduft of Thucles,
who built Naxus, and a famous altar of Apollo, which,
as Thucydides tells us, was ftill ftanding in his time
without the city. The year after, which was, accords
ing to Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis, the third of the 17th
Olympiad, Archias the Corinthian, one of the Hera-
clrdse, laid the foundations of Syracufe. Seven years
after, a new colony of Chalcidians founded Leontini
and Catana, after having driven out the Siculi, who in¬
habited that tra<EL About the fame time Lamis, with
a colony from Megara, a city of Achaia, fettled on the
river Pantacius, at a place called Troti/um, where his
adventurers lived fome time in common with the Chal¬
cidians of Leontini *, but being driven from thence by
the Leontines, he built the city of Thapfus, where he
died. Upon his death, the colony left Thapfus -r and
under the conduct of Hyblon king of the Siculi, found¬
ed Megara Hyblaea, where they refided 245 years, till
they
Sicily.'
—Y—
SIC [ 3.34 1 si C
Sicily, they were driven out by Gelon tyrant of Syracufe. Du-
v ring their abode at Megara, they fent one Pamilus, who
was come from Megara in Achaia, their original city,
to build Selinus. This city was founded about 100
years after the foundation of Megara. Antiphemus
and Entimus, the former a Rhodian, the other a Cre¬
tan, led each a colony of their countrymen, and jointly
built the city of Gela on a river of the fame name, efta-
bldhing in their new fettlement the Doric cuftoms,
about 45 years after the founding of Syracufe. The
inhabitants of Gela founded Agrigentum ioS years af¬
ter their arrival in Sicily, and introduced the fame cuf¬
toms there. A few years after, Zancle was built by
the pirates of Cumae in Italy *, but chiefly peopled by
the Chalcidians,..Samians, and lonians, who chofe rather
to feck new fettlements than live under the Perfian
yoke. Some time after, Anaxales, tyrant of Rhegium,
drove out the ancient proprietors ; and, dividing his
lands amongfl: his followers, called the city Me/Jana or
Mcjfene, which Avas the name of his native city in Pelo-
ponnefus. The city of Himera was founded by the
Zancleans under the dire&ion of Eucleides, Simus, and
Sacon; but peopled by the Chalcidians and fome Syra-
-cufan exiles, Avho had been driven out by the contrary
faction.
The Syracufans built Acrae, Chafmenae, and Cama-
rina *, the firft 70 years, the fecond 90, and the third
135, after the foundation of their oAvn city. This is
the account which Thucydides, a moft judicious and
exaft writer, gives us of the various nations, whether
Greeks or Barbarians, who fettled in Sicily. Strabo
counts among the ancient inhabitants of Sicily the Mor-
getes, who being driven out of Italy by the Oenotrians,
fettled in that part of the ifland Avhere the ancient city
of Morgantium flood. The Campani, Avho affumed the
name of Mamertini, that is, invincible warriors, and the
Carthaginians, Avho fettled very early in Sicily, ought
likewife to be counted among the ancient inhabitants of
the ifland.
Before this period the hiftory of Sicily is blended
with fables like the early hiftory of almoft every other
country. After the fettlement of the Greeks in the
ifland, its various revolutions have been traced from
their feveral fources by many writers 5 but by none Avith
greater accuracy than Mr SAvinburne. From his ac¬
count of his Travels in the Tavo Sicilies, we have there¬
fore taken the folloAving concife hiftory of this king¬
dom, which Avill at once gratify fuch of our readers as
intereft themfelves in the fate of a generous people
who long ftruggled in vain for freedom ; and at the
fame time afford them a fpecimen of the entertainment
they may receive from the very elegant Avork of the
author.
Swiri- “ Ariftocracy prevailed at firfl: in the Greek fettle-
lurne's ments, but foon made Avay for tyranny j which in its
fhe'r'wc7S' turn wa'’ exPe^ed by democracy. One of the earlieft
e lies vol.ii'dt'ftroyers of common liberty AA^as Phalaris of Agrigen-
p. 176 turn, who reigned 600 years before Chrift:: his example
3 was contagious ; a legion of tyrants fprung up, and not
Giecian a commonwealth in the ifland efcaped the lafh of an
Sicily ufurper. Syracufe Avas moft oppreffed and torn to
pieces by diffenflon ; as its Avealth and preponderance
in the general fcale held out a greater temptation than
other cities to the ambition of Avicked men. It requires
the combined teftimony of hiftorians to enforce our be¬
lief of its wonderful profperity, and the no lefs extraor- Sicily,
dinary tyranny of fome of its fovereigns. Thefe Gre- v "”1 j
cian colonies attained to fuch excellence in arts and
fciences as emboldened them frequently to vie with the
learned and ingenious in the mother country ; nay, often
enabled them to bear acvay the palm of viftory : there
needs no ftronger proof of their literary merits than a
bare recital of the names of Archimedes, Theocritus,
Gorgias, and Charondas. ^
“ But the Sicilian Greeks were not deftined to en- Carthagi. I
joy the fweets of their fituation Avilhout moleftation. ri’ans con-
Very foon after their arrival, the inhabitants of the^®^1”:
neighbouring eoaft of Africa began to afpire to a ftiare^
of Sicily. Carthage fent large bodies of forces at dif¬
ferent times to eftablifli their poAver in the ifland, and
about 500 years before the Chriftian era had made
themfelves mafters of all the Aveftern parts of it. The
Siculi retained poffeffion of the midland country, and
the fouthern and eaftern coafts Avere inhabited by the
Greeks. ^
“ About that time Gelo Avas chofen prince of Syra- Gelo cho-
cufe on account of his virtues, Avhich grew ftill more^en^‘nS’ j
confpicuous after his exaltation : had the example he
fet been folloived by his fucceffors, the advantages of
freedom Avould never have been known or Aviftied for by
the Syracufans. The Carthaginians found in him a vi¬
gorous opponent to their project: of enflaving Sicily, a
project invariably purfued but never accottipliftied. 6
“ Hiero fucceeded his brother Gelo, and, contrary Is fucceei.;
to the ufual progreflion, began his reign by a difplay^
of bad qualities. Senlible of his error, and improvedHiero’
by experience, he afterAvards adopted more equitable
meafures. At his death the Syracufans threw off the
yoke, and for fixty years revelled in all the joys of
freedom. Their peace was, however, difturbed by the
Athenians and the Carthaginians. The latter plunder¬
ed Agrigentum, and threatened ruin to the reft of the
Grecian ftates j but a treaty of peace averted that ftorm.
The Athenians, under pretence of fupporting their al¬
lies the .people of Segefta, but in reality from a third;
of dominion, invefted Syracufe Avith a formidable land
and naval armament under the command of Nicias ; in
confequence of a rath indigefted plan, ill conducted at¬
tacks, and inadequate fupplies, their Avhole hoft was cut
to pieces or led away into captivity. 7
“ Syracufe had fcarcely time to breathe after her vie- Dionyfius
tory ere inteftine wars broke out, and raifed Dionyfius ihe elder
to fupreme command. Avarice, defpotifm, and cruel-ant*
ty, marked every day of his reign $ but his military en-
terprifes Avere croAvned with conftant fuccefs. He died
in peace, and bequeathed a powerful fovereignty to a
fon of his name tainted with the fame and worfe vices,
but not endoAved with equal capacity and martial abili¬
ty : in fuch hands the rod of tyranny ceafed to be for¬
midable, and the tyrant Avas driven out of Sicily by the
patriotic party ; but matters Avere not fufficiently fettled
for popular government, and Dionyfius refumed the
feeptre for a Avhile, till Timoleon forced him into per¬
petual exile.” ?
Liberty feemed noAV to be eftablifhed on a permanent Agathocles
balls *, but in Syracufe fuch profpefts always proved il- ^
lufory. Agathocles, a tyrant more inhuman than any
preceding ufurper, feized the throne, and deluged the
country with blood. He Avas involved in a perilous
conteft with the Carthaginians, Avho obtained many ad¬
vantages
SIC
[ 335 ] SIC
Sicily-
9
-rrhus
ng of
liras de¬
lves the
:ilians.
to
Ma-
tini fur-
e Meffi-
and are
led by
Ro-
is;
v\| :h
g s rife to
tifirft
fl ic war
f
in
f fecond
c war
r d by
f nibal.
vantages over him, drove his troops from poft to port,
and at lall blocked up his capital. In this defperate
fituation, when all foreign helps v'ere precluded, and
hardly a refource remained at home, the genius of A-
gathocles compafled his deliverance by a plan that was
imitated among the ancients by Hannibal, and among
the moderns by the famous Cortes. He embarked tvith
the flower of his army ; forced his way through innu¬
merable obftacles ; landed in Africa; and, having burnt
his fleet, routed the Carthaginians in a pitched battle,
and laid their territory wafte. Carthage feemed to be
on the brink of ruin, and that hour might have marked
her downfal had the Sicilian hoft been compofed of pa¬
triotic foldiers, and not of ungovernable aflaffins ; difeord
pervaded the vi&orious camp, murder and riot enfued ;
and the tyrant, after beholding his children and friends
butchered before his face, efcaped to Sicily, to meet a
death as tragical as his crimes deferved.
Anarchy now raged throughout the ifland, and every
faction was reduced to the neceffity of calling in the af-
fiftance of foreign pewers ; among whom Pyrrhus king
of Epirus took the lead, and reduced all parties to fome
degree of order and obedience. But ambition foon
prompted him to invade thole rights which he came to
defend ; he call off the malk, and made Sicily feel un¬
der his fway as heavy a hand as that of its former op-
preffors; but the Sicilians foon affumed courage and
ftrength enough to drive him out of the ifland.
About this period the Mamertini, whom Mr Swin¬
burne indignantly ftyles a crewr of mifereants, furprifed
Medina, and, after a general maffacre of the citizens,
eftablilhed a republican form of government. Their com¬
monwealth became fo troublefome a neighbour to the
Greeks, that Hiero II. who had been raifed to the
chief command at Syracufe in confideration of his fupe-
rior wifdom and w’arlike talents, found himlelf neceflita-
ted to form a league with Carthage, in order to deftroy
this neft of villains. In their diftrefs the Mamertini
implored the afliftance of Rome, though the fenate had
recently punilhed with exemplary feventy one of
their own legions for a fimilar outrage committed at
Rhegium. 1 he virtue of the Romans gave way to the
temptation, and the delire of extending their empire be¬
yond the limits of Italy, caff a veil over every odious
circumllance attending this alliance. A Roman army
eroffed the Faro, relieved Meflina, defeated the Car¬
thaginians, and humbled Hiero into an ally of the re¬
public.
Thus began the firft Punic war, which was carried
on for many years in Sicily with various fuccefs. The
genius of Hamilcar Barcas fupported the African caufe
under numberlefs difappointments and the repeated
overthrows of his colleagues ; at laft, finding his exer¬
tions ineffeftual, he advifed the Carthaginian nilers to
purchafe peace at the price of Sicily. Such a treaty
was not likely to be obferved longer than want of ftrength
Ihould curb the animolity of the vanquilhed party: when
their vigour was recruited, Hannibal fon of Hamilcar ea-
fily perfuaded them to refume the conteft, and for 16
years waged war in the heart of the Roman territories.
Meanwhile Hiero conducted himfelf with fo much pru¬
dence, that he retained the friendlhip of both parties,
and preferved his portion of Sicily in perfedl tranquillity.
He died in extreme old age, beloved and refpedted both
at home and abroad.
His grandfon Hieronymus, forfaking this happy line
of politics, and contracting an alliance with Carthage,
fell an early viftim to the troubles which his own folly-
had excited. Once more, and for the laft time, the Sy-
racufans found themfelves in poffeflion ot their indepen¬
dence : but the times were no longer fuited to fuch a
fyftem ; diffenfions gained head, and diflrafted the pub¬
lic councils. Carthage could not fupport them, or pre¬
vent Marcellus from undertaking the liege of Syracufe,
immortalized by the mechanical efforts of Archimedes,
and the immenfity of the plunder. See Syracuse. ^
The Sicilians after this relinquilhed all martial ideas, Sicily con-
and during a long feries of generations turned their at- queied by
tention folely to the arts of peace and the»labours of t^ie ^ara-
agriculture. Their pofition in the centre of the Ro- afterwards
man empire preferved them both from civil and foreign by the Nor-
foes, except in two inftances of a fervile war. The ra- mans,
pacity of their governors was a more conflant and in-
fupportable evil. In this ftate of apathy and opulence
Sicily remained down to the yth century of our era,
when the Saracens began to difturb its tranquillity,
lire barbarous nations of the north had before invaded
and ravaged its coafts, but had not long kept poffeflion.
The Saracens were more fortunate. In 827 they avail¬
ed themfelves of quarrels among the Sicilians to fubdue
the country. Palermo was chofen for their capital, and
the ftandard of Mahomet triumphed about 2CO years.
In 1038 George Maniaces was fent by the Greek em¬
peror with a great army to attack Sicily. He made
good his landing, and pulhed hisconquefts with vigour:
his fuccefs arofe from the valour of fome Norman troops,
which were at that time unemployed and ready to fell
their fervices to the beft bidder. Maniaces repaid them
with ingratitude; and by his abfurd conduft gave the
Muffelmans time to breathe, and the Normans a pretext
and opportunity of invading the Imperial dominions in
Italy. Robert and Roger of Hauteville afterwards con¬
quered Sicily on their own account, not as mercenaries ;
for having fubftantially fettled their power on the con¬
tinent, they turned their arms againft this ifland in obe¬
dience to the di&ates of zeal and ambition. After ten
years ftruggle, the Saracens yielded up the rich prize,
and Robert ceded it to his brother Roger, who affumed
the title of Great Earl of Sicily, ruled the ftate with
wifdom, and ranks defervedly among the greateft cha-
rafters in hiftory. He raifed himfelf from the humble
ftation of a poor younger fon of a private gentleman, to
the exalted dignity of a powerful monarch, by the foie
force of his own genius and courage ; he governed a na¬
tion of ftrangers with vigour and juftice, and tranfmitted
his poffeflions undifputed to his pofterity. Such an af-
femblage of great qualities is well in titled to our admi¬
ration.
He was fucceeded by his fon Simon, whofe reign was Unde/th
fhort, and made way for a fecond fon called Roger. In domimon*
1127 this prince joined to his Sicilian poffeflions the°fdiffe-
whole inheritance of Robert Guifcard (fee Naples rent mo“
N° 23.),. and affumed the regal ftyle. The greateftnarchs*
part of his reign was taken up in quelling revolts’in Ita¬
ly, but Sicily enjoyed profound peace. In 11 ^4 his
fon William afeended the throne, and paffed his life in
war and confufion. William II. fucceeded his father
and died without ifl'ue. Tancred, though bafely born’
was elected his fucceffor, and after him his fon William
III. who was vanquiftied by Henry of Swabia. During
the
SIC [ 33<5 1 S 1 ,C
Sicily, tlie troubles that agitated the reign of his fon the em- fhore of Calabria, beyond which is the finall city of the < Sicily.
' v peror Frederic, peace appears to have been the lot of fame name. I hough there was fcarcely any wind, Spal- .t ~
Sicily. A Ihort-lived fedition, and a revolt of the Sa- lanzani heard, about two miles diitant from the rock, a
racens, are the only commotions of which we read. For noife like a confufed barking of dogs, and on a nearer
greater fecurity, the Saracens were removed to Puglia approach he difeovered the caufe. I his rock contains
400 years after theconqueft of Sicily by their anceitors. a number of caverns, one of the largeft of which is call-
Under Conrad and Manfred Sicily remained quiet 5 and ed by the people Dragara. The waves, when in the
from that time the hiftoryof Sicily is related under the lealt agitated, rulhing into thefe caverns, break, dath,
article Naples, N° 20, &c. throw up frothy bubbles, and thus occafion thele van-
Is at length At the death of Charles II. of Spain, his fpoils be- ous and multiplied founds. He then perceived with
conquered came an objeft of furious contention *, and at the peace how much truth and relemblance of nature Homer and
by the Spa-of Utrecllt) Sicdy was ceded to Vi&or duke of Savoy, Virgil, in their perfonifications of Seylla, had pourtray-
mar who, not many years after, was forced by the emperor ed this feene, by deferibing the monffer they drew as
Charles VJ. to relinquifh that fine ifland, and take Sar- lurking in the darknefs of a vaft cavern furrounded by .
dinia as an equivalent. But as the Spaniards had no ravenous barking maitiffs, together with wolves, to m-
concern in thefe bargains, they made a fudden attempt creafe the horror. . .
to recover Sicily, in which they failed through the vi- T hough the tide is almoft imperceptible in the open
gilance of the Englilh admiral Byng. He deftroyed parts of the Mediterranean, it is very itrong m the fir ait
their fleet in 1718, and compelled them to drop their of Meflina, owing to the narrownefs of the channel, and
fcheme for a time. In 1734 the Spanilh court refumed regulated by the periodical elevations and depreflions of
, their defign with fuccefs. The infant Don Carlos drove the water.. Where the current is accompanied by a
the Gjermans out, and was crowned king of the two Si- wind blowing the fame way, vefiels have, not mg to
cilies at Palermo. When he paffed into Spain to take fear, fince they either do not enter the Itrait, both the
pofleflion of that crown, he transferred the Sicilian dia- wind and ftream oppofing them \ or, if both are favour-
dem to his fon Ferdinand III. of Sicily, and IV. of able, enter on full fail, and pafs with fuch rapidity that
Naples, and it has ever fince remained in the poffeffion they feem to fly over the water. When the current
16 of the fame family. runs from fouth to north, and the north wind blows hard
Account of Sicily is feparated, as we have already obferved, from at the fame time, the fliip is rtfifted by the oppofite.cur-
the ftraits Ital by a narrow ftrait called the Furo ofMeftna. This rent, and impelled by two forces id contrary directions,
of Meffina. ^rajt remarkable for the rapidity of its currents is dallied on the rock of Scylla, or driven on the neigh-
and the irregular ebbing and flowing of the fea, which bouring fands. I he current, where it is.ftrongeit, dees
fometimes rulhes in with fuch violence as to endanger not extend over the whole itrait, but winds through it
iliips riding at anchor. Anciently it was much more in intricate meanders, with the courfe oi which the ai-
remarkable for Scylla and Charybdis, the one a rpek, lors.ftationed to give itrangers afiiita.nce are well ac-
and the other a whirlpool, between which it was very quainted, and thus able to guide the imp m luch a m3n-
dangerous to fleer, and concerning which fo many fables ner as to. avoid it.. Should the pilot, however, con d-
have been related by the ancients. Scylla is a rock on ing in his own ikill, negleCt fuch. affiftance, he would
the Italian fide, oppofite to Cape Pylores, which runs run the moft imminent rifle of being flupw recked. n
out into the fea on the Sicilian fide. Mr Brydone in- this conflict of the waters, it is uielels to throw the ine
forms us, that the navigation of the ftraits is not even yet to difeover the depth of the bottom, the violence ot the
performed without danger. He alfo informs us, that the current frequently carrying the lead almoft on the lur-
noife of the current which fets through the ftraits may face of the water. 1 he ftrongeft cables, though ome
be heard for feveral miles, like the roaring of feme large feet in. circumference, break like fma.ll cords.. Every
impetuous river confined between narrow banks. In expedient afforded by the art of navigation, is u^ess
many places the water rofe into whirlpools and eddies, here. The only.means of avoiding being dallied againit
which are dangerous to (hipping. The current fet ex- the.rocks, or driven upon the fands in the. midit ot this
aCtly for the rock of Scylla, and would certainly have perilous conteft of the winds and waves, is to have re¬
carried any thing thrown into it againft that point. Our courfe to the Ikill and courage of the Melfinele ea-
author, however, is by no means of opinion that the men. ... . , ^ rr n ^
ftrait is fo dangerous as the ancients have reprefented it; Charybdis is diftant from the fhore of Medina about
though he thinks that the ftrait is now probably much 750 feet, and is called by the people of the country 6rt-
wider than formerly, which may have diminiftied the lofaro, not from the agitation of the waves, but i10”1
danger. There are many fmall rocks, which ftiow their iwcAes and beautiful tower, from the lighthoule
heads near the bafe of the large ones. Thefe are pro- erefted near it for the guidance of.veffels. When the cur-
bably the dogs deferibed by the ancient poets as howling rent fets in from the north, the pilots call it the dejeend-
round Scylla. The rock is near 200 feet high, and has trig retna, or current $ and when it runs from the fouth,
a kind of a caftle or fort built on its fummit with a town the afeending rema. The current afeends or delcends
called Scylla or Sciglio, containing 300 or 400 inhabi- at the rifing or fetting of the moon, and continues tor
tants on its fouth fide, which gives the title of prince to fix hours. In the interval between each afeent or e-
h Calabrefe family. feent, there is a calm which lafts at leaft 15 minutes,
The following account of thefe rocks and whirlpools but not longer than an hour. Afterwards, at the riling
Is given by the celebrated naturalift Spallanzani. He in- or fetting of the moon, the current enters from the
forms us, that Scylla is a lofty rock, 12 miles from Mef- north, making various angles of incidence with the fliore,
fina, rifing almoft perpendicular from the fea on the and .at laft reaches the Calofaro. This delay fometimes
’ 6 r r continues
1
SIC [ 337 ] SIC
Sidly. continues two hours *, fometiraes it immediately falls in
to the Calofaro j and then experience regards it as a
certain indication of bad weather.
When Spallanzani obferved Charybdis from the fhore,
it appeared like a group of tumultuous waters, which
group as he approached became more extenfive and
more agitated. He was carried to the edge, where he
flopped fome time to make the requifite obfervations j
and was then convinced beyond the lhadow of a doubt,
that what he faw was by no means a vortex or whirl¬
pool.
Though he was convinced that there was no gulf
under the Calofaro, as other wife there would have been
a whirlpool, which would have carried down into it the
floating fubltances 5 he determined to found the bottom
with a plummet, and found its greateft depth did not
exceed 500 feet. He was alfo informed, to his great
furprife, that beyond the Calofaro, towards the middle
of the flrait, the depth was double.
When the wind and current are contrary to each
other, and both in their greateft violence, the fwelling
and dalhing of the waves within the Calofaro is much
ftronger, more impetuous, and more extenfive. It then
contains three or four fmall whirlpools, or even more,
according to the greatnefs of its extent and violence. If
at this time fmall veffels are driven into the Calofaro by
the current or the wind, they are feen to whirl round,
rock, and plunge, but are never drawn down into the
vortex. They only fink when filled with water, by
the waves beating over them. When veffels of a larger
fize are forced into it, whatever wind they have they
cannot extricate themfelves *, their fails areufelefs; and
after having been for fome time toffed about by the
waves, if they are not affifted by the pilots of the coun¬
try, who know how to bring them out of the courfe of
the current, they are furioufly driven upon the neigh¬
bouring fhore of the Lanterna, where they are wrecked,
and the greater part of theiir crews perifli in the waves.
If a fliip be extricated from the fufy of Charybdis,
and carried by a fhrong foutherly wind along the ftrait
towards the northern entrance, it will indeed pafs out
fafely •, but fhould it meet with a wind in a nearly op-
pofite diredtion, it would become the fport of both thefe
winds, and, unable to advance or recede, be driven in a
middle courfe between their two directions, that is to
fay, full upon the rock of Sylla, if it be not immediately
aflilled by the pilots. It is likewife obferved, that in
'thefe hurricanes a land wind frequently rifes, which de-
feends from a narrow7 pafs in Calabria, and increafes the
force with which the (hip is impelled towards the rock.
Thus, the faying which became proverbial among the
ancients;—that “ he who endeavours to avoid Charyb¬
dis, dalhes upon Scylla,” is, in a great meafure, true.
In the flraits, Mr Brydone informs us, a nioff furpri-
fing phenomenon is to be obferved. In the heat of fum-
mer, after the fea and air have been much agitated,
there appears in the heavens over the ftraits a great va¬
riety of Angular forms, fome at reft and others moving
■with great velocity. Thefe forms, in proportion as the
light increafes, feem to become more aerial, till at laft,
fome time before funrife, they totally difappear. The
Sicilians reprefent this as the moft beautiful fight in na¬
ture. Leonti, one of the bell Sicilian writer's, fays,
that the heavens appear crowded with a variety of ob¬
jects, fuch as palaces, woods, gardens, &c. befides the
figures of men and other animals that are feen in motion
Vol. XIX. Part I.
among them. Some treatifes have been tvritten con- , Sicily,
cerning this phenomenon ; but nothing fatisfaCtcry has ' *
been delivered concerning its caufe. . ^
Though Sicily lies in a warm climate, the air is climate
healthful,'being refreflied with fea-breezes on every fide, and pro-
It has at all times been remarkably fertile ; but the era^6*
of its greateft profperity was from the fiege of Syracufe
by the Athenians to the Carthaginian conquefts. Then H'atkin’i
and long after it fupplied with grain, in years of fear- Ttavels
city, all .the countries upon the Mediterranean except
Egypt and the coafts of Afia, and Rome and Carthage iand Italy
continually. . Even now, under all the impediments of Sicily, is’c,
fuperftition and bad government, its produflions are,
in quantity and quality, the beft in Europe. Of the
vegetable are grain, wines, oil, fruits, tobacco, mulber¬
ry trees for the filkworm, cotton, medicinal roots, and
fugar canes. The laft of thefe ftourilh near Avola and
Merilli. They are of an inferior quality to thofe of
the Weft Indies, but their fugar is Tweeter than any
other. The animal produdlion is fimilar to that of
Italy, but the horned cattle are a fmaller breed. The
coafts abound with fifti, particularly wTith tunney and
anchovies ; the export of which forms a very lucrative
branch of commerce. There are mines of filver, copper,
and lead, but none are worked. Near Palma are beds
of thdbeft fulphur ; at the mouth of the river Giarefta
is found a yellow amber, preferable to that of the Bal¬
tic : and in every part of the ifland quarries of marbles,
that have furnifhed materials for all the noble edifices of
Sicily. The moft beautiful are in the neighbourhood
of Palermo, particularly the yellow', and thofe that re-
femble the verde antique, porphyry, and lapis lazuli.
The population of the iiland amounts to 1,300,000 fouls;
not as much again as the fingle city of Syracufe former¬
ly contained. l8
Here are feveral rivers and good fprings ; but few' of Rivers and
the rivers are navigable, having but a ftiort courfe, and mountains,
defeending precipitately from the mountains. The chief
are the Bantera, the Jaretta, and the Salfo 5 of w'hich,
the two former run from v’eft to eaft, and the third from
north to fouth.
Of the mountains in this ifland the moft noted is
Mount Etna, now called Monte Gibel/o, or Mongibeli'o,
a volcano whofe eruptions have often proved fatal to the
neighbouring country. See Etna.
Were the Sicilians a cultivated people, among whom non^u
thofe atts were encouraged which not only promote tion and go-
the wealth and comfort of a nation, but alfo exercife the vemment.
nobler faculties and extend the views of mankind, the hunter's
circumftances of their government are fuch, that '^■^tati’wto
might gradually be improved into a free conftitution : Naples and
but to this, the ignorance, fuperftition, and poverty, of Sicily.
the people feem to be invincible obftacles. The ma-
narchical powder in Sicily is far from being abfolute;
and the parliament claims a {hare of public authority
independently of the will of the king, deduced from a-
compafl made between Roger and the Norman barons
after the expulfion of the Saracens. This claim is de¬
nied by the king, who wifties the nobles to confider
their privileges as derived folely from his favour. Hence
the government is in a fituation which greatly refembles
that of our own and the other kingdoms of Europe in
the feudal times ; there are continual jealoufies and op-
pofitions between the king and the barons, of which an
enlightened people might eafily take advantage, and ob¬
tain that (hare in the conftitution which might fecure
U u them
SIC [3
Sicily. them from future oppreffion. In thefe difputes, the
v king has the advantage at lead of power, if not of right ;
and feveral works, in which the claims of the Sicilian
barons have been afferted, were publicly burned not
many years ago.
As the fovereign holds his court at Naples, Sicily is
governed bv a viceroy, who is appointed only for three
years, though at the end of that term his commifTion is
fometimes renewed. He lives in great flate, and, as
the reprefentative of the king’ his power is very confi-
derable. He prefides in all the courts and departments
of government, and is commander in chief of all the
forces: he calls or diffolves the parliament when he
pleafes ; and by him all orders, laws, and fentences, mull
be figned •, but his office is far from being defirable, as
it generally renders him the objeft either of the jealoufy
of the court of Naples, or of the hatred of the Sicilians.
The parliament confifts of the nobles, the bifhops,
and abbots, and the reprefentatives of 43 cities, which
are immediately fubjefl to the crown." Thofe cities
which are fubjeft to any of the nobles fend no members
to the parliament} in thefe the king has not much au-
thority, and derives little advantage from them. Ac-
cordin.' to the laws, the parliament ought to be’ affem-
bled at the end of every three years : but the mwern-
ment nays little attention to this rule. The common
people are in general very much attached to the nobles,
and are inclined to take their part in all their differen¬
ces with the court : but the magiftrates and principal
inhabitants of the cities which belong to thefe feudal
lords, wiffi to get rid of their authority, and imagine
that they fhould be lefs oppreffed, if immediately fub-
ie£I to the king : thefe inclinations are not difagreeable
to the court, and are encouraged by moft of the law¬
yers, who are of great fervice to government in conteft-
ing the privileges of the nobles. Many of thefe privi¬
leges are now abridged *, and the power of the barons,
with refpecl to the adminiftration of juftice in their do¬
mains, was very properly limited by the viceroy Ca-
raccioli, in the year 1785. The government of this
nobleman was very beneficial to Sicily, as he, in a great
meafure, cleared the ifland of the banditti that ufed to
20 infeft it, and made feveral excellent regulations for the
Ihquilition, eftablithment of focial order and perfonal fecurity. He
deferves the thanks of every well-wiflaer to mankind for
having aboliffied the court of inquifition, wdiieh had
been eftablifired in this country by Ferdinand the Ca¬
tholic, and made dependent on the authority of the
grand inquifitor of Spain. Its laft auto da fe was held
in the year 1724, when two perfons were burned. At
length Charles III. rendered it independent of the Spa-
niftr inquifitor, and abridged its povrer, by forbidding it
to make ufe of the torture, and to inflift public punifti-
ments. The Marchefe Squillace, and his fucceffor the
Marchefe Tanucci, were both enemies to the hierarchy •,
and, during their viceroyalties, took care to appoint fen-
fible and liberal men to the office of inquifitor : the laft
of whom was Ventimiglia, a man of a moft lAmiane and
amiable charafter, who heartily wiftied for the abolition
of this diabolical court, and readily contributed toward
it. While he held the office of inquifitor, he always
endeavoured to procure the acquittal of the accufed ; and
■when he could fucceed no other way, would pretend
feme informality in the trial. The total annihilation of
this inftrument of the worft of tyranny was referved for
38' 1 ' . S IyD
Caraccioli. A prieft being accufed to the inquifition,
•was dragged out of his houl’e and thrown into the dun¬
geon. He was condemned •, but, on account of infor¬
mality, and a violation of juftice in the trial, he appeal¬
ed to the viceroy, who appointed a committee of jurifts
to examine the procefs. The inquifitor refilled to ac¬
knowledge the authority of this commiffion 5 pretending
that to expofe the fecrets of the holy office, and to fub-
mit its decifions to the examination of lay judges, would
be fo inconfiftent with his duty, that he would fee the ^
inquifition aboliftied rather than confent to it. Caracci-ab0]if]lej
oli took him at his word, and procured a royal mandate by Carac.
by which the holy office was at once annihilated. Hecloll‘
affembled all the nobility, judges, and biffiops, on the
27th of March 1782, in the palace of the inquifition,
and commanded the king’s order to be read ; after
which he took poffeflion of the archives, and caufed all
the prifons to be fet open : in thefe were at that time
only two prifoners, who had been condemned to per¬
petual confinement for witchcraft. I he papers rela¬
ting to the finances were preferved} but all the reft
were publicly burned. The poffeffions of the holy office
were, affigned to the ufe of churches and charitable in-
ftitutions : but the officers then belonging to it retained
their falaries during their lives. The palace itfelf is
converted into a cuftomhoufe, and the place where he¬
retics were formerly roafted alive for the honour of the
Catholic faith, is now changed into a public garden.
The cognizance of offences againft orthodoxy is com¬
mitted to the bifhops : but they cannot cite any one
to appear before them without permiffion from the vice¬
roy ; neither can they confine any perfon to a folitary
prifon, nor deny him the privilege of writing to, his
friends, and converfing freely with his advocate. The
nobility are fo numerous in this ifland, that Labat fays
it is paved with Eobletnen. The general affembly of
parliament is compofed of 66 archbifliops, bifhops, ab¬
bots, and priors, which form the Bracchio ecclefiaftico.
Fifty-eight princes, 27 dukes, 37 marquiffes, 27 counts,
one vifeount, and 79 barons, form the militaire j and
the demaniale confifts of 43 reprefentatives of free towns.
Out of each bracchio four deputies are chofen to con-
duft public bufinefs. But the viceroy, the prince of
Butera, and the praetor of Palermo, are always the three
firft. Such was the government of Sicily while the
Neapolitan monarchy remained entire } but fince the
latter was ufurped by the French, Sicily is all that is
left to its former poffeffor.
SICINIUS Dentatus, a tribune of the people,
lived a little after the expulfion of the kings from Rome.
He was in 120 battles and fkirmifhes, befides Angle com¬
bats, in all of which he came off conqueror. He ferved
under nine generals, all of whom triumphed by his
means. In thefe battles he received 45 wounds in the
forepart of his body, and not one in his back. The Se¬
nate made him great prefents, and he was honoured with
the name of the Roman Achilles.
SICYOS, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs of
moncecia, and to the order of fyngenefia •, and in the
natural fyftem arranged under the 34th order, Cucur¬
bit acea. See Botany Index.
SID A, Yellow or Indian MALLOW, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of monadelphia, and to the order
of polyandria 5 and in the natural fyftem ranging under
the 37th order, Columniferce, See Botany in^ex-
5 siddee.
!;$itldee
II
idney.
SID [ 3
SIDDEE, or Sedee, an Arabic title, by which the
Abyflinians or Habathys are always diftinguiihed in the
courts of Hindoftan ; where, being in great repute for
firmnefs and fidelity, they are generally employed as
commanders of forts or in ports of great truft.
SIDEREAL year. See Astronomy Index..
SIDERI A,iniVrttartf/HiJlory,\\\e old name of a genus
of cryftals, ufed to exprefs thole altered in their figure
by particles of iron* Thefc are of a rhomboidal figure,
and compofed only of fix planes. Of this genus there
are four known fpecies. I. A colourlefs, pellucid, and
thin one j found in confiderable quantities among the
iron ores of the foreft of Dean in Gloucefterlhire, and
in feveral other places. 2. A dull, thick, and brown
one ; not uncommon in the fame places with the for¬
mer. And, 3. A black and very glofly kind, a foflil of
great beauty found in the fame place with the others,
as alfo in Leicefterlhire and Suflex.
SIDERI i'E, a fubftance fuppofed by Meyer to be a
new metal •, but according to Bergman and Kirwan it
is nothing elfe than a natural combination of phofpho-
ric acid with iron.
SIDERITIS, Ironwort ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of didynamia, and to the order ofgym-
nofpermia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
42cl order, Vcrti:illata\ See Botany Index.
SIDEROXY LON, Iron-wood ; a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and to the order of
monogynia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under
the 93d order, Dumofce. See Botany Index.
SIDNEY, Sir Philip, w'as born, as is fuppofed, at
Penfhurft in Kent in the year I ^54 : His father was
Sir Henry Sidney, an Irilh gentleman, and his mother
Mary the eldeft daughter of John Dudley duke of Nor¬
thumberland. He was fent when very young to Chrift-
church college at Oxford, but left the univerfity at 1 7
to fet out on his travels. After vifiting France, Ger¬
many, Hungary, and Italy, he returned to England in
1575, and was next year fent by Queen Elizabeth as
her ambaflador to Rodolph emperor of Germany. On
his return he vifited Don John of Auftria, governor of
the Netherlands, by whom he was received with great
relpeft. In 1579, when Queen Elizabeth feemed on
the point of concluding her long projefled marriage
with the duke of Anjou, Sir Philip wrote her a letter,
in which he diffuaded her from the match with unufual
elegance of expreflion, as wrell as force of reafoning.
About this time a quarrel with the earl of Oxford oc-
cartoned his withdrawing from court ; during which re¬
tirement he is fuppofed to have written his celebrated
romance called Arcadia.
In 1585, after the queen’s treaty with the United
States, he was made governor of Flulhing and mafter of
the horfe. Here he diftinguilhed himfelf fo much both
by his courage and conduct, that his reputation rofe to
the higheft pitch. He was named, it is pretended, by
the republic of Poland as one of the competitors for that
crown, and might even have been deified had it not
been for the interference of the queen. But his illuftri-
ous career was foon terminated ; for in 1 586 he -was
■wounded at the battle of Zutphen, and carried to Arn-
heim, where he foon after died. His body tvas brought
to London, and buried in St Paul’s cathedral. He is
deferibed by the writers of that age as the moft perfeft
model of an accompliihed gentleman that could be form-
59 1 SID
ed even by the Wanton imagination of poetry or fic¬
tion. Virtuous condudt, polite converlation, heroic va¬
lour, and elegant erudition, all concurred to render him
the ornament and delight of the Englilh court : and as
tire credit which he enjoyed with the queen and the
earl of Leicefter was wholly employed in the encourage¬
ment of genius and literature, his prailes have been tranf*
mitted with advantage to porterity. No perfun was fo
low as not to become an objedt of his humanity. After
the battle of Zutphen, while he was lying on the field
mangled with wounds, a bottle of water was brought
him to relieve his thirft ; but obferving a foldier near
him in a like miferable condition, he faid, 1 his mail1 s
necejfity isJlillgreater than mine; and refigned to hum
the bottle of water. Befides his Arcadia, he wrote fe¬
veral fmaller pieces both in profe and verle, which have
been publirtred.
Sidney, Algernon, was the fecond fon of Robert
earl of Leicefter, and of Dorothy eldeft daughter of the
earl of Northumberland. He was born about the year
1617. During the civil wars he took part againft the
king, and diftinguiihed himfelf as a colonel in the army
of the parliament. He was afterwards appointed one
of King Charles’s judges, but declint d appearing in that
court. During the ufurpation of Cromwell, Sidney,
who was a violent republican, retired to the country,
and fpent his time in writing ihofe difeourfes on govern¬
ment which have been fo defervedly celebrated After
the death of the Protedfor, he again took part in the
public tranfadlions of his country, and was abroad on an
embaffy to Etenmark when King Charles was reftored.
Upon this he retired to Hamburgh, and afterwards to
Francfort, where he refided till 1677, when he return¬
ed to England and obtained from the king a pardon*
It has been affirmed, but the ftory deferves no credit,
that during Ids refidence abroad King Charles hired ruf¬
fians to aflaffinate him. After his return he made re¬
peated attempts to procure a feat in parliament, but all
of them proved unfucoefsful. After tbt intention of the
commons to feclude the duke of York from the throne
had been defeated by the fudderi diftblution of parlia¬
ment, Sidney joined with eagernefs the councils of Ruf¬
fe!, Eflex, and Monmouth, who had refolved to oppofe
the duke’s fucceffion by force of arms. Frequent meet¬
ings were held at London ; while, at the fame time, a
fet of fubordinate confpirators, who were not, however,
admitted into their confidence, met and embraced the
moft defperate refolutions. Keiling, one of thefe men,
difeovered the whole confpiracy ; and Algernon Sidney,
together with his noble affociates, was immediately
thrown into prifon, and no art was left unattempted in
order to involve them in the guilt of the meaner confpi¬
rators.
Howard, an abandoned nobleman, without a fingle
fpark of virtue or honour, was the only witnefs againft;
Sidney 5 but as the law required two, Ids difeourfes on
government, found unpublilhed in his clofet, were eon-
ftrued into treafon, and declared equivalent to another
witnefs. It was in vain for Sidney to plead that pa¬
pers were no legal evidence •, that it could not be pro¬
ved they were written by him ; and that if they were,
they contained nothing treaf.liable. The defence was
overruled ■, he was declared guilty, condemned, and exe¬
cuted ! His attainder was reverfed in the firft year of
King William.
Uu 3
Sidney.
He
S I D
Sidney
.11
Sidus.
[ 34° ]
S I E
He was a man of extraordinary courage j fteady even
to obftinacy 5 of a fincere but rough and boifterous tem¬
per. Though he profeffed his belief in the Chriftian
religion, he was an enemy to an eftablifhed church, and
even, according to Burnet, to every kind of public wor-
(hip. In his principles he was a zealous republican :
government was always his favourite ftudy j and his ef-
fays on that fubjefl are a proof of the progrefs which
lie made.
SIDON, in Ancient Geography, a city of Phoenicia
in Afia, famous in Scripture for its riches, arifing from
the extenfive commerce carried on by its inhabitants.
Heavy judgments were denounced againft the Sido-
nians on account of their wickednefs, which were ac-
complilhed in the time of Ochus king of Perfia : for
that monarch having come againft them with an army
on account of their rebellion, the city was betrayed by
its king; upon which the wretched inhabitants were
feized with defpair; they fet fire to their houfes, and
40,000 with their wives and children, perilhed in the
flames.
This city is now called Satde, and, according to Mr
Bruce’s account, not only its harbour is filled up with
fand, but the pavement of the ancient city flood feet
lower than the ground on which the prefent city Hands.
Volney defcribes it as an ill-built dirty city. Its length
along the fea-lhore is about 600 paces, and its breadth
150. At the north-weft fide of the town is the caftle,
which is built in the fea itfelf, 80 paces from the main
land, to which it is joined by arches. To the weft of
this caftle is a ftioal 15 feet high above the fea, and
about 200 paces long. The fpace between this ftioal
and the caftle forms the road, but vefiels are not fafe
there in bad weather. The ftioal, which extends along
the town, has a bafon inelofed by a decayed pier. This
was the ancient port; but it is fo choked up by fand,
that boats alone can enter its mouth near the caftle.
Fakr-el-din, emir of the Drufes, deftroyed all thefe lit¬
tle ports from Bairout to Acre, by finking boats and
ftones to prevent the Turkifh (hips from entering them.
The bafon of Saide, if it were emptied, might contain
20 or 25 fmall veffels. On the fide of the fea, the town
is abfolutely without any wall; and that which enclofes
it on the land fide is no better than a prifon-wall. The
whole artillery does not exceed fix cannons, and thefe
are without carriages and gunners. The garifon fcarce-
ly amounts to 100 men. The water comes from the ri¬
ver Aoula, through open canals, from which it is fetch¬
ed by the women. Thefe canals ferve alfo to water the
orchards of mulberry and lemon trees.
Saide is a confiderable trading town, and is the chief
emporium of Damafcus and the interior country. The
French, who are the only Europeans to be found there,
have a conful, and five or fix commercial houfes. Their
exports confift in filks, and particularly in raw and fpun
cottons. The manufacture of this cotton is the princi¬
pal art of the inhabitants, the number of whom may be
eftimated at about 5000. It is 45 miles weft from Da-
mafcus. E. Long. 36. 5. N. Lat. 37.
SIDUS Georgium, in AJIronomy, a new primary
planet, difcovered by Dr Herfchel in the year 1781.
By molt foreign, and even by feme Britifti philofophers,
it is known by the name of Herfchel, in honour of the
difcoverer. As the other planets are diftinguilhed by
marks or characters, the planet Herfchel is diftinguilh-
3
ed by an H, the initial letter of the difcoverer’s name,
and a crofs to Ihow that it is a Chriftian planet. See
Astronomy Index.
SIEGE, in the art of war, is to furround a fortified
place 'with an army, and approach it by paflages made
in the ground, fo as to be covered againft the fire of the
place.
SIEGEN, a town of Germany in Wetteravia, with
a caftle and the title of a principality, which it gives
to a branch of the houfe of Naffau. It is-feated on a
river of the fame name, in E. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 50.
53-
SIENNA, a large, ancient, and celebrated city of
Tufcany in Italy ; capital of the Siennefe, with an
archbiftiop’s fee, a famous univerfity, and a citadel. It
is about four miles in circumference, and furrounded
with an old wall. The metropolitan church is much
efteeined by travellers ; and though it is a Gothic ftrue-
ture, the architecture is admirable. It is built with
black and white marble, and the pavement is of mofaic
work. The town is adorned with a great number of
palaces, fountains, and fuperb churches, as alfo a mag¬
nificent hofpital. The great area is round, and the
houfes about it are of the fame height, fupported by
piazzas, under which people may walk in hot or rainy
weather ; in the middle is a bafon, which can be filled
with tvater at any time, to reprefent a fea-fight with
fmall veffels. The Italian language is taught here with
fuch purity, that a great many foreigners frequent it on
that account. It is feated on three eminences, in a fer¬
tile foil, in E. Long. 11. 11. N. Lat. 43. 10.
SIENNESE, a duchy'in Italy; bounded on the
north by the Florentino, on the fouth by the Mediter¬
ranean fea and the duchy of Caftro, on the eaft by the
Perugino and Orvietano, and on the weft by the Flo¬
rentino and the Tufcan fea ; being about 55 miles in
length, and as much in breadth. The foil is pretty fer¬
tile, efpecially in mulberry trees, which feed a great
number of filk-worms; and there are feveral mineral
fprings. Sienna is the capital town.
SIERRA leona, a large country on the weft coaft
of Africa, which fome extend from the Grain Coaft
on the fouth-eaft to Cape Verga or Vega on the north-
weft, i. e. between 70 and lo° N. Lat. Others, how¬
ever, confine the country between Cape Verga and Cape
Tagrin. There runs through it a great river of the
fame name, of which the fource is unknown, but the
mouth is in longitude 12. 30. w’eft, lat. 8. 5. north, and
is nine miles wide. The climate and foil of this tra£t of
country appear to be, on both fides of the river, among
the beft in Africa, or at leaft the moft favourable to
European conftitutions. The heat is much the fame as
that of the Weft Indies ; but on the higher grounds
there is a cool fea breeze, and in the mountainous parts
the air is very temperate. According to Lieutenant
Matthew, “ Sierra Leona, if properly cleared and cul¬
tivated, would be equal in falubrity and fuperior in pro¬
duce to any of the iflands in the Weft Indies ;” and
others have affirmed, that “ the air is better for a man’s
health than in many places of Europe.” Thefe advan¬
tages of climate induced the Englifh to eftablifh a faflo-
ry at Sierra Leona; but they chofe not the moft health¬
ful fituation. For the benefit of a fpring of good water
they fixed their refidence in a low valley, which is often
overfpread with mifts and noifome vapours, while the
air
Sidus
Sierra.
S I E t 341 ] S I E
crra. air is clear and ferene on the furamits of the hills, to
which water from the well might eafily be carried.
Within the diftrift occupied by this colony are the
Foulahs, who are in general of a tawney complexion,
though many of them are entirely black. They lead a
wandering life, and roam about the country Avith large
droves of coavs, Iheep, goats, and horfes. They are
much praifed by travellers for their hofpitality ; nor is
their humanity in other refpefts, lefs commendable ; for,
if one of their countrymen have the misfortune to fall
into flavery, the reft join flock to redeem him. Ele¬
phants are fo numerous in the country of the Foulahs,
that they are frequently feen in droves of 200 together.
The people are very dexterous at hunting them, and
other wild beafts ; from Avhich they derive their princi¬
pal articles of trade.
The animal productions of Sierra Leona are lions,
from Avhich it has its name ; leopards, hyaenas, mulk
cats, and many kinds of weafels •, the japanzee or chim¬
panzee, a fpecies of fimia, Avhich has a ftill more ftri-
king refemblance to the human figure than even the
ouran outang j porcupines, Avild hogs, fquirrels, and
antelopes. Befides thefe, which are natives of the
country, oxen thrive in it, and even groAV fat; afles
too are employed in labour, and do not fuffer by the
climate ) but ftieep fuffer much from the heat, change
their avooI into hair, groAV lean and increafe very little :
while the hardy goat is here as prolific and large as in
any other country. Of the birds which frequent the
woods of Sierra Leona we can give no perfeCt account.
A fpecies of crane is mentioned as eafily tamed ; com¬
mon poultry multiply fall ; ducks thrive Avell, but geefe
and turkeys feem not to agree Avith the climate. Tur¬
tles of all kinds are very common, and fometimes of a
large fize. Crocodiles or alligators of a non-defcript
fpecies have been found ten or tAvelve feet in length, and
lizards of fix different fpecies. Snakes, Avhich are al-
moft innumerable, haunt the houfes in the night in
fearch of poultry ; and one was obferved Avhich mea-
fured 18 feet, but Avas happily found not to be venom¬
ous. Fifties are in great variety both in the fea and in
the rivers. Befides the Avhale, the (hark, flinging ray,
and porpoife, there are eels, horfe-mackarel, tarpoons,
cavillos, mullets, fnappers, yelloiv-tails, old-maids, ten-
pounders, and fome other fifties; all of Avhich, except
the eels and ten-pounders, are efteemed fine eating. Oy-
fters are found in great abundance, and another ftiell-
fifti, Avhich the natives eat. Among the zoophytes,
none is more worthy of notice than the common fponge,
which covers all the fandy beaches of the river, parti¬
cularly on the Bullom ftiore, and Avould fetch a high
price in Great Britain.
Of the numerous vegetable produ&ions of Sierra
Leona, our limits Avill permit us only to mention the
folloiving. Rice, Avhich is the plant chiefly cultivated,
as the natives fubfift almoft entirely upon it, groivs both
in the high and low grounds. It profpers indeed beft
in fivamps, though the grain is better in a drier foil.
Next to rice the caffada conftitutes the chief food of the
inhabitants, and is cultivated Avith great care. The
country likewife produces yams, various kinds of po¬
tatoes, eddoes, or the arum efculentum. Oil palm, plan¬
tains, and bananas j papaw, guava, oranges and limes j
pornpions, melons, and cucumbers ; pine-apples, pigeon-
peas, which dreffed like Englifti peas are a good pulfe j
maize or Indian corn ; millet, cocoa-nut Bees ; ockra •, Sierra,
the talloAV-tree 5 a great variety of tamarinds j different "V"—
kinds of fig-trees and plums ; a kind of fruit refembling
grapes, but more acid and acrid •, cherries refembling a
fine neftarine in tafte ; a fpecies of the bread fruit-tree *,
the cream fruit, fo called becaufe Avhen Avounded it
yields a fine Avhite juice refembling fugar or the beft
milk, of Avhich the natives are very fond $ the mala-
guetta pepper, or grains of paradife 5 a neAV fpecies of
nutmeg, but Avhether fo good as the common fort has
not yet been afcertained ; a new fpecies of the Peruvian
bark, Avhich it is hoped Avill prove as ufeful as the other j
and cola, a fruit highly efteemed by the natives for the
fame virtues Avith that bark ; the ricinus, caflia, dye-
ftuffs, and gums, of great value j cotton, tobacco, and
fugar-canes, which, it is thought, Avould thrive exceed¬
ingly Avell under proper cultivation.
Confidering the ardour of the maritime nations of Eu¬
rope for fettling colonies in diftant regions of the globe,
it is fomewhat furprifing that a climate fo temperate
and a foil fo produdlive as that of Sierra Leona did not
long ago attradl their notice. But it Avas left to be co¬
lonized for a better purpofe than that Avhich firft dreAV
the natives of Europe to the Weft Indies and the Ame¬
rican continent. Being thinly inhabited, Sierra Leona
appeared to fome benevolent gentlemen in England a
place Avhere, Avithout incommoding the natives, a fuffi-
cient quantity of ground might be bought on Avhich to
fettle a great number of free negroes, Avho in 1786
fwarmed in London in idlenefs and want. About 400
of thefe Avretches, together Avith 60 Avhites, moftly avo-
men of bad character and in ill health, were accordingly
fent out, at the charge of government, to Sierra Leona-
Neceflity, it Avas hoped, Avould make them induftrious
and orderly 5 and Captain Thomfon of the navy, Avha
condudled them, obtained, for their ufe, a grant of land
to his majefty from King Tom, the neighbouring chief,
and afterAvards from Naimbanna, the king of the coun¬
try. The colony, hoAvever, foon Avent to ruin ; but the
land Avhich they occupied, being about 20 miles fquare,
his majefty Avas enabled to grant by aft of parliament
to another colony founded on better principles and for a
ftill nobler purpofe.
The moft intelligent members of that fociety, Avhich
laboured fo ftrenuoufly to procure an abolition of the
Have-trade, juftly concluding that the natives of Guinea
would reap very little benefit from the attainment of
their objeft, unlefs they fliould be taught the principles
of religion and the arts of civil life, which alone can
render them really free, conceived the plan of a colony
at Sierra Leona to be fettled for the truly generous pur¬
pofe of civilizing the Africans by maintaining Avith
them a friendly intercourfe, and a commerce in every
thing but men. This plan could not be carried into
• effeft but at a very great expence. Subfcriptions Avere
therefore opened upon rational and equitable terms, and
a fum deemed fufficient Avas fpeedily raifed. An aft of
parliament Avas paffed in favour of the fubfcribers, by
Avhich they Avere incorporated by the denomination of
the Sierra Leona Company; and in purfuance of that
aft they held their firft meeting at London in Oftober
lyyi.
The direftors having ftated the natural advantages
of Sierra Leona, and its prefent miferable condition,
obferved, that they had not merely to eftablifti a com¬
mercial
s 1 E [34
Sierra, mevcial faftory, but that, to introduce civilization, cul-
tivation, and a fafe trade, the company muft provide
for the fecurity of the perfons and property of the co-
lonifts’. The direftors therefore refolved, that three or
four veffels (liould fail at once, with fuch a number of
people as would be able to proteft and aflift each other j
with goods both for trade and for the fupply of the co¬
lony. Accordingly feveral veffels failed, having on
board a council for the government of the colony and
the management of the company’s affairs •, a number of
artificers and other fervants of the company *, fome fob
diers, and a very few Engliih fettlers. The directors
were laudably cautious in the choice of colonifts. They
admitted into the fociety no white man of bad charac¬
ter, or who rvas not a declared enemy to the ilave-trade ;
and as, the chief object of their entcrprife was the civili¬
zation of the natives, it Avas with great propriety that
they chofe more than three-fourths of their fettlers from
the free negroes in Nova Scotia, Avho had borne arms
for the Britifli government during the American war.
The fuperintendant and council Avere particularly in-
ftru&ed to fecure to all blacks and people of colour, at
Sierra Leona, equal rights and equal treatment, in all
refpefts, Avith Avhites. They were to be tried by jury,
as Avell as others and the council Avas defired to allot to
the blacks employments fuited to their prefent abilities,
and to afford them every opportunity of cultivating their
talents. All praflicable means of maintaining fubordi-
nation Avere directed to be ufed ; and the council Avas
efpecially inftrucled to promote religion and morals, by
fupporting public Avorthip and the due obfervance of
the Sabbath, and by the infiruflion of the people, and
the education of children. But no perfon was to be
prevented from performing or attending religious Avor-
fhip in Avhatever place, time, or manner, he might think
fit, or from peaceably inculcating his oAvn religious opi¬
nions. Orders Avere given in choofing the fcite of a
toAvn, to eonfider health as the fir ft object •, and the
firft toAvn Avas directed to be called Tree-Town. Arti¬
cles for building and cultivation Avere fent out, befides
the cargoes for profecuting the company’s commerce •,
and fchools for reading, Avriting, and accounts, Avere
ordered to be fet up for the purpofe of inftrudfing the
children of fuch natives as ftiould be Avilling to put them
under the company’s care.
The leading objeft of the company Avas to fubftitule,
for that disgraceful traffic Avhieh has too long fubfifted,
a fair commerce with Africa, and all thebleflings Avhich
might be expefted to attend it. Confiderable advan¬
tages appeared hereby likely to refult to Great Britain,
not only from our obtaining feveral commodities cheap¬
er, but alfo for opening a market for Britifh manu¬
factures, to the increafing demands of Avhich it is diffi¬
cult to aflign a limit. From this connexion, Africa
was likely to derive the ftill more important benefits.of
religion, morality, and civilization. To accomplifti
thefe purpofes, it was neceffary for the company to
poffefs a traft of land, as a repofitory for their goods,
and Avhich the Africans might cultivate in peace, fecure
from the ravages of the flave-trade. It had been afeer-
tained, beyond a doubt, that the climate and foil of
Africa Avere admirably fuited to the growth of fugar,
fpices, coffee, cotton, indigo, rice, and every other fpe-
cies of tropical produce. The company propofed to
inftrud the natives to raife thefe articles, and to fet them
2 ] s i E
the example, by a fpirited cultivation, on its 0A\rn ac- S!er
count. Diredions Avere given to the company’s com¬
mercial agent to pufti forward a trade, in a mode pre-
feribed, in the prefent produce of Africa. Meafures
were taken for cultivating, on the company’s account,
the moft profitable tropical produce ; and in particular,
a perfon of long experience in the Weft Indies Avas or¬
dered to begin a fugar plantation. A mineralogift and
botanift were likeAvife engaged to go out and explore
the country for neAV articles of commerce.
Every thing being thus fettled upon the moft equita¬
ble and benevolent principles, the Ihips failed Avith the
Britiftr colenifts, to Avhom, in March 1792, Avere added
1131 l lack from Nova Scotia. The native chiefs be¬
ing reconciled to the plan, and made to underftand its
beneficent tendency towards their people, the colony
proceeded to build Free Town, on a dry and rather ele¬
vated fpot on the fouth fide of the river. It occupied
betAveen 70 and 80 acres, its length being about one-
third of a mile, and its breadth nearly the fame 5 and it
contained near 400 houfes, each having one-twelfth of
an acre annexed, on Avhich a ferv vegetables Avere raifed.
There Avere nine ftreets running from north-Aveft tofouth-
eaft, and three crofs ftreets, all 80 feet Avide, except one
of 160 feet, in the middle of Avhich Avere all the public
buildings. Thefe confifted of a governor’s houfe and
offices •, a large ftore-houfe 5 a large hofpital} fix or
eight other houfes, offices, and fhops, occupied by the
company’s fervants •, and a church capable of contain¬
ing 800 people. The colonifts at firft fuffered much
from the rainy feafon, againft Avhich it Avas not in their
power to provide fufficient protection 5 but at the end
of it they recovered in a great meafure their health and
fpirits, and proceeded Avith alacrity to execute the va¬
rious purpofes oi their fettlement. To excite emulation
in culture, the government gave premiums to thofe co¬
lonifts who raifed the greateft quantities of rice, yams,
eddoesj cabbages, Indian corn, and cotton, refpeCtively.
To limit the exceffes of the fiave-trade, and gain the
favour of the neighbouring chiefs, the direClors inftruft-
ed the governor and council to redeem any native from
the neighbourhood, who ffiould be unjuftly fold either
to or by a Britifh fubjecL The fervants of the compa¬
ny conduCled themfclves Avith the utmoft propriety, be¬
ing fober, moral, and exemplary; and from the labours
of the clergymen Avere derived fervices highly important
in every point of vIcav. Before the end of Iavo years
from the inftitution of the colony, order and induftry
had begun to (Iioav their effeCts in an increafing profpe-
rity. The Avoods had been cut down to the diftance of
about three Englifh miles all round the toAvn. By thefe
means the climate had become healthier, and fickr.efs
had diminifhed. The fame of the colony fpread not
only along the Avhole weftern coaft of Africa, but alfo to
parts tar diftant from the coaft-, embaffies had been re¬
ceived of the moft friendly nature from kings and prin¬
ces feveral hundred miles diftant; and the native chiefs
had begun to fend their children to the colony, Avith
full confidence, to betaught reading, Avriting, and ac¬
counts, and to be brought up in the Chriftian religion.
In a Avord, it Avas not without grounds that the direc¬
tors looked fonvard to that joyful period Avhen,. by the
influence of the company’s meafures, the continent of
Africa fnould be refeued from her prefent ftate of dark-
nefs and mifery, and exhibit a delightful feene of light
Sierra.
Tadfirom,
2 SO.
S I E [ 34
and knowledge of civilization and order, of peaceful
induftry and domeftic comfort. On their beneficent
exertions they hoped with confidence for the bleffing of
Providence \ they Avere countenanced and fupported by
the Britifh government •, and upon the breaking out of
the prefent war, the French Convention authorifed one
of their agents to write to the directors, requeuing a
full account of the defign of the inftitution, and the
names of the fhips employed in their fervice, and allur¬
ing them of the good withes of the French government
to fo noble an undertaking. How completely that
government fulfilled its promife is very generally known.
Having vindicated the rights of man in Europe by the
violation of every principle of truth and juflice, they de¬
termined by the fame means to give light and liberty to
the Africans*, and that they have fully carried their de¬
termination into effed! will be feen by the following ex¬
tract of a letter from Mr Afzelius, the company’s bota-
nift, dated Sierra Leona, 15th November 1794. “ The
French have been here and have ruined us. They ar-
rived on the 28th of September laft, early in the morn¬
ing, Avith a fleet confifting of one large Ihip, two fri¬
gates, two armed brigs, and one cutter, together Avith
two large armed merchant (hips, taken by them at the
Ifles de Lofs, an Englifh flave faftory to the north of
our colony, and which they have alfo deftroyed and
burnt. So Avell had they concealed their nation, that
Ave took them at firft for Englifh. They had Englifh-
built veffels, which Avere rigged in the Englifh Avay.
They (howed the Englifh flag, and had their failors, at
leaf! thofe we faAV on deck, drefled like Englifh. In fhort,
we did not perceive our mi flake till avc obferved them
pointing their guns. We had not flrength fufficient to
refift, and therefore our governor gave orders, that as
foon as they fhould begin to fire, the Britifh flag fhould
be ftruck, and a flag of truce hoifted. Accordingly
this was done, but ftill they continued firing, and did
much damage, both Avithin and Avithout the town.
They killed trvo people and Avounded three or four. But
as avc did not underftand the meaning of this proceed¬
ing, Ave afked them for an explanation ; and they an-
fwered us, that Ave fhould difplay the flag of liberty, as
a proof of our fubmiflion. We aflured them that it
fhould already have been done, if we had had any,
Avhich terminated the hoftilities from the (hips. In the
mean time, moft of the inhabitants had fled from the
town, having taken Avith them as much of their pro¬
perty as they conveniently could in fuch a hurry. I
Avas with the governor, together with a number of
others *, but as foon as I Avas certain they Avere enemies,
I Avent towards my own houfe with a vierv to fave as
much as poffible of my property and natural colle&ions ;
but Avas received in fuch a manner, that I could not ven¬
ture to proceed. My houfe Avas fituated near the (bore,
and unfortunately iuft oppofite the frigate Avhich fired. -
I faAV the balls pafling through the houfe, and heard
them Avhizzing about my ears. I faw that I fhould
lofe all my property *, but life Avas dearer to me, and I
haftened to the woods.
“ In the afternoon the enemy landed, finding the town
almoft deftitute of people, but rich in provifions, cloth¬
ing and other flores. They began immediately to break
open the houfes and to plunder. What they did not
want, they deflroyed, burnt, or threw into the river.
3 ] s 1 E
They killed all the cattle and animals they found in the Sierra-
fields or ftreets, yards or elfewhere, not fparing even ~v
afles, dogs, and cats. Thefe proceedings they conti¬
nued the Avhole fucceeding Aveek, (ill they had entirely
ruined our beautiful and profpering colony ; and Avhen
they found nothing more Avorth plundering, they fet
fire to the public buildings and all the houfes belong¬
ing to the Europeans; and burnt, as they laid, by mif-
take nine or ten houfes ol the colon ills. In the mean
time, they were not lefs aftive on the Avater. I hey
fent three of their veffels to Bance ifland, an Englifh
flave faftory higher up the ri\*er, which they plundered
and burnt, together Avith fome Have fhips lying there.
They took befides about 10 or 12 prizes, including
the company’s veflels. Moll of thefe they unloaded
and burnt. They took along Avith them alfo tAvo of
our armed veffels, one of which Avas a large fhip, laden
Avith provifions, and Avhich had been long expelled \
but fhe unfortunately arrived a feAV days too foon, and
Avas taken Avith her Avhole cargo. We expected at lead
to receive our private letters, but even this Avas refufed,
and they Avere thrown oA^erboard. At laft, after in-
flidling on us every hardfhip we could fuffer, only fpar¬
ing our lives and the houfes of the colonifts, they failed
on the 13th of Oftober laft, at noon, proceeding doAvn-
Avards to the Gold Coaft, and left us in the molt dread¬
ful fituation, without provifions, medicines, clothes,
houfes, or furniture, &c. &c. and I fear much, that moft
of us fhould have perifhed, had not our friends in the
neighbourhood, both natives and Europeans, Avho were
fo happy as to efeape the enemy, been fo kind as to
fend us what they could fpare. In the mean time, moft
of us have either been, or flill are, very lick, and many
have died for Avant of proper food and medicine. The
Avorft, hoAvever, is how paft. At. lead avc are not in
any want of provifion, although of the coarfeft kind,
but are deftitute of the moft neceffary articles and uten-
fils for the houfe, the table, and the kitchen.
It Avas thus that the Convention executed their pur-
pofe of fpreculing light and liberty through the ’world.
The Sierra Leona colony Avas eftablifhed for no other
end than to abolifh the flave-trade, to enlighten the Afri¬
cans, and to render them virtuous, rational, free, and
happy ; and thofe powerful patrons of the rights of
man deftroyed that colony with many circumftances of
the moft Avanton cruelty. Though Mr Afzelius is a
Swede, and ought therefore to have been protcfled by
the laws of neutrality, they burnt his houfe Avith the
reft ; deprived him of his trunks, his clothes, and his
bed *, deftroyed the natural curiofities Avhich he had col¬
lected at the hazard of his life j and carried away the
inftruments by means of Avhich only he could colled
more.
In 179S, Free-ToAvn confifted of about 300 houfes,
and a number of public buildings, together Avith three
Avharfs. The government houfe, fo fituated as to com¬
mand the toAvn and harbour, Avas proteOed by a pali-
fade, and fix pieces of cannon. The inhabitants of this
colony Avere then computed at 1200, of whom 15 Avere
fhopkeepers, 25 fifliermen, 10 trading fhipmafters, OAvners
of fmall veffels, 15 feamen, 20 labourers employed by the
company, 4 fchoolmafters ; about one half of the Avhole
population petty farmers, and the reft mechanics. The -
number of Europeans refident at that time in the colony
was .
\
S I E
[ 344 ]
S I E
Sietta.
was about 30, and nearly 400 free natives wrought as
labourers for wages, on the farms in the colony.
A charter of juftice was obtained in 1800, to controul
the turbulence of the blacks from Nova Scotia, and a
fmall military force from Goree was ftationed at Sierra
Leona. Parliament allowed the company 7000I. for the
purpofe of erefting a fort, with a promife of 8000I. more
for the fame undertaking. The company alfo received
io,oool. for their expence in fettling the blacks from
Nova Scotia, and a vote of parliament agreed to pay
4000I. for fupporting the civil government of the co-
' lony.
The Maroons arrived in Sierra Leona in the month
of October 1800, and greatly aflifted in fuppreffing an
infurre£tion of the Nova Scotia blacks, who had at¬
tempted to feize on the government of the colony. A
body of natives of the Timmaney, headed by two of the
fugitive blacks, made an attack on the unfiniftied fort
on the 18th of November, about day-break, but they
were repulfed with lofs. A truce was concluded ; but
it was fuppofed that the Timmanee chiefs would make
ufe of this interval to form alliances with the natives a-
againft the Britilh, in order to exterminate them from
this part of Africa. Soldiers to the amount of 65 were
brought from Goree, and a (hip of war was ftationed in
the river, to defend the fettlement.
In 1802, parliament again voted lO,OOol. to the com¬
pany, for the annual expence of the fettlement j and in
February 1803, the directors were informed by Lord
Hobart, that it would be for the intereft of the colony to
transfer the civil and military power from the company
to the Britilh government.
When Captain Hallowell arrived at Sierra Leona on
the 12th of January 1803, he found the colony in a
wretched condition, reporting to government on his re¬
turn, that the Maroons were not fatisfied with their con¬
dition, regarding it as one in which they could not find
fubfiftence 5 that provifions of every defcription were
both fcarce and dear; that its inhabitants lived in hourly
danger from the natives ; and that the whole colonifts
lived in a ftate of defpondency. Government, however,
was afterwards fatisfied, from the explanations of the
directors and their fervants, that the account of Captain
Hallorvell was by much too unfavourable. Expectations
are indulged that, fince the entire abolition of Bie flave-
trade, the colony will foon obtain a flourifhing trade
with the natives, in the exchange of Britjfn manufac¬
tures for the raw produce of the interior parts of
Africa.
A committee of the houfe of commons has had a molt
fatisfaCtory proof of the progreflive improvement of the
internal adminiftration of the colony, arifing from the
additional powers conferred on the company by the
charter of juftice, and the increafed vigilance and exer¬
tion of the Company’s fervants. The Maroons have, in
a o-reat meafure, abandoned fome pernicious habits they
-had long indulged, and by their attachment to the co¬
lony, and peaceable demeanour, have merited the ap¬
probation of government. The progrefs made in the
ereftion of works has been con fiderable, and the colony
may be regarded in a ftate of ■ fufficient fecurity againft
the attack of any native power. A body of volunteers
has been raifed within the colony, whofe fidelity and at¬
tachment. have been tried by experience. The ficknefs
and mortality which for fome time exifted,have in a great
degree fubfided 5 and there is reafon to believe, that it Sierra
rather originated with the troops when they entered the II
colony, and their habits of intemperance, than from any
diforder connected with their refidence in that fituation.
The number of births, which has for fome time exceed¬
ed that of the deaths in the colony, is a fatisfaCtory proof
that it is not unfriendly to population..
Sierra Leona is already rendered fecure againft the
only enemies whofe hoftilities it has immediately to ap¬
prehend 5 its refources are increafed 5 its cultivation re¬
viving j and it is in the poffeflion of every advantage
that can arife from the enjoyment of internal tranquil¬
lity and order. It is fufficiently manifeft, from the in¬
conveniences already experienced in the colony, that
during its continuance, it will be effentially neceffary
to fupport a local government capable of maintaining
order among its inhabitants, and affording them pro¬
tection. The expence of the civil eftablifhment for
fome years to come cannot be eftimated at lefs than
lOjOool. per annum * ; that of completing the propofed * The n
works has been eftimated at 8000I. * It alfo appears that pence of
the defence of the colony will require the prefent volun-th^ CK'’j
teer force to be permanently kept up, the expence of^^-jr
which has been eftimated at 4000I. per annum j or if 1809i*.
that eftablifhment fhould be discontinued, a regular gar- ceeded
rifon muft be maintained at the conftant eftablifhment of I7>00°1*
IOO efteCtive men, exclufive of about 20 artillery men,
which, confidering the numerous cafualties in that cli¬
mate, and great expence of fupporting them, would ex¬
ceed the fum already mentioned.
SIERRA morena, a confiderable ridge of mountains
of Andalufia in Spain. See Spain.
SI EUR, a title of refpeCt among the French, like
that of mojler among us. It is much ufed by lawyers,
as alfo by fuperiors in their letters to inferiors.
SIFANTO, or SlPHANTO, an ifland of the Archi¬
pelago, to the weft of Paros, to the north-eaft of
Milo, and to the fouth-weft of Serphanto. The air is
fo good here, that many of the inhabitants live to the
age of 120 j and their water, fruits, wild fowl, and
poultry, are excellent, but more efpecially the grapes.
It abounds with marble and granite, and is one of the
moft fertile and beft cultivated of thefe iilands. The
inhabitants employ themfelves in cultivating olive-trees
and capers 5 and they have very good filk. They trade
in figs, onions, wax, honey, and ftraw-hats ; and may
be about 8000 in all. E. Long. 25. 15. N. Lat.
37. 9.
SI-FANS, or Tou-FANS, a people inhabiting the Orofisr's
country on the weft of China. Their Country is only Central
a continued ridge of mountains, inclofed by the rivers
Hoang-ho on the north, Ya-long on the weft, and ^ u
Yang-tfe-kiang on the eaft, between the 30th and 35thp. 203.
degrees of north latitude.
The Si-fans are divided into twro kinds of people *,
the one are called by the Chinefe B/ack Si-fans, the
other Yellow; names which are given them from the
different colours of their tents. The black are the moft;
clownifh and wretched ; they live in fmall bodies, and
are governed by petty chiefs, who all depend upon a
greater.
The yellow Si-fans are fubjeft to families, the oldeft
of which becomes a lama, and aflumes the yellow drefs.
Thefe lama princes, who command in their refpe£b’ve
diftridts, have the power of trying caufes, and punifli-
ing
S I G [ 345 ] S I G
fans ing criminals 5 but their government is by no means
il burdenfome ; provided certain honours are paid them,
g'ht' , and they receive pun&ually the dues of the god Fo,
■which amount to very little, they moleft none of their
fubjefts. The greater part of the Si-fans live in tents ;
But fome of them have houfes built of earth, and even
brick. Their habitations are not contiguous j they
form at moft but fome fmall hamlets, confiding of five
or fix families, They feed a great number of flocks,
and are in no want of any of the necelTaries of life. The
principal article of their trade is rhubarb, which their
country produces in great abundance. Their horfes
are fmall •, but they are well fhaped, lively and robuft.
Tfiefe people are of a proud and independent fpirit,
and acknowledge with reludlance the fuperiority of the
Chinefe government, to which they have been fubjedl-
ed : when they are fummoned by the mandarins, they
rarely appear 5 but the government, for political reafons,
winks at this contempt, and endeavours to keep thefe
intradlable fubjefts under by mildnefs and moderation :
it would, befides, be difficult to employ rigorous means
in order to reduce them to perfedt obedience ; their
wild and frightful mountains (the tops of which are al¬
ways covered with fnow, even in the month of July)
Would afford them places of (belter, from which they
could never be driven by force.
The cufioms of thefe mountaineers are totally differ¬
ent from thofe of the Chinefe. It is, for example, an
aft of great politenefs amotig them to prefent a white
handkerchief of taffety or linen, when they accoft any
perfon whom they are defirous of honouring. All their
religion confifts in their adoration of the god Fo, to
whom they have a fingular attachment •, their fuperfti-
tious veneration extends even to his minifters, on whom
they have confidered it as their duty to confer fupreme
power and the government of the nation.
SIGAULTIAN OPERATION, a methbd of delivery
in cafes of difficult labour, firft praflifed by M. Sigault.
It confifts in enlarging the dimenfions of the pelvis, in
order to procure a fafe paffage to the child without in¬
juring the mother.
SIGESBECKI A, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of fyngenefia, and to the order of poly gam ia fuper-
flua; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 49th
order, Compofitce. See Botany Index.
SIGETH, a town of Lower Hungary, and capital
of a county of the fame name. It is feated in a morafs,
and has a triple wall, with ditches full of w'ater ; and
is defended by a citadel, being one of the ftrongeft pla¬
ces in Hungary. It now belongs to the houfe of Au-
ftria, and was retaken from the Turks in 1669, after it
had been blocked up two years. In fome maps it is
called Zrgat. E. Long. 18. 58. N. Lat. 46. 17.
SIGHING, an effort of nature, by which the lungs
are put into greater motion, and more dilated, fo that
the blood paffes more freely, and in greater quantity,
to the left auricle, and thence to the ventricle. Hence
we learn, fays Dr Hales, how fighing increafes the
force of the blood, and confequently proportionably
cheers and relieves nature, when oppreffed by its too
ilow motion, which is the cafe, of thofe who are deiefled
and fad.
SIGHT, or Vision. Sec Anatomy, N° 142. and
Index fubjoined to Optics.
Vol. XIX. Part I.
ImperfeSlion of SIGHT with regard to Colours. Under
the article Colours, is given an inftance of a ftrange j| j
deficiency of fight in fome people, who could not diilin- signals,
guiffi between the different colours. In the Phil. Tranf. u—y—
vol. Ixviii. p. 611. rve have an account of a gentleman
who could not diftinguifh a claret colour from black.
Thefe imperfeftions are totally unaccountable from
any thing we yet know concerning the nature of this
fenfe.
Second SIGHT. See SECOND Sight.
SIGN, in general, the mark or character of fome-
thing abfent or invifible. See Character.
Among phyficians, the term fgn denotes fome ap¬
pearance in the human body which ferves to indicate
or point out the condition of the patient with regard to
health or difeafe.
Sign, in Algebra. See Algebra.
Sign, in /Iflronomy, a conftellation containing a I2th
part of the zodiac. See Astronomy Index.
Naval SIGNALS. When we read at our fire-
fide the account of an engagement, or other interefting
operation of an army, our attention is generally fo much
engaged by the refults, that we give but little Jo the
movements which led to them, and produced them ; and
we feldom form to ourfelves any diftindl notion of the
conduct of the day. But a profeffional man, or one ac-
cuftomed to refledtion, and who is not fatisfied with the
mere indulgence of eager curiofity, follows every regi¬
ment in its movements, endeavours to fee their connec¬
tion, and the influence which they have had on the fate
of the day, and even to form to himfclf a general notion
of the whole fcene of aftion, at its different interefting
periods. He looks with the eye of the general, and fees
his orders fucceed or fail.
But few trouble themfelves farther about the narra¬
tion. Fhe movement is ordered ; it is performed j and
the fortune of the day is determined. Few think how
all this is brought about ; and when they are told that
during the whole of the battle of Cuftrin, Frederic the
Great was in the upper room of a country inn, from
ivhence he could view the whole field, while his aids
de camp, on horfeback, waited his orders in the yard
below, they are ftruek with wonder, and can hardly
conceive how it can be done : but, on reflection, they
fee the poffibility of the thing. rl heir imagination ac¬
companies the meflenger from the inn yard to the fcene
of adlion ; they hear the general’s orders delivered^,
and they expedt its execution.
But when we think for a moment on the fituation
of the commander of a fleet, confined on board one
(hip, and this (hip as much, or more clofely, engaged,
than any other of the fleet; and when we refled that
here are no meffengers ready to carry his orders to
(hips of the fquadron at the diftance of miles from him,
-and to deliver them with precifion and diftindnefs, and
that even if this -were poffible by (ending fmall (hips or
boats, the viciffitudes of wind and weather may render
the communication fo tedious that the favourable mo¬
ment may be irretrievably loft before the order can be
conveyed.—When we think of all thefe circumftances,
our thoughts are bewildered, and we are ready to ima¬
gine that a fea battle is nothing but the unconneded
ftruggle oflndividual (hips; and that when the admiral
has once “ cried havoc,, and let (lip the dogs of war,”
X x fig
Naval
Signals.
Signals a
language
the eye.
S I G [3+6
he has done all that his fituation empowers him to do,
and he muft leave the fate of the day to the bravery and
^ Ikill of his captains and failors.
Yet it is in this fituation, apparently the moft unfa-
to vourable, that the orders of the commander can be
convevcd, with a diipatch that is not attainaule m tii^
operations of a land army. .1 he fcene of action is un¬
incumbered, fo that the eye of the general can behold
the whole without interruption. The movements which
it is podible to execute are few, and they are precife.
A few words are fufficient to order them, and then
Ufed in
ancient
times,
the mere fighting the (hips muft always be left to their
refpeftive commanders. This fimplicity in the duty to
be performed has enabled us to frame a language fully
adequate to the bufinefs in hand, by which a eorrefpon-
dence can be kept up as far as the eye can lee. i his is
the language of SIGNALS, a language by writing, addref-
fed to the eye, and which he that runneth may read. As
in common Writing certain arbitrary marks are agreed
on to exprefs certain founds uled in fpeech, or rather,
as in hieroglyphics certain arbitrary marks are agreed
on to exprtfs certain thoughts, or the iubje£ts of thele
thoughts ; fo here certain exhibitions are made, which
are agreed on to exprefs certain movements to be exe¬
cuted by the commander to whom they are addreffed,
and all are enjoined to keep their eyes fixed on the fhip
of the conductor of the fleet, that they may learn his
will. _
It is fcarcely poflible for any number of ihips to att
in concert, without fome fuch mode of communication
between the general and the commanders of private
{hips. We have no direft information of this cir-
cumftance in the naval taffies of the ancient nations,
the Greeks and Romans 5 yet the neceffity of the thing
is fo apparent, that we cannot fuppofe it to have, been
omitted by the moft ingenious and the moft cultivated
people who have appeared on the great theatre of the
world : and we are perfuaded that I hemiftoclcs, Conon,
and other renowned fea commanders of Athens, had
fignals by which they dire&ed the movements of their
fleets. We read, that when TEgeus fent his fon Thefeus
to Crete, it was agreed on, that if the (hip Ihould bring
the young prince back in fafety, a white flag Ihould be
difplayed. But thofe on board, in their joy for revolt¬
ing their country after their perilous voyage, forgot to
hoift the concerted fignal. The anxious father was every
day expefling the fhip which Ihould bring back his
darling fon, and had gone to the (bore to look out for
her. "fie faw her, but without the fignal agreed on.
On which the old man threw himfelf into the fea. We
find, too, in the hiftory of the Punic wars by Poly¬
bius, frequent allufions to inch ^ mode of communica¬
tion ; and Amtnianus Marcellinus fpeaks of the fpecu-
latores and %exi//ant, who were on board the fliips
in the Adriatic. The coins both of Greece and Rome
exhibit both flags and ftreamers. In fliort, vie cannot
doubt of the ancients having praftifed this hierogly pin¬
eal language. It is fomewhat furprifing that Lord Dud¬
ley, inWis Arcano del Mare, in which he makes an of-
tentatious difplay of his knowledge of every thing eon-
nefled with the fea fervice, makes no exprefs mention
of this very eflential piece of knowledge, although he
muft, by bis long reftdence in Italy, have known the
marine difeipline of the Venetians and Gencefe, the
greateft maritime powers then in Europe.
j s 1 o
In the naval occurrences of modem Europe, men¬
tion is frequently made of fignals. Indeed, as we have
already obferved, it feems impoflible for a number of
fliips to aft in any kind of concert, without fome me- as Wf]j as
thod of communication. Numberlefs lituations inuft in modern
occur, when it would be impoflible to convey orders or
information by meftengers from one fiiip to another,
and coaft and alarm fignals had long been praftifed by
every nation. The idea, therefore, was familiar. V/e
find, in particular, that (^ueen Elizabeth, on occafion
of the expedition to Cadiz, ordered her fecretarits to
draw up inftrufUons, which were to be communicated
to the admiral, the general, and the five counfellors of
war, and by them to be copied and tranfmitted to the
feveral {hips of the navy, not to be opened till they
fliould arrive in a certain latitude. It was on this oc¬
cafion (fays our hiftoriau Guthrie), “ that we meet
with the firft regular fets of fignals and orders to the
commanders of the Englifh fleet.” But, till the move¬
ments of a fleet have attained fome iort of uniformity,,
regulated and connefted by fome principles of proprie-
ty, and agreed on by perfons in the habit ot diieflmg a
number of (hips, we may with confidence affirm that
fignals would' be nothing but a parcel of arbitrary
marks, appropriated to particular' pieces of naval ft‘r*
vice, fuch as attacking the enemy, landing the foldiers,
&c. j and that they would be- coniidered merely as re¬
ferring to the final refult, but by no means pointing out
the mode of execution, or direfting the movements
which were necefl'ary for performing it. 4
It was James II. when duke of York, who firft but firft
confidered this praflice as capable of being reduced intofo"-
r n  1 LfnpVl a mm-, , t
a fyftem, and who faw the importance ot fuch
by James I
petition. He, as well as the king his brother, had al-whenduk|
ways fhowed a great predilection tor the lea fervice >of York,
and, when appointed admiral of England, he turned
his whole attention to its improvement. He had itu-
died the art of war under Turenne, not as a paftime,
but as a feience, and was a favourite pupil of that
moft accomplithed general. Turenne one day pointed
him out, faying, “Behold one who will be one of the
firft princes and greateft; generals of Europe.” When
admiral of England, he endeavoured to introduce into
the maritime fervice all thofe principles of concert and
arrangement which made a number of individual regi¬
ments and fquadrons compofe a great army. When he
commanded in the Dutch war, he found a fleet to be
little better than a collection of {hips, on board of each
of which the commander and his {hip’s company did
their belt to annoy the enemy, but with very little de¬
pendence on each other, or on the orders of the gene¬
ral : and in the different aCtions which the Englilh fleet
had with the Dutch, every thing was confufion as loon
as the battle began. It is remarkable that the famous
penfionary De Witt, who from a ftatefman became a na¬
vigator and a great fea commander in a few weeks, made
the fame reprefentation to the States General on his re¬
turn from his firft campaign. ^
In the memoirs of James II. written by himielt, we
have the following paffage r “ 1665.^ On the 15th ot
March, the duke of York went to Gunfleet, the gene¬
ral rendezvous of the fleet, and haftened their equip¬
ment. He ordered all the flag officers on board with
him every morning, to agree on the order of battle and
rank. In former battles, no order was kept, and this
S I G
[ 347 ]
S I G
Naval
: Signals.
PepyS
as fecre-
iry to the
ike of
ork.
5
. Wonderful
nplicity
his fy-
m;
under tlie duke of York, was the fii ll In which fighting
*Tn a line and regular form of battle was obferved.”
This muft be confidered as full authority for giving
the duke of York the honour of the invention. For
whatever faults may be laid to the charge of this unfor¬
tunate prince, his word and honour Hand unimpeached.
And we are anxious to vindicate his claim to it, becaufe
our neighbours the French, as ufual, would take the me¬
rit of this invention, and of the whole of naval taclics,
to thettifelves. True it is, that Colbert, the great and
jufily celebrated minifter of Louis XIV. created a navy
for his ambitious and vain-glorious mafter, and gave it
a conflitution which may be a model for other nations
to copy. By his encouragement, men of the greateft
fcientific eminence w’ere engaged to contribute to its
improvement : and they gave us the firlt treatiies of
naval evolutions. But it muft ever be remembered, that
our accomplilhed, though mifguided fovereign, was then
refiding at the court of Louis j that he had formerly
a&ed in concert with the French as a commander and
flag officer, and was at this very time aiding them with
his knowledge of fea affairs. In the memorable day at
La Hogue, the gallant Ruffel, obferving one of Tour-
ville’s movements, exclaimed, “ There ! they have got
Pepys * among them.” This anecdote we give on the
authority of a friend, who heard an old and refpe&able
officer (Admiral Clinton) fay, that he had it from a
gentleman who was in the aftion, and heard the words
fpoken •, and we truft that our readers will not be dif-
pleafed at having this matter of general opinion efta-
blilhed on fome good grounds.
It was on this occafion, then, that the duke of York
made the movements and evolutions of a fleet the ob-
je£! of his particular ftudy, reduced them to a fyftem,
and compofed that “ Syflem of Sailing and Fighting
Inftruftions,” which has ever fince been confidered as
the code of difcipline for the Britilh navy, and which
has been adopted by our rivals and neighbours as the
foundation of their naval tadlics. It does great honour
to its author, although its merit will not appear very
eminent to a carelefs furveyor, on account of that very
fimplicity which conftitutes its chief excellence. It is
unqueftionably the refult of much fagacious reflection
and painful combination of innumerable circumflances,
all of which have their influence ; and it is remarkable,
that although fucceeding commanders have improved
the fubjeCt by feveral fubordinate additions, no change
has to this day been made in its general principles or
maxims of evolution.
Till fome fuch code be eftabliftied, it is evident that
fignals can be nothing but arbitrary and unconnected
hieroglyphics, to be learned by rote, and retained by me¬
mory, without any exercife of the judgment *, and the
acquifition of this branch of nautical Ikill muft be a
more irkfome talk than that of learning the Chinefe
writing. But fuch a code being once fettled, the cha¬
racter in which it may be exprefled becomes a matter of
rational difeuflion. /
Accordingly, the failing and fighting inftruCtions of
the duke of York were accompanied by a fet of fignals
for directing the chief or moft frequent movements of
the fleet. Thefe alfo were contrived with fo much
judgment, and fuch attention to diftinCtnefs, fimplicity,
and propriety, that there has hardly been any change
found neceffary j and they are ftill retained in the Bri-
N aval
Signals.
tith navy as the ufual fignals in all cafes when we are
not anxious to conceal our movements from an enemy.
Notwithftanding this acknowledged merit of the duke ^
of York’s fignals, it muft be admitted that great im-yet as an
provements have been made on this fubjeft, confidered art has
as an art. The art military has, in the courfe of afintehl*
time recei-
century pall, become almoft an appropriate calling, vej coafj.
and has therefore been made the peculiar ftudy of its derable
profeffors. Our rivals the French were fooner and improve-
more formally placed in this fituation ; and the minifters111®11*6,
of Louis XIV. took infinite and moft judicious pains
to make their military men fuperior to all others by
their academical education. A more fcientific turn was
given to their education, and the affiftance of feientifid
men was liberally given them $ and all the nations of
Europe muft acknowledge fome obligations to them for
information on every thing conneCled with the art of
war. They have attended very much to this fubjeCl,
have greatly improved it, and have even introduced a
new principle into the art ; and by this means have re¬
duced it to the moft fimple form of reference to the
code of failing and fighting inftruftions, by making the
fignals immediately expreflive, not of orders, but of
fimple numbers. Thefe numbers being prefixed to the
various articles of the code of inftru&ions, the officer
who fees a fignal thrown out by the admiral reads the
number, and reports it to his captain, perhaps without
knowing to what it relates. Thus fimplicity and fe~
creey, with an unlimited power of variation, are com¬
bined. We believe that M. de la Bourdonnais, a brave
and intelligent officer, during the war 1758* was the
author of this ingenious thought.
We do not propofe to give a fyftem of Britifh fig¬
nals. This would evidently be improper. But we ftiall
fhow our readers the prafticability of this curious lan¬
guage, the extent to which it may be carried, and the
methods which may be praffifed in accomplifhing this
purpofe. This may make it an objedl of attention to
fcientific men, who can improve it 5 and the young offi¬
cer will not only be able to read the orders of the com¬
mander in chief, but will not be at a lofs, fhould cir-
cumftances place him in a fituation where he muft iffue
orders to others.
Signals may be divided into,
I. Day Signals.
II. Night Signals; and,
III. Signals in a Fog.
They muft alfo be diftinguifhed into, 1. Signals of
Evolution, addreffed to the whole Fleet, or to
Squadrons of the fleet, or to Divisions of thefe
fquadrons. 2. Signals of Movements to be made by
particular fhips ; and, 3. Signals of Service, which
may be either general or particular. ^
The great extent of a large fleet, the fmoke in time During a4
of battle, and the fituation of the commander in chief, enSage-
who is commonly in the midft of the greateft confufion
and hotteft fire, frequently makes it very difficult for tj7e admi-
the officers of diftant fliips to perceive his fignals with ral are re-
diftimftnefs. Frigates, therefore, are ftationed out” of Peated by
the line, to windward or to leeward, whofe foie office irrigates fta*
is to obferve the admiral’s fignals, and inftantly to repeat line,
them. The eyes of all the fignal officers in the private
{hips of war are direfted to the repeating frigates, as
well as to the admiral; and the officers of the repeating
frigate, having no other duty, obferve the admiral incef-
X x 2 fantly,
S I G
Naval
Signals
Evolution
fignals are
preceded
by a lignal
oi adver-
tifement,
and accom¬
panied with
dirediive
fianal.
9
Anfwered
by the coni--
munder
whom they
are addref-
fed.
Annulling
fignal.
S I G [ 348
fantly, and, being unembarraffed by the a£Hon, can dif-
play the fignal with deliberation, fo that it may be very
diilinftly feen. Being minutely acquainted with the
fubftitutions which mail be made on board the admiral
when his malts and rigging are in diforder, his (perhaps
imperfect) fignal is exhibited by the repeating frigate in
its proper form, fo as to be eafily underitood. And to
facilitate this communication, the commanders of the
different fquadrons repeat the lignals of the commander
in chief, and the commanders of divifion repeat the fig¬
nals of the commanders of their fquadron.
Every evolution fignal is preceded by a fignal of ad¬
vertisement and PREPARATION, wrhich is general, and
frequently by a gun, to call attention •, and when all
the fignals have been made which direft the different
parts of that evolution, another fignal is made, which
marks the clofe of the complex fignal, and divides it
from others which may immediately follow it : and as
the orders of the commander in chief may relate either
to the movements of the whole fleet, thofe of a Angle
divifion, or thofe of certain private fhips, the Execu¬
tive Signal, which diftates the particular move¬
ment, is accompanied by a Directive Signal, by
which thcfe fhips are pointed out, to which the order is
addreffed.
The commander of the fhip to which any fignal is
addreffed, fls generally required to fignify by a fignal
(which is general) that he has obferved it. And if
he does not thoroughly underftand its meaning, he in¬
timates this by another general fignal. And here it is
to be obferved, that as foon as the fignal is anfwered
by the fhips to which it is addreffed, it is ufual to haul
it down, to avoid the confufion which might arife from
others being hoifted in the fame place. The order re¬
mains till executed, notwithflanding that the fignal is
hauled down.
It may happen that the commander who throws out
the fignal for any piece of fervice, fees reafons for al¬
tering his plan. He intimates this by a general An¬
nulling fignal, accompanying the fignal already gi¬
ven. This will frequently be more Ample than to
make the fignals for the movements which would be
required for re-eflablifhing the fhips in their former fi-
tuation.
All thefe things are of very eafy comprehenfion, and
require little thought for their contrivance. But wrhen
we come to the particular evolutions and movements,
and to combine thefe with the circumftances of fituation
in which the fleet may be at the time, it is evident,
that much refleftion is neceffary for framing a body of
fignals which may be eafily exhibited, diftinftly percei¬
ved, and well underftood, with little rifk of being mif-
taken one for another. We fhall take notice of the cir¬
cumftances which chiefly contribute to give them thefe
qualities ad we proceed in defcribing their different
claffes.
]
T/ie following Signals
Main topgallant ftayfail
hoifted
Fore topfail loofe
Main topfail loofe
Main topfail fheets haul¬
ed home
Main topfail fheets clew¬
ed up, and the yard
hoifted
Topgallant fails loofe, and
the fheets flying
Main-topgallant fail loofe
and hoifted. Topfail-
yard down
Mizen topfail hoifted, and
the fheets clewed up
ufually fgnify
Officers and men belong¬
ing to the fhip to come
on board.
To prepare for failing.
To unmoor.
To weigh.
Annul the former fignal,
and the fhip to come to
an anchor.
Difcovering ftrange fails.
Recal fhips in chafe.
Moor.
Naval
Signals.
I. Of T)ay Signals.
These are made by means of the fhip’s fails, or by
colours of various kinds.
Thofe made with fails are but few in number, and
are almoft neceffarily limited to the fituation of a fleet
at anchor. Thus,
Before we proceed to the description of the fignals by
means of colours, fuch as flags, banners (or triangu¬
lar flags), pendants or vanes, we muft take notice of
the oftenfible diftin£tions of the various divifions and
fubdivifions of a fleet, fo that we may underftand how
the fame fignal may be addreffed to a fquadron, divi¬
fion, or fingle fhip or fhips. We fuppofe it known that
a fleet of fhips of Avar is diftributed into three grand di¬
vifions (ivhich avc fhall term fquadrons'), caMed the van,
centre, and rear. Thefe denominations have not al-
Avays a relation to the one being more advanced than
the other, either towards the enemy, or in the diredlion
of their courfe. n
In a land army, the pofition of every part is copicei- ^eanjn^ 1
ved from its reference to the enemy ; and the reader, of the terms |
conceiving himfelf as facing the enemy, eafily under-vant centre,|j
ftands the terms van, centre, and rear, the right and left gr’(jjn|
wing, &c. But the moA'ements of a fea army havingbflttie at !
a neceffary dependence on the Avind, they cannot be com- fea.
prehended unlefs expreffed in a language which keeps
this circumftance continually in view. The fimpleft
and moft eafily conceived difpofition of a fleet, is that
in which it is almoft indifpenfably obliged to form in
order to engage an enemy. This is a ftraight line, each
fhip direftly ahead of its neighbour, and clofe hauled.
This is therefore called the line of battle. In this pofi¬
tion, the tAvo extremities of the fleet correfpond to the
right and left Avings of an army. Suppofe this line to
be in the direftion eaft and Aveft, the Avind bloAving
from the north-north-Aveft, and therefore the fleet on the
ftarboard tack ; the fhips heads are to the Aveft, and the
weftermoft divifion is undoubtedly the van of the fleet,
and the eaftermoft divifion is the rear And it is in
conformity to this arrangement and fituation that the
list of the fleet is draivn up. But the fhips may
be on the fame eaft and Aveft line, clofe hauled, with
their heads to the weft, but the Avind bloAving from the
fouth-fouth-w'eft. They muft therefore be on the lar¬
board tack. The fame fhips, and the fame divifion, are
ftill, in faft, the van of the fleet. But fuppofe the fhips
heads to be to the eafhvard, and that they are clofe
hauled.
S I G [ 349 ] S I G
i jsVal hauled, having the wind from the fouth-fouth eaft or
Signals. t}ie north north-eaft, the (hips which were the real van
on both tacks in the former fituation are now, in faft,
the rear on both tacks; yet they retain the denomina¬
tion of the van fquadfon of this tleet, and are under the
immediate dire£tion of the officer of the fecond rank,
while the other extremity is under the direction.- of the
third officer. This fubordination therefore is rather an
arrangement of rank and precedence than of evolution.
It is, however, confidered as the NATURAL ORDER to
which the general fignals muft be accommodated. For
this reafon, the divifion which is denominated in the
lift of this fleet, is generally made to lead the fleet when
in the line of battle on the {larboard tack, and to form
the weathermq/l column in the order of failing in co¬
lumns ; and, in general, it occupies that ftation from
which it can moil; eafdy pafs into the place of the lead¬
ing divifion on the ftarboard line of battle ahead. Al¬
though this is a technical nicety of language, and may
frequently puzzle a landfman in reading an account of
naval operations, the reflefling and intelligent reader
will fee the propriety of retaining this mode of concei¬
ving the fubordinate arrangement of a fleet, and will
comprehend the employment of the fignals which are
necefihry for re-eftablifhing this arrangement, or direfl¬
ing the movements while another arrangement is re-
,2 tained.
|wfig- This being nnderftood, it is eafy to contrive various
| _s are ad- methods of diftinguifhing every ffiip by the place which
tkd t° pie 0CCUpjes ;n the fleet, both with refpefl to the whole
Lfedivi- line, with refpefl to the particular fquadron, the pax-ti¬
ns. cular divifion of that fquadron, and the particular place
in that divifion. This may be done by a combination
of the pofition and colour of the pendants and vanes of
each fhip. Thus the colour of the pendants may indi¬
cate the fquadron, their pofition or maft on which they
are hoifted may mark the divifion of that fquadron,
and a diftinguifhing vane may mark the place of the pri¬
vate fliip in her own divifion. The advantages attend¬
ing this method are many. In a large fleet it would
hardly be poffible for the commander in chief to find a
fufficient variety of fingle fignals to mark the ffiip to
which an order is addrefled, by hoifting it along with
the fignal appropriated to the intended movement.
But by this contrivance one-third part of thefe fignals of
addrefs is fufficient. It alfo enables the commander in
chief to order a general change of pofition by a fingle
fignal, which otherwife would require feveral. Thus,
fuppofe that the fore, main, and mizen mafts, are ap¬
propriated (with the proper modifications) for exhibiting
the fignals addrefled to the van, the centre, and the
rear fquadrons of the fleet, and that a red, a white, and.
a blue flag, are chofen for the diftinguiffiing flags of the
officers commanding thefe fquadrons ; then, if the com¬
mander in chief (hall hoift a red flag at his mizen top¬
gallant maft head, it muft. direft the van fquadron to
take the pofition then occupied by the rear fquadron,
the evolution necefiary for accomplifhing this end being
fuppofed known by the commander of the fquadron,
who will immediately make the neceffixry fignals to the
fquadron under his particular direction. In the fame
manner, the diftinguifhing fignal for the leading fliip of
a fquadron being hoifted along with the fignal of addrefs
to the whole fleet, and the fignal for any particular fer-
I
vice, will caufe the three or the nine leading flxips to Nava]
execute that order, &c. &c. ■ " ,
All that has been faid hitherto may be confidered as
fo many preparations for the real ifluing of orders by
the commander in chief. The moft difficult part of
the language remains, viz. to invent a number of fig¬
nals which lhall correfpond to that alinoft infinite va¬
riety of movements and fervices which muft be per¬
formed. 13
Diftindftnefs, fimplicity, and propriety, are the three Effential
effential qualities of all fignals. A fignal muft be fome
objefl eafily feen, ftrongly marked, fo that it may be are
readily underftood, with little rilk of its being miftaken nefs,
for another. When made by flags, banners, or pen¬
dants, they muft be of the fulleft colours, and ftrongeft
contrails. The ffiips are frequently at a very great di-
ftance, fo that the intervening air occafions a great de¬
gradation of colour. They are feen between the eye
and a very variable Iky; and in this fituation, efpecially
in the morning or evening, or a dark day, it is not eafy
to diftinguilh one full colour from another, all of them
approaching to the appearance of a black. At the di-
ftance of a very few miles hardly any full colours can
be diftinguiffied but a fcarlet and a blue. Red, blue,
yellow, and white, are the colours which can be diftxn-
guiffied at greater diftances than any others, and are
therefore the only coloui's admitted as fignals. Even
thefe are fometimes diftinguiffied with difficulty. A
yellow is often confounded xvith a dirty white, and a
blue with a red. All other dark coloui's arc found to¬
tally unfit. But as thefe afford but a fmall variety, we
muft combine them in one flag, by making it ftriped,
fpotted, or chequered, taking eai-e that the oppofition
of colour may be as great as poflible, and that the pieces
of which the flags are made up may not be too minute.
Red muft never be ftriped nor fpotted with blue ; and
the ftripes, fpots, or chequers, ftiould never be lefs than
one thix-d of the breadth of the flag. PL CCCCXCVI.
is a feledlion by an officer of experience, as a fet very
eafily recognifed, and liltle liable to be confounded.
Their colours are x-eprefented by batching, in the fame
manner as in heraldry (fee Heraldry).
Difference of ffiape, as flags, banners, or pendants,
is another diftindlion by which the expreffion may be
varied. And in doing this, we rouft recoiled!, that in
light winds it may be difficult to diftinguxffi a flag from
a banner, as neither are fully difplayed for wrant of wind
to detach the fly from the ftaff.
And, laftly, fignals may be varied by their pofition,
which may be on any lofty and well detached part of
the mafts, yards, or rigging. ^ 14
Simplicity is an eminent property in all fignals. They fimplicity,
are addreffed to perfons not much accuftomed to com¬
binations, and who are probably much occupied by
other prefling duties. It were to be wiffied that every
piece of fervice could be indicated by a fingle flag.
This is peculiarly defirable rvith refpedl to the fignals
ufed in time of battle. The rapid fucceflion of events
on this occafion call for a multitude of orders from the
commander in chief, and his flxip is frequently clad over
with flags and pendants, fo that it is exceedingly diffi¬
cult for the fignal officer of a private ffiip to ditlinguiffi
the different groups, each of which make a particular
fignal.
Thefe
>s
and pro¬
priety.
16
By what
means fig-
nals are
diftin(flly
conveyed,
'7
and under-
itood.
i$
The art of
fignals
much im¬
proved
fince the
publication
of the Tac-
tique Na-
vale.
S I G [ 35
Thefe confideratlons are the foundation of a certain
propriety in fignals, which directs us to a choice among
marks which appear altogether arbitrary. Signals which
run any rifk of being confounded, on account of fome
refemblance, or becaufe their pofition hinders us from
immediately perceiving their difference, fhould be ap¬
propriated to pieces of iervice which are hardly pofiible
to be executed, or can hardly be wanted, in the fame
fituation. No bad confequence could eafxly refult though
the fignal for coming to clofer action thou Id referable that
for unmooring, becaufe the prefent fituation of the (hips
makes the laid operation impoffible or abfurd. Such
confiderations diredf Us to feledt for battle fignals, thofe
which are of eafiefl exhibition, are the molt fimple, and
have the leafl dependence on the circumftance of pofi¬
tion ; fo that their fignification may not be affefted by
the damages fuftained in the mails or rigging of the flag
ihip. Such fignals as are lefs eafily feen at a diflance,
fhould be appropriated to orders which can occur only
in the middle of the fleet, &c. &c. Signals which are
made to the admiral by private fhips may be the fame
with fignals of command from the flag fhip, which will
confiderably diminifh the number of fignals perfectly
different from each other.
With all thefe attentions and precautions a fyflera of
fignals is at laft made up, fitted to the code of failing
and fighting inflruftions. It is accompanied by another
fmall fet for the duty of convoys. It muft be engroffed
in two books •, one for the officer of the flag fhip, who
is to make the fignals, and the other is delivered to
every private {hip. In the firfl, the evolutions, move¬
ments, and other operations of fervice, are fet down in
one column, and their correfponding fignals in another.
The firfl column is arranged, either alphabetically, by
the diflinguifhing phrafe, or fyflematically, according
to the arrangement of the failing and fighting inflruc-
tions. The officer whofe duty it is to make the fignals,
turn to this column for the order which he is to com¬
municate, and in the other column he finds the appro¬
priated fignal.
In the other book, which is confulted for the inter¬
pretation of the fignals, they are arranged in the lead¬
ing column, either by the flags, or by the places of
their exhibition. The firfl is the befl method, becaufe
the derangement of the flag fhip’s marts and rigging in
time of adlion may occafion a change in the place of the
fignal.
The TaBique Navale of the Chevalier de Morogues
contains a very full and elaborate treatife on fignals.
We recommend this work to every fea-officer, as full of
inftrufrion. The art of fignals has been greatly fimplified
fince the publication of this work, but we cannot but
aferibe much of the improvements to it. We believe
that the author is the inventor of that fyftematic man¬
ner of addreffing the order or effective iignal to the dif¬
ferent fquadrons and divifions of the fleet, by which the
art of fignals is made more concife, the execution of or¬
ders ii rendered more fyllematie, and the commanders
of private fhips are accuflomed to confider themfelves as
parts of an army, with a mutual dependence and con-
neflion. We are ready enough to acknowledge the fu-
perioritv of the French in manoeuvring, but we aflfe6l to
confider iFis a- an imputation on their courage. Noi hing
can be more u fiull ; and dear-bought experience .fhould
long ere now have taught us the value of this fuperiority.
o ] S I G
What avails that courage which we would willingly ar¬
rogate to ourfelves, if we cannot come to adlion with
our enemy, or muft do it in a fituation in which it is al-
moit impoffible to fueceed, and which needlefsly throws
away the lives of our gallant crews ? Yet this mull
happen, if our admirals do not make evolutions their
careful ftudy, and our captains do not habituate them¬
felves, from their firll hoifting a pendant, to confider
their own fhip as connedled with the moft remote fhip
in the line. We cannot think that this view of their
fituation would in the leatl leflen the character which
they have fo juftly acquired, of fighting their fhip with
a courage and nrmnek unequalled by thofe of any other
nation. And we may add, that it is only by fuch a ra¬
tional ftudy of their profeffion, that the gentleman can
be diftinguifhed from the mercenary commander of a
privateer.
II. Night Signals.
It is evident, that the communication of orders by
night muft be more difficult and more imperfect than by
day. We muft, in general, content ourfelves with
fuch orders as are necefi'ary for keeping the fleet toge¬
ther, by diredling the more general movements and evo¬
lutions which any change of circumllances may render
neceffary. And here the divifion and fubordinate ar¬
rangement of the fleet is of indifpenfible neceffity, it be¬
ing hardly poffible to particularife every fhip by a fignal
of addrefs, or to fee her fituation, The orders are there¬
fore addrefled to the commanders of the different divi¬
fions, each of whom is diflinguiflied by his poop and
top-lights, and is in the midfl of, and not very remote
from, the fhips under his more particular charge. Yet
even in this unfavourable fituation, it is frequently ne-
ceffary to order the movements of particular fhips. Ac¬
tions during the night are not uncommon. Purfuits
and rallyings are ftill oftener carried on at this time.
The common dangers of the fea are as frequent and
more difaftrous. The fyftem of fignals therefore is very
incomplete till this part be accomplifhed.
Night fignals mull be made by guns, or by lights, or
by both combined.
Gun-Jignals are fufceptible of variety both in number
and in difpofltion. The only diilindl variation which
can be made in this difpofition, is by means of the time
elapfed between the difeharges. This will eafily admit
of three varieties, flow, moderate, and quick.—Half¬
minute guns are as flow as can eafily be liftened to as ap¬
pertaining to one fignal. Quarter-minute guns are much
better, and admit of two very diflinfl fubdi vifions. When
the gunners, therefore, are well trained to this fervice
(efpecially fince the employment of firelocks for can¬
non), intervals of 15 or 12 feconds may be taken for
flow firing, 8 or lo feconds for moderate, and 4 or 5
feconds for quick firing. If thefe could be reduced one
half, and made with certainty and precifion, the expref-
fion would be incomparably more diftindh A very
fmall number of firings varied in this Avay will give a
confiderable number of fignals. Thus five guns, with
the varietv of only quick and moderate, will give 20
very diftinguifbable fignals. The fame principle mull
be attended to here as in the flag fignals. The moft
fimple mud be appropriated to the moft important or¬
ders, fuch as occur in the worfl weather, or fuch as are
mofl
1?
How gun-
fignals maj
be varied.
STavaI
J ignalsi
S I G [ 35I
moft liable to be miftaken. Quick firing fhould not
20
! nals by
■l its.
1' fe two
f] ies of
Is may
lom-
id.
22
Oeralob.
f<btions
ierning
n it fig.
make part of a lignal to a very diftant ihip, becaufe the
' noife of a gun at a great diltance is a lengthened found,
and two of them, with a very lliort interval, are apt to
coalefce into one long-continued found. This mode of
varying gun fignals by the time muft therefore be em¬
ployed with great caution, and we mutf be very certain
of the Heady performance of the gunners.
Note, that a preparatory fignal or advertifement that
an effe&ive fignal is to be made, is a very neceflary
circumftance. It is ufual (at lealt in hard weather) to
make this by a double difcharge, with an interval of half
a fecond, or at moft a fecond.
Gun-fignals are feldom made alone, except in ordina¬
ry fituations and moderate weather ; becaufe accident
may derange them, and inattention may caufe them to
efcape notice, and, once made, they are over, and their
repetition would change their meaning. They are alfo
improper on an enemy’s coaft, or where an enemy’s
cruifers or fleets may be expefted.
Signals by lights are either made with LIGHTS Amply
fo called, i. e. lanthorns ftiown in different parts of the
fhip, or by rockets. Lights may differ by number, and
by pofition, and alfo by figure. For the flag (hip al¬
ways carrying poop or top-lights, or both, prefents an
objedf in the darkeft night, fo that we can tell whether
the additional lights are exhibited about the mainmaft,
the foremaft, the mizenmaft, &c. And if the lights
Ihown from any of thefe fituations are arranged in cer¬
tain dirtinguiihable fituations in refpedl to each other,
the number of fignals may be greatly increaffd. Thus
three lights may be in a vertical line, or in a horizontal
line, or in a triangle ; and the point of this triangle may
be up, or down, or forward, or aft, and thus may have
many fignifications.
Lights are alfo exhibited by falfe fires or rockets:
Thefe can be varied by number, and by fuch differen¬
ces of appearance as to make them very diftinguiftiable.
Rockets may be with ftars, with rain fire, or Ample
fquibs.
By varying and combining thefe, a very great num¬
ber of fignals may be produced, fully fufficient to dire£l
every general movement or evolution, or any ordinary
and important fervice. The Chevalier de Morogues
has given a fpecimen of fuch a fyftem of night fignals,
into which he has even introduced fignals of addrtfs or
direffion to every ftiip of a large fleet; and has alfo gi¬
ven fignals of number, by which depths of foundings,
points of the compafs, and other things of this kind,
may be expreffed both eafily and diftimftly. He has
made the fignals by rockets perfeftly fimilar in point of
number to thofe by lanthorns, fo that the commander
can take either; a choice which may have its ufe, be¬
caufe the fignals by rockets may caufe the prefence of a
fleet to be more extenfively known than may be conve¬
nient.
The commander in chief will inform the fleet by fig¬
nal, that guns, or perhaps rockets, - are not to be ufed
that night. This fignal, at the fame time, direfts the
fleet to dole the line or columns, that the light fignals
may be better obferved.
It is indeed a general rule to (how as few lights as
pofllble •, and the commander frequently puts out his
own poop and top-lights, only (bowing them from time
to time, that his (hips may keep around him. '
] - S I G
The fignal lanthorns on board the flag fhip, and a Naval
lanthorn kept in readinefs on board of every private fhip,, ^ona’s. ^
to anfwer or acknowledge fignals from the commander
in chief, are all kept in bags, to conceal their lights till
the moment they are fixed in their places, and the pre¬
paratory or advertifing fignal has been made.
The commander in chief fometimes orders by fignal
every ihip to fhow a light for a minute or two, that he
may judge of the pofition of the fleet; and the admiral’s
fignal mult always be acknowledged by thofe to whom
it is addreffed.
It is of particular importance that the fleet be kept
together. Therefore the leading fhips of the fleet, on
either tack, are enjoined to acknowledge the fignals of
the commander in chief by a fignal peculiar to their fta-
tion. Thus the commander in chief learns the pofition
of the extremities of his fleet.
In framing a fet of night fignals, great attention muff:
be given to their pofition, that they be not obfcured by
the fails. The nature of the order to be given will fre¬
quently determine this. Thus, an order for the rear
fhips to make more fail, will naturally direft us to
exhibit the fignal at the mizen peek ; and fo of other
pieces of fervice. Lanthorns expofed in groups, fuch
as triangles, lozenges, &c. are commonly fufpendtd at
the corners of large frames of laths, at the cl ill an ce of a
fathom at leaf! from each other. Attempts have been
made io fhow lights of different colours ; but the rifk of
miflake or failure in the compofition at the laboratory,
makes this rather hazardous. Coloured lanthorns are
more certain ; but when theglafles are made of a colour
fuffieiently intenfe, the vivacity of the light (which at
no time is very great) is too much diminifhed. Be-
fides, the very diftance changes the colour exceedingly
and unaccountably.
III. Of SiGi\als in a Fog.
These can be made only by noifes, fuch as the firing
of cannon and muikets, the beating of drums and ring¬
ing of bells, &c. Fog fignals are the moft: difficult to
contrive of any, and are fufceptible of the leaft variety.
The commander in chief is principally concerned to
keep his fleet together ; and unlefs fomething very ur¬
gent requires it, he will make no change in his courfe
or rate of failing. But a fhift of wind or other caufes
may make this neceffary. The changes which he will
order, it will be prudent to regulate by fome fixed rule,
which is in general convenient. Thus, when a fleet is
in the order of failing upon a wind, and a fog comes on,
the fleet will hold on the fame courfe. If the wind
fhould come a little more on the beam, the fleet will ^
ftill keep clofe to the wind. Certain general rules of By obferv-
this kind being agreed on, no fignals are neceffary foringeer-
keeping the fleet together; and the fhips can feparate ortai" Sene-
xun foul of each other only by difference in their rate of ^aln^“ur
failing, or by inaccurate fteerage. To prevent this, the hf™
commander in chief fires a gun from time to time, and are in many
the fhips of the fleet judge of his fituation and diftance cafes unne“
by the found. The commanders of divifions fire guns,ceffary‘
withLome diftinftion from thofe of the commander in
chief. This both informs the commander in chief
of the pofition of his fquadrons, and enables the pri¬
vate fhips of each divifion to keep in the neighbour¬
hood of their own flag ftiip. On board of every private
ftiip the drum is beaten, or the bell is chimed, very
quarter
24
How they
are given
when ne-
ceflary.
S I G [3S
Naval quarter of an hour, according as the fhip is on the ftar-
Signab. ^ or larboard tack. By fuch contrivances, it isne-
ver difficult to keep a fleet in very good order when
failing on a wind. The wind is almofl always mode¬
rate, and the drips keep under a very eafy fail. It is
much more difficult when going large, and feparation
can be prevented only by the molt unwearied attention.
The greateft rifk is the falling in with itrange drips
fleering another courfe.
But evolutions and other movements are frequently
indifpenfible. The courle mud: be changed by tacking
or wearing, and other fervices mud be performed. None,
however, are admitted but jhe mod probable, the mod
Ample, and the mod necelfary.
The commander in chief rird informs the fleet by the
preparatory fog fgnal, that he is about to order an evo¬
lution, and that he is to direft it byfog figna/s. This
precaution is indifpendble to prevent nriltakes. Along
with this advertifing fignal he makes the flgnal of the
movement intended. This not only calls the attention
of the fleet, but makes the drips prepare for the precife'
execution of that movement. The commanders of divi-
flons repeat the advertifing fignal, rvlrich informs their
drips of their fituation, and the private drips beat their
drums or chime their bells. Thus the .whole drips of
the fleet clofe a little, and become a little better ac¬
quainted with their mutual pofition. It is now under-
llood that a movement is to be made precifely a quarter
of an hour after the advertifement. At the expiration
of this time, the effective fignal for this movement is
made by the commander in chief, and mud be indantly
repeated by the commanders of divifions, and then the
movement mud be made by each drip, according to the
failing and fighting indru&ions. This mud be done
with the utmod attention and precifion, becaufe it pro¬
duces a prodigious change in the relative pofition of the
drips •, and even although the good fenfe of the com¬
mander in chief will feledl fuch movements for accom-
plidring his purpofe as produce the fmalled alterations,
and the lead rifk of feparation or running foul of each
other ; it is dill extremely difficult to avoid thefe mis¬
fortunes. To prevent this as much as poffible, each
drip which has executed the movement, or which has
come on a courfe thwarting that of the fleet, intimates
this by a fignal properly adapted, often adding the fig¬
nal of the tack on which it is now danding, and even
its particular fignal of recognizance. 1 his is particular¬
ly incumbent on the flag drips and the leading drips of
each divifion. #
After a reafonable interval, the commander in chief
will make proper fignals for bringing the. fleet to a
knowledge of their reunion in this new pofition. .
This mud ferve for a general account of the circum-
dances which mutt be attended to in framing a code of
fignals. The arbitrary chara&ers in which the lan¬
guage is written mud be left to the fagacity of the gen¬
tlemen of the profeffion. It mud be obferved, that the
dratagems of war make fecrecy very neceflary. It may
be of immenfe hazard if the enemv drould underhand
our fignals. In time of battle it might frequently fruf-
trate our attempts to dedroy them, and at all times
would enable them to efcape, or to throw us into dif-
order. Every commander of a fquadron, therefore, if-
fues private fignals, fuited to his particular dedination ;
and therefore it is necefiary that our code of fignals be
2 S I G
fufceptible of endlefs variations. This is exceedingly
eafy, without any increafe of their number. 1 he com¬
mander needs only intimate that fuch and fuch a fignal
is fo and fo changed in its meaning during his com¬
mand. _ 25
We cannot leave this article without returning to an Signals m
obfervation which we made almod in the beginning, ^ade
viz. that the fydem of fignals, or, to fpeak more pro-
perly, the manner of framing this fydem, has received prcfl;ons
much improvement from the gentlemen of the French number;
navy, and particularly from the mod ingenious thought
of M. de la Bourdonnais, of making the fignals the im¬
mediate expreffions of numbers only, which numbers
may be afterwards ufed to indicate any order whatever.
We fliall prefent our readers with a fcheme or two of
the manner in which this may be done for all fignals,
both day, night, and fog. Fhis alone may be confider-
ed as a fydem of fignals, and is equally applicable to
every kind of information at a didance. Without de-
trafting in the fmalled degree from the praife.due.to
M. de la Bourdonnais, Ave mud obferve, that this prin¬
ciple of notation is of much older date. Biffiop Wil¬
kins, in his Secret and SAvift Meflenger, exprefsly re¬
commends it, and gives fpecimens of the manner of ex¬
ecution ; fo does Dr Hooke in fome of his propofals to
the Royal Society. Gafpar Schottus alfo mentions it in
his Techmca Cunofa j and Kircher, among others of his
Curious Projects. 27
M. de la Bourdonnais’s method is as follows : f
He choofes pendants for his effeftive fignals, becaufe Bou,rdor-
t - • « -i nais s mt |
  L t w j nais s me)
they are the mod eafily difplayed in the proper order. thod for_|
Several pendants, making part of one fignal, may be doing thiJ
hoided by one hallyard, being dopped on it at the. di¬
dance of four or fix feet from each other. If it be
found proper to throrv out another fignal at the fame
time and place, they are feparated by a red pendant
without a point. His colours are chofen Avith judge¬
ment, being very didindlly recognifed, and not liable
to be confounded with the addreffing fignals appropri¬
ated to the different fliips of the fleet. They are,
For N° 1.
2.
. 3-
4-
3*
Red. For N° 6. Red, with blue tail.
White. 7. White, Avith blue tail.
Blue. 8. White, Avith red tail.
Yellow. 9. Blue, Avith yellow tail.
Red, with to. Yellow, Avith blue tail.
Avhite tail.
Improper
to publifli
a particular {Wnals.
account of 0
. fignals.
Three fets of fuch pendants will exprefs every number
under a thoufand, by hoiffing one above the other, and
reckoning the uppermod hundreds, the next belotv it
tens, and the lowed units. Thus the number 643 will
be expreffed by a pendant red with blue tail, a yellow
pendant belotv it, and a blue one below the lad.
This method has great advantages. The fignals may
be hoided in any place where bed feen, and therefore
the iignification is not affe&ed by the derangement, of
the flag diip’s mads and rigging. And by appropriat¬
ing the fmaller numbers to the battle fignals, they are
more fimple, requiring fewer pendants.
As this method requires a particular fet of colours, might bj
it has its inconveniences. An admiral is often
to ikift his flag, even in time of adlion. He cannot^by
eafily take the colours along with him. It is thereforeugngfe
better to make ufe of fuch colours as every private flup colours
is provided with. One fet of 11 will do, with the ad-
1 ditidn
S 1 G
ditlon of tliree, at moft of four pendants, of fingular
make, to mark too, 200, 300, 400. Two of thefe
flags, one above the other, will exprefs any number un¬
der 100, by uling the 1 ith as a fubflitute for anv flag
that fhould be repeated. Thus the nth flag, along
with the flag for eight or for fix, will exprefs the num¬
ber 88 or 66, &c. Thus we are able to exprefs every
number below 500, and this is fufHcient for a very large
code of fignals.
And in order to diminifh as much as poffible the
number of thefe compound fignals, it will be proper
that a number of fingle flag fignals be preferved, and
even varied by circumftances of pofition, for orders
which are of very frequent occurrence, and which can
hardly occur in fituations where any obftrudlions are
occafioned by lofs of mails, &c. And farther, to
avoid all chance of miflake, a particular fignal can be
added, intimating that the fignals now exhibited are
numtrary fignals;, or, which is dill better, all fignals
maybe confidered as numerary fignals; and thofe which
we have juft now called ftngle Jhig fignals may be fet
down oppofite to, or as exprefling, the largeft numbers
of the code.
This method requires the fignal of advertifement, the
annulling fignal, the fignal of addrefs to the particular
flap or divifion, the fignal of acknowledgment, the fig¬
nal of indiitinclnefs, of diflrefs, of danger, and one or
two more which, in every method, muft be employed.
Another method of exprefling numbers w'ith fewer
colours is as follows: Let the flags be A, B, C, D, E,
F, and arrange them as follows:
[ 353 1
S I G
This wmuld fuit battle
*9
:ither
fhod of
ffing
abers by
er co-
A
B
C
D
E
F
A
1
7
13
J9
25
31
37
B
2
8
I4
20
26
32
38
C
3
9
*5
21
27
33
39
D
4
10
16
22
28
34
40
E
5
11
17
23
29
35
41
F
6
j 2
18
24
3°
36
42
. 3°
"j fch may
t> Ifo i®.
P ed.
The number expreffed by any pair of flags is found in
the interfe£tion of the horizontal and perpendicular co¬
lumns. Thus the flag D, hoifled along with and above
the flag F, exprefles the number 40, &c. In order to
exprefs a greater number (but not exceeding 84) fup-
c
P°^e 75» hoi ft the flag which exprefles 33, or 75
wanting 42, and above them a flag or fignal G, which
alone exprefles 42.
Fliis method may be ftill farther improved by ar¬
ranging the flags thus :
A
B
C
D
E
F
B
2
8
J3
C
3
9
H
18
D
4
10
15
19
22
E
5
11
16
20
23
25
F
6
12
17
21
24
26
27
In this laft method the fignifieation of the fignal is to¬
tally independent of the pofition of the flags. In
whatever parts of the fhip the flags D and E are feen.
Vol. XIX. Part I.
KavA
Signals.
31
they exprefs the number 23.
fignals. ,
Another method ftill may be taken. Flags hoifted
anywhere on the foremaft may be accounted units, thofe ^ third
on the mainmaft tens, and thofe on the mizenmaft bun-method,
dreds. Thus numeral fignals may be made by a fhip
difmafled, or having only poles in their place.
Many other ways may be contrived for exprefling
numbers by colours, and there is great room for ex-
ercifing the judgment of the contriver. For it muft
always be remembered, that thefe fignals muft be ac¬
companied with a fignal by which it is addrefied to
fume particular fhip or divifion of the fleet, and it may
be difficult to connect the one with the other, which is
perhaps ftiown in another place, and along with other
executive fignals. 32
One great advantage of thefe numeral fignals is, that Advantage;
they may be changed in their fignification at pleafure. °/numera^
Thus, in the firft method, it can be fettled, that on,,^nas’
Sundays the colours A, B, C, D, &c. exprefs the cy¬
phers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. but that on Mondays they ex¬
prefs the cyphers o, 1, 2, 3, &c. and on Tuefdays the
cyphers 9> L 2, &c.and fo on through all the days
of the tveek. This mean of fecrecy is mentioned by
Dr Hooke for the coaft and alarm fignals, where, by
the by, he thews a method for conveying intelligence
over land very fimilar to what is now praiftifed by the
French with their telegraph. 33
It is equally eafy to exprefs numbers by night fig-Numbers
nals. Thus M. de la Bourdonnais propofes that one n,aya^°
difcharge of a great gun ffiall exprefs 7, and that 1, 2,^
3, 4, 5, 6, ffiall be expreffed by lights. Therefore tofignalf.
exprefs 24, we muft fire three guns, and ffiow three
lights. This is the moft perfect of all forms of night
and fog fignals. For both the manner of firing guns
and of exhibiting lights may be varied to a fufficient
extent with very few guns or lights, and with great
diftin£tnefs.
Thus, for guns. Let F mark the firing of a fingle
gun at moderate intervals, and ff a double gun, that
is, two difcharged at the interval of a fecond. We may
exprefs numbers thus :
•1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
100,
&c.
F.
F, F.
F, F, F.
F, F, F, F.
F,//.
F, Y,ff.
F,//, F.
F,//; F, F.
F,//, F,//
ff
ffff or///.
It might be done with fewer guns if the ff were ad¬
mitted as the firft firing. But it feems better to begirt
always with the fingle gun, and thus the double gun
beginning a fignal diftinguifties the tens, &c.
In like manner, a frrtall number of lights will admit
of a great variety of very diftinfl pofitions, which may
ferve for all fignals to (hips not very remote from the
commander in chief. For orders to be underfiood at
a very great diftance, it will be proper to appropriate
the numbers which are indicated by fignals made with
Y y rockets.
Naval
Sign >.ls
Sianat’ i e.
H _
Concluding
remarks.
S I G [ ^
rockets. Thefe can be varied in number and kind to a
fuiftcient extent, fo as to be very eafily diltinguilbcd
and underftood It is fufficient to have ftiown how the
whole, or nearly the whole, notation of fignals may be
limited to the expreffion of numbers.
We have taken little notice of the fignals made by
private fhips to the commander in chief, i his is a
very eafy bufinefs, becaufe there is little rifk of con¬
founding them rvith other fignals. Nor have we fpo-
ken of fignals irom the flag flnps a\ hofe ultimate inter¬
pretation is number, as Avhen fhips are diredled to
change their etiurfe fo many points. Thofe alfo are
eafilv contrived in any of the methods already7 deien-
bed : alfo when a private {hip withes to inform the com¬
mander in chief that foundings are found at fo many
fathoms. In like manner, by numbering the points
of the compafs, the admiral can direft to ehace to any
one of them, or may be informed of Arrange fliips being
feen in anv quarter, and what is their number.
SIGNALS by the Drum, made ufe of, in the exercifc
of the armv, inflead of the rvord of command, viz.
Signals.
W ftiort roll.
A flam,
To arms,
The march.
The quick march.
The 'point of %par.
The retreat.
Drum ceaflng,
Two fhort rolls.
The dragoon march,
The grenadier march.
The troop,
The long roll.
The grenadier march.
The preparative,
The general.
Two long rolls.
Operations.
To caution.
To perform any diftindl thing.
To form the line or battalion.
^ To advance, except w hen in-
\ tended for a falute.
To advance quick.
To march and charge.
To retreat.
To halt.
To perform the flank firing.
To open the battalion.
To form the column.
To double divifions.
To form the fquare.
^ To reduce the fquare to the
) column.
To make ready and fire.
To ceafe firing.
To bring or lodge the colours.
SIGNATURE, a fign or mark impreffed upon any
tiling, whether by nature or art. Such is the general
fitgnification of the word 5 but in the plural number it
Ijas been ufed, in a particular fenfe, to denote thofe ex¬
ternal marks by which phyfiognomifls and other dabblers
in the occult feiences pretend to difeover the nature and
internal qualities of every thing on which they are found.
According to Lavater, every corporeal objedl is cha-
radferized by fignatures peculiar to itfelf.
The dodtrine of fignatures, like alchemy and aftrolo-
gy, was. very prevalent during the 15th and 16th cen¬
turies7, and was confidered as one of the occult feiences
which conferred no fmall degree of honour on their re-
fpedbive profeflbrs. Some of thefe philofophers, as they
thought fit to ftyle themfelves, maintained that plants,
minerals, and animals, but particularly plants, had fig*
natures impreffed on them by the hand of nature, indi¬
cating to the adept the therapeutic ufes to which they
might be applied. Others, fuch as the myftic theofo-
phffts and chemifts of that day, proceeded much farther
in abfurdity, maintaining that every fubftance in nature
had either external fignatures immediately difcernible,
or internal fignatures, which, when brought into vieiv
W m
34-
54 1 S 1 L
by fire or menftrua, denoted its connedlum with feme Signatuni
fidereal or celeflial archetype. Of the doarine of fig¬
natures, as it relates merely to the therapeutic ufes of
plants and minerals, traces are to be found in the A' orks
of fome of the greateft authors of antiquity •, but the
celeftial fignatures, avc believe, were difeovered only by
the moonlight of the monkifli ages. Pliny informs us *,
that the marble called ophites, from its being fpottedhb
like , a ferpent, Avas difeovered by thofe fpots to be a fo-
vereign remedy ior the bite of that animal ■, and that
the colour of the hcemulites or blood-ftone intimated that
it was fit to be employed to flop an hemorrhagy } but
Ave do not recolka his attributing the virtues of thefe
minerals to a fidereal or celeftial influence.
Signature, a figning of a perfon’s name at the bot¬
tom of an aft or deed Avritten by his own hand.
Signature, in Printing, is a letter put at the bot¬
tom of the firft page at leaft, in each flieet, as a direc¬
tion to the binder in folding, gathering, and collating
them. The fignatures confift of the capital letters of
the alphabet, which change in every fheet j if there be
more ftieets than letters in the alphabet, to the capital
letter is added a fmall one of the fame fort, as A a, Bb}
which are repeated as often as neceffary. In large vo¬
lumes it is eafy to diftinguifti the number of alphabets,
after the firft “three or four, by placing a figure before
the fignature, as 5 B, 6 B, &c.
SIGNET, one of the king’s feals, made ufe of in
fealing his private letters, and all grants that pafs by
bill figned under his majefty’s hand: it is always in the
cuftody of the fecretaries of ftate.
Signet, in Scots Law. See Laa\ , Part III. j 17*
SILENE, Catchfly, or Vifcoiu Campion, a genus
of plants belonging to the clafs decandria, and order
trigynia ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
22d order, Caryophyllece. See Botany Index.
SILESIA, a duchy of Germany, bounded on the
eaft by Poland 5 on the weft, by Bohemia and Lower
Lufatia •, on the fouth, by a chain of mountains,
and a thicket of confiderable extent which feparates it
from Hungary ; and to the north, by the roarquifate
of Brandenburg and Poland. From north-Aveft to fouth-
eaft it is about 274 miles, and about ico where broad-
eft : but it is much contrafted at both ends. Upon the
frontiers of this country, to the weft and fouth, are ve¬
ry high mountains, and fome likeAvife in other parts of
it. One of the ridges upon the frontiers is ftykd the
RipJuean Mountains, another the Moravian, another the
Bohemian, and another the Hungarian, Crapaci, or Car¬
pathian. A branch of the Bohemian is called the Giant
Mountains. The winter on thefe hilly tradfs is more
fevere, fets in fooner, and lafts longer, than in tne Ioav
lands. The inhabitants ufe a kind of fkates when the
fnoAv is deep, as they do in Carniola. Little or no
grain is raifed in the mountains and fome fandy tradts;
but the reft of the country is abundantly fruitful, not
only in grain, but fruits, roots, pafture, flax, hops, mad¬
der, tobacco, and hemp, yielding alfo fome Avine, Avith
confiderable quantities of filk and honey. In many
places are great woods of pines, fir, beech, larch, an
other trees, affording tar, pitch, rofin, turpentine, lamp¬
black, and timber for all ufes. In this country alio is
found marble of feveral forts, fome precious ftones, lime-
ftone, millftone, pitcoal, turf, vitriol, fome filver ore,
copper, lead, iron, and mineral fprings. Great num-
: Silefia-
s 1 L [ 355 ]
bers of black cattle and horfes are brought hither from As to the
S I L
Poland and Hungary for fale, thofe bred in the coun¬
try not being fufficient; but of fheep, goats, game, and
venifon, they have great plenty. As for wild beads,
here are lynxes, foxes, weafels, otters, and beavers. The
rivers, lakes, and ponds, yield filh of feveral forts, parti¬
cularly iturgeons feveral ells in length, and falmon. Be-
fides a number of fmaller dreams to water this country,
there is the Oder, which traverfcs it almod from one
end to the other 5 and the Vidula, which after a pretty
long courfe through it enters Poland. The number of
the cities and market-towns isfaid to be about 200, the
county of Glatz included, and that of the villages 5000.
The inhabitants who are computed to be about 1,821,065
are a mixture of Germans, Poles, and Moravians. 'The
language generally fpoken is German; but in fome pla¬
ces the vulgar tongue is a dialeft of the Sclavonic. The
dates conlid of the princes and dukes, and thofe called
Jiate-lords, with the nobility, who are immediately fub-
je£t to the fovereign, and the reprefentatives of the chief
cities5 but finee the country fell under the dominion of
the king of Prudia, no diets have been held. The
king, however, when lie took poffeflion of the country,
confirmed all the other privileges of the inhabitants.
With refpeft to religion, not only Protedants, but Pa-
pids, Jews, and Greeks, enjoy full liberty of con-
feience. The greated part of Silefia lies in the diocefe
of Breflaw, but fome part of it in the Polilh diocefes of
Pofen and Cracow. The bidiop of Breflaw dands im¬
mediately under the pope with regard to fpirituals; but
all ecclefiadxcal benefices, not excepting the fee of Bre¬
flaw, is in the king’s gift. Befides Latin fchools, col¬
leges, and feminaries, at Breflaw is an univerfity, and
at Lignitz an academy for martial exercifes. The prin¬
cipal manufactures here are woollens, linens, and cot¬
tons of feveral forts, writh hats, glafs-ware, gunpowder,
and iron manufactures. Of thefe there is a confiderable
exportation. Accounts are generally kept in rix-dollars,
diver grofchens, and ducats. With refpeCt to its revo¬
lutions and prefent government, it was long a part of the
kingdom of Poland 5 afterwards it had feveral dukes and
petty princes for its fovereigns, who by degrees became
fubjeCt to the kings of Bohemia, until at lad King
Charles IV. incorporated the whole duchy with Bohe¬
mia 5 and thus it continued in the pofleflion of the houfe
of Audria, until the king of Pruffia in 1742, taking ad¬
vantage of the troubles that enfued upon the death of
the emperor Charles VI. and pretending a kind of claim,
wreded a great part of it, together with the county of
Glatz, from his daughter and heirefs Maria Therefa,
the late emprefs. dowager j fo that now only a fmall
part of it is poffefled by the houfe of Audria, and con¬
nected with the empire, the red being governed by
the king of Pruflia, without acknowledging any fort of
dependence on the crown of Bohemia or the empire.
For the adminidration of judice in all civil, crimi¬
nal, and feudal cafes, and fuch as relate to the reve¬
nue, the king of Pruflia has eflablilhed three fupreme
judicatories, to which an appeal lies from all the infe¬
rior ones, and from which, when the fum exceeds 500
rix-dollars, caufes may be moved to Berlin. The
Lutheran churches and fchools are under the infpec-
tion of the upper confidories, and thofe of the Pa-
pids under that of the bifhop’s court at Breflaw j but
from both an appeal lies to the tribunal at Berlin.
revenue, the excife here is levied only in
the walled towns, being on the fame fooling as in the
marquifate of Brandenburg; but in the red ot the coun¬
try the contributions are fixed, and the fame both in
peace and war. The feveral branches of the revenue
are under the management ot the war and domain of¬
fices of Breflaw and Glogau. The whole revenue ari-
ling to the king ot Pruflia from Silefia and the county
of Glatz amounts to about four millions of rix-dollars
per annum.
Silefia is divided into Upper and Lower, and each of
thefe again into principalities and lordfliips; of tome oi
which both the property and jurifdiction belong imme¬
diately to the fovereign, but of others to bisfubjeCts and
vaflals. In regard to the character of the people, the
boors are accounted very dull and itupid ; but of thofe
of a higher rank, many have diflinguiihed themfelves by
their wit and learning, as well as by their military and
political talents.
SILESIAN EARTH, in the Materia Medic a, a fine .
adringent bole. It is very heavy, of a firm compaft ‘
texture, and in colour of a brownilh yellow. It breaks
eafily between the fingers, and does not dain the hands;
is naturally of a fmooth furface, is readily diffufible in
water, and melts freely into a butter-like fubdance in
the mouth. It leaves no grittinefs between the teeth,
and does not ferment with acids. It is found in the
perpendicular fiflures of rocks near the gold mines in
Hungary.
SiLICERNIUM, among the Romans, was a fead
of a private nature, provided for the dead fome time af¬
ter the funeral. It confided of beans, lettuces, bread,
eggs, &c. Thefe vrere laid upon the tomb, and they
fooliftrly believed that the dead would come out for the
repad. What was left was generally burnt on the
done. The word ftlicernium is derived from Jilex and
ccena, i. e. “ a fupper upon a done.” Eating what had
thus been provided for the dead, was edeemed a.mark of
the mod miferable poverty. A fimilar entertainment
■was made by the Greeks at the tombs of the deceafed ;
but it was ufual among them to treat the ghofts with
the fragments from the fead of the living, bee Fune¬
ral and InferIjE.
SILEX. See Flint.
SILICEOUS earths. See Silica, Chemistry
Index.
SILIUS Italicus, Caius, an ancient Roman poet,
and author of an epic poem in 17 books, which con¬
tains an hidory of the fecond Punic war, fo famous for
having decided the empire of the world in favour of the
Romans. He was born in the reign of Tiberius, and
is fuppofed to have derived the name of Italicus from
the place of his birth ; but whether he was bom at Ita-
lica in Spain, or at Corfinium in Italy, which, accord¬
ing to Strabo, had the name of Itahca given it during
the Social war, is a point which cannot be known :
though, if his birth had happened at either of thefe
places, the grammarians would tell us, that he flvould have
been called Italicenjis, and not Italicus. When he came
to Rome, he applied himfelf to the bar ; and, by a clofe
imitation of Cicero, fucceeded fo well, that he became
a celebrated advocate and mod accomplilhed orator.
His merit and charadfcr recommended him to the high-
ed offices in the republic, even to the confulfliip, of
which he was poflefled when Nero died. He is faid to
Y y 2 have
Silefia
Sihus.
f!
Silius,
Silk.
S I L [ 356 ]
have been aiding and afTifting in accufing perfons of produced
Silk.
high rank and fortune, whom that wicked emperor had
devoted to deftruftion : but he retrieved his charadler
afterwards by a long and uniform courfe of virtuous be¬
haviour. Vefpanan fent him as proconful into Alia,
Avhere he behaved with clean hands and unblemifhed re,-
putation. After having thus fpent the bell part of his
life in the fervice of his country, he bade adieu to pub¬
lic affairs, refolving to confecrate the remainder to po¬
lite retirement and the mufes. He had feveral fine villas
in the country : one at Tufculum, celebrated for having
been Cicero’s •, and a farm near Naples, faid to have
been Virgil’s, at which was his tomb, which Silius often
vifitcd. Thus Martial compliments him on both thefe
accounts:
Silius Jure magni celebrat monumenta Maronis,
Jugera facundi qui Ciceronis habet.
Hceredem Dojninumque fid tumulique larifque
Non alium mallet nec Maro nec Cicero.
Epigr. 49. lib. xi.
Of Tully’s feat my Silius is poffefs’d.
And his the tomb where Virgil’s afhes reft.
Could thofe great (hades return to choofe their heir,
The prefent owner they would both prefer.
In thefe retirements he applied himfelf to poetry : led
Hot fo much by any great force of genius, which would
certainly not have fuffered him to ftay till life was in
the wane and his imagination growing cold, as by his
exceeding great love of Virgil, to whofe memory he
paid the higheft veneration. He has imitated him in
his poem •, and though he falls infinitely fhort of him,
yet he has difeovered a great and univerfal genius, which
would have enabled him to fucceed in fome degree in
whatever he undertook.
Having been for fome time affli&ed with an impoft-
hume, which was deemed incurable, he grew weary of
life, to’which, in the language of Pliny, he put an end
with determined courage.
There have been many editions of Silius Italicus. A
seat and correff one was publifned at Leipfic in 1696,
in 8vo, with fhort and ufcful notes by Cellarius : but the
beft is that cum notis integris variorum et Arnoldi Dra-
kenborch. Trajett. ad Rhen. 1717, in 410.
SILK, a very foft, fine, bright thread, the work of
an infect called bombyx, or the filk worm.
As the filk worm is a native of China, the culture of
filk in ancient times was entirely confined to that coun¬
try. We are told that the empreffes, furrounded by
their women, fpent their leifure hours in hatching and
rearing filk worms, and in weaving tiffues and filk veils.
That this example was foon imitated by perfons of all
ranks, we have reafon to conclude •, for we are informed
that the Chinefe, who were formerly clothed in (kins,
in a fhort time after were dreffed in veftments of filk.
Till the reign of Juftinian, the filk worm was unknown
beyond the territories of China, but filk was introduced
into Perfia long before that period. After the conqueft
of the Perfian, empire by Alexander the Great, this va-
5 luable commodity was brought into Greece, and thence
Opinions of conveyed to Rome. The firft of the Roman writers
the ancients extant by -whom filk is mentioned, are Virgil and Ho-
concerning race . ^ut it is probable that neither of them knew
.from what country it was obtained, nor how it wa?
the nature
of, (ilk>
S I L
By fome of the ancients it was fuppofed to
be a fine down adhering to the leaves of certain trees or
flowers. Others imagined it to be a delicate fpecies of
wool or cotton $ and even thofe who had learned that
it was the work of an infeft, (how by their deferiptions
that they had no diftindl idea of the manner in which it
was formed. Among the Romans, filk -was deemed a
drefs too expenfive and too delicate for men, and was
appropriated wholly to women of eminent rank and opu¬
lence. Elagabulus is faid to have been the firft man
among the Romans who wore a garment ofi fine filk :
Aurelian complained that a pound of filk was fold at
Rome for x 2 ounces of gold j and it is faid he refufed
to give his wife permiflion to wear it on account of
its exorbitant price. 2
For feveral centuries the Perfians fupplied the Roman Brought
empire with the filks of China. Caravans traverfed the from chk
whole latitude of Afia, in 243 days, from the Chinefe ^ M
ocean to the fea-coaft of Syria, carrying this commodity. ^ jJ
Sometimes it was conveyed to the ports of Guzerat andtinian.
Malabar, and thence tranfported by fea to the Perfian
gulf. The Perfians, with the ufual rapacity of mono-
polifts, raifed the price of (ilk to fuch an exorbitant
height, that Juftinian, eager not only to obtain a full
and certain fupply of a commodity which was become^
of indifpenfible ufe, but felicitous to deliver the com- ” ^
merce of his fubjedis from the exadlions of his enemies,
endeavoured, by means of his ally, the Chriftian mo¬
narch of Abyflinia, to wreft fome portion of the filk
trade from the Perfians. In this attempt he failed ; but
when he leal! expecied it, he, by an unforefeen event,
attained, in fome mtafure, the objedl which he had in
view. Two Perfian monks having been employed asSilkworm
miflionaries in fome of the Chriftian churches, which introduced
were eftabliftied (as we are informed-by Cofmas) in dif-j^10^10!
ferent parts of India, had penetrated into the country of^j^
the Seres, or China. There they obferved the labours
of the filk worm, and became acquainted with all tbe
arts of man in working up its produdlions into fuch a
variety of elegant fabrics. The profpedl of gain, or per¬
haps an indignant zeal, excited by feeing this lucrative
branch of commerce engroffed by unbelieving nations,
prompted them to repair to Conftantinople. There
they explained to the emperor the origin of filk, as well
as the various modes of preparing and manufadluring it,
myfteries hitherto unknown, or very imperfedlly under-
flood in Europe 5 and encouraged by his liberal promifes,
they undertook to bring to the capital a (ufficicnt num?
her of thofe rvonderful infecls, to whofe labours man is
fo much indebted. This they accomplifhed, by convey¬
ing the eggs of the filk worm in a hollow cane. They
were hatched by the heat of a dunghill, fed with the
leaves of a wild mulberry tree, and they multiplied and
worked in the fame manner as in thofe climates where
they firft became objedls of human attention and care.
Vaft numbers of thefe infefts were foon reared in differ¬
ent parts of Greece, particularly in the Peloponnefus.
Sicily afterwards undertook to breed .filk worms with
equal fuccefs, and was imitated, from time to time, in
feveral towns of Italy, In all thefe places extenfive
manufaRures were eftabli(bed and carried on with filk of
domeliic.produclion. The demand for filk from the eaft
diminifhed of courfe, the fubjefls of the Greek emperors
were no longer obliged to have recourfe to the Perfians
for a fupply of it, and a coniiderable change took place
ins
S I L [ ;
Silk, in the nature of the commercial intercourfe between Eu-
•—-y"—rope and India.
As filk. is the production of a worm, it will be firft
neceflary to give a defcription of its nature and mode of
manufaduring. But before we give any account of the
moft approved methods of managing Clk worms in Eu¬
rope, it will be proper to prefent a thort defcription of
the methods pradifed in China, the original country of
the filk worm. Thefe are two : they either permit them
to remain at liberty on mulberry tree?, or keep them in
rooms. As the fineft filk is produced by worms confined
in rooms, and as the firft method is very Ample, it wiil
fuifice to delcribe the fecond.
Method of I'0 begin with the eggs, which are laid on large fireets
earing filk of paper, to which they firmly adhere. The Iheets are
rorms in hung up on a beam of the room, with the eggs inward,
iliniU and the windows are opened in the front to admit the
wind ; but no hempen ropes mult ever come near the
worms or their eggs. After fome days the fheets are
taken down, rolled up loofely with the eggs inward,
and then hung up again, during the fummer and autumn.
At the end of December, or the beginning of January,
the eggs are put into cold water, with a little fait dif-
folved in it. Two days after they take them out, hang
them up again, and when dry roll them a little tighter,
and enclofe each feparately, Handing on one end in an
earthen veffel. Some put them into a lye made of mul¬
berry tree aihes, and then lay them fome moments in
fnow-water, or elfe hang them up three nights on a
mulberry tree to receive the fnow or rain, if not too
violent. The time of hatching them is when the leaves
of the mulberry trees begin to open, for they are haf-
tened or impeded according to the different degrees of
heat or cold to which they are expofed. When they
are ready to come forth, the eggs fwell, and become a
little pointed.
The third day before they are hatched, the rolls of
paper are taken out of the veffel, firetched out, and hung
up with their backs towTard the fun, till they receive
a kindly warmth j and then being rolled up clofe, they
are fet upright in a veffel in a- warm place. This is re¬
peated the next day, and the eggs change to an afh-
gray. They then put two Iheets together, and rolling
them clofe tie the ends.
The third day, towards night, the fheets are unroll¬
ed and ftretched on a fine mat, when the eggs appear
blackifh. They then roll three iheets together, and
earry them into a pretty warm place, fheltered from the
fouth wind. The next day the people taking out the
rolls, and opening them, find them full of worms like
fmall black ants.
The apartment chofen for filk worms is on a dry
ground, in a pure air, and free from noife. The rooms
are fquare, and very clofe, for the fake of warmth ; the
door faces the fouth, and is covered with a double
mat, to keep out the cold y yet there fhould be a win¬
dow on every fide, that when it is thought neceffary the
air may have a free paffage. In opening a window to
let in a refrefhing breeze, care muft be taken to keep
out the gnats and flies. The room muft be furnifhed
with nine or ten rows of frames, about nine inches one
above the other. On thefe they place rufh hurdles, up¬
on which the worms are fed till they are ready to fpin ;
and, to preferve a regular heat, Hove fires are placed at
the corners of the room, or elfe a warming pan is carried
4s
57 J . S I L
up and down it j but it muff not have the leaft flame or Silk,
fmoke. Cow-dung dried in the fun is efteemed the ' «
moft proper fuel.
The worms eat equally day and night. The Chinefe
give them on the firft day forty-eight meals, that is, one
every half hour •, the next thirty j the third day they
have ftill lefs. As cloudy and rainy weather takes away
their ftomacb, juft before their repaft a wifp of very dry
ftraw, the flame of which muft be all alike, is held over
the worms to free them from the cold and moifture that
benumbs them, or elfe the blinds are taken from the
windows to let in the full day-light.
Eating fo often haftens their growth, on which the
chief profit of the filk worm depends. If they come to
maturity in 23 or 25 days, a large fheet of paper cover¬
ed with worms, tv Inch at their firft coming from the
eggs weigh little more than a drachm, will produce 25
ounces of filk ; but if not till 28 days, they then yield
only 20 ounces j and if they are a month or 40 days in
growing, they then produce but ten.
They are kept extremely clean, and are often remo¬
ved 5 and when they are pretty well grown, the worms
belonging to one hurdle are divided into three, after¬
wards they are placed on fix, and fo on to the number
of 20 or more ; for being full of humours, they muft be
kept at a due diftance from each other. The critical
moment for removing them is when they are of a bright
yellow and ready to fpin j they muft be furroundtd with
mats at a fmall diftanee, which muft cover the top of
the place to keep off the outward air j and becaufe they
love to work in the dark. However, after the third
day’s labour, the mats are taken away from one o’clock
till three, but the rays of the fun muft not ftiine upon
them. They are at this time covered with the Iheets of
paper that were ufed on the hurdles.
The cocoons are completed in feven days, after which
the worm is metamorphofed into a chryfalis 5 the co¬
coons are then gathered, and laid in heaps, having firft
fet apart thofe defigned for propagation upon a hurdle,
in a coni airy place. The next care is to kill the moths
in thofe cones which are not to be bored. The beft
way of doing it is- to fill large earthen veffels with
cones in layers of ten pounds- each, throwing in four
ounces of fait with every layer, and covering it with
large dry leaves like thofe of the water-lily, and elofelv
flopping the mouth of the veffels. But in laying the
cones into the veffels, they feparato the long, white,
and glittering ones, which yield a very fine filk, from
thofe that are thick, dark, and of the colour of the fkin
of an onion, which produce a coarfer filk.
The filk worm is a fpecies of caterpillar, which, like Defcnptioi*
all others of the fame clafs, undergoes a variety of and hiftory
changes, that, to perfons who are not acquainted withof the
objedfts of this kind, will appear to be not a little fur-worm*
prifing.
It is produced from a yellowifh-coloured egg, about
the fize of a fmall pin-head, which has been laid by a The Bee,
kind of grayifh-coloured moth, which the vulgar con-N°72-
found with the butterfly.
Thefe eggs, in the temperature of this climate, if
kept beyond the reach of the fire and funfhine, may be
preferved during the whole of the winter and fpring
months without danger of hatching : and even in’fum¬
mer they may eafilv be prevented from hatching if they
he kept in a cool place ; but in warmer climates it is
fcarcely
S I L
I 358 ]
S I L
fcarcely pofTible to preferve them from hatching, even
for a few days, or from drying fo much as to deftroy
them. Hence it is eafy for a native of Britain to keep
the eggs till the food on which the worm is to feed be
ready for that purpofe. When this food is in perfec¬
tion, the eggs need only be expofed to the fun for a day
or two, when they will be hatched with great facility.
When the animal is firft protruded from the egg, it
is a fmall black worm, which is a&ive, and naturally af-
cends to the top of the heap in fearch of food. At this
ftage of his growth the filk worm requires to be fed
with the youngeft and moft tender leaves. On thefe
leaves, if good, he will feed very freely for about eight
days, during which period he increafes in fize to about
a quarter of an inch in length. He is then attacked
with his firft ficknefs, which confifts in a kind of le¬
thargic deep for about three days continuance •, during
which time he refufes to eat, and changes his fkin, pre-
ferving the lame bulk. This deep being over, he begins
to eat again, during five days, at which term he is
grown to the fize of full half an inch in length j after
which follows a fecond ficknefs, in every refpeft like
the former.
He then feeds for other five days \ during which time
he will have increafed to about three quarters of an inch
in length, when he is attacked with his third ficknefs.
This being over, he begins to eat again, and continues
to do fo for five days more, when he is attacked by his
fourth ficknefs, at which time he is arrived at his full
growth. When he recovers this ficknefs, he feeds once
more during five days with a moft voracious appetite j
after which he difdains his food, becomes tranfparent,
a little on the yellowidi call, and leaves his filky traces
on the leaves where he pafles. Thefe figns denote that
he is ready to begin his cocoon, and will eat no more.
Thus it appears that the whole duration of the life
of the worm, in this ftate of its exiftence, in our climate,
is ufually about 46 daysy 28 of which days he takes
food, and remains in his fick or torpid ftate 18 ; but it
is to be obferved, that during warm weather the periods
of ficknefs are Ihortened, and in cold weather lengthen¬
ed, above the terms here fpecified. In very hot cli-
. mates it may be faid to live fafter, and fooner to attain
maturity, than in thofe that are colder. Dr Anderfon
informs us, that at Madras the worm undergoes • its
■whole evolutions in the fpace of 22 days. It appears,
however, that it feeds fully as many days in India as in
Europe, the difference being entirely occafioned by
fhortening the period of ficknefs. Fhe longeii ficknefs
he had feen them experience there did not exceed two
days ; and during fummer it only lafts a few hours.
When the worm has attained its full growth, it
fearches about for a convenient place for forming its co¬
coon, and mounts upon any branches or twigs that are
put in its way for that purpofe. After about two days
fpent in this manner, it fettles in its place, and forms
silk.
the cocoon, by winding the filk which it draws from
its bowfels round itfelf into an oblong roundilh ball.
During this operation it gradually lofes-the appear¬
ance of a worm ; its length is much contradled, and its
thicknefs augmented. By the time the web is finiihed,
it is found to be transformed into an oblong roundilh
ball, covered with a fmooth ftrelly {kin, and appears to
Jae perfectly dead. In this ftate of exiftence it is called
an aurelia. Many animals in this ftate may be often
feen {ticking on the walls of out-houfes, fomewhat re-
fembling a fmall bean.
In this ft ate it remains for feveral days entirely mo-
tionlcfs in the heart of the cocoon, after which it burfts
like an egg hatching, and from that comes forth a
heavy dull-looking moth with wings } but thefe -wings
it never ufes for flying •, it only crawls {lowly about in
the place it has been hatched. This creature forces its
way through the filk covering which' the worm had
woven, goes immediately in queft of its mate, after
which the female lays her eggs ; and both male and fe¬
male, without tailing food in this ftage of their exift¬
ence, die in a very ftiort time.
The filk worm, when at its full fize, is from an
inch and a quarter to an inch and a half in length, and
about half an inch in circumference. He is either of a
milk or pearl colour, or blackifti; thefe laft are efteem-
ed the belt. His body is divided into feven rings, to
each of which are joined two very fhort feet. He has
a fmall point like a thorn exaftly above the anus. The
fubfiance which forms the filk is in his ftomach, which
is very long, wound up, as it were, upon two Ipindles,
as fome fay, and furrounded with a gum, commonly yel-
lowifh, fometimes white, but feldom greeniff. When
the worm fpins his cocoon, he winds off a thread from
each of his fpindles, and joins thern afterwards by
means of two hooks which are placed in his mouth, lo
that the cocoon is formed of a double thread. Having
opened a filk wrorm, you may take out the fpindles,
which are folded up in three plaits, and, on ftretching
them out, and drawing each extremity, you may extend
them to near two ells in length. If you then ferape the
thread fo ftretched out with your nail, you ferape off
the gum, which is very like bees wax, and performs
the fame office to the filk it covers as gold leaf does to
the ingot of filver it furrounds, when drawn out by the
wire drawer. This thread which is extremely ftrong
and even, is about the thicknefs of a middling pin.^ 6
Of filk worms, as of moft other animals, there is a Particular
confiderable variety of breeds,, fome of which are muchto^
more hardy, and poffefs qualities confiderably different (Qjjje
from others. This is a particular of much importance breed of
to be adverted to at the time of beginning to breed filk worms,
thefe creatures in any place 5 for it will make a great
difference in the profit on the whole to the undertaker
if he rears a good or a bad fort (a). I his is a department
in refpedl to the economy of animals that has been in
every
!>
(a) As the fuccefs of the filk manufaaure muft depend on the breed of worms, it is of great confequence to
bring them from thofe countries where they are reckoned beft. . o- r
Mr Andrew Wright, an ingenious filk manufaaurer of Paiftey, has given the following direamns for conY J £
the eggs of the filk worm from diftant countries by fea : As foon as the moth has laid her eggs, ry iem 1
diatcly, and put them into glafi phials; feal them fo clofe that damp air or water mil not penetrate into
thefe phials that contain the eggs into earthen pots filled with cold water j and as often as the wa r
S I L
[ 359 ]
S I L
.Silk, every cafe much lefs adverted to than it deferves: and in
particular with regard to the filk worm it has been al-
moft entirely overlooked. A few eggs of the filk worm
can be eafily tranfported by poll in a letter from any
part of Europe to another, efpecially during the winter
feafon. It would therefore be an eafy matter for any
patriotic fociety, fuch as the Society of Arts in Lon¬
don, to obtain a fpecimen of the eggs from every coun¬
try in which lilk is now reared, to put thefe under the
care of a perfon who could be depended upon, and who
underftood the management of them, with orders to
keep each kind diltinft from another, and advert to every
particular that occurred in their management, fo as to
make a fair eftimate of their refpecHve merits. By thefe
means the belt might be fele&ed, and thofe of inferior
value reje&ed. Forty or fifty of each fort might be
enough for the experiment ; but it ought to be repeat¬
ed feveral times before conclufions could be drawn from
it that might be altogether relied upon 5 for it is well
known that a variation of circumfiances will make a
change in the refult 5 and it is by no means certain that-
the fame particular would affefl thofe of one breed ex-
aftly in the fame manner as it would do thofe of a dif¬
ferent breed. One may be more hardy with regard to
cold, another more delicate in refpeft to food, and fo
on. It is experience alone that can afeertain the cir-
cumftances here inquired for.
From the above-mentioned particulars, it is evi¬
dent, that the management of filk worms muft be very
different in hot climates from what is required in thofe
that are colder. At Madras, it appears from Dr An-
derfon’s experiments that it is very difficult to prevent
the eggs from hatching for a very few days, fo that
many generations of them muft be propagated in one
year. “In this hotteft feafon,” fays he, in a letter to
Sir Jofeph Banks, dated July 6. 179*, “the ftiorteft
time I have been able to remark for the whole evolu¬
tions of the filk worm is 40 days ; that is to fay, fix
days an egg, 22 a worm, 11 a grub in the cocoon,
and one a moth or butterfly.” Fortunately, where the
climate forces forward their produclion fo rapidly, na¬
ture hath been equally provident of food for their fub-
fiftence ; for in thefe regions the mulberry continues to
grow and pu(h out leaves throughout the whole year,
kt ay be Though the filk worm be a native of China, there
is no doubt but it might eafily be propagated perhaps
in moft parts of the temperate zones. The eggs of
this infeft, indeed, require a confiderable degree of
warmth to hatch them, but they can alfo endure a fe-
vere froft. No lefs than 54Colbs of filk were raifed in
1789 in the cold, fandy territories of Pruffia. In the
province of Pekin, in China, where great quantities of
filk are fabricated, the winter is much colder than even
m Scotland. From the information of fome Ruffians
who were fent thither to learn the Chinefe language, vre
find that Reaumur’s thermometer was obferved from 10
- to 15, and even 20 degrees below the freezing point.
J Nor is it difficult to rear the food of the filk worm in
a temperate clime. The mulberry-tree is a hardy vege-
7
Tlka-
11a . lent
of .
wc s
■tanbe
dif snt
in erent
ell :es;
pert
clir
! rear-
tem-
table, which bears, without injury, the winters of Sweden, Silk,
and even of Siberia. Of the feven fpecies of the mulber- u“—
ry (fee Morus) enumerated by Linnaeus, four of thefe
(viz. the white, red, black, and Tartarian), there is every
reafon to believe could be reared both in Britain and
Ireland. The white growTs in Sweden \ the red is abun¬
dant round Quebec ; the black delights in bleak fitua-
tions, expofed to wind on the fea Ihore j and the Tar¬
tarian mulberry is reprefented as growing in the chilly
regions of Siberia. 9
As to the fuperior qualities of the different fpecies, Whether
probably there is very little to be pointed out amongft any fpecies’-
the four juft mentioned with regard to nouriftiment, ex-^^^^f
cept what may be drawn from the following faff : thatfuperjor to-
if the firft three are laid down together, the filk worm others,
will firft eat the white, then the red, and next the black,
in the order of the tendernefs of the leaves. The Tar¬
tarian feems to hold as high a place in its efteem as ei¬
ther the red or black ; but all muft yield to the white,
which feems to be its natural food.
In Calabria the red mulberry is ufedj in Valencia
the white ; and in Granada, where excellent filk is pro¬
duced, the mulberries are all black. The white feems
to profper very well in a moift ftiff foil: the black agrees
well with a dry, fandy, or gravelly foil 5 and the white
is moft luxuriant in a moift rich loam. . i0
It may juftiy be afferted, that Britain poffeffes fome Britain pof-
advantages in the raifing of raw filk which are not en- fome
joyed by v/armer countries. Even in the fouth ofover^arm
France, Mr Arthur Young informs us, the mulberry er countries
leaves are often nipped by froft in the bud 5 but this is for railing
fearcely ever the cafe with us. It is w'ell known that
thunder and lightning are hurtful to the filk worm.
Now our climate can boaft that it is almoft wholly ex¬
empted from thofe dreadful ftorms of thunder and light¬
ning which prevail fo much in hot climates. Nature
has then furnilhed us with every thing requifite for the
filk manufadlure 5 it remains only for us to improve the
advantages which we poffefs. Let mulberry trees be
planted by proprietors of lands, and let a few perfons
of {kill and attention devote their time to the raifing of
filk worms. This is an employment that will not in¬
terfere with any manufadlure already eftablilhed ; on the
contrary, it would afford a refpeftable, a lucrative, and
agreeable employment to ladies, or to females in gene¬
ral, who have at prefent too few profeffions to which
they can apply. The fociety inftituted at London for
the encouragement of arts, manufadtures, and com¬
merce, much to their honour, have offered premiums
to thofe who ftiall plant a certain number of mulberry
trees. rr
The following method of raifing mulberry trees from Method of
feed is pradlifed in the fouth of France, and has been raifing
repeated with fuccefs in the Eaft Indies by Dr Ander- mulb®rry
Ion of Madras. “ Take the ripe berries of the mulber-fouth'of ^
ry when it is full of juice and of feeds. Next take a France,
rough horfe-hair line or rope, fuch as we dry linen on, Letters on
and with a good handful of ripe mulberries run your the Culture
hand along the line, bruifing the berries and mafhing
them r!kanfre
Coajt of Co-
      romandcl.
warm renew it. Place the earthen vefl’els in the coldeft place of the Ihip, and let them remain until the end of
the voyage. It muft be obferved, that the Ihip chofen for this purpofe ought to be one that would arrive in Britain
in the months of June or July.
S 1 L
[ 3<5o ]
S I L
Silk.
Bee, N°70.
12
Mifs
Bhodes fed
filk worms
on lettuce
for fome
time.
*3
General
Mordaunt
ftfil more
fuccefsful.
them as much as poffible as your hand runs along, fo
that the pulp and feeds of the berries may adhere in
great abundance to the rope or hair line. Next dig a
trench in the ground where you wish to plant them,
much like what is pradifed in kitchen gardens in Eng-
land for crops of various kinds. Next cut the rope or
hairline into lengths according to the length of the
trench you think fit to make, and plunge the line full
of mafhed berries into the trench, and then cover it over
well with earth, always remembering afterwards to wa*
ter it well, which is e.llential to the luccefs. i. he ieeds
of the berries thus fuwn will grow, and foon {hoot out
young fuckers, which will bear young leaves, which are
the beif food for the filk worm.
“ The facility and rapidity with which young leaves
mav by this means be produced is evident, for as many
rows of trenches may thus be filled as can be wifhed ;
and it can never be neceffary to have mulberry trees
higher than our rafpberries, currants, or goofeberry
buflies. Whenever they get beyond that, they lofe their
value •, and if thefe trenches fucceed, you may have a
fupply coming frefli up day after day, or any quantity
you pleafe.” Thus abundance of thefe trees might be
reared. But as mulberry trees are not yet found in abun¬
dance in this country, it were to be wifhed that fome
other food could be "fubilituted in their place: attempts
have accordingly been made by thofe who have reared
filk worms, and it has been found poffible to fupport
the filk worm upon lettuce (b).
Mifs Henrietta Rhodes, a lady who has made fome
fuccefsful experiments on railing filk worms in England,
had found that the filk worm could with fafety be kept
on lettuce for fome time. This is pretty generally
known by ladies who have turned their attention to this
fubjeft ; but file found that in general they could not
with fafety be kept upon that food above three weeks.
If longer fed upon that plant, the worms for the moft
part die without fpinning a web at ail. She found,
however, that they did not always die, but that in fotnc
cafes they produced very good cocoons, even when fed
entirely on lettuce. She therefore with reafon fuipect-
ed that the death of the animal muff be occafioned by
fome extraneous eircumflanee, and not from the poi-
fonous quality of the food itfelf j the circumflance fhe
fufpe&ed, from fome incidental obfervations, was the
coldnefs of that food ; and therefore Hie thought it was
not impoflible, but if they were kept in a very warm
place, while fed on lettuce, they might attain, in all
cafes, a due perfe&ion.
General Mordaunt having been informed of this con-
je&ure, refolved to try the experiment. He got fome
'filk worm eggs, had them hatched in his hot-houfe, and
caufed them to be all fed upon lettuce and nothing elfe.
They profpered as well as any worms could do, few or
none of them died •, and they afforded as fine cocoons
as if they had been fed upon mulberry leaves. As far
as one experiment can go, this affords a very exhilara-
ting profpeft in many points of view. If one kind of
Silk,
food has been noxious, merely on account of an impro¬
per temperature, others may be found which have been
hurtful only from a fimilar caufe ^ fo that it is not im-
poflible but we may at la ft find that this delicate crea¬
ture may be fupported by a variety of kinds of food.
Few, however, could be more eafily obtained than let¬
tuce j and this plant, when cabbaged (the cofs, or ice
lettuce efpecially), would poffefs one quality that the
mulberry leaf never can poffefs, from the want of which
many millions of worms die in thofe countries where
filk is now reared ; for it is obferved, that when the
leaves are gathered wet, it is fearcely pofiible to pre-
ferve the worms alive for any length of time *, fo that
during a continuance of rainy weather many of them
are unavoidably cut off; but a lettuce, when cabbaged,
refills moiflure. If gathered, even during rain, the
heart of it is dry ; fo that if the outer leaves be thrown
afide at that time, the worms would be continued in
perfect health. The expence, too, of cultivating and
gathering lettuce, would be fo much lefs ihan that of
gathering mulberry leaves, as to c.ccafion a laving that
would be.much more than fuffieient to counterbalance
the expence of heating the confervatory, as a little re-
fleClion will {bow.
But the great point to be now afeertained is, whe¬
ther it is a facl that worms fed on lettuce, if kept in a
due temperature, will continue in good health, in gene¬
ral, till they fhall have perfected their cocoon ? One
•experiment is too little to eftablilb this fail with perfect
certainty. It would therefore be neceffary that more
experiments fhould be made on this fubjeft. I4
It is faid that Hr Lodovico Bellardi, a learned and sjik-Horn
ingenious botanifi of Turin, has, after a number of ex-faid to be!
periments, difeovered a new method of feeding filk f«d
worms, when they are hatched before the mulberry
trees have produced leaves, or when it happens that
the froft deflroys the tender branches. This new me¬
thod confifts in giving the worms dried leaves of the
mulberry-tree. One would think that this dry nouri(Il¬
men t would not be much relifiied by thefe infects •, but
repeated experiments made by our author, prove that
they prefer it to any other, and eat it with the greateft
avidity. The mulberry leaves muft be gathered about
the end of autumn, before the frofls commence, in dry
weather, and at times when the heat is greattft. They
muft be dried afterwards in the fun, by fpreading them
upon large cloths, and laid up in a dry place after they
have been reduced to powder. W hen it is neceflary to
give this powder to the worms, it fiiould be gently moi-
ftened with a little water, and a thin coat of it muit be
placed around the young worms, which will immediate¬
ly begin to feed upon it. ^ *5
We have mentioned all the different kinds of food,
which, as far as we have heard, have been tried withF^6” t
any fuccefs to nourifii the filk worm ; not, however,ma6de on
with great confidence, but as experiments which it might various ve]
be worth while carefully to confider and perform. \V e getabk-
muft not omit to mention that one perfon, who has had
much
('b') It is not improbable, fays Dr Anderfon, to whofe valuable work entitled the Bee, we have been muc
indebted in drawing up this article, that other kinds of food may be found which will anfwer the fame pur-
pofe. The cichorium intybus and common endive might be tried, as they have the fame ladtefcent quality 'Wi 1
the lettuce.
S I L
[ 361 ]
S I L
Siik.
16
hat fitua-
in and
jartments
oper for
iefe in-
!ds.
!7
r
fayne’s
'paratu^
il’cribed.
mucli experience in the managing of filk worms, affures
1 -as, that the filk produced from any other food than
mulberry leaves is of an inferior quality, and that the
worms are lickly. We think, however, that there is
reafon to fufpefl that the experiment has not been Ikil-
fully performed ; and therefore, before every other food
except mulberry leaves is difcarded, the experiment
ought ta be performed with more attention and care.
We know that many animals in a domeltic date can live
upon food very different from that which fupported
them when running wild in the fields. Certain it is,
however, that every animal, in its rtate of nature, par-
takes of a food peculiar to itfelf, which is rejected by
other animals .as if it were of a poifonous quality •, and
it may be mentioned as a curious faifl, as well as an ad¬
mirable inftance of the care of that Being who feeds
the fowls of heaven, that notwithflanding the number-
lefs infefts that prey upon animals and vegetables, the
mulberry tree is left untouched by them all, as the ex-
clufive property of the filk worm, the chief of the infedt
tribe, which toils and fpins for the ufe of man.
Having now confidered the food proper for the filk
worm, we fhall next confider what fituation is moll fa¬
vourable to them. In the. opinion of fome perfons in
this country who have been in the practice of rearing
filk worms, they ought always to be kept in a dry place,
well Iheltered, and polfefling a confiderable degree of
warmth, and which is not expofed to fudden tranfitions
from heat to cold. If the weather be too cold, a fmall
fire muft be made : this is of moll importance when the
worms are ready for fpinning. A fouthern expofure
is therefore preferable. Some think light is of great
utility to filk worms, others think that they thrive bet¬
ter in the dark. As to what apartments are bell ac¬
commodated for promoting the health of filk worms,
and molt convenient for thofe who have the care of them,
they may be various according to the extent of the ma-
nufadlure or the wealth of the proprietors. Silk worms
may be kept in boxes or in (helves. When (helves are
to be ufed, they may be conftrudled in the following
manner : The (helves may be of wicker, ranged at the
difiance of a foot and a half, and fixed in the middle of
the room : their breadth ought to be fuch, that any per-
fon can eafily reach to the middle from either fide. This
is perhaps the fimpleft and cheapefi apparatus for rear¬
ing filk worms ; but there is another apparatus which
may be recommended to thofe who are anxious to unite
fome degree of elegance with convenience. This appa¬
ratus is the invention of the Rev. George Swayne of
Puckle-chureh, a gentleman w'ho has ftudied this fub-
je£l much, in order to find out the way for promoting
the culture of "filk among the poor. This apparatus,
with the defcription of it, may be found in the Tranf-
aclions of the Society for encouraging Arts, Manufac¬
tures, and Commerce, vol. vii, p. 148. The apparatus
confifis of a wooden frame four feet two inches high,
each fide 16 inches and a half wide, divided into eight
partitions by fmall pieces of wood which form grooves,
into which the Hides run, and are thus eafily thru!! into
or drawn out of the frame. The upper (lide in the mo¬
del fent to the fociety by Mr Swavne is of paper only,
and defigned to receive the worms as foon as hatched ;
the two next are of catgut, the threads about one-tenth
uf an inch diftant from each other : thefe are for the
mfedls when a little advanced in fize : the five lower
Vol. XIX. Part I.
- (
ones are of wicker work } but, as Mr Swayne afterwards Silk,
found, netting may be fubftituted with advantage in- v”—"v '
(lead of wicker bottoms. Under each of thefe, as well
as under thole of catgut, are Aiders made of paper, to
prevent the dung of the Worms Irom falling on thofe
feeding below them. iS
The management of filk worms is next to be attend-Proper tiroc
ed to. The proper time for hatching them is when thefwr
leaves of the mulberry are full grown, or nearly fo j
that as foon as thefe infedfs are capable of receiving food
they may obtain it in abundance. To attempt to hatch
them fooncr would be hurtful, as the weather would not
be fufiiciently warm. Befides, as leaves are neceffary
to the life of a vegetable, if the young leaves of the
mulberry tree are cropped as foon as they are unfolded,
the tree will be fo much weakened as to be incapable
of producing fo many leaves as it would otherwife have
done ; and if this pra&ice be frequently repeated, will
inevitably be deftroyed. j9
When the proper feafon is arrived, the eggs may be How they
hatched either by the heat of the fun, when it happens ^
to be ftrong enough, or by placing them in a fmall ^ ^
room moderately heated by a (love or fire 5 and after
being expofed for fix or feven days to a gentle heat, the
filk tvorm iffues from the egg in the form of a (mall
black hairy caterpillar. When Mr Swayne’s apparatus
is ufed, the -worms are to b© kept on the drawers with
paper bottoms till they are grown fo large as not rea¬
dily to creep through the gauze-bottomed drawers :
they are then to be placed on thofe drawers, where they
are to remain till their excrements are fo large as not
readily to fall through ; when this is the cafe, they mull
be removed to the drawers with the wicker or netting
bottoms, and fed thereon, till they (how fymptoms of be¬
ing about to fpin. It is fcarcely necefiary to mention,
that the paper Aides beneath the gauze and wicker
drawers are intended to receive the dung, which (liould
be emptied as often as the worms are fed, at lead once
a-day •, or to direft, that when the worms are fed, the
Aides are to be firft drawn out a confiderable way, and
the drawers to reft upon them.
It has been already mentioned, that wet or dampwetor
food is exceedingly prejudicial to thofe infetls. It pro-damp food
duces contagious and fatal difeafes. To prevent the produces
neceflity of giving them wet or damp food, attention
ought to be paid to the weather, fo that when there is
an immediate profpeft of rain, a fufficient quantity of
leaves may be gathered to ferve the worms two or three
days. In this country, the leaves of the black or red
mulberry tree may be preferved good for food, although
kept four or five days, by the following method : When
new gathered, lay them loofely in glazed earthen vef-
fels, place thefe in a-cold place, well aired, not expofed
to drought.
The utmoft attention muft be paid to preferve the Ought to
place where filk worms are kept as clean as poflible : thebe kept as
houfe or room mull be well ventilated, that no noxiousc^ean as
vapours be accumulated. By fome experiments of M.P°®^e'
Faujas de St Fond, which are recorded in his hiftory of
Languedoc, it appears that the filk worm is much injur¬
ed by foul air. All decayed leaves muft be removed
from them, as it is now well known that they emit bad
air in great abundance.
One of the moft difficult branches of the management
of filk worms has hitherto been the cleaning without
Z z bruifing
S I L ' [ 362 ] S I L
22
How they
may be
cleaned
without
bridling
them.
bruifing them. To avoid this inconvenience, the pea-
fants in France and Italy frequently allow the whole lit*
ter to remain without ever cleaning them, which is the
caufe of that unwholefome ftench that has been fo often
remarked by thofe who vifit the places for rearing filk
worms in thefe countries. This difficulty may be ef¬
fectually removed by providing a net, or, what would
be ftill better, a wire-bottomed frame, wrought into
large meffies like a riddle. Have that made of a fize
exaCtly fufficient to cover the wooden box in which the
worms are kept. When you mean to ffiift them, fpread
frelh leaves into the wire balket; and let it down gent¬
ly over the worms till it comes within their reach.
They no fooner perceive the frelh food than they aban¬
don the rubbiffi below, and creep through the meflies,
fo as to fix themfelves upon the leavesj then by gently
railing the freffi balket, and drawing out the board be¬
low (which ought to be made to flip out like the flip-
bottom of a bird’s cage), you get off all the excrements
and decayed leaves, Avithout incommoding the Avorms in
the fmalleft degree; and along with the litter you avIII
draAV oft' an inch or tAvo in depth of the foulelt mephitic
vapours. To get entirely rid of thele, the board, Avhen
thus taken out, Ihould be carried without doors, and
there cleaned *, and the flip-board immediately replaced
to receive all the excrements and offals. After it is re¬
placed, the Avire frame that had been elevated a little,
may be alloAved to defcend to a convenient diftance
above the board AAuthout touching it. Thus Avill there
be left a vacant fpace for the mephitic air to fall below
the Avorms, fo as to allow them to inhabit a Avholefome
region of the atmofphere.
When a freffi fupply of food is to be given before
cleaning, the Avire frame ought to be let doAvn as clofe
to the board as can be fafely done, and another Avire-
bottomed frame put over it, with freffi leaves, as before
defcribed. When the worms haAre abandoned that in
their turn, let the flip-board, together Avith the loAver
wire frame, be draAvn out and removed, and fo on as
often as neceffary. To admit of this alternate change,
every table, confifting of one flip-board, ought to have
tAvo fets of Avire-bottomed frames of the fame fize j the
flip-board to be always put into its place immediately
after it is cleaned, and the wire frames referved to be
afterAvards placed over the other. By this mode of ma¬
nagement, it is probable that the Avorms Avould be faved
from the difeafes engendered by the mephitic air, and Silk,
the numerous deaths that are the confequence of it a-' v'-*
voided. j3
Dr Anderfon, to Avhom we have already acknoAvled-Qukklimi
ged our obligations, and to whom this country has been
much indebted for valuable Avorks on agriculture, the ^ tl
fiffieries, &c. advifes thofe Avho have the management which fun
of filk Avorms to ftreAv a thin ftratum of freffi flaked rounds
quicklime upon the flip-board each time it is cleanedt^era‘
immediately before it is put into its place. This Avould
abforb the mephitic gas, for as foon as it is generated it
would defcend upon the furface of the quicklime. Thus
Avould the Avorms be kept continually in an atmofphere
of pure air (c). Were the Avails of the apartments to
be frequently Avaffied with quicklime and water, it Avould
tend much to promote cleanlinefs at a fmall expence,
and augment the healthinefs of the Avorms as Avell as
that of the perfons who attend them. 1
When the filk Avorm refufes its food, and leaves filky Mr
traces on the leaves over Avhich it paffes, it is a proofSwaJ'nc ?
that it is ready to begin its cocoon. It is now neceffa-
ry to form a neAV receptacle, which is commonly donewormS;
by pinning together papers in the ffiape of inverted cones when go-
with broad bafes. “ This method (fays Mr SAvayne),mS t0 fy'
Avhere there are many Avorms, is exceedingly tedious, j
waftes much paper, and ufes a large number of pins; Society ;ij
befides, as the filk Avorm always Aveaves an outer cover- the Enn
ing or defenfive Aveb before it begins the cocoon or ragemen.
oval ball, I apprehended that it caufed a needlefs Avafte
of filk in forming the broad Aveb at the top. The me-VU’ ^
thod I make ufe of is, to roll a fmall piece of paper (an
uncut odlavo leaf, fuch as that of an old magazine, is
fufficient for three), round my fore-finger, and to give
it a tAvift at the bottom; Avhich is done Avith the utmoft
expedition, and gives no occafion for the ufe of pins.
Thefe rolled paper-cafes being likeAvife of a form more
nearly refembling that of a cocoon, Avith a much nar-
roAver opening on the top than the others, takes aAvay
the neceffity of Availing much filk in the outer Aveb,
and confequently leaves more to be employed in forming
the ball. The filk is readily taken out of thefe cafes
by untwifting the bottom ; and if this be done with mo¬
derate care, and the papers are preferved, they will ferve
feveral times for the like purpofe.” 25
Others advife, that Avhen the filk worms are preparing Others r<j
to fpin, little buffies of heath, broom, or tAvigs, ffiould^0®171^
be heath!0
(c) To put this que.ftion beyond a doubt, Mr Blancard made the following comparative experiments, which
were feveral times repeated. “ I procured (fays he) four glafs jars nine inches high and five in diameter, clofing
the mouth Avith cork ftoppers. After Avhich I placed in each of them, in their fecond life (fo mue may be tranl-
lated, Avhich means the ftage betAveen the different fickneffes), tAvelve filk Avorms, Avhich Avere fed four times a-
day ; and in which I confined in this kind of prifon all their life, without taking aAvay either their dead compa¬
nions or their ordure or litter. I fprinkled Avith chalk the worms of only two of thefe jars, and kept the tAvo
others to compare Avith them.
“ In thofe Avithout lime, I never obtained either more or lefs than three fmall and imperfefl cocoons (cliques
ou boujfard), and in the tAvo that AA’ere fprinkled Avith lime, I had very often twelve, and never lefs than nine fine
full-fized firm cocoons.”
This experiment affords the moft fatisfa£lory proof of the utility of this procefs. From a number of trials he
found, that even Avhen the worms were covered with a large proportion of lime, they never were in any way in¬
commoded by it..
S I L
[ 36.3 ]
S I L
;vlien af-
ded by
/.hunder.
Jranfac-
Fhilofophi-
■al Society,
vol ii-
jy
Different
kinds of
cocoons.
be fluck upright near the (helf or box in which they
are inclofed : the worms mount thefe, and attach their
web to them.
When the worms are ready to mount, in order to
vorms may fpjnj jf t{ie leather be hot, attended with thunder, you
ie revive ^ fee them in a languishing condition; your care muft
then be to revive them, which is effected thus: Take
a few eggs and onions, and fry them in a pan with fome
Hale hog’s lard, the ranker the better, and make pan-
tioni of the^U • which done, carry it fmoaking hot into the room
American wjiere they are kept, and go round the chamber with
it. You will be furprifed to fee how the fmell revives
them, excites thofe to eat who have not done feeding,
and makes the others that are ready to fpin climb up
the twigs.
In about ten or twelve days, according to the ac¬
counts which we have received from Mr Andrew Wright
of Paifley, it may be fafely concluded, that if the worms
have finithed their work, the cocoons may be collected.
We fhall now diflinguifh the cocoons from one ano¬
ther according to their value or their ufe, and confider
the method of managing each. They may be diftin-
guilhed into the good and bad. The good cocoons may
be known by thefe marks : they are little, flrong, and
firm have a fine grain, both ends are round, and they
are free from fpots. Among the good cocoons alfo may
be arranged thofe which are called calcined cocoons, in
which the worm, in confequence of ficknefs, is petrified
or reduced to a fine powder. Thefe cocoons produce
more filk than others, and are fold in Piedmont at half
as much again. They may be diftinguilhed by the noife
which the worm makes when the cocoon is Ilia ken. Of
the bad cocoons there are fix fpecies: 1. 'Yhepointed
t’oraowr, one extremity of which ends in a point *, the
filk which covers the point is weak, and foon breaks or
tears. 2. The cocalons, which are bigger, but the con¬
texture is weak. 3. The dupions, or double cocoons,
which have been formed by the joint labour of two and
fometimesof three worms. 4. The foiijjlons, which have
a loofe contexture, fometimes fo loofe that they are
tranfparent. 5. The perforated cocoons, which have a
hole at one end. 6. The bad choquette, which is com-
pofed of defective cocoons, fpotted or rotten. Befides
thefe there is the good choquette, which does not properly
belong to either of thefe two clafles : it is formed of
thofe cocoons in which the worm dies before the filk is
brought to perfection. The worms adhere to one fide
of the cocoon, and therefore when the cocoon is thaken
will not rattle : the filk is as fine, but is not of fo bright
a colour, nor is fo ftrong and nervous, as that which is
obtained from good cocoons.
The cocoons which are kept for breeding are called
royal cocoons. For feleCting and preferving thefe, we
have been favoured with fome valuable inftruCtions by
andpreferv-Wright of Paifley, which we {hall prefent to our
*ng the roy-readers.—The largeft and beft cocoons ought to be
^escoons. kept for breed, about an equal number of males and
females •, the cocoons that contain the former are {harp¬
er pointed at the ends than thofe that contain the lat¬
ter. Although it thould happen that there are more
females than males, little inconvenience or ill confe-
quences can arife from it, as one male will ferve two or
three females, if the time of their coming out of the
cocoons anfwer. About 12 or 15 days after they be¬
gin to fpin, the cocoons for breed may be laid on flieets
Silk.
a8
Mr
Wright’s
inftrudions
of white paper $ about this time the moth opens for it-
felf a paflage through the end of its cocoon, and iflues ^
out. When the female has laid her eggs, which on an
average may amount to 250, they are fpread upon iheets
of paper and hung up to dry in fome place where they
may not be expofed to the heat of the fun : after being
dried they mud be kept in a cool well-aired place,
where neither vapours nor moiflure can reach them.
That they may be preferred from external accidents, as
infedts of different kinds will deftroy them, and mice is
their enemy in all the ftages of their exiftence, they
ftiould be kept in {tone pots or glafs bottles with their
mouths flopped, and there remain until brought out next
feafon to be hatched.
The cocoons from which the filk is to be immediate- Hov^ to
ly wound mult be expofed to the heat of an oven, in or- prepare tfie
der to kill the chryfalis or aurelia, which would other-£0lr0°ns
wife eat its way through the cocoon, and render it ufe-
lefs. The following directions are given for managing
this procefs by one of the firft filk manufadturers in Italy.
Put your cocoons in long {hallow bafkets, and fill Travfac-
them within an inch of the top. You then cover°/^e
them up with paper, and put a wrapper over that. Thefe
balkets are to be difpefed in an oven, whofe heat is as ^ Society^
near as can be that of an oven from which the bread is vol. ii.
juft drawm after being baked. When your cocoons have
remained therein near an hour, you muft draw them out j
and to fee whether all the worms are dead, draw out a
dupion from the middle of your bafket and open it: if
the worm be dead, you may conclude all the reft are fo j
becaufe the contexture of the dupion being ftronger
than that of the other cocoons, it is confequently lefs
eafy to be penetrated by the heat. You muft obferve
to take it from the middle of the balket, becaufe in
that part the heat is leaft perceptible. After you have
drawn your balkets from the oven, you muft firft cover
each of them with a woollen blarkct or rug, leaving
the wrapped befides, and then you pile them above one
another. If your baking has fucceeded, your woollen
cover will be all over w:et with a kind of dew, the
thicknefs of your little finger. If there be lefs, it is
a fign your cocoons have been too much or too little ba¬
ked. If too much baked, the worm, being over-dried,
cannot tranfpire a humour he no longer contains, and
your cocoon is then burnt. If not enough baked, the >
worm has not been fufficiently penetrated by the heat
to diftil the liquor he contains, and in that cafe is not
dead.
You muft let your bafkets Hand thus covered five or
fix hours if pofixble, in order to keep in the heat, as this
makes an end of ftifling thofe worms which might have
avoided the firft impreftion of the fire. You are like-
wife to take great care to let your Cocoons Hand in the
oven the time that is neceffary j for if they do not ftand
long enough, your worms are only ftunned for a time
and will afterwards be revived. If, on the other hand,.,
you leave them too long in the oven, you burn them :
many inftances of thefe two cafes are frequently to be
met with. It is a good fign when you fee fome of the
butterflies fpring out from the cocoons which have beenr
baked, becaufe you may be certain they are not burnt.
For if you would kill them all to the laft worm, you
would burn many cocoons which might be more expo-
fed to the heat than that particular worm.
The next operation is the winding of the filk. Be**
Z z 2 fors
S I L [ 364 ] S I 'L
from the
cocoons.
Silk. fete you begin to wind, you muft prepare your cocoons
' 1 v as follows :
How^the I* ftripping them of that wafte filk that furrounds
filk is to be them, and which ferved to fallen them to the twigs,
wound This burr is proper to fluff quilts, or other fuch ufes *,
you may likewife fpin it to make Hookings, but they
will be coarfe and ordinary.
2. You muft fort your cocoons, feparating them into
different claffes in order to wind them apart. Thefe
claffes are, the good white cocoons •, the good co¬
coons of all the other colours ; the dupions •, the co-
calons, among which are included the weak cocoons 5
the good choquette ; and, laftly, the bad choquette.
In forting the cocoons, you will always find fume per¬
forated cocoons amongft them, whofe worm is already
born ; thofe you muft fet apart for fleuret. You will
likewife find fome foufflons, but very few •, for w'hieh
reafon you may put them among the bad choquette,
and they run up into wafte.
The good cocoons, as u'ell white as yellow, are the
eafieft to wind $ thofe which require the greateft care
and pains are the cogalons ; you muft wind them in
cooler water than the others, and if you take care to
give them to a good windfter, you will have as good
filk from them as the reft. You muft likewife have
careful windfters for the dupions and choquettes. Thefe
two fpecies require hotter w’ater than the common co¬
coons.
The good cocoons are to be wound in the following
manner : Firft, choofe an open convenient.place for your
» filature, the longer the better, if you intend to have
many furnaces and coppers. The building ftiould be
high and open on one fide, and walled on the other, as
well to fereen you from the cold winds and receive the
fun, as to give a free paffage to the fleam of your ba-
fons or coppers.
Thefe coppers or bafons are to be difpofed (when the
building will admit of it) in a row on each fide of the
filature, as being the moft convenient method of pla¬
cing them, for by that means in walking up and down
you fee what every one is about. And thele bafons
ftiould be two and two together, with a chimney be¬
tween every couple.
Having prepared your reels (which are turned by
hands, and require a quick eye), and your fire being a
light one under every bafon, your windfter muft ftay
till the wrater is as hot as it can be without boiling.
When every thing is ready, you throw into your ba¬
fons twro or three handfuls of cocoons, which you
gently brufh over with a wilk about fix inches long,
cut ftumpy like a broom worn out : by thefe means the
threads of the cocoons flick to the wilk. You muft
difengage thefe threads from the wilk, and purge them
by drawing thefe ends with your fingers till they
come off entirely clean. This operation is called /a
Battue.
When the threads are quite clear, you mull pafs four
of them (if you will wind fine filk) through each of the
holes in a thin iron bar that is placed horizontally at
the edge of your bafon ; afterwards you twill the two
ends (which confift of four cocoons each) twenty or
twenty-fivre times, that the four ends in each thread
may the better join together in crofting each other, and
that your filk may be plump, which other wife would
be flat.
Your windfter muft always have a bowl of cold wa¬
ter by her, to dip her fingers in, and to fprinkle very
often the faid bar, that the heat may not burn the
thread.
Your threads, when thus twilled, go upon two iron
hooks called rampins, which are placed higher, and
from thence they go upon the reel. At one end of
the axis of the reel is a cog-wheel, which catching
in the teeth of the poft-rampin, moves it from the right
to the left, and confequently the thread that is upon it;
fo that your filk is wound on the reel crofsways,
and your threads form two hanks of about four fingers
broad.
As often as the cocoons you wind are done, or break
or diminilh only, you muft join frelh ones to keep up
the number requifite, or the proportion ; becaule, as
the cocoons wind off, the thread being finer, you muft
join two cocoons half wound to replace a new one :
Thus you may wind three new ones and trvo half
wound, and your filk is from four to five cocoons.
When you would join a frelh thread, you muft lay
one end on your finger, which you throw lightly on
the other threads that are winding, and it joins them
immediately, and continues to go up with the reft.
You muft not wind off your cocoons too bare or to
the laft, becaufe when they are near at an end, the
bairre', that is, the hulk, joins in with the other threads,
and makes the filk foul and gouty.
When you have finilhed your firft parcel, you muft
clean your bafons, taking out all the ftriped worms, as
well as the cocoons, on which there is a little filk,
which you firft open and take out the worm, and then
throw them into a balket by you, into which you like¬
wife call the loofe filk that comes off in making the
battue.
You then proceed as before with other two or three
handfuls of cocoons ; you make a new battue ; you
purge them, and continue to wind the fame number of
cocoons or their equivalent, and fo to the end.
As was already mentioned, the windfter muft always
have a bowl of cold water by her, to fprinkle the bar,
to cool her fingers every time Ihe dips them in the hot
water, and to pour into her bafon when neceffary, that
is, when her wrater begins to boil. You muft be very
careful to twill your threads a fuffieient number of
times, about 25, otherwife your filk remains flat, in-
ftead of being round and full 5 befides, when the filk is
not wTell crofted, it never can be clean, becaufe a gout
or nub that comes from a cocoon will pafs through a
fmall number of thefe twills, though a greater will
Hop it. Your thread then breaks, and you pafs what
foulnefs there may be in the middle of your reel ! e-
tween the two hanks, which ferves for a head-band to
tie them.
You muft obferve that your water be juft in a proper
degree of heat. When it is too hot, the thread is dead,
and has no body *, when it is too cold, the ends which
form the thread do not join wTcll, and form a harlh ill-
qualified filk.
You muft change the water in your bafon four times
a day for your dupions and choquette, and twice only
for good cocoons when you wind fine filk ; but if you
wdnd coarfe filk, it is neceffary to change it three or
four times. For if you were not to change the water, the
filk would not be fo bright and gloffy, becaufe the worm
contained
S I L
[ 365 ]
S I M
Silk,
SilU.
31
,Vhat num.
of
vorms pro-
uce a cer-
ain quan-
ity of filk.
3»
sngth of
e thread:
contained in the cocoons foul it very connderably. You
xnuft endeavour to wind as much as poflible with clear
4 water, for if there are too many worms in it, your filk
is covered with a kind of dull which attracts the moth,
and deftroys your filk.
You may wind your filk of what fize you pleafe,
from one cocoon to iooo ; but it is difficult to wind
more than 30 in a thread. The nicety, and that in
which confifts the greateft difficulty, is to wind even ;
becaufe as the cocoon winds off the end is finer, and
you muff then join other cocoons to keep up the fame
fize. This difficulty of keeping the filk always even is
fo great, that (excepting a thread of two cocoons,
which we call fuch) we do not fay a filk of three, of
four, or fix cocoons ; but a filk of three to four; of
four to five, of fix to feven cocoons. If you proceed
to a coarfer filk, you cannot calculate fo nicely as to
one cocoon more or lefs. We fay, for example, from
12 to 15, from 15 to 20, and fo on.
What number of Avorms are neceffary to produce a
certain quantity of filk has not been afcertained. And
as different perfons who Aviflied to determine this point
have had different refults, the truth feems to be, that
from various circumftances the fame number of Avorms
may produce more filk at one time than at another. It
is related in the fecond volume of the Tranfa&ions of
the Society for encouraging Arts, &c. that Mrs Wil¬
liams obtained nearly an ounce and a half of filk from
244 cocoons. Mr SAvayne from 50 cocoons procured
100 grains. Mifs Rhodes obtained from 250 of the
largeft cocoons, three quarters of an ounce and a dram.
From a paper in the fecond volume of the Ameri¬
can Tranfaflions, Avhich avc have before referred to in
the courfe of this article, avc are informed that 1
ounces of good cocoons yield about 11 ounces of filk
from five to fix cocoons : if you Avind coarfer, fomething
more. But Avhat appears aftoniffiing, Mr Salvatore
Bertezen, an Italian, to Avhom the Society for encou-
raging Arts, &c. adjudged their gold medal, raifed five
pounds of excellent filk from 1 2,000 worms.
The cocoons produce a thread of very unequal
■length •, you may meet Avith fome that yield 1200 ells,
Avhilft others will fcarcely afford 200 ells. In general,
you may calculate the production of a cocoon from 500
to 600 ells in length.
SlLK-Loom. See WEAArING.
SlLK-Worm. See Silk.
SILL A, a large toAvn on the. Niger, by which the
travels of Mr Pai-k were bounded toAvards the eaft. He
gives no particular defcription of the place, Avhich his
health and fpirits permitted him not to furvey, but af-
figns the reafons by Avhich he Avas induced to proceed no
farther. On his arrival, he Avas alloAved to remain un¬
der a tree, till it Avas quite dark, furrounded by hun¬
dreds of people. But their language Avas extremely dif¬
ferent from the other parts of Bambarra ; and he Avas
given to underftand, that in his progrefs eaftAvard, the
Bambarra tongue Avas very little underftood ; and that,
on his reaching Jenne, he Avould find the greater part of
the inhabitants accuftomed to fpeak a different language.
He had noAV become the prey of ficknef«, exhaufted Avith
hunger and fatigue, half naked, and Avithout anv arti¬
cle of value, to procure for himfelf provifions, clothes,
or lodging, on Avhich account he refolved to return, find¬
ing that to prefecute his journey further in that direc¬
tion Avas Avholly impracticable. Silla, according to the
lateft map of Africa, is in 140 48' N. Lat. and l° 24'
W. Long.
SILPHA, Carrion-Beetle, a genus of infeCts
belonging to the order coleopterce. See Entomology
Index.
SILPHIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of fyngenefia, and to the order of polygamia necef-
faria j and in the natural fyltem arranged under the
49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index.
SILVER, a Avell knoAvn metallic fubftance. For an
account of its properties, fee Chemistry Index.
Silver, Ores of. See Mineralogy Index.
SZieU-SlLVER, is prepared of the ihreds of filver leaf,
or of the leaves themfelves, for the ufe of painters, after
the fame manner as ffiell-gold. See She/l-GOLB.
SILVERING, the covering of any thing with fil¬
ver. It is ufual to filver metals, Avood, paper, &c»
Avhich is performed either Avith fire, oil, or fize. Metal-
gilders filver by the fire ; painter gilders all the other
Avays. See Gilding.
To filver copper or brafs. 1. Cleanfe the metal Avith
aquafortis, by waffiing it lightly, and immediately
throAving it into pure Avater ; or by heating it red hot,
and fcouring it with fait and tartar, and pure water,
Avith a fmall wire bruth. 2. Diffolve fome filver in
aquafortis, in a broad-bottomed glafs veffel, or of gla¬
zed earth ; then evaporate aAvay the aquafortis over a
chaffing dith of coals. 3. Put five or fix times its quan¬
tity of water, or as much as Avill be neceffary to diffolve
it perfectly, on the remaining dry calx j evaporate this
Avater Avith the like heat; then put more frelh Avater,
and evapwate again ; and, if need be, the third time,
making the fire towards the latter end fo Itrong as to
leave the calx perfectly dry, which, if your filver is
good, Avill be of a pure Avhite. 4. Take of this calx,
common fait, cryftals of tartar, of each a like quantity
or bulk, and mixing Avell the Avhole compofition, put
the metal into pure water, and take of the faid poAvder
Avith your wet fingers, and rub it Avell on, till you find
every little cavity of the metal fufficiently filvered over.
5. If you would have it richly done, you mult rub on
more of the powder ; and, in the laft place, Avath the
filvered metal in pure water, and rub it hard Avith a dry-
cloth.
Silvering of Glaffes. See Foliating of Looking,
glajfes.
SILURIS, a genus of filhes belonging to the order
abdominales. See Ichthyology Index.
SIMANCAS, a village on the ealtern boundary of
the kingdom of Leon in Spain, fix miles below Valla¬
dolid, on the river Gifnerga. Dr Robertfon, in the in¬
troduction to his Hiftory of America, makes mention of
it, and it is remarkable for the archives of the kingdoms
of Leon and Caltile, kept in the caftle. This collec¬
tion was begun when the kings often refided at Valla¬
dolid, in Avhich city is ftill the civil and military tribu¬
nal for aim off tire whole of Spain to the noith of the
Tagus. It Ayas thought proper to have {hofe papers-
kept in the vicinity of that court, for which purpofe this
caftle was peculiarly fitted, being entirely ereCted of
Rone. At one period there Avere tAVo large halls in this
office filled wkh papers refipeding the firft fettlement o£
the Spaniards in South America. There was likeAvife
in the room called the ancient royal patronage, a box
containing
Sflla
II
Simancas.
Svmaruras
Simon.
SIM [ 366 ] SIM
containing treaties with England, in which are many He probably thought Peter and John magicians like
letters and treaties between the kings of England and
Spain, from the year 1400 to 1600. There was alfo a
ilrong box in the fame archives, with five locks, which,
we are told, has-not been opened fince the time of Phi¬
lip II. and it is fuppofed that it contains the procefs a-
gainft Philip’s fon Prince Charles. But it appears that
fome of the ftate papers have been removed to Madrid.
SIMEON of Durham, the cotemporary of William
of Malmlbury, took great pains in collecting the mo¬
numents of our hitlory, especially in the north of Eng¬
land, after they had been fcattered by the Danes. 1‘ rom
thefe he compofed a hiftory of the kings of England,
from A. D. 616 to 1130 $ with fome fmaller hiftorical
pieces. Simeon both ftuditd and taught the fciences,
and particularly the mathematics at Oxford ; and be¬
came precentor of the church at Durham, where he
died, probably foon after the conelufion of his hiftory,
which was continued by John, prior of Hexham, to
A. D. 1156.
SIMIA, the Monkey, a genus of quadrupeds be¬
longing to the clafs of mammalia, and order of primates,
in the Linnaean fyftem, but by Mr Pennant arranged
under the digitated quadrupeds. See Mammalia In¬
dex.
SIMILE, or Similitude, in Rhetoric, a. compa-
rifon of two things, which though different in other
refpeCts, yet agree in fome one. T he difference be¬
tween a fimile and comparifon is faid to confift in this,
that the fimile properly belongs to whatever we call
the quality of a thing, and the comparifon to the quan¬
tity. See Comparison ; and Oratory, N° 118.
SIMILOR, a name given to an ahoy of red cop¬
per and zinc, made in the beft proportions, to imitate
iilver and gold.
SIMON Maccabeus, a celebrated leader and high-
prieft of the Jews, who, after rendering the moft im¬
portant fervices to his country, was at laft treacheroufiy
ftain by his fon-in-law. See the Hijiory of the JEWS,
N° 15. . f_.
SIMON Magus, or the Sorcerer, was a native of Git-
ton, a village of Samaria. According to the ufual prac¬
tice of the Afiatics of that age, he vifited Egypt, and
there probably became acquainted with the fublime
jixijiury myfteries taught in the Alexandrian fchool, ^nd learned
Philosophy, tj10fe theurgic or magical operations, by means of which
voL a. p. .t was bel|eve(i tliat men might, be delivered from the
power of evil demons. Upon his return into his own
country, the author of the Clementine Recognitions
relates, that he impofed upon his countrymen by high
pretenfions to fupernatural powers. And St Luke at-
tefts, that this artful fanatic, ufing forcery, had be¬
witched the people of Samaria, giving out that he was
fome great one ; and that he obtained fuch general atten¬
tion and reverence in Samaria, that the people all gave
heed to him from the leaft to the greateft, faying “ This
man is the great power of God.”
By the preaching of Philip the Deacon, he was with
other Samaritans converted to the Chriftian faith, and
admitted into the infant church by the ordinance of
baptifm. His converfion, however, feems not to have
been real •, for, upon feeing the miraculous effects of
the laying on of the apoftle’s hands, he offered them mo¬
ney, faying, “ Give me alfo this power, that on whom-
Joever I lay hands he may receive the Holy Ghoft.”
3
himfelf, but better Ikilled in the art of deceiving the
multitude.
Sitaon,
Enfield's
Hijlcry of
Being fliarply reproved for this impiety, he feems by
his anfwer to have been made fenfible of his fin j but
his repentance, if fincere, was of ftrort duration. Re¬
turning to his former practices of impofture, he travel¬
led through various provinces of the empire, oppofing
the progrefs of the gofpel $ and arriving at Rome, he
led aftray vaft numbers of people by his pretended mi¬
racles. How long he lived in that metropolis of the
world, or in what manner he died, we have no accounts
that can be fully depended on. The Chriftian writers
tell us, that being raifed in the air by two dtemons, he
was deprived of their fupport by the prayers of St Pe¬
ter and St Paul, and falling, broke his legs. By fome
he is thought to have been the perfon mentioned by
Suetonius, who, undertaking to fly in the prefence of
Nero, fell to the ground with fuch violence, that his
blood fpurted up to the gallery where the emperor was
fitting.
The fum of this impoftor’s do£trine, divefted of al¬
legory, was, that from the Divine Being, as a fountain
of light, flow various orders of aeons, or eternal na¬
tures, fubfifting within the plenitude of the divine ef-
fence •, that beyond thefe, in the order of emanation,
are different elaffes of intelligences, among the loweft
of which are human fouls ; that matter is the moft re¬
mote produflion of the emanative power, which, on ac¬
count of its infinite diftance from the Fountain of
Light, poffeffes fluggilh and malignant qualities, which
oppofe the divine operations, and are the caufe of evil j
that it is the great defign of philofophy to deliver the
foul from its imprifonment in matter, and reftore it to
that divine light from which it was derived : and that
for this purpofe God had fent him one of the firft aeons
among men. To his wife Helena he alfo afcribed a fi-
milar kind of divine nature, pretending that a female
mon inhabited the body of this woman, to whom he
gave the name of £m<«, Wisdom; whence fome Chn-
ftian fathers have faid, that he called her the Hoiy Spi¬
rit. He alfo taught the tranfmigration of fouls, and
denied the refurreftion of the body.
SlMON, Richard, was born at Dieppe the 15th May
1638. He began his ftudies among the priefts of
the Oratory in that city, but quitted their fociety in
a fiiort time. From Dieppe he went to Paris, where
he made great progrefs in the ftudy of the oriental lan¬
guages. Some time afterwards he joined the fociety
of the Oratory again, and became a prieft of it in
1660. In 1670 he publifhed fome pieces of a fmaller
kind. In 1678 his Critical Hiftory of the Old lefta-
ment appeared, but was immediately fuppreffed by the
intrigues of Meflieurs du Port Royal. It was reprint¬
ed the year after, and its excellence foon drew the at¬
tention of foreigners } an edition of it was accordingly
' publifhed at Amfterdam in Latin, and at London in
Englifh.
He died at Dieppe in 1712, at the age of 74.
He certainly poffefled a vaft deal of learning : his
criticifm is cxaft, but not always moderate 5 and there
reigns in his writings a fpirit of novelty and Angularity
which raifed him a great many adverfaries. I he moft
celebrated of thefe were Le Clerc, Vofllus, Jurieu, Du
Pin, and Boffuet. Simon wrote an anfwer to moft of
’ the
S I M
y
the books that were publifhed againft him, and difplays
a pride and obftinacy in his controverfial writings which
do him little honour.
He was the author of a great many books. The fol¬
lowing are the principal: i. The Ceremonies of the
Jews, tranflated from the Italian of Leo of Modena,
with a fupplement concerning the fefts of the Carraites
and Samaritans. 2. UHiftoire Critique du Vieux 'le¬
ft ament, “ The Critical Hiftory of the Old Teftament.”
This is a very important work, and deferves the atten¬
tion of every clergyman. He fometimes, however, de¬
viates from the road of integrity, to ferve the caufe of
the church of Rome, particularly in his endeavours to
prove the uncertainty of the Hebrew language. Thefe
palfages have been very juftly expofed and confuted by
Dr Campbell, in his ingenious Preliminary Dilfertations
to his new Tranflation of the Gofpels. 3. Critical Hif-
tory of the Text of the New Teftament. 4. Critical
Hiftory of the Verfions of the New Teftament. 5.
Critical Hiftory of the principal Commentators on the
New Teftament. 6. Infpiration of the Sacred Books.
7. A tranftation of the New Teftament. This book
was cenfured by Cardinal Noailles and Boffuet. 8.
The Hiftory of the rife and progrefs of Ecclefiaftical
Revenues, which is commended by Voltaire, as is his
Critical Hiftory of the Old Teftament. It refulted
from a quarrel with a community of Benedi&ines. 9.
A new felect Library, which points out the good books
in various kinds of literature, and the ufe to be made of
them. 10. Critical Hiftory of the Belief and Cuftoms
of the Nations on the Levant. 11. Critical Letters
&c.
SIMONICAL, is applied to any perfon guilty of
fnnony. See Simony.
SIMONIDES, the name of feveral poets celebrated
in antiquity ; but by the Marbles it appears that the
eldeft and moft illuftrious of them was born in the 55th
Olympiad, 538 years B. C. and that he died in his 90th
year; which nearly agrees with the chronology of Eu-
febius. He was a native of Ceos, one of the Cyclades,
in the neighbourhood of Attica, and the preceptor of
Pindar. Both Plato and Cicero give him the charac¬
ter not only of a good poet and mufician, but fpeak
of him as a perfon of great virtue and wifdom. Such
longevity gave him an opportunity of knowing a great
number of the firft charafters in antiquity with whom
he was in fome meafure connected. It appears in Fa-
bricius, from ancient authority, tliat Simonides was
cotemporary and in friendfttip with Pittacus of Mity-
lene, Hipparchus tyrant of Athens, Paufanias king of
Sparta, Hiero tyrant, of Syracufe, with Themiftocles,
and with Alevades king of Theffaly. He is mentioned
by Herodotus j and Xenophon, in his Dialogue upon
Tyranny, makes him one of the interlocutors with
Hiero king of Syracufe. Cicero alleges, what has of¬
ten been quoted in proof of the modefty and wifdom
of Simonides, that when Hiero alked him for a defini¬
tion of God., the poet required a whole day to medi¬
tate on fo important a queftion : at the end of Avbich,
upon the prince putting the fame queftion to him a
fecond time, he alked two days refpite j and in this
manner always doubled the delay each time he w7as re¬
quired to anfwer it j till at length, to avoid offending
ms patron by more difappointments, he frankly con-
teffed that he found the queftion fo difficult, that the
[ 367 ]
S I M
more he meditated upon it, the lefs was his hope of Simonides,
being able to folve it. —y-—j
In his old age, perhaps from feeing the refpeft which
money procured to fuch as had loft the charms of youth
and the power of attaching mankind by other means,
he became fomewhat mercenary and avaricious. He
was frequently employed by the visitors at the games to
•write panegyrics and odes in their praife, before his pu¬
pil Pindar had exercifed his talents in their behalf : but
Simonides would never gratify their vanity in this par¬
ticular, till he had firft tied them down to a ftipulated
fum for his trouble 5 and upon being upbraided for his
meannefs, he faid, that he had two coffers, in one of
which he had for many years put his pecuniary re¬
wards ; the other w'as for honours, verbal thanks, and
promifes ; that the firrt was pretty well filled, but the
laft remained always empty. And he made no fcruple
to confefs in his old age, that of all the enjoyments of
life, the love of money was the only one of which time
had not deprived him.
He was frequently reproached for his vice ; however,
he always defended himfelf with good humour. Upon
being alked by Hiero’s queen, Whether it was moft de-
firable to be learned or rich ? he anfwered, that it was
far better to be rich 5 for the learned ivere always de¬
pendent on the rich, and waiting at their doors ; where-
as, he never faw rich men at the doors of the learned.
When he was accufed of being fo fordid as to fell part
of the provifions with which his table was furniffied by
Hiero, he faid he had done it in order “ to difplay to the
world the magnificence of that prince and his own fru¬
gality.” To others he faid, that his reafon for accu¬
mulating wealth was, that “ he would rather leave mo¬
ney to his enemies after death, than be troublefome to
his friends while living.”
He obtained the prize in poetry at the public games
when he was fourfcore years of age. According to Sui-
das, he added four letters to the Greek alphabet 5 and
Pliny afligns to him the eighth firing of the lyre j but
thefe claims are difputed by the learned.
His poetry was fo tender and plaintive, that he ac¬
quired the cognomen of Melicertes, “ fweet as honey
and the tearful eye of his mufe was proverbial. Dio-
nyfms places him among thofe poliffied writers who ex¬
cel in a fmooth volubility, and flow on like plenteous
and perennial rivers, in a courfe of even and uninterrupt¬
ed harmony.
It is to Dionyfius that we are indebted for the pre-
fervation of the following fragment of this poet. Da-
nae being by her mercilefs father inclofed in a cheft, and
thrown into the fea with her child, when night comes
on, and a ftorm. arifes which threatens to overfet the
cheft, Ihe, weeping and embracing the young Perfcus,
cries out:
Sweet child ! what anguiffi does thy mother know,
Ere.cruel grief has taught thy tears to flow !
Amidft the roaring wind’s tremendous found,
Which threats deftruflion as it howls around';
In balmy fleep.thou lieft, as at the breaft,
Without one bitter thought to break thy reft.
The glimm’ring moon in pity hides her light,
And Ihrinks with horror at the ghaftly fight.
Didft thou but know, fweet innocent! our woes
Not opiate’s pow’r thy eyelids now could clofe. ’
SIM [ 363 ] SI M
Simonides Sleep on, fweet babe ! ye waves in filence roll j
c. II ' And lull, O lull, to reft my tortur’d foul!
Simoom. 7
' ' v There is a fecond great poet of the name of Simonides
recorded on the Marbles, fuppofed to have been his
grandfon, and who gained, in 478 B. C. the prize in the
games at Athens.
SIMONY, is the corrupt prefentation of any one to
an ecclefiaftical benefice for money, gift, or reward. It
is fo called from the refemblance it is faid to bear to
the fin of Simon Magus, though the purchafing of holy
orders feems to approach nearer to his offence. It was
by the canon law a very grievous crime : and is fo much
the more odious, becaufe, as Sir Edward Coke obferves,
it is ever accompanied with perjury ; for the prefentee
is fworn to have committed no fimony. However, it
was not an offence punifhable in a criminal way at the
common law : it being thought fufficient to leave the
clerk to ecclefiaftical cenfures. But as tliefe did not
affe£t the fimoniacal patron, nor were efficacious enough
to repel the notorious praftice of the thing, divers ads
of parliament have been made to reftrain it by means of
civil forfeitures ; which the modern prevailing ufage,
with regard to fpiritual preferments, calls aloud to be
put in execution. The ftatute 31 Eliz. c. 6. ena&s,
that if any patron, for money or any other corrupt con-
fideration or promife, diredly or indirectly given, ffiall
prefent, admit, inftitute, indud, inftall, or collate any
perfon to an ecclefiaftical benefice or dignity, both the
giver and taker fhall forfeit two years value of the be¬
nefice or dignity ; one moiety to the king, and the other
to any one who will fue for the fame. If perfons alfo
corruptly refign or exchange their benefices, both the gi¬
ver an4 taker ftiall in like manner forfeit double the va¬
lue of the money or other corrupt confideration. And
perfons who ffiall corruptly ordain or licenfe any minifter,
or procure him to be ordained or licenfed (which is the
true idea of fimony), ffiall incur a like forfeiture of for¬
ty pounds •, and the minifter himfelf of ten pounds, be-
fides an incapacity to hold any ecclefiaftical preferment
for feven years afterwards. Corrupt ele&ions and re-
fignations in colleges, hofpitals, and other eleemofynary
corporations, are alfo puniffied, by the fame ftatute, with
forfeiture of the double value, vacating the place er of¬
fice, and a devolution of the right of eledion, for that
turn, to the crown.
SIMOOM, a hot wind which blows occafionally in
the deferts of Africa, and probably in other widely ex¬
tended countries parched in the fame manner by a ver¬
tical fun. Its effeds on the human body are dreadful.
If inhaled in anv quantity, it produces inftant luffoca-
tion, or at leaft leaves the unhappy fufferer oppreffed
with afihma and lownefs of fpirits. The approach of
this awful fcourge of~God is indicated by a rednefs in
the air, well underftood by thofe who are accuftomed to
journey through the defert •, and the only refuge which
they have from it, is to fall down with their faces cfofe
to the ground, and to continue as long as poffible with¬
out drawing in their breath.
Bruce's Mr Bruce, who, in his journey through the defert,
Travels, fuffered from the fimoom, gives of it the following gra-
vof 1V' pineal defeription : “ At eleven o’clock, while we con-
templated with great pleafure the rugged top of Chig-
gre, to which we were fait ap reaching, and where we
•were to folace ourfelves with plenty of good water,
Idris our guide cried out, with a loud voice, Fall upon Simoon,
your faces, for here is the fimoom. I law from the II |
fouth-eaft a haze come, in colour like the purple part
of the rainbow, but not fo compreffed or thick. It
did not occupy tiventy yards in breadth, and was about
twelve feet high from the ground. It was a kind of
blulh upon the air, and it moved very rapidly ; for I
fcarce could turn to fall upon the ground with my
head to the northward, when I felt the heat of its cur¬
rent plainly upon my face. We all lay flat on the
ground as if dead, till Idris told us it was blown over.
The meteor or purple haze which I faw was indeed
palled, but the light air that ftill blew was of heat to
threaten fuffocation. For my part, I found diftinttly in
my breaft that I had imbibed a part of it, nor was I
free of an afthmatic fenfation till I had been feme
months in Italy, at the baths of Poretta, near two years
afterwards.” Though the feverity of this blaft feems
to have paffed over them almoft inftantaneoufly, it con¬
tinued to blow fo as to exhauft them till twenty minutes
before five in the afternoon, lafting through all its ftages
very near fix hours, and leaving them in a ftate of the
utmoft defpondency.
SIMPLE, fomething not mixed or compounded } in
which fenfe it Hands oppofed to compound.
Simple, in the Materia Medico, a general name for
all herbs or. plants, as having each its particular virtue,
whereby it becomes a fimple remedy.
SIMPLICITY in writing. If we examine the
writers whofe compofitions have flood the left of ages,
and obtained that higheft honour, “ the concurrent ap¬
probation of diftant times and nations,” we ffiall find
that the charafter of fimplicity is the unvarying circum-
ftance which alone hath been able to gain this univerfal
homage from mankind. Among the Greeks, whofe
writers in general are of the fimple kind, the divineft
poet, the moft commanding orator, the fineft hiftorian,
and deepeft philofopher, are, above the reft, confpicu-
ouflv eminent in this great quality. I he Roman wri¬
ters rife towards perfection according to that meafure
of fimplicity which they mingle in their works ; indeed
they are all inferior to the Greek models. But who
will deny that Lucretius, Horace, Virgil, Livy, le-
rence, Tully, are at once the fimpleit and beft of Ro¬
man writers ? unlefs we add the noble annalift who ap¬
peared in after-times ; who, notwithftanding the politi¬
cal turn of his genius,'which fometimes interferes, is ad¬
mirable in this great quality, and by it far fuperior to
his contemporaries. It is this one circumflance that
hath raifed the venerable Dante, the father of modern
poetry, above the fucceeding poets of his country, who
could never long maintain the local and temporary ho¬
nours beftowed upon them •, but have fallen under that
juft negleft which time will ever decree to thofe who
defert a juft fimplicity for the florid colourings of ftyle,
contrafted phrafes, affefted conceits, the mere trappings
of compofition and Gothic minutiae. It is this which has.
given to Soileau the moft lafting wreath in France, and
to Shakefpeare and Mifton in England •, efpecially to
the former, whofe writings contain fpecimens of per¬
haps the pureft and fimpkft Engliffi that is anywhere
to be found, except in the Bible or Book of Common
Prayer. As it appears from thefe inftances, that nm-
plicity is the only univerfal charafteriftic of lull wri¬
ting, fo the fuperior eminence of the facred Scriptures
iiplicity
SIM ' - t 3^9 ]
In this quality hath been generally acknowledged.
One of the greateft critics in antiquity, himfelf con-
fpicuous in the fublime and fimple manner, hath borne
this teftimony to the writings of Mofes and St Paul j
and by parity of reafon we muft conclude, that had he
been converfant with the other facred writers, his tafte
and candour would have allowed them the fame en¬
comium.
It hath been often obferved, even by writers of no
mean rank, that the “ Scriptures fuffer in their credit
by the difadvantage of a literal verfion, while other an¬
cient waitings enjoy the advantage of a free and embel-
lilhed tranflation.” But in reality thefe gentlemen’s con¬
cern is ill placed and groundlefs : for the truth is, “ that
molt other writings are impaired by a literal tranllation $
whereas giving only a due regard to the idiom of diffe¬
rent languages, the facred writings, when literally tranf-
hted, are then in their full perfehtion.”
Now' this is an internal proof, that in all other wri¬
tings there is a mixture of local, relative, exterior
ornament, which is often loft in the transfufion from
cne language to another. But the internal beauties,
which depend not on the particular conftruftion of
toagues, no change of tongue can deftroy. Hence the
Bible preferves its native beauty and ftrength alike
in every language, by the foie energy of unadorned
phrafe, natural images, weight of fentiment, and great
fimplieity.
It is in this refpeft like a rich vein of gold, which,
under the fevereft trials of heat, cold, and moifture, re¬
tains its original weight and fplendour, without either
lofs or alloy ; while bafer metals are corrupted by earth,
air, water, fire, and aflimilated to the various elements
through which they pafs.
This circumftance, then, may be juftly regarded as
fuffieient to vindicate the compofition of the facred
Scriptures, as it is at once their chief excellence and
greateft fecurity. It is their excellence, as it renders
them intelligible and ufeful to all •, it is their fecurity,
as it prevents their being difgufed by the falfe and ca¬
pricious ornaments of vain or weak tranflators. We
may fafely appeal to experience and fa<ft for the confir¬
mation of thefe remarks on the fuperior fimplicity,
utility, and excellence, of the ftyle of the Holy Scrip¬
ture. Is there any book in the world fo perfectly a-
dapted to all capacities ? that contains fuch fublime and
exalted precepts, conveyed in fuch an artlefs and in¬
telligible ftrain, that can be read A'ith fuch pleafure
and advantage by the lettered fage and the unlettered
peafant ?
SIMPLOCB. See Oratory, N° 72.
SIMPSON, Thomas, profeffor of mathematics at
the royal academy at Woolwich, fellow of the Royal
Society, and member of the Royal Academy at Stock¬
holm, was born at Market Bofworth in Leicefterlhire
in 1710. His father, a ftuff weaver, taught him only
to read Englilh, and brought him up to his own bufi-
nefs j but meeting with a fcientific pedlar, who like-
wife praftifed fortune-telling, young Simpfon by his af-
fiftance and advice left off weaving, and profeffed aftro-
logy.. As he improved in knowledge, however, he grew
difgufted with his pretended art j and renouncing it,
was driven to fuch difficulties for the fubfiftence of his
family, that he came up to London, w'here he worked
as a weaver, and taught mathematics at his fpare hours.
Vol. XIX. Part I.
S 1 M
As his fcholars increafed, his abilities became better Simpfon,
known, and he publilhed his ireatile on kluxions, by ,
fubfcription, in 1737 : iu I74°> publilhed his I rea-
tife on the Nature and Laws of Lhance } and Lilays
in Speculative and Mixed Mathematics. After thefe
appeared his Hodtnne ot Annuties and Reverfions j
Mathematical Differtations ; Ireatife on Algebra j E-
lements of Geometry ; Trigonometry, Plane and Sphe¬
rical ; Seled Exercifes ; and his Do&rine ana Appli¬
cation of Fluxions, which he profefies to be rather a
new work, than a fecond edition ot his former publica¬
tion on fluxions. In 1743, he obtained the mathema¬
tical proMbrfhip at Woolwich academy ; and foon af¬
ter was chofen a member of the Royal Society, when
the prefident and council, in coniideration of his mode¬
rate circumftances, were plealed to excuie his admillion-
fees, and his giving bonds for the fettled future pay¬
ments. At the academy he exerted all his abilities in
inftructing the pupils who were the immediate objedls
of his duty, as well as others whom the fuperior officers
of the ordnance permitted to be boarded and lodged in
his houfe. In his manner of teaching he had a peculiar
and happy addrefs, a certain dignity and perfpicuity,
tempered with fuch a degree of mildnefs, as engaged
the attention, efteem, and friendlhip of his fcholars.
He therefore acquired great applaufe from his fuperiors
in the difcharge of his duty. His application and clofe
confinement, however, injured his health. Exercife and
a proper regimen were prefcribed to him, but to little
purpofe : for his fpirits funk gradually, till he became
incapable of performing his duty, or even of reading
the letters of his friends. The effefls of this decay of
nature were greatly increafed by vexation of mind, ow¬
ing to the haughty and infulting behaviour of his fupe¬
rior the firft profeffor of mathematics. This perfon,
greatly his inferior in mathematical accomplilhments,
did what he could to make his fituation uneafy, and even
to depreciate him in the public opinion: but it was a
vain endeavour, and only ferved to deprefs himfelf. At
length his phyficians advifed his native air for his reco¬
very, and he fet out in February 1761 } but was fo fa-
tigued by his journey, that upon his arrival at Bofworth,
he betook himfelf to his chamber, and grew continually
worfe till the day of his death, which happened on the
14th of May, in the 51ft year of his age.
SIMSON, Dr Robert, profeffor of mathematics in
the univerfity of Glafgowq was born in the year 1687
of a refpe£lable family, which had held a fir,all eftate in
the county of Lanark for fome generations. He was,
wTe think, the fecond fon of the family. A younger
brother was profeffor of medicine in the univerhty of
St Andrew’s, and is known by fome works ol i-eputa-
tion, particularly a Differtation on the Nervous Syltem,
occafioned by the Diffedlion of a Brain completely Of-
fified.
Dr Simfon was educated in the univerlity of Glaf-
gow under the eye of fome of his relations who were
profeffors. Eager after knowledge, he made great pro-
grefs in all his ftudies ; and, as his mind did not, at
the very firft openings of fcience, ftrike into that path
which afterwards fo ftrongly attracted him, and in
which he proceeded fo far almoft without a companion,
he acquired in every walk of fcience a flock of informa¬
tion, which, though it had never been much augmented
afterwards, would have done credit to a profeffional man
3 A in
S I M
bimfop. jn any 0f ftadies. He became, at a very early pe-
v ' riocl, an adept in the philofophy and theology of the
fchools, was able to fupply the place of a lick relation
in the clafs of oriental languages, was noted for hiftori-
cal knowledge, and one of the molt knowing botanifts
of his time.
. It was during his theological lludies, as preparatory
for his entering into orders, that mathematics took hold
of his fancy. He ufed to tell in his convivial moments
how he amufed himfelf when preparing his exercifes
for the divinity hall. When tired with vague fpecula-
tion, in which he did not meet with certainty to re¬
ward his labours, he turned up a book of briental phi-
lology, in which he found fomething which he could
difcover to be true or to be falfe, without going out of
the line of ftudy which was to be of ultimate ufe to
him. Sometimes even this could not relieve his fatigue.
He then had recourfe to mathematics, which never fail¬
ed to fatisfy and refrelh him. For a long while he re-
ftricled himfelf to a very moderate ufe of the cordial,
fearing that- he would foon exhauft the fmall ftock
which fo limited and abftraft a feience could yield ;
till at laft he found, that the more he learned, a
wider field opened to his view, and fcenes that were
inexhauftible. Becoming acquainted with fubjedts far
beyond the elements of the fcience, and with num¬
bers of names celebrated during that period of ardent
refearch all over Europe, he found it to be a manly and
important ftudy, by which he was as likely to acquire
reputation as by any other. About this time, too,
a profpedt began to open of making mathematics his
profeflion for life. He then gave himfelf up to it with¬
out referve.
His original incitement to this ftudy as a treat, as
fomething to pleafe and refrefh his mind in the midft of
feverer talks, gave a particular turn to his mathematical
ftudies, from which he never could afterwards deviate.
Perfpicuity and elegance are more attainable, and more
difcernible, in pure geometry, than in any other parts of
the feience of meafure. To this therefore he chiefly
devoted himfelf. For the fame reafon he preferred the
ancient method of ftudying pure geometry, and even
felt a diflike to the Cartefian method of fubftituting
fymbols for operations of the mind, and ftiil more was
he difgufted with the fubftitution of fymbols for the
very ob}e£l:s of difcuflion, for lines, furfaces, folids, and
their affeftions. He was rather difpofed in the fo-
lution of an algebraical problem, where quantity alone
was confidered, to fubftitute figure and its affeftions
for the algebraical fymbols, and to convert the algebraic
formula into an analogous geometrical theorem. And
he came at laft to conflder algebraic analyfis as little
better than a kind of mechanical knack, in which we
proceed without idea-' of any kind, and obtain a refult
without meaning, and without being confcious of any
procefs of reafoning, and therefore without any convic-
S I M
tion of its truth. And there is no denying, that if ge- Simfon.
nuine unfophifticated tafte alone is to be coniulted, I)r
Simfon was in the tight : for though it muft alfo be
acknowledged, that the reafoning in algebra is as ftrift
as in the pureft geometry of Euclid or Apollonius, the
expert analyft has little perception of it as he goes on,
and his final equation is not felt by himfelf as the refult
of ratiocination, any more than ii he had obtained it by
Pafcal’s arithmetical mill. This does not in the leaft
diminifh our admiration of the algebraic analyfis ; for¬
ks almoit boundlefs grafp, its rapid and certain proce¬
dure, and the delicate metaphyfics and great addrefs
which may be difplayed in condudting it. Such, how¬
ever, was the ground of the ftrong bias of Dr Simlon’s
mind to the analyfis of the ancient geometers. It in-
creafed as he went forward } and his veneration (we
may call it his love ox affection^ for the ancient geometry
was carried to a degree of idolatry. His chief labours
were exerted in efforts to reftore the works of the an¬
cient geometers ; and he has nowhere bellowed much
pains in advancing the modern difcoverjes in mathema¬
tics. The noble inventions, for example, of fluxions
and of logarithms, by which our progrefs in mathema¬
tical knowledge, and in the ufeful application of tins
knowdedge, is fo much promoted, attracted the notice
of Dr Simfon ; but he has contented himfelf with de-
rhonftrating their truth on the genuine principles of
the ancient geometry. Yet was he very thoroughly
acquainted with all the modern difcoveries ; and there
are to be feen among his papers difcuflions and invefti-
gations in the Cartefian method, which (how him tho¬
roughly acquainted with all the principles, and even ex¬
pert in the tours de main, of the moft refined fymbolicai
analyfis (a).
About the age of 25 Dr Simfon was chofen pro-
feffor of mathematics in the univerfity of Glafgow. He
went to London immediately after his appointment,
and there formed an acquaintance with the molt eminent
men of that bright era of. Britilh fcience. Among
thefe he always mentioned Captain Flalley (the celebra¬
ted Dr Edmund Halley) with particular refpedt 5 fay¬
ing, that he had the moft acute penetration, and the
moft juft tafte in that fcience, of any man he had ever
known. And, indeed, Dr Flalley has ftrongly exem¬
plified both of thefe in his divination of the work of
Apollonius de Sefiione Spatii, and the 8th book of his
Conics, and in fome of the moft beautiful theorems in
Sir Ifaac Newton’s Principia. Dr Simfon alfo admired
the wide and mafterly Heps which Newton was accuf-
tomed to take in his inveftigations, and his manner of
fubftituting geometrical figures for the quantities which
are obferved in the phenomena of nature. It was from
Dr Simfon that the writer of this article had the re¬
mark which has been oftener than once repeated in ihe.
courfe of this Work, “ That the 39th propofition of the
firft book of the Principia was the moft important pro--
[ 37° 1
(a) In 17 i;2 the wwiter of this article being then his fcholar, requefted him to examine an account which he
gave him of what he thought a new curve (a conchoid having a circle for its bafe). Dr Simfon returned it next
day with a regular lift of its leading properties, and the inveftigation of fuch as he thought his fcholar would
not fo eafilv trace. In this halty fcrawl the lines related to the circle were familiarly confidered as arithmetical
fradlions of the radius confidered as unity. This was before Euler publifhed his Arithmetic of the Sines and Ian*
gents, now in univerfal ufe.
t
SIM [ 37i ] SIM
iimlbn. portion tliat had ever been exhibited to the phyfico-ma-
—thematical philofopher and he ufed always to illu-
ftrate to his more advanced fcholars the fuperiority of
the geometrical over the algebraic analylis, by compar¬
ing the lolution given by Newton of the inverfe pro¬
blem of centripetal forces, in the 42d propofition of that
book, with the one given by John Bernoulli in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Sciences at Paris for 1713.
We have heard him fay, that to his own knowledge
Newton frequently inveftigated his propofitions in the
fymbolical way, and that it was owing ehielly to Dr
Halley that they did not finally appear in that drefs.
But if Dr Simfon was well informed, we think it a
great argument in favour of the fymbolic analyfis, when
this molt fuccefsful practical artijl (for fo we mult call
Newton when engaged in a talk of difeovery) found it
conducive either to difpatch or perhaps to his very pro-
grefs.
Returning to his academical chair, Dr Simfon difehar-
ged the duties of a profeffor for more than 50 years with
great honour to the univerlity and to himfelf.
It is almolt needlefs to fay, that in his prelections he
followed ItriCtly the Euclidian method in elementary
geometry. He made ufe of Theodofius as an introduc¬
tion to fpherical trigonometry. In the higher geome¬
try he preleCted from his own Conics ; and he gave a
fmall fpecimen of the linear problems of the ancients,
by explaining the properties, fometimes of the conchoid,
fometimes of the cifibid, with their application to the
folution of fuch problems. In the more advanced clafs
he was accultomed to give Napier’s mode of conceiving
logarithms, i. e. quantities as generated by motion; and
Mr Cotes’s view of them, as the fums of ratiunculae ;
and to demonftrate Newton’s lemmas concerning the li¬
mits of ratios; and then to give the elements of the
fluxionary calculus; and to finilh his courfe with a fe-
le£t fet of propofitions in optics, gnomonics, and central
forces. His method of teaching was Ample and perfpi-
cuous, his elocution clear, and his manner eafy and im-
preflive. He had the refpeCI, and Hill more the affec¬
tion, of his fcholars.
With refpeCt to his ftudies, we have already inform¬
ed the reader that they got an early bias to pure geo¬
metry, and to the elegant but fcrupulous methods of the
ancients.
We have heard Dr Simfon fay, that it was in a great
meafure owing to Dr Halley that he fo early direCted
his efforts to the reftoration of the ancient geometers.
He had recommended this to him, as the molt certain
way for him, then a very young man, both to acquire
reputation, and to improve his own knowledge and tafte,
and he prefented him with a copy of Pappus’s Mathe¬
matical Colle&ions, enriched with fome of his own notes.
The perfpicuity of the ancient geometrical analyfis, and
a certain elegance in the nature of the folutions which
it affords, efpecially by means of the local theorems,
loon took firm hold of his' fancy, and made him, with
the fanguine expe61ation of a young man, direft his very
firft efforts to the recovery of this in toto; and the refto-
, ration of Euclid’s Porifms was the firft tafk which he
let himfelf. The accomplifhed geometer knows what a
defperate tafk this was, from the fcanty and mutilated
account which we have of this work in a fingle paffage
of Pappus. It was an ambition which nothing but fuc-
cefs could juftify in fo young an adventurer. He fuc-
ceeded; and fo early as 1718 feemed to have been in
complete polfeflion of this method of inveftigation,
which was confidered by the eminent geometers of an¬
tiquity as their fureft guide through the labyrinths of
the higher geometry. Dr Simfon gave a fpecimen of
his dilcovery in 1723 in the Philofophical Tranfatf ions.
And after this time he ceafed not from his endeavours
to recover that choice collection of Porifms which Eu¬
clid had collected, as of the molt general ufe in the fo¬
lution of difficult queflions. Wnat fome of thefe muft
have been was pointed out to Dr Simfon by the very na¬
ture of the general propofition of Pappus, which he has
reftored. Others were pointed out by the lemmas
which Pappus has given as helps to the young mathe¬
matician towards their demonltration. And, being thus
in pofleflion of a confiderable number, their mutual re¬
lations pointed out a fort of fyitem, of which thefe made
a part, and of which the blanks now remained to be
filled up.
Dr Simfon, having thus gained his favourite point,
had leifure to turn his attention to the other works of
the ancient geometers; and the porifms of Euclid now
had only an occafional ffiare. The lociplani of Apol¬
lonius was another tafk which he very early engaged in,
and completed about the year 1738. But, after it was
printed, he imagined that he had not given the ipfijjimcz
propojitioncs of Apollonius, and in the precife fpirit and
order of that author. The impreflion lay by him for
fome years ; and it wras with great reluCtance that he
yielded to the intreaties of his mathematical friends, and
publifhed the work, in 1746, with fome emendations,
where he thought he had deviated fartheft from his au¬
thor. He quickly repented of this fcanty conceflion,
and recalled v;hat he could of the fmall number of co¬
pies which he had given to the bookfellers, and the im¬
preflion again lay by him for years. He afterwards re-
correCted the work, and ftill with fome reluCtance al¬
lowed it to come abroad as the Reftitution of Apollo¬
nius. The public, however, had not been fo faftidious
as Dr Simfon, and the work had acquired great cele¬
brity, and he was now confidered as one of the firft and
the molt elegant geometers of the age: for, in the mean
time, he had publifhed his Conic Sections', a work of
uncommon merit, whether we confider it as equivalent
to a complete reftitution of the celebrated work of A-
pollonius Pergaeus, or as an excellent fyftem of this im¬
portant part of mathematics. It is marked \vith the
fame features as the loci plani, the moft anxious folici-
tude to exhibit the very text of Apollonius, even in the
propofitions belonging to the books which had been
completely loft. Thefe could be recovered in no other
way but by a thorough knowledge of the precife plan
propofed by the author, and by taking it for granted
that the author had accurately accomplifhed this plan.
In this manner did Viviani proceed in the firft attempt
which was made to reftore the conics of Apollonius ;
and he has given us a detail of the procefs of his conjec¬
tures, by which we may form an opinion of its juftnefs,
and of the probability how far he has attained the de-
fired objeCt. Dr Simfon’s view in his performance was
fomething different, deviating a little in this one cafe
from his general track. He was not altogether pleafed
with the work of Viviani, even as augmented by the
eighth book added by Halley, and his with was to re¬
ftore the ancient original. But, in the mean time, an
3 A 2 academical
SIM [ 372 3 SIM
academical text book for conic fedfions was much want¬
ed. He was much diflatisfied with thofe in common
ufe ; and he was not infenlible of the advantage refult-
ing from the confideration of thefe fedlions, independent
of the cone firft introduced by Dr Wallis. He there¬
fore compofed this excellent treatife as an elementary
book, not to fuperfede, but to prepare for the iludy of
Apollonius •, and accordingly accommodates it to this
purpofe, and gives feveral important propolitions in
ther proper places, exprefshf as refthutions of Apollo-
tiius, whom he keeps conftantly in view through the
whole work.
Much about this time Dr Simfon ferioufly began to
prepare a perfeft edition of Euclid’s Elements. The
intimate acquaintance which he had by this time ac¬
quired with all the original works of the ancient geome¬
ters, and their ancient commentators and critics, encou¬
raged him to hope that he could reftbre to his original
lull re this leader in mathematical fcience*, and the errors
which had crept into this celebrated work, and which
Hill remained in it, appeared of magnitude fufficient to
merit the moft careful efforts for their removal. The
data alfo, which were in like manner the introdu&ion
to the whole art of geometrical inveftigation, feemed to
call more loudly for his amending hand. For it appaars
that the Saracens, who have preferved to us the writings
of the ancients, have contented themfelves with admir¬
ing thefe celebrated works, and have availed themfelves
of the knowledge which they contain 5 but they have
fhown no inclination to add to the flock, or to promote
the fciences which they had received. They could not
do any thing without the fynthetical books of the geo¬
meters ; but, not meaning to go beyond the difcoveries
which they had made, they neglefted all the books
which related to the analytic art alone, and the greateft
part of them (about 25 out of 30) have irrecoverably
perilhed. The data of Euclid have fortunately been
preferved, but the book was neglefted, and the only
ancient copies, which are but three or four, are mifera-
bly erroneous and mutilated. Fortunately, it is no very
arduous matter to reinftate this work in its original per-
feflion. The plan is precife, both in its extent and its
method. It had been reflored, therefore, with fuccefs
by more than one author. But Dr Simfon’s compre-
henfive view of the whole analytical fyftem pointed out
to him manv occafions for amendment. He therefore
made its inftitution a joint talk with that of the elements.
All the lovers of true geometry will acknowledge their
obligations to him for the,edition of the Elements and
data which he publilhed about 1758. The text is cor-
redled with the moft judicious and fcrupulous care, and
the notes are ineftimable, both for their information,
and for the tendency which they muft have to form the
mind of the ftudent. to a true judgment and tafte in
mathematical fubjefls. The more accompliflied reader
will perhaps be fometimes difpofed to fmile at the axiom
which feems to pervade the notes, “ that a work of Eu¬
clid muft be fuppofed without error or defedl.” If this
was not the cafe, Euclid has been obliged to his editor
in more inftances than one. Nor Ihould his greateft ad¬
mirers think it impoffible that in the progrefs of human
improvement, a geometrical truth Ihould occur to one
of thefe latter days, which efcaped the notice of even
the Lincean Euclid. Such merit, however, Dr Sim¬
fon nowhere claims, but lays every blame of error,
5
omiftion, or obfcurity, to the charge of Proclus, Tbeon,
and other editors and commentators of the renowned
Grecian.
There is another work of Apollonius on which Dr
Simfon has bellowed great pains, and has reftored, as
we imagine, omnibus nwneris perfcclum, viz. the Sectio
DETERM 1 NAT a j one of thofe performances which are of
indifpenfible ufe in the application of the ancient ana-
lyfis. This alfo feems to have been an early talk,
though we do not know the date of his labours on it.
It did not appear till after his death, being then pub¬
lilhed along with the great work, the Porifms of Eu¬
clid, at the expence of the late Earl Stanhope, a no¬
bleman intimately converfant with the ancient geometry,
and zealous for its reception among the mathematicians
of the prefent age. He had kept up a conftant corre-
fpondence with Dr Simfon on mathematical fubjefts;
and at his death in 1768, engaged Mr Clow profeffor
of logic in the univerfity of Glafgow, to whofe care the
Doftor had left all his valuable papers, to make a felec-
tion of fuch as would ferve to fupport and increafe his
well-earned reputation as THE Restorer of ANCIENT
Geometry.
We have been thus particular in our account of Dr
Simfon’s labours in thefe works, becaufe his manner of
execution, while it does honour to his inventive powers,
and flrows his juft tafte in mathematical compofition, al¬
fo confirms our former affertion, that he carried his re-
fpeft for the ancient geometers to a degree of fuperfti-
tious idolatry, and that his fancy, unchecked, viewed
them as incapable of error or imperfection. This is di-
ftinCtly to be feen in the emendations which he has gi¬
ven of the texts, particularly in his editions of Euclid.
Not only every imperfeCtion of the reading is aferibed to
the ignorance of copyifts, and every indiftin&nefs in
the conception, inconclufivenefs in the reafoning, and
defeat in the method, is aferibed to the ignorance or
miftake of the commentators \ but it is all along alfum-
ed that the work was perfe£l in its kind; and that by
exhibiting a perfeft work, we reftore the genuine origi¬
nal. This is furely gratuitous ; and it is very poftible
that it has, in fome inftances, made Dr Simfon fail of
his anxious purpofe, and give us even a better than the
original. It has undoubtedly made him fail in what
Jhould have been his great purpofe, viz. to give the
world a connected fyftem of the ancient geometrical ana-
lyfis ; fuch as w'ould, in the firft place, exhibit it in its
moft engaging form, elegant, perfpicuous, and cornpre-
henfive *, and, in the next place, fuch as Ihould engage
the mathematicians of the prefent age to adopt it as the
moft certain and fuccefsful condu61or in thofe laborious
and difficult refe.arches in which the demands of modern
fcience continually engage them. And this might have
been expedled, in the province of fpeculative geometry
at leaft, from a perfon of fuch extenfive knowledge of
the properties of figure, and who had fo eminently fuc-
ceeded in the many trials which he had made of its
powers. We might have expefted that he would at
leaft have exhibited in one fyftematic point of view,
what the ancients had done in feveral detached branches
of the fcience, and how far they had proceeded in the
folution of the feveral fucceffive claffes of problems; and
we might have hoped, that he would have inftru&ed us
in what manner we fhould apply that method to the io-
lution of problems of a more elevated kind, daily pre*
r fented
S I M
[ 373 ]
S H O
iiimfon. fented to us in the queftions of phyfico-mathematical fci-
ence< By this he would have acquired diitinguifhed ho¬
nour, and fcience would have received the moll valuable
improvement. But Dr Simfon has done little of all
this; and we cannot fay that great helps have been de¬
rived from his labours by the eminent mathematicians of
this age, who are fuccefsfully occupied in advancing our
knowledge of nature, or in improving the arts of life.
He has indeed contributed greatly to the entertainment
of the fpeculative mathematician, who is more delighted
with the confcious exercife of his own reafoning powers,
than with the final refult of his refearches. Yet we are
not even certain that Dr Simfon has done this to the ex¬
tent he wifhed and hoped. He has not engaged the lik¬
ing of mathematicians to this analylis, by prefenting it
in the mod: agreeable form. His own extreme anxiety
to tread in the very footfteps of the original authors, has,
in a thoufand inftances, precluded him from ufing- his
own extenfive knowledge, that he might not employ
principles which were not of a clafs inferior to that of
the queftion in hand. Thus, of neceflity, did the me¬
thod appear trammelled. We are deterred from employ¬
ing a procefs which appears to reltrain us in the applica¬
tion of the knowledge which we have already acquired ;
and, difgufted with the tedious, and perhaps indirect
path, by which we mud arrive at an objeft which we
fee clearly over the hedge, and which we could reach
by a few deps, of the fecurity of which we are other-
wife perfeftly aflured. Thefe prepoffefiions are indeed
founded on midake ; but the midake is fueh, that all
fall into it, till experience has enlarged their views.
This circumdance alone has hitherto prevented mathe¬
maticians from acquiring that knowledge of the ancient
analyfis which would enable them to proceed in their
refearches with certainty, difpatch, and delight. It is
therefore deeply to be regretted, that this eminent ge¬
nius has occupied, in this fuperditious palseology, a long
and bufy life, which might have been employed in ori¬
ginal works of infinite advantage to the world, and ho¬
nour to bimfelf.
Our readers will, it is hoped, confider thefe obferva-
tions as of general fcientific importance, and as intimate¬
ly connefled with the hidory of mathematics; and there¬
fore as not improperly introduced in the biographical ac¬
count of one of the mod eminent writers on this fcience.
Dr Simfon claimed our notice as a mathematician ; and
his adeftionate admiration of the ancient analyfis is the
prominent feature of his literary character. By this he
is known all over Europe ; and his name is never men¬
tioned by any foreign author without fome ve y honour¬
able allufion to his didinguifned geometrical elegance
and Ikill. Dr James Moor, profefibr of Greek in the
univerfity of Glafgow. no left eminent for his knowledge
In ancient geometry than for his profedional talents, put
the following appofite infcription below a portrait of Dr
Shnfon :
GeOMETRIAM, SUB TyRANNO BARBARO SM.YA
Servitute mu squalentem, in Ltbertatem
Et decus antiquum vindicavit
Unus.
Yet it mud not be underdood that Dr Simfon’s pre-
dileftion for the geometrical analyfis of the ancients did
fo far midead him as to make him negie<d the fymbo-
lical analyfis of the prefent times; on the contrary, he
was completely mader of it, as has been already obferved,
and frequently employed it. In his academical leftures
to the dudents of his upper claffes, he ufed to point out
its proper province (which he by no means limited by a
fcanty boundary), and in what cafes it might be applied
with fafety and advantage even to quedions of pure geo¬
metry. He once honoured the writer of this article with
the fight of a very diort diflertation on this fubjeft (per¬
haps the one referred to in the preface to his Conic Sec¬
tions). In this piece he was perhaps more liberal than
the mod zealous partifans of the fymbolical analyfis could,
defire, admitting as a fudicient equation of the Conic
p* £
Seftions L=——, where L is the /atus reEium. x is the
xz
didance of any point of the curve from the focus, p is
the perpendicular drawn from the focus to the tangent
in the given point, and c is the chord of the equicurve
circle drawn through the focus. Unfortunately this differ-
tation was not found among his papers. He fpoke in
high terms of the Analytical Works of Mr Cotes, and
of the two Bernoullis. He was confulted by Mr M‘Lau-
rin during the progrefs of his inedimable Treatife of
Fluxions, and contributed not a little to the reputation
of that work. The fpirit of that mod ingenious algebraic
demondration of the fluxions of a re£langle, and the very
procefs of the argument, is the fame with Dr Simfon’s in
his differtalion on the limits of quantities. It was there¬
fore from a thorough acquaintance with the fubjefl, and
by a jufl tade, that he was induced to prefer his favourite
analyfis, or, to fpeak more properly, to exhort mathema¬
ticians to employ it in its own fphere, and not to become
ignorant of geometry, while he fucceftfully employed
the fymbolical analyfis in cafes which did not require it,'
and which differed by its admiflion. It mud be acknow¬
ledged, however, that in his later years, the difgud which
he felt at the artificial and flovenly employment on fub-
jefts of pure geometry, fometimes hindered him from
even looking at the mod refined and ingenious improve¬
ments of the algebraic analyfis which occur in the wri¬
tings of Euler, D’Alembert, and'other eminent maders.
But, when properly informed of them, he never failed to
give them their due praife; and we remember him fpeak-
ing, in terms of great fatisfa.&ron, of an improvement of
the infinitefimal calculus, by D’Alembert and De ia’
Grange, in their refearches concerning the propagation
of found, and the vibrations of mufical cords.
And that Dr Simfon not only was mader of this cal¬
culus and the fymbolical calculus in general, but held
them in proper edeem, appears from twro valuable differ-
tations to be found in his podhumous works ; the one on
logarithms, and the other on the limits of ratios. The
lad, in particular, (hows how completely he was fatis-
fied with refpecl to the folid foundation of the method
of fluxions ; and it contains an elegant and ftrifl: de-
monflration of all the applications which have been
made of the method by its illudrious author to the ob-
je&s of pure geometry.
We hoped to have given a much more complete and
indnuSlive account of this eminent geometer and his
works, by the aid of a perfon fully acquainted with
both, and able to appreciate their value ; but an acci¬
dent has deprived us of this aflidance, when it was too
late to procure an equivalent: and we mud requed our
readers to accept of this very imperfect account, fince
we cannot do judice to Dr Simfon’s merit, unlefs aimed
equally
Simfon.
S I M
[ 374 ]
SIN
Simfon.
equally converfant in all the geometry of the ancient
Greeks.
The life of a literary man rarely teems with anecdote j
and a mathematician, devoted to his ftudies, is perhaps
more abftradled than any other perfon from the ordina¬
ry occurrences of life, and even the ordinary topics of
converfation. Dr Simfon was of this clafs $ and, having
never married, lived entirely a college life. Having no
occafion for the commodious houfe to which his place
in the univerlity entitled him, he contented himfelf with
chambers, good indeed, and fpacious enough for his
fober accommodation, and for receiving his choice eol-
ledtion of mathematical writers, but without any deco¬
ration or commodious furniture. His official fervant
fufficed for valet, footman, and chambermaid. As this
retirement wastntirely devoted to lludy, he entertained
no company in his chambers, but in a neighbouring
houfe, where his apartment was facred to him and his
guefls.
Having in early life devoted himfelf to the reftoration
of the works of the ancient geometers, he fludied them
avith unremitting attention ; and, retiring from the pro-
mifcuous intercourfe of the world, he contented himfelf
with a fmall fociety of intimate friends, with whom he
could lay alide every reftraint of ceremony or referve,
and indulge in all the innocent frivolities of life. Every
Friday evening was fpent in a party at whift, in which
he excelled, and took delight in inftruding others, till
increafing years made him lefs patient with the dulnefs
of a fcholar. The card-party was followed by an hour
or two dedicated folely to playful converfation. In like
manner, every Saturday he had a lefs feleft party to
dinner at a houfe about a mile from town. The Doc¬
tor’s long life gave him occalion to fee the dramatis
per [once of this little theatre feveral times completely
changed, while he continued to give it a perfonal iden¬
tity : fo that, without any defign or wiffi of his own,
it became, as it were, his own houfe and his own fami¬
ly, and went by his name. In this Hate did the prefent
writer firft fee it, with Dr Simfon as its father and
head, refpecled and beloved by every branch ; for, as it
was for relaxation, and not for the enjoyment of his
acknowledged fuperiority, that he continued this habit
of his early youth \ and as his notions “ of a fine talk”
did not confift in the pleafure of having “ toffed and
gored a good many to-day,” his companions were as
much at their eafe as he wifhed to be himfelf-, and it
was no fmall part of their entertainment (and of his too),
to fmile at thofe innocent deviations from common
forms, and thofe miftakes with refpeft to life and man¬
ners, which an almoft total retirement from the world,
and inceffant occupation in an abftradl fcience, eaufed
this venerable prefident frequently to exhibit. Thefe
are remembered with a more affeding regret, that they
are now “ with the days that are pall,” than the molt
pithy apophthegms, uffiered in with an emphatical,
Why, Sir !” or “ No, Sir !” which precludes all re¬
ply. Dr Simfon never exerted his prefidial authority,
unlefs it were to check fome infringment of good breed¬
ing, or any thing that appeared unfriendly to religion or
purity of manners 5 for thefe he had the higheli rever¬
ence. We have twice heard him fing (he had a fine
voice and molt accurate ear) fome lines of a Latin hymn
to the Divine Geometer, and each time the rapturous
tear Hood in his eye.
But we alk the reader’s pardon for this digreffion ; it Simfon
is not however ufelefs, lince it paints the man as much as
any recital of his lludies •, and to his acquaintances we
are certain that it will be an acceptable memorandum.
To them it w'as often matter of regret, that a perfon of
fuch eminent talents, which Ihould have made him Ihine
equally in any line of life, Ihould have allowed himfelf
to be fo completely devoted to a lludy which abftradted
him from the ordinary purfuits of men, unfitted him for
the adlive enjoyment of life, and kept him out of thofe
walks which they frequented, and where they would
have rejoiced to meet him.
Dr Simfon was of an advantageous ftature, with a
fine countenance and even in his old age had a grace¬
ful carriage and manner, and always, except when in
mourning, dreffed in white cloth. He wTas of a cheer¬
ful difpofition j and though he did not make the firit
advances to acquaintance, had the moll affable manner,
and ftrangers were at perfedl eafe in his company. He
enjoyed a long courfe of uninterrupted health •, but to¬
wards the clofe of life fuffered from an acute difeafe,
and was obliged to employ an affillant in his profeffional
labours for a few years preceding his death, which hap¬
pened in 1768, at the age of 81. He left to the uni-
veriity his valuable library, which is now arranged apart
from the reft of the books, and the public ule of it is
limited by. particular rules. It is confidered as the moft
choice colledlion of mathematical books and manuferipts
in the kingdom, and many of them are rendered doubly
valuable by Dr Simfon’s notes.
SIN, a breach or tranfgreffion of fome divine law or
command.
SINAI, or Sina, a famous mountain of Arabia Pe-
traea, upon which God gave the law to Mofes. It
Hands in a kind of peninfula, formed by the two arms
of the Red fea, one of which ftretches out towards the
north, and is called the gu/f of Kolfum ; the other ex¬
tends towards the call, and is called the gulf of Elan,
or the ElanitiJI) fea. At this day the Arabians call
Mount Sinai by the name of Tor, that is, the “ moun¬
tain,” by way of excellence j or Gibel or Jibel Moufa,
“ the mountain of Mofes.” It is 260 miles from Cairo,
and generally it requires a journey of ten days to travel
thither. The wdldernefs of Sinai, where the Ifraelites
continued encamped for almoft a year, and where Mofes
eredted the tabernacle of the covenant, is confiderably
elevated above the reft of the country ; and the afeent
to it is by a very craggy wray, the greateft part of which
is cut out of the rock j then one comes to a large fpace
of ground, which is a plain furrounded on all iides by
rocks and eminences, whofe length is nearly 12 miles.
Towards the extremity of this plain, on the north fide,
twro high mountains ffiow themfelves, the higheft of
which is called Sinai and the other Horeb. The tops of
Horeb and Sinai have a very fteep afeent, and do not
Hand upon much ground, in eomparifon to their extra¬
ordinary height : that of Sinai is at leaft one-third part
higher than the other, and its afeent is more upright
and difficult.
Two German miles and a half up the mountain Hands Ayviair’/
the convent of St Catharine. The body of this mona- I'ravds,
fiery is a building 120 feet in length and almoft as'0^
many in breadth. Before it Hands another fmall
building, in which is the only gate of the convent,
which remains always ffiut, except when the biftmp is
here.
SIN [ ■
Sinai here. At other times, whatever is introduced within
II the convent, Avhether men or provi/ions, is drawn up by
, the roof in a balket, and with a cord and a pulley. The
whole building is of hewn ftone; which, in fuel) a de-
fert, mull have coll prodigious expence and pains. Near
,this chapel illues a fountain of very good fredi water •
it is looked upon as miraculous by fume who cannot con¬
ceive how water can flow from the brow of fo high and
barren a mountain. Five or fix paces from it they
Ihow a ftone, the height of which is four or five feet, and
breadth about three, which, they fay, is the very ftone
whence Mofes caufed the water tf) gufh out. Its co¬
lour is of a fpotted gray, and it is, as it were, fet in a
kind of earth where no other rock appears. This ftone
has twelve holes or channels, which are about a foot
wide, whence it is thought the water came forth for
the Ifraelites to drink.
Much has been faid of the writings to be feen at Si¬
nai and in the plain about if, and fuch were the hopes
of difeoveries refpefting the wanderings of the Ifraelites
from thefe writings, that Dr Clayton, bifhop of Clogher,
offered 500I. fterling to defray the expences of journey
to any man of letters who would undertake to copy
them. No man, we believe, undertook this talk : and
the accurate Danifh traveller Niebuhr found no writings
there, but the names of perfons who had vifited the
place from curiofity, and of Egyptians who had chofen
to be buried in that region.
SIN APIS, Mustard, a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs tetradynamia, and to the order filiquofa; and
in the natural fyftem ranged under the 39th order, Si/i-
quofee. See Botany Index.
SINAPISM, in P/iarmncq, an external medicine, in
form of a cataplafm, compofed chiefly of muftard feed
pulyerifed, and other ingredients mentioned in the pre¬
ceding article.
SINCERITY, honefty of intention, freedom from
hypocrify. See Moral Philosophy, N° i 57.
SINCIPUT, in Anatomy, the forepart of the head,
reaching from the forehead to the coronal future.
SINDY, a province of Hindoftan Proper, bounded
on the weft by Makran, a province of Perfia •, on the
north by the territories of the king of Candahar ; on
the north-eaft by thofe of the Seiks ; on the call by a
landy defert ; and on the fouth-eaft by Cutch. It ex¬
tends along the courfe of the river Sinde or Indus from
its mouth to Behker or Bhakor, on the frontiers of
Moultan. Reckoned that way, it is 300 miles long •,
and its breadth, in its wideft part, is about 160. In
many particulars of foil and climate, and in the general
appearance of the furface, Sindy refembles Egvpt ; the
lower part of it being compofed of rich vegetable mould,
and extended into a rvide dell; while the upper part of
it is a narrow flip of country, confined on one fide by a
ndge of mountains, and on the other by a fandy defert,
the river Indus, equal at leart to the Nile, winding
through the^ midft of this level valley, and annually
overflowing it. During great part of the fouth weft
monfoon, or at leaft in the months of July, Auguft,
and part of September, which is the rainy feafon in moft
other parts of India, the atmofphere is here generally
clouded; but no rain falls except very near the fea. In¬
deed, very few fhowers fall during the whole year;
owing to which, and the neighbourhood of the fandy
deferts, which bound it on the eaft and on the north-
I
75 ] SIN
weft, the heats are fo violent, and the winds from thole Sindy
quarters fo pernicious, that the houfes are contrived fo . II.
as to be occafionally ventilated by means of apertures 1'ing|ng*
on' the tops of them, refembling the funnels of fmall v
chimneys. When the hot winds prevail, the windows
are clofely ftmt; and the loweft part of the current
of air, which is always the hotteft, being thus exclu¬
ded, a cooler, becaule more elevated part, delcends in¬
to the houfe through the fuqnels. By this contrivance
alio vaft clouds ot dull are excluded : the entrance of
which would alone be fufficient to render the houfes un¬
inhabitable. The roofs are compofed of thick layers
of earth inftead of terraces. Few countries are more
unwholefome to European conftitulions, particularly
the lower part of the Delta. The prince of this pro¬
vince is a Mahometan, tributary to the king of Canda¬
har. He relides at Hydrabad, although Tatta is the
capital, i he Hindoos, who were the original inhabi¬
tants of Sindy, are by their Mahometan governors treat¬
ed with great rigour, and denied the public exercife of
their religion ; and this feverity drives vaft numbers of
them into other countries. The inland parts of Sindy
produce faltpetre, fal ammoniac, borax, bezoar, lapis la¬
zuli, and raw filk. ibey have alfo manufactories of
cotton and filk of various kinds; and they make fine
cabinets, inlaid with ivory, and finely lackered. They
alfo export great quantities of butter, clarified and wrapt
up in duppas, made of the hides of cattle. The ladies
wear hoops of ivory on both their arms and legs, which
when they die are burnt with them. They have large
black cattle, excellent mutton, and fmall hardy horfes.
1 heir wild game are deer, hares, antelopes, and foxes,
which they hunt with dogs, leopards, and a fmall fierce
creature called a fhiahgulh.
SINE, or Right SlNE of an Arch, in Trigonometry,
is a right line drawn from one end of that arch, perpen¬
dicular to the radius drawn to the other end of the arch;
being always equal to half the cord of twice the arch.
See I rigonometry and Geometry.
SINECURE, a nominal office, which has a revenue
without any employment.
SINEW, a tendon, that which unites the inufcles to
the bones.
SINGING, the aClion of making divers inflexions
of the voice, agreeable to the ear, and correfpondent
to the notes of a fong or piece of melody. See Me¬
lody.
1 he firft thing to be done in learning to fing, is to
raife a fcale of notes by tones and femitones to an oXave
and defeend by the fame notes; and then to rife and
fall by greater intervals, as a third, fourth, fifth, &c.
and to do all this by notes of different pitch. Then
thefe notes are reprefented by lines and fpaces, to which
the fyllables_/h, fol, la, mi, are applied, and the pupil
taught to name each line and fpace thereby ; whence
this praXice is cdWnA. fol-faing, the nature, reafon, ef-
feXs, &c. whereof, fee under the article SoLFAlNG.
SINGING of Birds. It is worthy of obfervation, th^fc
the female of no fpecies of birds ever fings : with birds
it is the reverfe of what occurs in human kind. Amono-
the feathered tribe, all the cares of life fall to the lot of
the tender fex ; theirs is the fatigue of incubation; and
the principal fhare in nurfing the helplefs brood : to al¬
leviate thefe fatigues, and to fupport her under them
nature hath given to the male the fong, with all the
little
SIN ' [ 37®
SiTiglng little blandifhments and toothing arts j thefe he fondly
II exerts (even after court(hip) on fome Ipray contiguous
, sinking- , t0 ^ neft, during the time his mate is performing her
parental duties. But that the Ihoulo be lilent is alio
another wife provifion of nature, for her fong would
difcover her neft ; as Avould a gaudinefs of plumage,
which, for the fame reafon, feems to have been denied
her.
On the fong of birds feveral curious experiments and
obfervations have been made by the Hon. Daines Bar¬
rington. See Phil. Tranf vol. Ixiii.
SINGULAR NUMBER, in Grammar, that number of
nouns and verbs which ftands oppofed to plural. See
Grammar, N° 14.
SINISTER, fomething on or towards the left hand.
Hence fome derive the word ftnijler afinendo ; becaufe
the gods, by fuch auguries, permit us to proceed in our
defigns.
SINISTER, is ordinarily ufed among us for unlucky j
though, in the facred rites of divination, the Romans
ufed it in an oppofite fenfe. Thus avis Jiniflra, or a bird
on the left hand, was efteemed a happy omen : whence,
in the law of the 12 tables, Avefmijlra populi magijler
ejlo.
Sinister, in Heraldry. The finifter fide of an el-
cutcheon is the left-hand fide ; the finifter chief, the left
an vie of the chief; the finifter bafe, the left-hand part
o 7
of the bafe.
SINISTER Afpecl, among aftrologers, is an appearance
of two planets happening according to the fuccefiion of
the figns; as Saturn in Aries, and Mars in the fame de¬
gree of Gemini. .
SINISTRI, a fet of ancient heretics, thus called
becaufe they held the left hand in abhorrence, and made
it a point of religion not to receive any thing there¬
with.
SINKING FUND, a provifion made by parliament,
confifting of the furplufage of other funds, intended to
be appropriated to the payment of the national debtj on
the credit of wbich very large fums have been borrowed
for public ufes. . .
As the funding fyftem had been adopted in other
countries long before it ivas reforted to in Great Bri¬
tain. a provifion of this kind had appeared neceflary at
a much earlier period, and had been eftablifhed in Hol¬
land in 1655, anc* *n t^e ecclefiaftical ftates in 1685.
Thefe funds were both formed by the reduaion of the
intereft on the public debts, and by appropriating the
annual fum thus faved to the gradual difcharge of the
principal.
In the reign of King William, when the mode of pro¬
viding for extraordinary expences was firft adopted in
this country, the particular tax on which money was
borrowed, generally produced much more than was fuf-
ficient to pay the annual intereft, and the furplus was
applied in finking the principal, which was generally
effeaed in a few years. Had this plan been purfued,
there never could have been any great accumulation of
public debts •, but, as the expenditure increafed, and the
neceflity of loans of ftill greater amount became more
frequent, it was found difficult to provide for the annual
intereft of the fums thus borrowed; and the repayment
of the principal was either put off to a diftant period,
or left without any provifion to the chance of more flou-
xiffiing times.
] SIN
Some of the effe&s of an accumulating public debt
foon became evident in the difeount at which all govern- ^
ment fecurities fold, and in the difficulties experienced
in providing for the annual expenditure •, the propriety
of reducing, and even of wholly difeharging, the debt,
was generally acknowledged ; and the plan of a finking
fund was recommended in a pamphlet publilhed in 1701.
In 1713 Mr Archibald Hutchifon prefented to George I,
a plan for payment of the public debts. In 17J 5 dif¬
ferent projects for this purpofe were publiffied by Ed¬
ward Leigh, Mr Afgill, anti others. And in 1717 a
plan for the gradual difcharge of the debt was-actually
adopted, which was afterwards generally known by the
name of the finking fund.
For a few’ years the fund was ftridtly applied to the
purpofes for which it ay as eftabliffied *, and lb well were
its nature and importance then undtrftood, that money
was at the fame time borrowed for extraordinary ex¬
pences. In 1724, the fum of 15,144!. 19s. was taken
from the fund, to make good the lofs to the trealury
from the redu&ion of the value of gold coin •, and with¬
in 12 years from its eftabliffiment it was charged with
the intereft of new loans, in 1733,. the grols ium of
half a million was taken from it towards the fupplies,
at which time the medium annual produce of the fund
for five years had been 1,21 2,oocl. '1 his amount would
have fully difeharged the debt which then exifted, but
the alienation of it was continued.
This ivas fucceeded by the confolidated fund, oneob-
je£I of which Avas, to lay the foundation of a new link¬
ing fund, and confifting, like the old one, in the appli¬
cation of the principle of compound intereft. On this
occafion Mr Pitt confulted the late Dr Price, Avho com¬
municated three plans, one of Avhich was aftenvards
adopted, but Avith fuch alterations as greatly affefled its
efficacy, and which it had been fince found neceffary to
cor re ft. By the aft paffed for carrying this fcheme in¬
to execution, the annual fum of 1,000,cool. Avas placed
in the hands of commiffioners, to be iffued in four equal
quarterly payments, and to be applied either in paying
off fuch redeemable annuities as Ayere at or above par,
or in the purchafe of annuities below par, at the market-
price.
On the 17th of February, I792> Mr Pitt propofed
that the fum of 400,000!. ffiould be iffued in addition
to the million, for the purpofe of accelerating the ope¬
ration of the fund : and ftated that it might be expeft-
ed that 25 millions of 3 per cents Avould be paid oft
by the year 1800 5 and that in the year 1808, the fund
Avould amount to 4,000,000!. per annum, the fum'to
which it Avas then reftrifted. ft he injudicious reftric-
tion of the fund to 4,000,000!. per annum, was done
away bv an aft paffed in 1802, which direfted that the
produce of the two funds ftiould continue to accumulate,
Avithout any limitation as to its amount, and be from
time to time applied, according to the former provifions,
in the redemption or purchafe of ftock, until the Avhole
of the perpetual redeemable annuities, exifting at the
time of palling the aft, ffiall have been completely paid
off. xAt the fame time, the annual grant of 200,C00l.
in aid of the fund, Avas made a permanent charge, to
be iffued in quarterly payments from the confolidated
fund, in the fame manner as the original million per
annum. In confequence of thefe improvements, the m-
creafe of the fund has been much greater than, it Avas
originally
SIN [ 577 ] r S I R
. tiking
I!
,iphon.
originally eftiraated j and on the ill of February, i3o6,
was as follows :
Annual charge by a£t of 26 Geo.
III.
Ditto 42 Geo. III.
Annuities for 99 and 96 years, ex¬
pired 1792
Short annuities, expired 1787
Life annuities, unclaimed and ex¬
pired
Dividend on 98,386,402!. at 3 per
cent.
Ditto on 2,617,400!. at 4 per cent.
Ditto on 142,000!. at 5 per cent.
One per cent, on capitals erefted
lince 1723
Total,
L.1,000,000 o o
200,000 o o
54,880 14 6
25,000 o 0
50,308 5 7
2»95I,592 1 2
104,69.6 o o
7,100 o o
3,202,672 I 10
L. 7,596,249 3 1
’This fum is exclufive of the fund for the redu&ion
of the public debt of Ireland, which at the above period
amounted to 479, $3 7b 8s. and of the fund for redu£lion
of the imperial debt, which amounted to 56,960!. 9s.
VpL
The progrefs of the fund from the commencement of
its operation on ift Auguft 1786, to the ift February
1806, will appear from the following ftatement of the
total amount of the dock redeemed by the commiffioners
up to the latter period.
Confolidated 3 per cent, annuities
Reduced 3 per cent, annuities
Old South fea annuities
New South fea annuities
Three per cents 1751
Confolidated 4 per cent, annuities
Navy 5 per cent, annuities
L.39,922,421
51,493,981
3,492,000
2,783,000
695,000
2,61 7,400
142,000
Total, L. 101,145,802
The total fum which had been paid for this amount
of flock was, 62,842,782!. 7s. rod. the confolidated 3
per cents having been bought up on an average at 6x1.
per cent, and the reduced at fomewhat lefs.
The progrefs already made by the fund, and the im¬
portant effeft it has had in fupporting the value of the
government fecurities at a time when it has been necef-
fary to borrow unprecedented fums in almoft every year,
fufficiently demonftrate the great utility of this meafure.
As its increafe will be continually augmenting, it will,
if fteadily perfevered in, and faithfully applied, become
ultimately capable of difeharging a debt of any amount
with which it is poflible to fuppofe the country will ever
be encumbered.
SINOPLE, in Heraldry, denotes vert, or green co¬
lour in armories.—Sinople is ufed to fignify love, youth,
beauty, rejoicing, and liberty ; whence it is that letters
of grace, ambition, legitimation, &c. are always fealed
with green wax.
SINUOSITY, a feries of bends and turns in arches
or other irregular figures, fometimes jutting out and
fometimes falling in.
SINUS, in Anatomy, denotes a cavityin certain bones
Vol. XIX. Part I.
and other parts, the entrance whereof is very narrow, Siphon
and the bottom wider and more fpacious. ^ ^
Sinus, in Surgery, a little cavity or facculus, fre- . , ‘ ^ ' .
quently formed by a wound or ulcer, wherein pus is
colledled.
SIPHON. See Hydrodynamics.
SIPHONANTHUS, a genus of plants belonging tn
the clafs of tetrandria and order of monogynia. See Bo¬
tany Index.
SI PONTUM, Sepuntum, or SlPUS, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a town of Apulia, fo denominated (according to
Strabo) from the great quantity of fepice or cuttlefifh
that are thrown upon the coaft. Diomede is fuppofed by
the fame author to have been the founder of this place ;
which appears from Livy to have become a colony of
Roman citizens. In the early ages of*Chriilian hierar¬
chy, a bifhop was fixed in this church } but, under- the
Lombards, his fee was united to that of Beneventum.
Being again feparated, Sipontum became an archiepif-
copal diocefe in 1094, about which time it was fo ill
treated by the Barbarians, that it never recovered its
fplendour, but funk into fuch mifery, that in 1 260 it
was a mere defert, from the wrant of inhabitants, the de¬
cay of commerce, and the infalubrily of the air. Man¬
fred having taken thefe circumftances into confideration,
began in 1261 to build a new city on the fea-fhofe, to
which he removed the few remaining Sipontines. (See
the article Manfredonia). Sipontum was fituated at
the diftance of a mile from the fhore. Excepting a part
of its Gothic cathedral, fcarce one ilone of the ancient
city now remains upon another.
SIPUNCULUS, in Natural Hijlory, a genus of the
clafs of vermes, and order inteftina. See Helmintho¬
logy Index.
SIR, the title of a knight or baronet, which, for dif-
tin&ion’s fake, as it is now given indiferiminately to all
men, is always prefixed to the knight’s Chriftian name,
either in fpeaking or writing to them.
SIRCAR, any office under the government in Hin-
doflan. It is fometimes ufed for the Rate of government
itfelf. Likewife a province, or any number of pergun-
nahs placed under one head in the government books,
for conveniency in keeping accounts. In common ufage
in Bengal, the under banyans of European gentlemen
are called Jircars.
SIRE, a title of honour formerly given to the king
of France as a mark of fovereignty4
SlRE, -was likewife anciently ufed in the fame fenfe
with fieur and feigneur, and applied to barons, gentle¬
men, and citizens.
SIRENS, in fabulous hiftory, certain celebrated fong-
ftrefifes who were ranked among the demigods of anti¬
quity. Hygifms places their birth among the confe-
quences of the rape of Proferpine. Others make them
daughters of the river Achelotls and one of the mufes *.^OvidMett
The number of the Sirens was three, and their names
were Parthenope, Lygea, and Leucofea. Some make
them half women and half fiffi ; others half women
and half birds. There are antique reprefentations of
them ftill fubfifting under both thefe forms. Paufanias
tells us, that the Sirens, by the perfuafion of Juno, chal¬
lenged the Mufes to a trial of {kill in finging ; and thefe
having vanquithed them, plucked the golden feathers
from the wings of the Sirens, and formed them into
3 B crowns,
S I R [ 378 ] S I s
Sirens, crowns, with which they adorned their own heads. The
"’‘“v-’”1’1 J Argonauts ate faid to have been diverted from the en¬
chantment of their fongs by the fuperior drains of Or¬
pheus : Ulyfles, however, had great difficulty in fecur-
ing himfelf from fedu&ion. See Odyf lib. xii.
Pope, in his notes to the twelfth book of the Odyf-
fey, obferves, the critics have greatly laboured to explain
what was the foundation of this fidlion of the Sirens.
We are told by fome, that the Sirens were queens of
certain fmall iflands named Sirenufiz, that lie near Ca-
prsea in Italy, and chiefly inhabited the promontory of
Minerva, upon the top of which that goddefs had a
temple, as fome affirm, built by UlyiTes. Here there
was a renowned academy, in the reign of the Sirens,
famous for eloquence and the liberal fciences, which
gave occafion to the invention of this fable of the fweei-
nefs of the voice and attracting fongs of the Sirens.. But
why then are they fabled to be deitroyers, and painted
in fuch dreadful colours ? We are told, that at lafl the
fludents abufed their knowledge, to the colouring of
wrong, the corruption of manners, and the fubverfion of
government: that is, in the language of poetry, they were
feigned to be transformed into monfters, and with their
mufic to have enticed paffengers to their ruin, who there
confumed their patrimonies, and poifoned their virtues
with riot and effeminacy. The place is now called
Majfa. Some writers tell us of a certain bay,.contra£led
within winding {traits and broken cliffs, which, by the
finging of the winds and beating of the waters, returns
a delightful harmony, that allures the paffenger to ap¬
proach, who is immediately thrown againlt the rocks,
and fwallovved up by the violent eddies. Ihus Horace,
rnoralifing, calls idlenefs a Siren.
  Vitamin ejl improba Siren
Dejidia. 
But the fable may be applied to all pleafures in ge¬
neral, which, if too eagerly purfued, betray the incau¬
tious into ruin •, while wife nien, like Ulyffes, making
ufe of their reafon, ilop their ears againfi: their infmua-
tions.
The learned Mr Bryant fays, that the Sirens were
Cuthite and Canaanitilh priefts, who had founded tem-
ples in Sicily, which were rendered infamous on account
of the women who officiated. They were much ad¬
dicted to cruel rites, fo that the fliores upon which they
refided are defcribed as covered with the bones of men
deftroyed by their artifice. Virgil. JEneid. lib. v.
ver. 864.
All ancient authors agree in telling us, that Sirens in¬
habited the coafl of Sicily. The name, according to
Bochart, who derives it from the Phoenician language,
implies a fongftrefs. Hence it is probable, fays Dr Bur¬
ney, that in ancient times there may have been excellent
lingers, but of corrupt morals, on the coafl; of Sicily,
who, by feducing voyagers, gave rife to this fable. And
if this conjedure be well founded, he obferves, the
Mufes are not the only pagan divinities who preferved
their influence over mankind in modern times j for
every age has its Sirens, and every Siren her votaries ;
when beauty and talents, both powerful in themfelves,
are united, they become {fill more attraClive.
Siren, in Zoology, a genus of animals belonging to
the clafs of amphibia and the order of meantes. It is
a. biped, naked, and furnifhed with a tail y the feet are
3
brachiated with claws. This animal was difcovered by Sirens
Dr Garden in Carolina *, it is found in fwampy and . II
muddy places, by the fides of pools, under the trunks
of old trees that hang over the water. The natives
call it by the name. o( mud-iguana. Linnaeus firft ap-vol. hi. "
prehended, that it was the larva of a kind of lizard ; p. 189. (
but as its fingers are furnifhed with claws, and it makes
a croaking noife, he concluded from thefe properties, as
well as from the fituation of the anus, that it could not
be the larva of the lizard, and therefore formed of it a
new genus under the name of Jiren. He was alfo obli¬
ged to eftablifh for this uncommon animal a new order
called meantes or gliders ; the animals of which are am¬
phibious, breathing by means of gills and lungs, and fur-
nifhed with arms and claws.
SIR EX, a genus of infedls belonging to the order of
hymenoptera. See Entomology Index.
SIRIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs of
tetrandria and order of monogynia. See Botany In¬
dex.
SIRIUS, in AJlronomy, a bright ftar in the conftel-
lation Canis. See Astronomy, N° 403, &c.
SIRLET, Flavius, an eminent Roman engraver on
precious ftones : his Laocoon, and reprefentations in mi¬
niature of antique ftatues at Rome, are very valuable and
fcarce. He died in 1737.
SIROCCO, a periodical wind which generally blows
in Italy and Dalmatia every year about Eafter. It
blows from the fouth-eafl by fouth : it is attended with
heat, but not rain •, its ordinary period is twenty days, FcrtU's
and it ufually ceafes at funfet. When the firocco does Travels in\
not blow in this manner, the fummer is almoft free from ^ BalmA
wefterly winds, whirlwinds, and florms. This wind isp'
prejudicial to plants, drying and burning up the buds;
though it hurts not men any otherwife than by caufing
an extraordinary Aveaknefs and laffitude ; inconveniences
that are fully compenfated by a plentiful fifhing, and a
good crop of corn on the mountains. In the fummer
time, when the wefterly wind ceafes for a day, it is a
fign that the firocco will blow the day following, which
ufually begins with a fort of whirlwind.
SISKIN. See Fringilla, Ornithology Index.
SISON, Bastard Stone Parsley, a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and to the
order of digynia ; and in the natural fyftem arranged
under the 45th order, Umbellatce. See Botany Index.
SISTRUM, or Cistrum, a kind of ancient mufi-
cal inftrument ufed by the priefts of Ifis and Ofiris.
It is defcribed by Spon as of an oval form,, in manner
of a racket, with three flicks traverfing it breadthwife ;
which playing freely by the agitation of the whole in¬
ftrument, yielded a kind of found which to them feem-
ed melodious. Mr Maleom takes the fiftrum to be no
better than a kind of rattle. Oifelius obferves, that the
fiftrum is found reprefented on feveral medals, and on
talifmans.
SISYMBRIUM, Water-cresses, a^genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of tetradynamia, and to the order
of Jiliquofa ; and in the natural fyftem ranged under the
39th order, Sihquofcc. See BotaNY Index.
SISYPHUS, in fabulous hiftory, one of the defen¬
dants of Eolus, married Merope, one of the Pleiades,
who bore him Glaucus. He refided at Epyra in
ponnefus, and was a very crafty man. Others fay, that
lie was a Troian fecretary, who was puniftied for ddco-
J vering
S I u
Typhus, v'ering fecrets of ftate 5 and others again, that he was a
II notorious robber, killed by Thefeus. However, all the
|iSlum‘ , poets agree that he Was puniihed in Tartarus for his
'”"v crimes, by rolling a great done to the top of a hill,
which conftantly recoiled, and, rolling down inceffantly,
renewed his labour.
SISYRINCHIUM, a genus of plants belonging to
- the clafs of gynandrta, and order of triamiria; and in
the natural fyftem ranged under the 5th order, Enfatce.
See Botany Index.
SITE, denotes the fituation of an houfe, &c. and fome-
times the ground-plot or fpot of earth on which it {lands.
SITTA, Nuthatch, a genus of birds belonging to
the order q{piece. See Ornithology Index.
SITOPHYLAX, formed from
“ corn,” and q>v\cc%, “ keeper,” in antiquity, an Athe¬
nian magiilrate, who had the fuperintendence of the
corn, and was to take care that nobody bought more
than was neceffary for the provifion of his family. By
the Attic laws, particular perfons were prohibited from
buying more than fifty meafures of wheat a man ; and
that fuch perfons might not purchafe more, the fitophy-
lax was appointed to fee the laws properly executed. It
was a capital crime to prevaricate in it. There wrere
15 of thefe Jitophylaces, ten for the city, and five for the
Piraeus.
SITUS, in Algebra and Geometry, denotes the fitua¬
tion of lines, furfaces, &c. Worfius delivers fome things
in geometrv, which are not deduced from common ana-
lyfis, particularly matters depending on the Jitus of lines
and figures. Leibnitz has even founded a particular
kind of analyfis upon it, called calculus Jitus.
SIVA, a name given by the Hindoos to the Supreme
Being, when confidered as the avenger or deftroyer. Sir
William Jones has fhown that in feveral refpefls the cha-
ra£ler of Jupiter and Siva are the fame. As Jupiter
utic Re- overthrew the Titans and giants, lb did Siva overthrow
mw. t]ie Daityas, or children of Diti, who frequently rebel¬
led againft Heaven ; and as during the conteft the god
of Olympus was furnifhed with lightning and thunder¬
bolts by an eagle, fo Brahma, who is fometimes repre-
fented riding on the Garuda, or eagle, prefented the
god of deftrufHon with fiery {hafts. Siva alfo corre-
fponds with the Stygian Jove, or Pluto for, if we can
rely on a Perfian tranflation of the Bhagavat, the fove-
reign of Patala, or the infernal regions, is the king of
ferpents, named Sejhanaga, who is exhibited in painting
and fculpture, with a diadem and feeptre, in the fame
manner as Pluto. There is yet another attribute of
Siva, or Mahadeva, by which he is vifibly dillinguilhed
in the drawings and temples of Bengal. To deftroy,
according to the Vedantis of India, the Sufis of Perfia,
and many philofophers of our European fchools, is only
to generate and reproduce in another form. Hence the
god of deftru&ion is holden in this country to prefide
over generation, as a fymbol of which he rides on a •white
bull. Can we doubt that the loves and feats of Jupiter
Genitor (not forgetting the white bull of Europa), and
his extraordinary title of Lapis, for which no fatisfac-
tory reafon is commonly given, have a connection with
the Indian philofophy and mythology ?
SIUM, Water Parsnep, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of pentandria, and order of digynia, and
in the natural fyflem ranging under the 44th order, Um-
hellatte. See Botany Index.
S I w
SlWiVj or Siwah, a toivn in Egypt to th weft-
ward of Alexandria, built on a fmall fertile fpot, fur-
rounded on all fides by defert land. A confiderable
portion of this fpace is filled with date trees, but there
are alfo plantains, pomegranates, figs, apricots, and
olives ; and the gardens are in a very flourilhing condi¬
tion. The people cultivate rice, which is of a reddiili
colour, and different from that of the Delta. The reft;
of the land furnifties abundance of wheat for the con-
fumption of the inhabitants.
The greateft curiofity about Siwa is a ruin of un¬
doubted antiquity, meafuring 32 feet in length, 18 in
height, and 15 in breadth, which does not appear ever
to have been much larger. Mr Horneman eftimates
the dimenfions of it at 36 feet long, 24 feet wide, and
27 high, which agrees with no other traveller whatever j
and indeed Mr Horneman himfelf allows that the jea-
loufy of the natives prevented him from purfuing any
plan of accurate examination or admeafurement. The
people of Siw'a have no tradition refpe&ing this edifice,
nor attribute any quality to it, but that of concealing
treafures, and as the haunt of demons. It has, however,
been fuppofed, that Siwa is the Siropum of Pliny, and
that this building was coeval with the temple of Jupiter
Ammon, and a dependency on it ; yet neither the na¬
tives of Siwa, iior the various tribes of Arabs who fre¬
quent that place, knew any thing of the ruins of that
temple, about which Mr Browne made every pofllble
enquiry.
The complexion of the people of Siwa is generally
darker than that of the Egyptians, and their diale£t is
alfo different. They do not habitually make ufe of
fnuff or tobacco. Their fe<ft is that of Malik. The
drefs of the lower clafs is very fimple, as they are almoft:
naked ; among thole whofe coftume was difcernible, it
approaches nearer to that of the Arabs of the defert
than the Egyptians or Moors. Their clothing confifts
of a ftiirt of white cotton, with large fleeves reaching to
the feet, a red cap without a turban, and ftioes of the
fame colour. Some earthen ware made by themfelves,
and a few mats, form the chief part, of their houfehold
furniture, none but the higher ranks being poffeffed of
copper utenfils. They fometimes purchafe a few Haves
from the Mourzouk caravan. The reft of their wants
are fupplied from Cairo or Alexandria, whither their
dates are tranfported, both in a dry ftate, and beaten
into mafh, which, when good, greatly refemblesa fweet
meat. They do not eat large quantities of animal food,
and bread known to us is uncommon. They drink
plentifully of the liquor extrafted from the date tree,
which they call date-tree water, though it has frequent¬
ly the povrer of inebriating in the ftate in which they
drink it. Their animals are the hairy ftieep and goat
of Egypt, the afs, and a very fmall number of oxen and
camels. The women wear veils as in Egypt. After
the rains, the ground in the vicinity of Siwa is covered
with fait for many weeks.
Siwa has fometimes been compared to a bee hive,
which it very much refembles, whether in refpect to the
general appearance of the eminence covered with build¬
ings, the fwarm of its people crowded together, or the
confufed noife, or hum and buz from its narrow paflages
and ftreets, and which reach the ear at a confiderable
diftance. North-weft of the town there is a ftratum of
fait extending a full mile, and near it fait is found on
3 B 2 the
[ 379 J
SIX [ 380 ] SIX
Siwa the fuvface. There are numerous fprings, and frequently
Sixtus a ^Pr‘ng water perfectly fweet is found within a few
— paces of one that is fait. The people, according to
Horneman, are obtrulive and thievilh. Siwa is fituated
in 290 12' N. Lat. and 440 54' E. Long.
SIX-Clerks, officers in chancery of great account,
next in degree below the twelve mailers, whole bulinefs
it is to enrol commiffions, pardons, patents, warrants,
&c. which pals the great feal, and to tranfaft and file
•all proceedings by bill, anfwer, &c. They were an¬
ciently c/erici, and forfeited their places, if they mar¬
ried ; but when the conftitution of the court began to
alter, a law was made to permit them to marry, Stat.
14. and 15. Hen. VIII cap. 8. They are alfo folici-
tors for parties in fuits depending in the court of chan¬
cery. Under them are fix deputies and 60 clerks, who,
with the under clerks, do the bufinefs of the office.
SIX Nations. See Niagara.
SIXTH, in Mufic, one of the fimple original con¬
cords, or harmonical intervals. See Interval.
SIXTUS V. Pope, was born the 13th December,
1521, in La Marca, a village in the feigniory of Mont-
alto. His father, Francis Peretti, was a gardener, and
his mother a fervant maid. Fie was their eldelf child,
and was called Felix. At the age of nine he was
hired out to an inhabitant of the village to keep
lliecp ; but difobliging his matter, he was fuon after
degraded to be keeper of the hogs. Fie was en¬
gaged in this employment when Father Michael An¬
gelo Seller!, a Francifcan friar, alked the road to Af-
coli, where he was going to preach. Young Felix
conduced him thither, and ftruck the father fo much
with his converfation and eagernefs for knowledge, that
he recommended him to the fraternity to which he had
come. Accordingly he was received among them, in-
vetted with the habit of a lay brother, and placed un¬
der the facrittan, to affift in fweeping the church, light¬
ing the candles, and other offices of that nature ; for
which he was to be taught the refponfes, and the rudi¬
ments of grammar. His progrefs in learning was fo fur-
prifing, that at the age of 14 he was thought qualified
to begin his noviciate, and was admitted the year follow¬
ing to make his profeffion.
Fie purfued his ftudies with fuch unwearied affiduity,
that he was foon reckoned equal to the beft difputants.
He was ordained prieft in 1545, when he affumed the
name of Father Montalto ; foon after he took his doc¬
tor’s degree, and was appointed profelfor of theology
at Sienna. It was then that he fo eftedlually recom¬
mended himfelf to Cardinal di Carpi, and his fecretary
Boffius, that they ever remained his fteady friends.
Meanwhile the feverity and obftinacy of his temper
inceffantly engaged him in difputes with his monaftic
brethren. His reputation for eloquence, which was
now fpread over Italy, about this time gained him
fome new friends. Among thefe were the Colonna
family, and Father Ghifiheri, by whofe recommenda¬
tion he was appointed inquifitor- general at Venice :
but he exercifed that office with fo much feverity,
that he was obliged to flee precipitately from that
city. Upon this he went to Rome, where he was made
procurator-general of his ordeb, and foon after accom¬
panied Cardinal Buon Compagnon into Spain, as a
chaplain and confultor to the inquitttion. There he
was treated with great refpedl, and liberal offers were Sixtus;
made him to induce him to continue in Spain, which,
however, he could not be prevailed on to accept.
In the mean time, news were brought to Madrid that
Pius IV. was dead, and that Father Ghifilieri, who
had been made Cardinal Alexandrine by Paul IV. had
fucceeded him under the name of Pius V. Thefe
tidings filled Montalto with joy, and not without rea-
fon, for he was immediately invefled by the pontiff with
new dignities. He was made general of Ids order, bi-
fhop of St Agatha, was foon after raifed to the digni¬
ty of cardinal, and received a penfion. Abut this
time he was employed by the pope to draw up tire bill
of excommunication againft Queen Elizabeth.
He began now to call his eyes upon the papacy 5
and, in order to obtain it, formed and executed a plan
of hypocrify with unparalleled conftancy and fuccefs.
He became humble, patient, and affable. Fie changed
his drefs, his air, his words, and his actions, fo com¬
pletely, that his moft intimate friends declared him a
new man. Never was there fuch an abfolute vic¬
tory gained over the paffions ; never was a fictitious
character fo long maintained, nor the foibles of human
nature fo artfully concealed. He courted the ambaffa-
dors of every foreign power, but attached himfelf to
the interefts of none ; nor did he accept a Angle favour
that would have laid him under any peculiar obligation.
He had formerly treated his relations with the greateft
tendernefs, but he now changed his behaviour altoge¬
ther. When his brother Anthony came to vifit him,
he lodged him in an inn, and fent him home next day,
charging him to inform his family that he was now dead
to his relations and the world.
When Pius V. died in 1572, he entered the conclave
with the other cardinals, but feemed altogether indiffe¬
rent about the eledlion, and never left his apartment ex¬
cept to his devotion. When folicited to join any party,,
he declined it, declaring that he was of no confequenee,
and that he wrould leave the choice of a pope entirely
to perfons of greater knowledge and experience. When
Cardinal Buon Compagnon, who affumed the name of
Gregory XIII. was eledled, Montalto affured him that
he never wiffied for any thing fo_ much in his life, and
that he would always remember his goodnefs, and the
favours he had conferred on him in Spain. But the
new pope treated’rhim with the greateft contempt, and
deprived him of his penfion. The cardinals alfo, de¬
ceived by his artifices, paid him no greater refpedl, and
ufed to call him, by wTay of ridicule, the Roman btaft j
the afs of La Mavca.
Fie now affumed all the infirmities of old age ; his
head hung down upon his ffioulders j he tottered as he
walked, and fupported himfelf on a ftaff. His voice
became feeble, and was often interrupted by a cough fo
exceedingly fevere, that it feemed every moment to
threaten his diffolution. He interfered in no public
tranfadlions, but fpent his whole time in a£ls of devo¬
tion and benevolence. Mean time he conftantly em¬
ployed the ableft fpies, who brought him intelligence
of every particular.
When Gregory XIII. died in 1585, he entered the
conclave with the greateft reluctance, and immediately
ftmt himfelf up in his chamber, and was no mors
thought of than if he had not exitted. When he went
to
4
Six [38
Sixtus, to mafs, for which purpofe alone he left his apartment,
'—\ ' he appeared perfe&ly indifferent about the event of the
eleftion. He joined no party, yet flattered all.
He knew early that there would be great divifions
in the conclave, and he was aware that when the leaders
of the different parties were disappointed in their own
views, they all frequently agreed in the election of fome
old and infirm cardinal, the length of whole life would
merely enable them to prepare themfelves futficiently
for the next vacancy. Thefe views directed his conduct,
nor was he mittaken in his hopes of fuccefs.
Three cardinals, the leaders of oppofite faflions, be¬
ing unable to procure the election which each of them
wifhed, unanimoufly agreed to make choice of Mont-
alto. When they came to acquaint him with their in¬
tention, he fell into fuch a violent fit of coughing that
every perfon thought lie would expire on the fpot. He
told them that his reign would lad but a few days;
that, befides a continual difficulty of breathing, he
wanted ftrength to (import fuch a weight, and that his
finall experience rendered him very unfit for fo impor¬
tant a charge. He conjured them all three not to
abandon him, but to take the whole weight of affairs
upon their own fhoulders ; and declared that he would
never accept the mitre upon any other terms : “ If you
are refolved,” added he, “ to make me pope, it will
only be placing yourfelves on the throne. For my part,
I (hall be fatisfied with the bare title. Let the world
call me pope, and I make you heartily welcome to the
power and authority.” The cardinals fwallowcd the bait,
and exerted themfelves fo effectually that Montalto was
tlefled. He now pulled off the mafk which he had
worn for 14 years. No fooner was his ele&ion fecured,
than he darted from his feat, flung down his flaff in the
middle of the hall, and appeared almoft a foot taller
than he had done for feveral years.
When he was afked, according to cuflom, if he would
accept of the papacy, he replied, “ It is trifling to afk
whether I will accept what I have already accepted.—
However, to fatisfy any fcruple that may arife, I tell
you that I accept it with great pleafure, and would ac¬
cept another if I could get it ; for I find myfelf able,
by the Divine affiftance, to manage two papacies.” His
former complaifance and humility difappeared, together
with his infirmities, and he now treated ail around him
with referve and haughtinefs. The firft care of Six¬
tus V. the name which Montaffo affumed, was to cor-
re£f the abufes, and put a flop to the enormities, which
were daily committed in every part of the ecclefiaftical
ft ate. The lenity of Gregory’s government had intro¬
duced a general licentioufnefs of manners, which burft
forth with-great violence, after that pontiff's death.
It had been ufual with former popes to releafe delin¬
quents.on the day of their coronation, who were there¬
fore accuftomed to furrender themfelves voluntary pri-
foners immediately after the eleflion of the pope. At
prefent, however, they were fatally difappointed.—
When the governor of Rome and the keeper of St
Angelo waited on his Holinefs, to know his intention
in this particular, he replied, “ What have you to do
with pardons, and releafing of prifoners ? Is it not fuf-
ficient that our predeceffor has fuffered the judges to
remain unemployed thefe 13 years? Shall we alfo flain
our pontificate with the fame negledl of juftice ? We
have too long feeri, with inexpreffible concern, the prodi-
1 3 . s 1 x . „ .
gious degree of wickcdnefs that reigns in the nate, to
think of granting pardons. Let the prifoners be brought
to a fpeedy trial, and punifhed as they deferve, to (how
the world that Divine Providence has called us to the
chair of St Peter, to reward the good, and chaftife the
wicked : that we bear not the fword in vain, but are the
miuifters of God, and a revenger to execute wrath on
them that do evil.”
He appointed commiffioners to infpedl the condudl
of the judges, difplaced thofe who were inclined to leni¬
ty, and put others of fevere difpofitions in their room.
He offered rewards to any perfon who could convift
them of corruption or partiality. He ordered the fyn-
dics of all the towns and figniories to make out a com¬
plete lift of the diforderly perfons within their diftritts,
and threatened the ftrapado for the fmalleft omiffion. In
confequence of this edift, the fyndic of Albino was
fcourged in the market-place, bccaufe he had left his
nephew, an incorrigible libertine, out of his lift.
He made very'fevere laws againft robbers and affaf-
fins. Adulterers, when difeovered, fuffered death ; and
they who willingly fubmitted to the proftitution of their
wives, a cuftom then common in Rome, received the
fame puniffiment. He was particularly careful of the
purity of the female fex, and never forgave thofe who
attempted to debauch them.
His execution of juftice was as prompt as his edifts
were rigorous. A Swifs happening to give a Spanifh
gentleman a blow with his halberd, was ftruck by him fo
rudely with a pilgrim’s ftaff that he expired on the fpot.
Sixtus informed the governor of Rome that he was to
dine early, and that juftice mull be executed on the cri¬
minal before he fat down to table. The Spanifh am-
baffador and four cardinals intreated him nut to dif-
grace the'gentleman by fuffering him to die on a gib¬
bet, but to order him fro be beheaded. “ He (hall be
hanged (replied Sixtus), but I will alleviate his difgrace
by doing him the honour to affift perfonally at his death.”
He ordered a gibbet to be erefted before his own win¬
dows, where he continued fitting during the whole exe¬
cution. Fie then called to his fervants to bring in din¬
ner, declaring that the aft of juftice which he had juft:
feen had increaftd his appetite. When he rofe from ta¬
ble, he exclaimed, “ God be praifed for the good appe¬
tite with which I have dined !”
When Sixtus afeended the throne, the whole ecclefi-
aftical Hate was infefted with bands of robbers, Avho
from their numbers and outrages, were exceedingly for¬
midable ; by his prudent and vigorous conduft, how¬
ever, he in a ffiort time extirpated the whole of thefe
banditti.
Nor was the vigour of his conduct lefs confpicuous
in his tranfa&ions with foreign nations. Before he had
been pope two months he quarrelled with Philip II. of
Spain, Henry III. of France, and Henry king of Na¬
varre. His intrigues indeed in fome meafure influenced
all the councils of Europe.
After his acceffion to the pontificate he fent for his
family to Rome, with exprefs orders that they ftiould
appear in a decent and modeft manner. Accordingly,
his lifter Camilla came thither, accompanied by her
daughter and two grandchildren. Some cardinals, in
order to pay court to the pope, went out to meet her,
and introduced her in a very magnificent drefs. Six¬
tus pretended not to know her, and afked two or three
times
Sixtt
S I X
Sixtus.
[ 382 ]
S X z
times who fhe was : Upon this one of the cardinals faid,
“ It is your filler, holy father.” “ I have but one fitter
(replied Sixtus with a frown), and ftie is a poor woman
at Le Grotte •, if you have introduced her in this dif-
guife, I declare I do not know her j yet I think I would
know her again, if I faw her in the clothes fhe ufed to
wear.”
Her conduftors at laft found it neceflary to carry
her to an inn, and ftrip her of her finery. When Ca¬
milla was introduced a fecond time, Sixtus embraced
her tenderly, and faid, “ Now we know indeed that it
is our fitter : nobody fhall make a princefs of you but
ourfelves.” He ftipulated with his fitter, that fhe
fhould neither afk any favour in matters of government,
nor intercede for criminals, nor interfere in the admini-
llration of j uttice j declaring that every requeft of that
kind would meet with a certain refufal. Thefe terms
being agreed to, and punftually obferved, he made the
moft ample provifion not only for Camilla but for his
whole relations.
This great man was alfo an encourager of learning.
He caufed an Italian tranflation of the Bible to be pub-
lifhed, which raifed a good deal of difcontent among
the Catholics. When fome cardinals reproached him
for his condudl in this refpeft, he replied, “ It was pub-
lifhed for the benefit of you cardinals who cannot read
Latin.”
Sixtus died in 1590, after having reigned little more
than five years. His death was afcribed to poifon, faid
to have been adminiftered by the Spaniards ; but the
ftory feems rather improbable.
It was to the indulgence of a difpofition naturally
formed for feverity, that all the defefts of this wonder¬
ful man are to be afcribed. Clemency was a ftranger
to his bofom ; his punifhments were often too cruel, and
feemed fometimes to border on revenge. Pafquin was
dreffed one morning in a very natty Ihirt, and being
•afked by Marforio why he wore fuch dirty linen ? re¬
plied, that he could get no other, for the pope had made
his rvafherwoman a princefs, alluding to Camilla, who
had formerly been a laundrefs. The pope ordered ftrift
fearch to be made for the author of this lampoon, and
offered him his life and a thoufand piftoles if he would
difcover himfelf. The author was fimple enough to
make his appearance and claim the reward. “It is
true (faid the pope) we made fuch a promife, and we
thall keep it *, your life lhail be fpared, and you (hall re¬
ceive the money prefently : but tve have referved to
ourfelves the power of cutting off your hands and boring
your tongue through, to prevent your being fo wdtty for
the future.” It is needlefs to add, that the fentence was
immediately executed. This, however, is the Only in-
ilance of his refenting the many fevere fatires that were
publifhed agamlf him.
But though the conduft of Sixtus feldom excites
love, it generally commands our efteem, and fometimes
our admiration. He ftrenuoufly defended the caufe of
the poor, the widow', and the orphan : he never refufed
audience to the injured, however wretched or forlorn
their appearance was. He never forgave thofe magi-
ffrates who were capable of partiality or corruption 5
mor fuffered crimes to pafs unpunifhed, whether commit¬
ted by the rich or the poor. He was frugal, tempe¬
rate, fober, and never neglected to retvard the fmalleft
favour which had been conferred on him before his ex¬
altation.
When he mounted the throne, the treafury was not _
only exhaufted, but in debt : at his death it contained
five millions of gold.
Rome was indebted to him for feveral of her greateft
embellifhments, particularly the Vatican library : it was
by him, too, that trade was firft introduced into the Ec-
elefiaftical State.
SIYA-GHUSH, the caracal of Buffon, an animal of
the cat kind. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
SIZAR, or Sizer, in Latin Sixator, an appellation
by which the loweft order of ttudents in the univerfities
of Cambridge and Dublin are diftinguiihed, is derived
from the ivord fixe, which in Cambridge, and probably
in Dublin likewife, has a peculiar meaning. ToJi'ze,
in the language of the univerfity, is to get any fort of
vidtuals from the kitchens, which the ftudents may want
in their own rooms, or in addition to their commons in
the hall, and for which they pay the cooks or butchers
at the end of each quarter. A fize of any thing is the
fmalleft quantity of that thing which can be thus
bought : two fizes, or a part of beef, being nearly equal
to what a young perfon will eat of that difh to his din¬
ner ; and a fize of ale or beer being equal to half an
Englitti pint.
The fizars are divided into two claffes, viz. fubfiza-
tores or fizars, and fizatores or proper fizars. The
former of thefe are fupplied with commons from the
table of the fellows and fellow commoners ; and in for¬
mer times, when thefe were more feanty than they are
now, they were obliged to fupply the deficiency by
fizing, as is fometimes the cafe ftill. The proper fizars
had formerly no commons at all, and were therefore
obliged to fize the whole. In St John’s college they
have now fome commons allowed them for dinner,
from a benefaction, but they are itill obliged to fize
their fuppers : in the other colleges they are allowed a
part of the fellow-commons, but mutt fize the reft ;
and from being thus obliged to fize the whole or part
of their victuals, the whole order derived the name of
Jixars.
In Oxford, the order fimilar to that of fizar is deno¬
minated fervitor, a name evidently derived from the me¬
nial duties which they perform. In both univerfities
thefe orders were formerly diftinguiihed by round caps
and gowns of different materials from thofe of the pen-
fioners or commoners, the order immediately above
them. But about 30 years ago the round cap was en¬
tirely aboliftied in both feminaries. There is ftill, how¬
ever, in Oxford, we believe, a diftinClion in the gowns,
and there is alfo a trifling difference in fome of the
fmall colleges in Cambridge ; but in the largell col¬
leges the drefs of the penfioners and fizars is entirely the
fame.
In Oxford, the fervitors are ftill obliged to wait at
table on the fellows and gentlemen-commoners 5 but
much to the credit of the univerfity of Cambridge, this
moft degrading and difgraceful cuftom Was entirely abo-
lilhed about 10 or 12 years ago, and of courfe the lizars
of Cambridge are now on a much more refpeClable foot-
■ ing than the fervitors of Oxford.
The fizars are not upon the foundation, and there¬
fore while they continue fizars are not capable of being
elefted
Slxtiu
.11
Sizar.
S I 2
Sizar,
Size.
ele&ed fellows j but they may at any time, if they
choofe, become penfioners j and they generally fit for
J fcholarlhips immediately before they take their firft de¬
grees. If fuccefsful, they are then on the foundation,
and are entitled to become candidates for fellowfhips
when they have got that degree. In the mean time,
while they continue fizars, befides free commons they
enjoy many benefa&ions, which have been made at dif¬
ferent times, under the name of Ji%a,r)s prcetor^ exhibi¬
tions, &c. and the rate of tuition, the rent of rooms, and
other things of that fort within their refpe6tive colleges,
is lefs than to the other orders. But though their edu¬
cation is thus obtained at a lefs expence, they are not
now confidered as a menial order ^ for lizars, penlioner-
Icholars, and even fometimes fellow-commoners, mix to¬
gether with the utmoft cordiality. It is worthy of re¬
mark, that at every period this order has fupplied the
univerfity with its moft diftinguiflied officers; and that
many of the moft illultrious members of the church,
many of the moft diftinguiihed men in the other libe¬
ral profeffions, have, when under-graduates, been fizars,
when that order w'as oi\ a lefs refpe£table footing than it
is now.
_ SIZE, the name of an inftrument ufed for finding the
bignefs of fine round pearls. It confifts of thin pieces
or leaves, about two inches long, and half an inch broad,
faftened together at one end by a rivet. In each of
thefe are round holes drilled of different diameters. Thofe
in the firft leaf ferve for meafuring pearls from half a
grain to feven grains; thofe of the fecond, for pearls
from eight grains or two carats to five carats, &c. j and
thofe of the third, for pearls from fix carats and a half to
eight carats and a half.
Size, is alfo a fort of paint, varnifh, or glue, ufed by
painters, &c.
-The fhreds and parings of leather, parchment, or
vellum, being boiled in water and ftrained, make fize.
This fubftance is much ufed in many trades.—The
manner of ufing fize is to melt fome of it over a gentle
fire ; and fcraping as much whiting into it as will juft
colour it, let them be Avell incorporated together ; after
which you may whiten frames, &c. with it. After it
dries, melt the fize again, and put more whiting and
whiten the frames, &c. feven or eight times, letting it
dry between each time : but before it is quite dry, be¬
tween each wafhing with fize, you muft fmooth and wet
it over with a clean brufh-pencil in fair water.
To make gold-fize. Take gum-anime and afphaltum,
of each one ounce; minium, litharge of gold, and am¬
ber, of each half an ounce: reduce all into a very fine
powder, and add to them four ounces of linfeed oil, and
eight ounces of drying oil: digeft them over a gentle
fire that does not flame, fo that the mixture may only
fimmer, but not boil 5 left it ffiould run over and fet the
houfe on fire, ftir it eonftantly with a ftick till all the in¬
gredients are diffolved and incorporated, and do not
leave off ftirring till it becomes thick and ropy j after
being fufficiently boiled, let it ftand till it is almoft cold,
and then ftrain it through a coarfe linen cloth, and keep
it for ufe.—lo prepare it for working, put what quan¬
tity you pleafe in a horfe-mufcle ffiell, adding as much
^urPen^ne as diflolve it j and making it as
thin as the bottom of your feed-lac varniffi, hold it over
a candle, and then ftrain it through a linen-rag into ano-
tier fhell y add to thefe as much vermilion as will make
[ 383 1
SKA
it of a darkifh red : if it is too thick for drawing, you
may thin it with fome oil of turpentine. The chief ufe
of this fize is for laying on metals.
The beft gold fize for burniffiing is made as follows :
Take fine bole, what quantity you pleafe} grind it fine¬
ly on a piece of marble, then fcrape into it a little beef
fuet} grind all well together; after which mix in a
frnall proportion of parchment fize, with a double pro¬
portion of water, and it is done.
I o make filver-fize. Take tobacco-pipe clay in fine
powder, into which fcrape fome black-lead and a little
Genoa foap, and grind them all together with parch¬
ment fize as already directed.
SKATING, an exercife on ice, both graceful and
healthy. Although the ancients were remarkable for
their dexterity in moft of the athletic fports, yet {ba¬
ting feems to have been unknown to them. It may
therefore be confidered as a modern invention} and pro¬
bably it derived its origin in Holland, where it was
pradtifed, not only as a graceful and elegant amufement,
but as an expeditious mode of travelling when the lakes
and canals were frozen up during winter. In Holland
long journeys are made upon Ikates with eafe and expe¬
dition 5 but in general lefs attention is there paid to
graceful and elegant movements, than to the expedition
and celerity of what is called journey fkating. It is on¬
ly in thofe countries where it is confidered as an amufe¬
ment, that its graceful attitudes and movements can be
ftudied j and there is no exercife whatever better calcu¬
lated. to fet off the human figure to advantage. The
acquirement of moft exercifes may be attained&at an ad¬
vanced period of life ; but to become an expert Ikater,
it is neceffary to begin the pradlice of the art at a very-
early age. It is difficult to reduce the art of Ikating
to a fyftem. It is principally by the imitation of a good
Ikater that a young pradtitioner can form his own prac¬
tice. _ The Engliffi, though often remarkable for feats
of agility upon Ikates, are very deficient in gracefulnefs:
which is partly owing to the conftruaion of the Ikates.
They are too much curved in the furface Avhich em¬
braces the ice, confequently they involuntarily bring the
ufers of them round on the outfide upon a quick and
fmall circle 5 whereas the Ikater, by ufing Ikates of a
different conftruaion, lefs curved, has the command of
his ftroke, and can enlarge or diminiffi the circle accord¬
ing to his own wiffi and defire. The metropolis of Scot¬
land has produced more inftances of elegant fkaters than
perhaps any other country whatever j and the inftitu-
tion of a {bating club about 50 years ago, has contri¬
buted not a little to the improvement of this elecrant
amufement. We are indebted for this article to a Gen¬
tleman of that club, who has made the pradtice and im¬
provement of {bating jiis particular ftudy j and as the
nature of our work will not permit the infertion of a full
treatife on {bating, we ffiall prefent our readers with a
few inftrudlions.
Thofe who wiffi to be proficients fliould begin at an
early period of life} and fliould firft endeavour to throw
off the fear which always attends the commencement off
an apparently hazardous amulement. They will foon
acquire a facility of moving on the infide : when they
have done this, they muft endeavour to acquire the
movement on the outfide of the {bates 3 which is nothin-
more than throwing themfelves upon the outer ed-e o£
the {bate, and making the balance of their body tend
towards
Size,
Skating.
-Skating,
Skeleton.
S' K E ' . t 384 ]
towards that fide, which will neceffarily enable them to round,
form a femicircle. In this, much affillance may be de¬
rived from placing a bag of lead-(hot in the pocket next
to the foot employed in making the outfide ftroke, which
will produce an artificial poife of the body, which after¬
wards will become natural by praftice. At the com¬
mencement of the outfide ftroke, the knee of the em¬
ployed limb fhould be a little bended, and gradually
brought to a re6HHneal pofition when the ftroke is com¬
pleted. When the pra&itionef becomes expert m form¬
ing the femicircle with both feet, he is then to join them
together, and proceed progreflively and alternately n ith
both feet, which will carry him forward with a grace¬
ful movement. Care fhould be taken to ufe very little
mufcular exertion, for the impelling motion fhould pro¬
ceed from the mechanical impulfe of the body thrown
into fuch a pofition as to regulate the. ftroke. At taking
the outfide ftroke, the body ought to be thrown forward
eafily, the. unemployed limb kept in a direft line with
the body, and the face and eyes diredly looking for¬
ward : the unemployed foot ought to be ftretched to¬
wards the ice, with the toes in a direft line with the leg.
In the time of making the curve, the body muft be gra¬
dually, and almoft imperceptibly, raifed, and the unem¬
ployed limb brought in the fame manner forward-, fo
that, at fin idling the curve, the body will bend a fmall
degree backward, and the unemployed foot will be
about two inches before the other, ready to embrace the
ice and form a correfpondent curve. J he mufcular
movement of the whole body muft correfpond with the
movement of the fkate, and fhould be regulated fo as
to be almoft imperceptible to the fpeftators. Particular
attention fhould be paid in carrying round the head and
eyes with a regular and imperceptible motion -, for no¬
thing fo much diminifhes the grace and elegance of fka-
ting as fudden jerks and exertions, which are too fre¬
quently ufed by the generality of fkaters.. I he manage¬
ment of the arms likewife deferves attention. . 1 here is
no mode of difpofing of them more gracefully in fkating
outfide, than folding the hands into each other, or ufing
a muff. . .
'I'here are various feats of activity and manoeuvres
ufed upon fkates ; but they are fo various that w^e can¬
not pretend to detail them. Moving on the outfide is
the primary objeft for a fkater to attain ; and when he
becomes an adept in that, he will eafily acquiie^a fa¬
cility in executing other branches of the art. There
are few exercifes but will afford him hints of elegant
and graceful attitudes. For example, nothing can be
more beautiful than the attitude of drawing the bow
and arrow whilft the fkater is making a large circle on
the outfide : the manual exercife and military falutes
have likewife a pretty effeft when ufed by an expert
fkater.
SKELETON, in Anatomy, the dried bones of any
animal joined together by wires, or by the natural liga¬
ment dried, in fuch a manner as to fhow their pofition
when the creature wras alive.
We have, in the Philofophical Tran factions, an ac¬
count of a human fkeleton, all the bones of which were
fo •mited, as to make but one articulation from the back
to the os facrum, and downwards a little way. On faw-
ing feme of them, where they were unnaturally joined,
they were found not to cohere throughout their whole
fubftance, but only about a fixth of an inch deep all
S K U
The figure of the trunk was crooked, the fpinse Skeleton
making the convex, and the infide of the vertebrae the H
concave part of the fegment. The whole had been . ^
found in a charnel-houfe, and was of the fize of a full
grown perfon.
SKIDS, or SKEEDS, in fea-language, are long com-
pafling pieces, of timber, notched below fo as to fit clofe-
ly upon the wales, extending froin the main-wale to
the top of the fide, and retained in this pofition by
bolts or fpike-nails. They are intended for preferying
the planks of the fide, when any heavy body is hoifted
or lowered.
SKIE, Isle of. See Skye.
SKIFF, a fmall boat referobling a yawl, ufually em¬
ployed for paffing rivers.
SKIMMER, Black. See Rhynchops, Ornitho-
LOGY Index.
SK1MMIA, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandria clafs j and in the natural method ranking under'
the 40th order, Ferfonatce. See Botany Index.
SKIN, in Anatomy, the general covering of the body
of any animal. See Anatomy-, N° 74.
Skin, in Commerce, is particularly ufed for the mem¬
brane ftripped off the animal to be prepared by the tan-
ner, fkinner, parchment-maker, &c. and converted into
leather, &c. See Tanning. * . ' _
SKINNER, Stephen, an Englifh antiquarian, was
born in 1622. He travelled, and ftudied in feveral fo¬
reign univerfities during the civil wars j and in 1654,
returned and fettled at Lincoln, where hepradliftd phy-
fic with fuccefs until the year 1667, when he died of a
malignant fever. His works were collefted in folio m
1671', by Mr Henftiaw, under the title of Etymologicon
Linguce Anglican#, &c.
SKIPPER, or Saury, a fpecies of fifli. See Esox,
Ichthyology Index.
SKIRMISH, in War, a flight engagement between
fmall parties, without any regular order and is there¬
fore eafily diftinguifhed from a battle, which is a general
engagement between two armies continued for fome
time. • . .
SKIRMISH Bay, the name given by Lieutenant
Broughton to a bay in an ifland which was diicovered
by him in latitude 430 48' fouth, and in longitude 183
eaft. The Chatham armed tender worked up into the
bay, and came to anchor about a mile from the ff.ore.
When the captain and fome of the people landed, they
found the natives fo extremely inhofpitable,thatfelf-pre-
fervation made it neceffary to fire upon them. '1 he land
is of confiderable magnitude, whether ifland or conti¬
nent, and what they faw of it extendedi nearly 40 miles
from eaft to weft/and the appearance of the country
they regarded as very promifing. I he natives refemble
thofe of New Zealand, from which they are diftant
about 100 leagues, but their Ikins were deftitUte of any
marks, and they feemed to be cleanly in their perions.
Their dreffes were of feal Ikin, while fome had fine mats
faftened round the waift. Mr Broughton fays, “ on our
firft landing, their furprife and exclamations can hardly
be imagined 5 they pointed to the fun, and then to us,
as if to alk whether we had come from thence . e
arms they made ufe of were clubs, fpears, and a ima
weapon refembling the patoo of New Zealand.
SKULL, in Anatomy, the bony cafe in which the
brain is enclofed. See Anatomy, N ii, &c*
SKLLR-
SKY [ 385 ] SKY
Skull SKULL-Cap. See Scutellaria, Botany Index.
|| SKY, the blue expanfe of air or atmofphere. For
Sk—Lj ^ie rea^on ^ts col°ur and concave figure, fee
Oftics, N° 223.
SKYE, one of the greatefl: of the Weftern iflands of
Scotland, fo called from Skianach, which in the Erie
dialed!: lignifies winged, becaufe the two promontories of
Valernefs and Toternifh, by which it is bounded on the
north-weft and north-eaft, are fuppofed to referable
wings. The illand lies between the (hire of Rofs and
the weftern part of Lewis. According to the computa¬
tion of Mr Pennant, Dr Johnfon, and Dr Campbell, it
is 60 miles in length, and nearly the fame in width
where broadeft ; according to others it is 50 miles in
length, and in fome places 30 broad. The illand of
Skye was formerly divided between two proprietors*, the
fouthern part belonged to the laird of Macleod, faid to
be lineally defcended from Leod fon to the black prince
of Man, but part of this divilion has fallen into other
hands : the northern diftridt is the property of Lord
Macdonald, whofe anceftor was Donald, king or lord of
the illes, and chief of the numerous clan of Macdonalds,
who are counted the moft warlike of all the Highlanders.
Skye is part of the fnire of Invernefs, and formerly be¬
longed to the diocefe of the Lies: on the fouth it is part¬
ed from the main land by a channel three leagues in
breadth ; though, at the ferry of Glenelg, it is fo nar¬
row that a man may be heard calling for the boat from
one fide to the other. Skye is well provided with a va¬
riety of excellent bays and harbours.
The face of the country is roughened with moun¬
tains, fome of which are lb high as to be covered with
fnow on the top at midfummer ; in general, their fides
are clothed with heath and grafs, which afford good
pafturage for ftieep and black cattle. Between the
mountains there are fome fertile valleys, and the greater
part of the land towards the fea-coaft is plain and
arable. The illand is well watered with a great num¬
ber of rivers, above 30 of which afford falmon ; and
fome of them produce black mufcles in which pearls
are bred, particularly the rivers Kilmartin and Ord :
Martin was affured by the proprietor of the former,
that a pearl hath been found in it valued at 20I. fter-
ling. Here is alfo a confiderable number of freth-water
lakes well ftored with trout and eels. The largeft of
thefe lakes takes its denomination from St Columba,
to whom is dedicated a chapel that Hands upon a fmall
iile in the middle of the lake. Skye likewife affords
feveral catara&s, that roar down the rocks with great
impetuofity. That the ifland has been formerly covered
"with woods, appears from the large trunks of fir and
other trees daily dug out of the bogs and peat-marffies
in every part of the country.
■ijlical From the height of the hills, and proximity of the
■ (Wflto/'fea, the air.feldom continues long of the fame tempera-
* tf- ture j fometimes it is dry, oftener moift, and in the lat-
l Lo. ter end of winter and beginning of fpring cold and pier¬
cing ; at an average, three days in twelve throughout
the year fcarcely free from rain, far lefs from clouds.
Thefe, attracted by the hills, fometimes break in ufeful
and refrelhing fliowers ; at other times fuddenly burft-
ing? pour down their contents with tremendous noife,
in impetuous torrents that deluge the plains below, and
render the fmalleft rivulet impaffable ; which, together
with the ftormy winds fo common in this country in
Vol. XIX. Part I. 1
the months of Auguft and September, frequently bladb Skye,
the hopes, and difappoint the expedlations, of the huf- v”-
bandman. Snow has been often known to lie on the
ground from three to feven weeks ; and on the higheft
hills, even in the middle of June, fome fpots of it are
to be feen. To this various temperature of the air,
and uncertainty of weather, the fevers and agues, head-
achs, rheumatifms, colds, and dyfenteries, which are the
prevailing diftempers, may be aferibed. That it is far,
however, from being unwholefome, is fufficiently evin¬
ced by experience *, for the inhabitants are, in gene¬
ral, as ftrong and healthy, and arrive at as advanced an
age, as thofe who live in milder climates, and under
a ferener Iky. The gout is fcarcely known in this-
ifland.
The foil is generally black, though it likewife affords
clay of different colours *, fuch as white, red, and blue,
and in fome places fuller’s earth. It is, however, touch
lefs adapted for agriculture than for pafture, and fel-
dom, unlefs, in very good years, fupplies itfelf with a fuf-
ficiency of provifions. Yet, though the foil is not very
fertile or rich, it might with proper management be
made to produce more plentiful crops. But the gene¬
rality of the farmers are fo prejudiced in favour of old
cuftoms, and indeed fo little inclined to induftry, that
they will not eafily be prevailed on to change them
for better *, efpecially if the alteration or amendment
propofed be attended with expence. Therefore, with
refpeft to improvements in agriculture, they are ftill
much in the fame ftate as they were 20 or 30 years
ago. Ploughs, on a new and improved model, that in
comparifon to the advantages derived from them might
be had at a moderate expence, have lately been intro¬
duced into feveral diftridts around, where their good ef¬
fects are manifeft in improving the crops and diminifli-
ing the labour of man and beat! ; but the laird of Raa-
fay and one other gentleman are the only perfons in
Portree that have ufed them. The cafcroim, a crooked
kind of fpade, is almoft the only inftrument for labouring
the ground ufed among the ordinary clafs of tenants.
The average crops of corn are 8000 bolls.
When Mr Knox vifited this ifland in 1786, the
number of inhabitants amounted to 15,000 ; but be¬
tween 1790-98, according to the Statiftical Hiftory of
Scotland, the population is only 14,470.
Various minerals are found in Skye, but none have
been wrought to any advantage. Near the village of
Sartle, the natives find black and white marcafites, and
variegated pebbles. The Applefglen, in the neighbour¬
hood of Lochfallart, produces beautiful agates of dif¬
ferent colours : ftones of a purple hue are, after great
rains, found in the rivulets: cryftal, of different colours
and forms, abounds in feveral parts of the ifland, as well
as black and white marble, free-ftone, lime-ftone, and
talc : fmall red and white coral is found on the fouthern
and weftern coafts in great abundance. The fuel con-
fifts chiefly of peat and turf, which are impregnated
with iron ore 5 and coal has been difeovered in feveral
diftridls j but it does not appear to be worth work¬
ing*
The wild birds of all forts moft common in the coun¬
try, are, folan geefe, gulls, cormorants, cranes, wild
geefe, and wild ducks; eagles, crows, ravens, rooks, cuc¬
koos, rails, woodcocks, moor-fowl, partridges, plover,
wild pigeons, and blackbirds, owls, hawks, fnipes, and
SKY [ 386 ] SLA
a variety of fmall birds. In mild feafons, the cuckoo
and rail appear in the latter end of April 5 the former
difappears always before the end of June ; the latter
fometimes not till September. The woodcock comes
in Oftober, and frequently remains till March. The
tame forts of fowl are geefe, ducks, turkeys, cocks, pul¬
lets, and tame pigeons.
The black cattle are here expofed to all the rigours
of the fevere winter, without any other provender than
the tops of the heath and the alga marina ; fo that they
appear like mere Ikeletons in the fpring ; though, as
the grafs grows up, they foon become plump and juicy,
the beef being fweet, tender, and finely interlarded.—
The amphibious animals are feals and otters. Among
the reptiles may beveckoned vipers, afps, frogs, toads, and
three different kinds of ferpentsj the firft (potted black
and white, and very poifonoUs •, the fecond yellow,
with brown fpots •, and the third of a brown colour, the
final led and lead poifonous.
Whales, and cairbans or fun-fifh, come in fometimes
to the founds after their prey, but are rarely purfued
■with any fuccefs. The fifties commonly caught on the
conft are herrings, ling, cod, Ikate, haddock, mackerel,
lythe, fye, and dog-fiib. The average price of ling at
home is 13I 13s. per ton ; when fold, one by one, it
frefh, the price is from 3d. to 3d. ; if cured, from yd.
to 'jd. The barrel of herrings feldom fells under 19s.
which is owing to the great difficulty of procuring (alt,
even fometimes at any price •, and the fame caufe pre
vents many from taking more than are fufficient for
their own ufe.
The kyle of Scalpe teems with oyders, in fuch a man¬
ner, that after fome fpring-tides, 20 horfe-loads of them
are left upon the fands. Near the village of Bernltill,
the beach yields mufeles fufficient to maintain 60 per-
fons per day •, this providential fupply helps to fupport
many poor families' in times of fcarcity.
The people are ftrong, robuft, healthy, and prolific.
They generally profefs the Proteftant religion ; are ho¬
ned, brave, innocent, and hofpitable. 1 hey fpeak the
language, wear the habit, and obferve the euftoms that
are" common to all the Hebrides. The meconium in
new-born infants is purged away with freffi butter : the
children are bathed every morning and evening in wa¬
ter, and grow up fo ftrong, that a child of 10 months
is able to walk alone : they never wear (hoes or dock¬
ings before the age of eight or ten, and night-caps are
hardly known 5 they keep their feet always wet 3 they
lie on beds of draw or heath, which laft is an excellent
reftorative : they are quick of apprehenfion, ingenious,
and very much addifled to mufic and poetry. They
eat heartily of fifh •, but feldom regale themfelves with
flefti-meat: their ordinary food confifts of butter, cheefe,
milk, potatoes, colewort, brochan, and a difli called
■ oon, which indeed is no other than the froth of boiled
milk or whey raifed with a (lick like that ufed in making
chocolate.
A fort of coarfe woollen cloth called c/oc, or catl-
does, the manufacture of their wives, made into (hort
jackets and troufers, is the common drefs of the men.
The philibeg is rarely worn, except in dimmer and on
Sundays ; on which days, and fome other occafions, thofe
in better circumftances appear in tartans, a bonnet, and
(hort hofe, and fome in a hat, ftiort coat, waiftcoat, and
breeches, of Scotch or Engliffi manufacture. The wo-
2
men are in general very cleanly, and fo exceffively fond Sky*
of drefs, that many maid-fervants are often known to lay It
out their whole wages that way. . a^er-j
There are two fairs held annually at Portree, to
which almoft every part of Skye fends cattle. The firft
is held in the end of May, and the fecond in the end of
July. The fair commonly continues from Wednefday
till the Saturday following. The commodities which
are fold in thefe are horfes, cows, ffieep, goats, hides,
butter, cheefe, fifti, and wool. The cattle fold in thefe
fairs fwim over to the main land through a mile or half
a mile of fea. Thoufands of thefe are yearly exported,
at from 2k to 3I. each. Many of them are driven to
England, where they are fatted for the market, and
counted delicious eating.
In Skye appear many ruins of Danifh forts, watch-
towers, beacons, temples, and fepulchral monuments.
All the forts are known by the term Dun ; fuch as
Dun-Skudborg, Dun-Derig, Dun-Skerinefs, Dun-Da-
vid, &c.
SkT-Colour. To give this colour to glafs, fet in the
furnace a pot of pure metal of fritt from rochetta or ba¬
rilla, but the rochetta fritt does belt •, as foon as the
metal is well purified, take for a pot of twenty pounds
of metal fix ounces of brafs calcined by itfelf •, put it by
degrees at two or three times into the metal, dir ring
and mixing it well every time, and diligently Ikimming
the metal with a ladle : at the end of two hours the
whole will be well mixed, and a proof may be taken :
if the colour be found right, let the whole (land 24
hours longer in the furnace, and it will then be fit to
work, and will prove of a moft beautiful (ky colour.
SLAB, an outfide fappy plank or board fawed off
from the fides of a timber-tree. The word is alfo ufed
for a flat piece of marble.
SLAB Line, in fea-language, a fmall cord paffing up
behind a (hip’s main-fail, or fore-fail, and being reeved
through a block attached to the lower part of the yard,
is thence tranfmitted in two branches to the foot of the
fail, to which it is faftened. It is ufed to trufs up the
fall as occafion requires, and more particularly for the
convenience of the pilot or fleerfman, that they may
look forward beneath it as the (hip advances.
SLACK-WATER, in fea-language, denotes the inter¬
val between the flux and reflux of the tide, or between
the laft of the ebb and the firft of the flood, during
which the current is interrupted, and the water appa¬
rently remains in a ftate of reft.
SL ACKEN, in Metallurgy, a term ufed by miners
to exprefs a fpongy and femivkrified fubftance which is
mixed with the ores of metals, to prevent their fufion.
It is the fcoria or feum feparated from the furface of
the former fufions of metals. T o this is frequently
added limeftone, and fometimes a kind of coarfe iron ore,
in the running of the poorer gold ores.
SLATE, a (lone of a compaft texture and laminated
ftrufture, fplitting into fine plates, fome varieties of
which are employed for covering houfes. See Clay-Slate,
under Mineralogy, p. 185. See alio Geology.
SLAVE. See Slavery. i j
SLAVERY is a word, of which, though generally Slavery
underftood, it is not eafy to give a proper definition, fine-
An excellent moral writer has defined it to he “ an ob¬
ligation to labour for the benefit of the mafler, without
the contraft or confent of the fervant.” But may not he
be
SLA
[avery. be properly called a Have who has given up his freedom
-Y—J to difcharge a debt which he could not otherwife pay, or
who has thrown it away at a game of hazard > In" ma¬
ny nations, debts have been legally difcharged in this
manner ; and in fome favage tribes, fucli is the univerfal
ardour for gaming, that it is no uncommon thing for a
man, after having loft at play all his other property, to
flake, on a fingle throw of dice, himfelf, his wife, and
his children (a). That perfons who have thus loft their
liberty are flaves, will hardly be denied j and furely
the infatuated gamefter is a Have by his own contradl.
The debtor, too, if he was aware of the law, and con¬
tracted debts larger than he could reafonably expedl to
be able to pav, may juftly be confidered as having come
under an obligation to labour for the benefit of a mafter
wit/i his own confent; for every man is anfvverable for
all the known confequences of his voluntary adtions.
This definition of ilavery feems to be defedtive as well
as inaccurate. A man may be under an obligation to
labour through life for the benefit of a mafter, and yet
that mafter have no right to difpofe of him by fale, or
in any other way to make him the property of a third
perfon; but the word Jlave, as ufed among us, always
denotes a perfon who may be bought, and fold like a
beaft in the market (b). In its original fenfe, indeed,
it was of the fame import with noble, illujlrious ; but
vaft numbers of the people among whom it had that
fignification being, in the decline ot the Roman empire,
fold by their countrymen to the Venetians, and by them
difperfed over all Europe, the word Jlave came to de¬
note a perfon in the lovveft ftate of fervitude, who was
confidered as the abfolute property of his mafter. See
2 Philology, N° 220.
I ualities As nothing can be more evident than that all men
0Ink in- have, by the law of nature, an equal right to life, liber-
^ lble> ty, and the produce of their own labour (fee Right,
50> ^ is n°t eafy to conceive what can have firft
led one part of them to imagine that they had a right
to enflave another. Inequalities of rank are indeed in¬
evitable in civil fociety j and from them refults that fer¬
vitude which is founded in contradft, and is of tempo¬
rary duration. (See Moral Philosophy, N° 141.).
He who has much property has many things to attend to,
and muft be difpoled to hire perfons to aflift and ferve
him j while thofe who have little or no property muft
be equally willing to be hired for that purpofe. And
if the mafter be kind, and the fervant faithful, they will
both be happier in this connexion than they could have
been out of it. But from a ftate of fervitude, where the
Have is at the abfolute difpofal of his mafter in all things,
end may be transferred without his own confent from
87 ] 1 SLA
one proprietor to another, like an ox or an afs, happi- Slavery,
nefs muft be for ever baniftied. How then came a traf- ' v"
fic fo unnatural and unjuft as that of llaves to be origi¬
nally introduced into the world ?
The common anfwer to this queftion is, that it took
its rife among favages, who, in their frequent wars with
each other, either maffacred their captives in cold blood,
or condemned them to perpetual Ilavery. In fupport of
this opinion we have heard it obferved, that the Latin
word fervus, which fignifies not a hired fervant, but a
Jlave, is derived from fervare, “ to preferve 5” and that
fuch men were called fervi, becaufe they were captives,
whofe lives were preferved on the condition of their be¬
coming the property of the vidfor. 3
That flavery had its origin from war, we think ex Orig-' - of
tremely probable (c), nor are we inclined to controvert
this etymology of the word fervus ; but the traffic in
men prevailed almoft univerfally long before the Latin
language or Roman name was heard of; and there is
no good evidence that it began among favages. The
word "TDj;, in the Old Teftament, which in our verlion
is rendered fervant, fignifies literally a fave, either born
in the family or bought writh money, in contradiitinc-
tion to vatv, which denotes a hired fervant: and as Noah 4
makes ufe of the word in the curfe which he de- Prior to the
nounces upon Ham and Canaan immediately after the deluge,
deluge, it would appear that llavcry had its origin be¬
fore that event. If fo, there can be little doubt but
that it began among thofe violent perfons whom our
tranflators have called*, though the original word* Gen. vi»
D'bss literally fignifies ajfaulters of others. Thofe wretch- 4'
es feem firft to have feized upon women, whom they
forcibly compelled to minifter to their pleafures •, and
from this kind of violence the progrefs was natural to
that by which they enflaved their weaker brethren among
the men, obliging them to labour for their benefit, with¬
out allowing them fee or reward. ^
After the deluge the firft dealer in flaves feems to Nimrod en-
have been Nimrod. u He began,” we are told, “ to behaved his
a mighty one in the earth, and was a mighty hunter cal)tives'
before the Lord.” He could not, however, be the firft
hunter of wild beafts ; for that fpecies of hunting muft
have been praftifed from the beginning 5 nor is it pro¬
bable that his dexterity in the chafe, which was then
the univerfal employment, could have been fo far fu-
perior to that of all his contemporaries, as to entitle him
to the appellation of “ the mighty hunter before the
Lord.” Hence moft commentators have concluded,
that he was a hunter of men ; an opinion which they
think receives fome countenance from the import of his
name, the word Nimrod fignifying a rebel. Whatever
3 C 2 be
(a) Aleam (quod mirere) fobrii inter feria exercent, tanta lucrandi perdendive temeritate, ut cum omnia defe-
cerunt, extreme ac noviflimo jaftu de libertate et corpore contendant. Viftus voluntariam fervitutem adit; quam-
vis junior, quamvis robuftior, alligari fe ac venire patitur.—Tacitus de Mor. Germ.
Ihe favages of North America are equally addifted to gaming with the ancient Germans, and the neo-roes on
the Slave Coaft of Guinea perhaps ftill more.
(b) I he Roman orator’s definition ol f avert/. Farad. V. is as accurate as any that we haVe feen. “ Servitus eft
obedientia fradti animi et abje fti et arbitrio carentis fuo ;” whether the unhappy perfon fell into that ftate with or
Without his own contr a 61 or confent.
(c) In the article Society, the reader will find another account of the origin of flavery, which we think like-
v.ife probable, though we have not transferred it to this place; as it would, in our opinion, be wrong to give ta
one writer what we know to belong to another. It may be proper, however, to obferve here, that between the
two articles there -is no contradiftion, as barbarous wars were certainly one fource of flavery.
SLA
Slavery.
6
Slavery in
the days of
Abraham.
[ 3
be in ibis, there can be little doubt but that he became
a mighty one by violence } for being the lixth fon of
his father, and apparently much younger than the other
five, it is not likely that his inheritance exceeded theirs
either in extent or in population. He enlarged it, how¬
ever, by conqueft 5 for it appears from Scripture, that
he invaded the territories of Aihur the fon of Shem,
who had fettled in Shinar 5 and obliging him to remove
into Aflyria, he feized upon Babylon, and made it the
capital of the firft kingdom in the world. As he had
great projefts in view, it feems to be in a high degree
probable that he made bond-fervants of the captives
whom he took in his wars, and employed them in build¬
ing or repairing the metropolis of his kingdom^; and
hence we think is to be dated the origin of poftdiluvian
llavery.
That it began thus early can hardly be quefhoned ;
for we know that it prevailed univerfally in the age of
Abraham, who was born within feventy years after the
death of Nimrod. That patriarch had three hundred
and eighteen fervants or Haves, born in his own houfe,
and trained to arms, with whom he purfued and con¬
quered the four kings who had taken captive his bro-
f Gen. xiv. ther’s fon f. And it appears from the converfation
which took place between him and the king of Sodom
after the battle, that both believed the conqueror had
a right to confider his prifoners as part of his fpoil.
/ « Give me (fays the king) the perfons, and take the
goods to thyfelf.” It is indeed evident from numberlefs
paffages of fcripture, that the domeftics whom our tranf-
lators call fervants were in thofe days univerfally confi-
dered as the molt valuable part of their mafter’s proper¬
ty, and clafled •with his flocks and herds. I hus when
the facred hiflorian defcribcs the wealth of Abraham, he
fays, that “ he had flieep and oxen, and he-affes, and men-
fervants, and maid-fervants, and {he-affes, and camels.”
And when Abimelech wilhed to make fome reparation
to the patriarch for the unintended injury that he had
done him, “ he took flreep and oxen, and men-fervants,
and women-f rvants, and gave them unto Abraham, and
reftored to him Sarah his wife.” The riches and power
of Ifaac and Jacob are eftimated in the very fame man¬
ner. Of the former it is faid, that “ the man waxed
^reat, and went forward and grew, until he became very
great : for he had pofleflion of flocks, and poffeflion of
herds, and great ffore of fervants, n-pxi of Haves ; and
the Philiftines envied him.” The latter, we are told,
46 increafed exceedingly, and had much cattle, and maid-
f Gen xii. fervants, and men-fervants, and camels, and afles J.”
16. xx. 14. tjie pra(qice 0f buying and felling fervants thus
xxvi i' 14.early begun among the patriarchs defcended to their
xxx 43. poilerity, is known to every attentive reader of the Bi-
88 ] SLA
ble. It was exprefsly authorifed by the Jewifh law, in Slavery
which are many directions how fuch fervants were to be vt
treated. They were to be bought only of the heathen j Authorif
for if an Ifraelite grew poor and fold himfelf either to by ^ ^
difcharge a debt, or to procure the means of lubfiftence,faic law.
he wras to be treated not as a Have but as a hired
fervant T^, and reftored to freedom at the year ©f Ju¬
bilee. “ Both thy bond-men and thy bond-maids (fays
Mofes) fhall be of the heathen that are round about you :
of them {hall ye buy bond-men and bond-maids. And
ye {hall take them as an inheritance for your children
after you, to inherit them for a pcfftfiion } they fhall be
your bond-men for ever |j.” Unlimited as the power || Lev. xz
thus given to the Hebrews over their bond-fervants 0(39,40,4
heathen extraftion appears to have been, they were ftrift-^6,
ly prohibited from acquiring fuch property by any other
means than fair purchafe : “ he thztfealet/i a man and
felleth him,” faid their great lawgiver, “ {hall furely be
put to death §.” § Lev. r
Whilft flavery, in a mild form, was permitted among 16.
the people of God, a much worfe kind of it prevail
among the heathen nations of antiquity. With otherthewhoj
abominable cuftoms, the traffic in men quickly fpread world,
from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia, and over all the eaft,
and by degrees found its way into every known region
under heaven (d).
Of this hateful commerce we fhall not attempt to
trace the progrefs through every age and country, but
{hall content ourfelves with taking a tranfient view of it
among the Greeks and Romans, and a few7 other na¬
tions, in whofe cuftoms and manners our readers muft
be interefted. _ 9
One can hardly read a book of the Iliad or Odyney, Slavery;
without perceiving that, in the age of Homer, all prifoners mong 1
of wrar were liable to be treated as flaves, and compelled,
without regard to their rank, fex, or years, to labour
for their mafters in offices of the vileft drudgery.. So
univerfally was this cruel treatment of captives admitted
to be the right of the viftor, that the poet introduces
He&or in the very a£! of taking a tender and perhaps
laft farewell of his wife, when it was lurely his bufinefs
to afford her every confolation in his power, telling her,
as a thing of courfe which could not be concealed, that,
on the conqueft of Troy, ffie would be compelled
To bear the vi&or’s hard commands, or bring
The weight of water from Hyperia’s fpring (e).
Pope.
At that early period, the Phoenicians, and probably the
Greeks themfelves, had fuch an eftabliftied commerce in
flaves, that, not fatisfied with reducing to.bondage their
prifoners of war, they fcrupled not to kidnap in cold
blood
(lA If credit be due to a late account of China, the people of that vaft empire have never made merchandife of
men or women. The exception, however, is fo Angular, that we ftiould be glad to fee it better ^henticA ,
for it is apparent from works of the moil undoubted credit, that over all the other eaftern countries ™th which
we are acquainted flavery has prevailed from time immemorial, and that fome of the Indian nations ma &
iourneys into Africa for the foie purpofe of buying flaves. r t m >0
(eY In thofe early times drawing water was the office of the meaneft flaves. 1 his appears from ,
upon the Gibeonites who had deceived him.—“ Now therefore ye are curfed, and there ffiaU none of you ^
from being bond-men, and hewers of wood, and drawers of water, for the houfe of my God. 1° th
bondage Homer makes Heftor fay, that Andromache would necejfarihj be brought upon the deftrudhon of )
xgdltgtl 0’ (TrixHtriTxrccyxy-—//aid. lib. vi.
SLA t 389 ] SLA
Slavery, blood perfons who had never kindled their refentraent,
'■—■V"""''in order to fupply their foreign markets. In the 14th
book of the Odyffey, Ulyffes reprefents himfelf as ha¬
ving narrowly efcaped a fnare of this kind laid for him
by a falfe Phoenician, who had doomed the hero to Li¬
byan flavery : and as the whole narrative, in which this
circumftance is told, is an artful fiftion, intended to
have the appearance of truth to an Ithacan peafant, the
practice of kidnapping flaves could not then have ap-
> peared incredible to any inhabitant of that iflahd.
Such were the manners of the Greeks in the heroic
age •, nor were they much improved in this refpecf at
periods of greater refinement. Philip of Macedon ha¬
ving conquered the Thebans, not only fold his captives,
but even took money for permitting the dead to be bu-
f Juftin. ried * j and Alexander, who had more generofity than
ib.iii. Philip, afterwards razed the city of Thebes, and fold
raP- j-. the inhabitants, men, women, and children, for Haves f.
cruel treatment of a brave people may indeed be
fuppofed to have proceeded, in the firft inftanee, from
the avarice of the conqueror ; and in the fecond, from the
momentary refentment of a man who was favageand gene¬
rous by turns, and who had no command of his paffions.
We (hall not pofitively affign it to other caufes \ but
from the manner in which the Spartans behaved to their
flaves, there is little reafon to imagine that had they re¬
ceived from the Thebans the fame provocation with A-
lexander, they would have treated their captives with
,eattie,s greater lenity. “ At Sparta (fays a humane and ele-
■toral gant writer) flaves were treated with a degree of ri-
kitnee, gour that is hardly conceivable 5 although to them, as
°*'u* their hufbandmen and artificers, their proud and idle
mailers were indebted for all the neceffaries of life. The
Lacedaemonian youth, trained up in the pradlice of de¬
ceiving and butchering thofe poor men, were from time
to time let loofe upon them, in order to fhow their pro¬
ficiency in flratagem and malTacre. And once, without
any provocation, and merely for their own amufement,
we are told that they murdered three thoufand in one
night, not onlv with the connivance of law, but by its
avowed permiflion. Such, in promoting the happinefs
of one part of fociety and the virtue of another, are the
effefts of flavery.”
It has been faid, that in Athens and Rome flaves
were better treated than in Sparta : but in the former
city their treatment cannot have been good, or their
lives comfortable, when the Athenians relifhed that tra¬
gedy of Euripides in which Hecuba, the wife of Priam,
10 is introduced as lamenting that fhe was chained like a
Romans, dog at Agamemnon’s gate ? Of the eftimation in which
flaves were held in Rome, we may form a tolerable no¬
tion from the well-known faft, that one of thofe unhap¬
py beings was often chained at the gate of a great min’s Slavery,
houfe, to give admittance to the guefls invited to a ^
feafl *. In the early periods of the commonwealth it* Karnes's
was cuflomary, in certain facred fliews exhibited on fo- Sketches.
lemn occafions, to drag through the circus a Have, who
had been fcourged to death holding in his hand a fork
in the form of a gibbet f. But we need not multiply | Cicero de
proofs of the cruelty of the Romans to their flaves. If Bin. lib. i.
the inhuman combats of the gladiators (fee GLADlA-caP- 2<^
tors) admit of any apology on account of the martial
fpirit with which they were thought to infpire the fpec-
tators, the condudl of Vedius Pollio muft have proceed¬
ed from the moft wanton and brutal cruelty. This man,
who flouriflred not in the earliefl periods of the republic,
when the Romans were little better than a favage ban¬
ditti, but in the polifhed age of Auguflus, frequently
threw fuch flaves as gave him the High tell offence into
his fifhponds to fatten his lampreys ; and yet he w7as fuf-
fered to die in peace ! The emperor, indeed, upon jo¬
ining to the knowledge of his cruelty, ordered his lam¬
preys to be deflroyed, and his ponds to be filled up 5
but we do not recolledt that any other punithment was
infli&ed on the favage mailer. Till the reign of the
fame emperor the depofitions of flaves were never ad¬
mitted in the courts of judicature ; and then they were
received only when perfons were accufed of treafonable
praflices. j x
The origin of flavery in Rome was the fame as in Origin of*
every other country. Prifoners of wrar were of courfe R°man
reduced to that Hate, as if they had been criminals. ^a%er^*
The dictator Camillus, one of the moll accomplifhed ge¬
nerals of the republic, fold his Hetrurian captives tp pay
the Roman ladies for the jewels which they bad prefent-
ed to Apollo. Fabius, whofe cautious conduct faved
his country when Hannibal was vi&orious in Italy, hav¬
ing fubdued Tarentum, reduced 30,000 of the citizens
to flavery, and fold them to the highefl bidder. Corio-
lanus, when driven from Rome, and fighting for the
Volfci, fcrupled not to make flaves of his own country¬
men ; and Julius Csefar, among whofe faults wanton
cruelty has never been reckoned, fold at one time fifty-
three thoufand captives for flaves. Nor did the flaves
in Rome confifl only of foreigners taken in war. By
one of the laws of the twelve tables, creditors rvere em¬
powered to feize their infolvent debtors, and keep them
in their houfes till, by their fervices or labour, they had
difeharged the fum they owed : and in the beginningof
the commonwealth they were authorifed to fell fuch
debtors, and even to put them to death (f). The chil¬
dren of flaves were the property not of the common¬
wealth, or of their own parents, but of their mafters ;
and thus was flavery perpetuated in the families of fuch
unhappy
(f) After a certain number of citations, the law granted to the debtor thirty days of grace to raife the fum for
which he was accountable. The words of the law are : “ iEris confefli, rebufque jure judicatis, triginti dies juiti
funto. Poft dein manum endojacito.—Vincito aut nervo, aut compedibus.” When the debt is confeffed, and
the trial paffed, let there be thirty days of forbearance •, afterwards lay hands on him \ bind him either with a cord
or fetters.” After the thirty days were expired, if the debtor had not difeharged the debt, he was led to the prae¬
tor, who delivered him over to the mercy of his creditors *, thefe bound him and kept him in chains for the fpace
of fixty days. Afterwards, for three market-days fucceffively, the debtor was brought to the tribunal of the prae¬
tor \ then a public crier proclaimed in the forum the debt for which the prifoner was detained. It often happened,
that rich perfons redeemed the prifoner by paying his debts •, but if nobody appeared in behalf of the debtor after-
the third market-day, the creditor had a right to inflid the punilhments appointed by the la tv. “ Tertiis nundinis
capite
SLA f 39° ] SLA
Slavery.
ta
Its dura¬
tion.
13
Slavery a-
mong the
ancient
Germans.
ttnliappy men as fell into that Hate, whether through
the chance of war or the cruelty of a fordid creditor (g).
The confequence was, that the number of flaves belong¬
ing to the rich patricians was almoft incredible. Caius
Csecilius Ifidorus, who died about feven years before
the Chriftian era, left to his heirs 4116 (laves ; and if
any one of thofe wretched creatures made an unfuceefs-
ful attempt to regain his liberty, or was even fufpe&ed
of fuch a defign, he was marked on the forehead with a
red-hot iron (h). In Sicily, during the molt flourifhing
periods of the commonwealth, it feems to have been
cuftomary for mafters to mark their (laves in this man¬
ner ; at lead wTe know that fuch was the pradlice of
Damophilus, who, not fatisfied with this fecurity, (hut
up his (laves every night in clofe prifons, and led them
out like beads in the morning to their daily labour in
the field. Hence arofe the fervile war in Sicily.
Though many laws were enafted by Augudus and
other patriotic emperors to diminifh the power of credi¬
tors over their infolyent debtors j though the influence
of the mild fpirit of Chridianity tended much to meli¬
orate the condition of (laves, even under Pagan maders j
and though the emperor Adrian made it capital to kill
a (lave without a jud reafon, yet this infamous com¬
merce prevailed univerfally in the empire for many ages
after the converfion of Condantine to the religion of"
Chrid. It was not indeed completely abolifhed even in
the reign of Judinian j and in many countries which
had once been provinces of the empire it continued long
after the empire itfelf had fallen to pieces.
It has already been obferved, that among the ancient
Germans it was not uncommon for an ardent gameder
to lofe his perfonal liberty by a throw of the dice. This
was indeed a drong proof of favage manners j but the
general condition of (laves among thofe favages feems to
have been much better than among the polifhed Greeks
and Romans. In Germany the (laves were generally
attached to the foil, and only employed in tending cat¬
tle, and carrying on the bufinefs of agriculture j for
the menial offices of every great man’s houfe were per¬
formed by his wife and children. Such (laves w^ere fel-
dom beaten, or chained, or imprifoned. Sometimes in¬
deed they were killed’ by their maders in a fit of hid¬
den paffion ; but none were confidered as materials of
commerce, except thofe who had originally been free¬
men, and lod their freedom by play. Thefe, indeed,
the fuccefsful gameder was very ready to fell, both be- Slavery,
caufe he felt them an ufelefs burden, and becaufe their
prefence continually put him in mind of that date to
which a throw of the dice might one day reduce him-
felf.
Such is the account which Tacitus gives * of (lavery * j)e ^ |
among the-ancient Germans. The Anglo-Saxons, how- Genn. 24, j
ever, after they were fettled in this illand feem not to2S-
have carried on that traffic fo honourably. By a da-
tute of Alfred the Greatf, the purchafe'of a man, a^. linkin'
horfe, or an ox, without a voucher to warrant the fale, Cs!leclion'\\
wras driclly forbidden. That law was, doubtlefs, ena£t- Luwsfrw'
ed to prevent the Jlealing of men and cattle ; but it Seibert
(hows us that fo late as the ninth or tenth century a^^
man, when fairly purchafed, was, in England, as much ’ j4
the property of the buyer as the horfe on which he rode, In Englaik,
or the ox which dragged his plough. In the fameatl(l
country, now- fo nobly tenacious of freedom and the
rights of man, a fpecies of (lavery fimilar to that which
prevailed among the ancient Germans fubfided even to
the end of the (ixteenth century. This appears from a
commiffion iffued by Queen Elizabeth in 1574, for in¬
quiring into the lands and goods of all her bond-men and
bond-women in the counties of Cornwall, Devon, So-
merfet, and Glouceder, in order to compound with them
for their manumiffion, that they might enjoy their lands
and goods as freemen J. In Scotland there certainly ^ ,
exided an order of (laves or bond-men, who tilled the Sketches*
ground, were attached to the foil, and with it were book i.
transferable from one proprietor to another, at a period ^etch j. |
fo late as the thirteenth century ; but when or how Scotland. '
thofe villains, as they were called, obtained their free¬
dom, feems to be unknown to every lawyer and anti¬
quary of the prefent day. Coalliers and falters were,
in the fame country, (laves till little more than 30 years
ago, that they were manumitted by an aft of the Bri-
tiffi legiflature, and redored to the rights of freemen
and citizens. Before that period the fons of coalliers
could follow no bufinefs but that of their fathers ; nor
were they at liberty to feek employment in any other
mines than thofe to which they were attached by
birth, without the confent of the lord of the manor,
who, if he had no ufe for their fervices himfelf, trans¬
ferred them by a written deed to feme neighbouring
proprietor. »
That the favage nations of Africa were at any period sj3Very '
of rnong the I
Carthagi-
  i          nians.
capite poenas data aut trans Tiberim peregre venumduito that is, “ Let him on the third market-day be punifli-
ed with death, or fold beyond the Tiber as a Have.” If there wrere feveral creditors, they were allowed, in confe¬
quence of this fevere law, to divide the body of the prifoner into feveral parts, and (hate it among them in propor¬
tion to the fum which they demanded.
(g) This is evident from the (lory of Appius and Virginia. See Rome, N° 113.
(h) How capricioufiy and uniullly this infamous mark was impreffed, we learn (rom the (lory of Reftio. This
man being profcribed, and a reward offered for his head by the triumvirs Oftavianus, Antony, and Lepidus, con¬
cealed himfelf from the fury of the tyrants in the bed way that he could. A (lave whom he had marked with the
hot iron having found out the place of his retreat, condufted him to a cave, and there fupported him for feme time
with what he earned by his daily labour. At length a company of foldiers coming that way, and approaching the
cave, the faithful (lave, alarmed at the danger his mafier was in* followed them clofe, and falling upon a poor pea-
fant, killed him in their prefence, and cut off his head, crying out, “ I am now revenged on my mailer for the
marks with which he has branded me.” The foldiers, fet ing the infamous marks on his forehead, and not doubt¬
ing but he had killed Reftio, fnatehed the head out of his hand, and returned with it in all hade to the triumvirs.
They were no fooner gone, than the (lave conveyed his n.after to the fea-fide, where they had the good luck to
nnd one of Sextus Pompeius’s veffels, which tranfported them fafe into Sicily.
SLA
: Slavery.
Polyb.
. Curt,
iod. Sic.
-e alfo
icient
vvrrfal
pry,
fll. XV.
of hiftory exempted from this opprobrium of our nature
which fpread over all the red of the world, the enlight¬
ened reader will not fuppofe. It is indeed in that vaft
country that flavery has in every age appeared in its
uglieft form. We have already obferved, that about the
era of the Trojan war, a commerce in Haves was car¬
ried on between Phoenicia and Libya : and the Cartha¬
ginians, who were a colony of Phoenicians, and revered
the cufloms, manners, and religion of their parent date,
undoubtedly continued the Tyrian traffic in human fleih
with the interior tribes of Africa. Of this we might
red allured, although we had no other evidence of the
fa£t than what refults from the praftice of human facri-
fices fo prevalent in the republic of Carthage. The ge¬
nuine in Hindis of nature are often fubdued by dire fuper-
dition, but they cannot be wholly eradicated •, and the
rich Carthaginian, when a human vidfim was demanded
from him to the gods, would be ready to fupply the
place of his own child by the fon of a poor dranger, per-
fidioufly purchafed at whatever price. That tins -was,
indeed, a very common pradfice among them, we learn
from the tedimony of various hidorians *, who allure us,
that when Agathocles the tyrant of Syracufe had over¬
thrown their generals Hanno and Bomilcar, and threat¬
ened Carthage itfelf with a dege, the people attributed
their misfortunes to the jud anger of Saturn for having
been wordlipped, for fome years, by the facrifices of.
children meanly born and fecretly bought, indead of
thofe of noble extraction. Thefe fubditutions of one of¬
fering for another were confidered as a profane deviation
from the religion of their forefathers 5 and therefore to
expiate the guilt of fo horrid an impiety, a facrifice of
200 children of the fird rank was on that occadon made
to the bloody god. As the Carthaginians were a com¬
mercial people, we cannot fuppofe that they purchafed
daves only for faeridees. They undoubtedly condemn¬
ed many of their prifoners of war to the date of fervi-
tude, and either fold them to foreigners, or didributed
them among their fenators and the leaders of their ar¬
mies. Hanno, who endeavoured to ufurp the fupreme
power in Carthage whild that republic was engaged in
war with Timoleon in Sicily f, armed 20,000 of his
Haves in order to carry his nefarious purpofe into execu¬
tion : and Hannibal, after his decifive victory at Can-
nae» f°ld to the Greeks many of his prifoners -whom the
f>t. Liv. Roman fenate refufed to redeem J. That illudrious
commander wms indeed more humane, as well as more
naias. politic, than the generality of his countrymen. Before
his days it was cudomary with the Carthaginians either
to maffacre their captives in cold blood, that they might
never again bear arms againd them, or to offer them in
facrifice as a grateful acknowledgement to the gods by
whofe affidance they believed that they were vanquifii-
ed •, but this wTas not always done even by their mod
fuperditious or mod unprincipled leaders. Among other
rich fpoils which Agathocles, after his vicfory already
mentioned, found in the camp of Hanno and Bomilcar,
were twenty thoufand pair of fetters and manacles, which
thofe generals had provided for fuch of the Sicilian pri¬
foners as they intended to preferve alive and reduce to a
date of davery.
■dNumi- ^ ancient date of the other African nations
as. we are but very little acquainted. The Numidians,
Mauritanians, Getulians, and Garamantes, are indeed
mentioned by the Roman hidorians, who give us ample
[ 391 1
SLA
fojlin.
. xxi.
p. 6. and
imerfal
vlory.
details of the battles which they fought in attempting Slavery,
to preferve their national independence; but we have
no particular account of their different manners and cuf-
toms in that age when Rome was difputing with Car¬
thage the fovereignty of the world. All the African
dates of which we know any thing, rvere in alliance
with one or other of thofe rival republics ; and as the
people of thofe dates appear to have been lefs enlighten¬
ed than either the Romans or the Carthaginians, we
cannot fuppofe that they had purer morals, or a greater
regard for the facred rights of man, than the powerful
nations by whom they were either prote&ed or oppref-
fed. They would, indeed, infendbly adopt their cuf-
toms •, and the ready market which Marius found for
the prifoners taken in the town Capfa, although Sallufl
acknowledges | that the fale was contrary to the laws! BelL
of war, diows that davery was then no drange thing to
the Numidians. It feems indeed to have prevailedcap‘i’1'
through all Africa from the very fird peopling of that
unexplored country j and we doubt if in any age of the
world the unhappy negro was abfolutely fecure of his
perfonal freedom, or even of not being fold to a foreign
trader.
i s
It is the common opinion that the practice of ma-Slave-trade
king daves oi the negroes is of a very modern date ; that with the
it owes its origin to the incurdons of the Portuguefe on coaft of
the wedern coad of Africa ; and that but for the cun-Gui“eoat^e“
ning or cruelty of Europeans, it would not now exid, fheVottu^
and would never have exided. But all this is a com-guefe,
plication of midakes. A learned writer has lately provt d, * Whitta-
with a force of evidence which admits of no reply *, kcr's Ref
that from the coad of Guinea a great trade in daves
was carried on by the Arabs fome hundreds of years Aomaw
before the Portuguefe embarked in that traffic, or diflory,
had even feen a woolly-headed negro. Even the 19
wandering Arabs of the defert, who never had any Irlb^a?6
friendly correfpondence with the Chridians of Europe, an early
have from time immemorial been ferved by negro period,
daves. ^ “The Arab mud be poor indeed (fays M. Saugnier
Saugnier) not to have at lead one negro Have. Hisnud Brif-
fole occupation is the care of the herd. They are r\G-fon s V°ya~
ver employed in war, but they have it in their power^"’
to marry. Their wives, who are captive negredes,
do all the domedic work, and are roughly treated by the
Arabian women, and by the Arabs themfelves. Their
children are daves like them, and put to all kinds of
drudgery.” Surely no man whofe judgment is not
completely warped by prejudice, will pretend that thofe
roving tribes of favages, fo remarkable for their inde¬
pendent fpirit and attachment to ancient cudoms, learn¬
ed to endave the negroes from the Europeans, ^n all
probability they have, without interruption, continued
the praaice of davery from the days of their great an-
ceHor Iffimael; and it feems evident, that none of the
European nations had ever feen a wool/y-hcaded negro till
the year 1 loo, when the crufaders fell in with a fmall
party of them near the town of Hebron in Judea, and
were fo druck with the novelty of their appearance that
the army burd into a general fit of laughter 11. Lon? II Malmf
before the crufades, however, we know with certainty hury' fola
that the natives of Guinea had been expofed to Ele in 83'
foreign countries. In 651 the Mahometan Arabs of
Egypt fo haraffed the king of Nubia or Ethiopia, who
was a Chndian, that he agreed to fend them annually
by way of tribute, a vaf number of Nubian or Ethil
pi art
* Modem
Univerfal
Hi dory,
vol. i. 525.
f Whita¬
ker s Re¬
view.
SLA t 39:
Slavary. plan Jlaves into Egypt. Such a tribute as this at that
v ■' time, we are told, was more agreeable to the khalif than
any other, as the Arabs then made no fmull account of
tJwfe Jtaves *.
The very propofal of fuch a tribute, and the eftima-
tion in which black Haves were held in Egypt, ihows
that a commerce in bond-fervants could not then be a
new branch of trade either to the Arabs or the Ethio¬
pians •, but the vaft number which the Ethiopian mo¬
narch wras now compelled to furnilh every year, indu¬
ced him to feed this great drain upon his fubjefts from
the natives of the neighbouring countries. “ He ranged
accordingly into all that vaft b/ank of geography upon
the map of the world, the fpreading bofom of the Afri¬
can continent ; and even pulhed through it to its fartheft
extremities in the weft. He thus brought the blacks of
Guinea, for the firft time, into the fervice and families
of the eaft *, and the (laves which he paid in tribute to
the Arabs, whether derived from the nearer neighbour¬
hood of Ethiopia, fetched from the mediterranean regi¬
ons of Africa, or brought from the diftant fliores of the
Atlantic, were all denominated Ethiopians, from the
country by which they were conveyed into Egypt f.
« At this time, therefore, according to Mr Whitaker,
began that kind of traffic in human flefti
“ Which fpoils unhappy Guinea of its fons.”
There are not many authors from whom, in queftions
of antiquity, we differ with greater hefitation ; but, as
■we meet with a female Ethiopian Have in the Eunuch of
Terence, we cannot help fufpe£ting that Guinea was oc-
calionally “ fpoiled of its fons” at a much earlier period.
At any rate,from the obfervations made by the European
travellers who firft penetrated into that continent, it ap¬
pears undeniable that (lavery muft have prevailed from
time immemorial among fuch of the tribes as had never
carried on any commerce Avith foreign nations. When
Battel firft vifited the Giagas *, thofe people had never
before feen a white man j yet they welcomed him and
the Englifti, with whom he had come, to their country,
invited them to bring their goods on (hore, and without
hefitation loaded the fhips with (laves. T he Giagas were
indeed waging war with the kingdom of Benguela ; and
being cannibals, who prefer human flefti to all others,
the (laves whom they had fold to the Englifti were pro¬
bably prifoners whom they would have killed and eaten
if they had not found an opportunity of other wife dif-
pofing of them to greater advantage. But as they had
not been incited by the Europeans to eat their prifoners,
there can be no reafon to fuppofe that by the Europeans
they had been firft induced to fell them j for we have feen
that this kind of commerce prevailed in Africa among
people much more poliftied than the Giagas fo early as
in the reign of Jugurtha.
That it was not introduced among the negroes either
by the Arabs or by the Portuguefe, appears ftill more
evident from the behaviour of the Dahomans at the con-
queft of Whidah, and from the manner in which the
1
SLA
20
The ne¬
groes have
enflaved
one ano¬
ther from
time imme
morial.
* Modern
Univerfal
Hijlory,
vol. xiii.
chap. 47.
fedt. 2.
people of Angola at the earlieft ftage of their foreign Slavery,
trade procured a fupply of (laves for the Portuguefe
market. The greater part of the (laves whom the An¬
golans exported from St Paulo de'Loanda were brought
from interior countries, fome hundreds of leagues dif¬
tant, where they could not have been regularly purcha-
fed had that commerce been till then unknown in thofe
countries. The Dahomans, in the beginning of the
year 1727, had never feen a white man : and when their
victorious prince and his army, in their route through
Whidah, firft met with fome Europeans in the town of
Sabi, they were fo (hocked at their complexion and
their drefs, that they were afraid to approach them,
and could not be perfuaded that they were men till
they heard them fpeak, and were allured by the
Whidanefe that thefe were the merchants wdio purcha¬
sed all the (laves that were fold in Guinea J. Slavery, | MoAw
therefore, if it prevailed among the Dahomans before Univerfa
that period, could not have been introduced among Hihory>
them by European or Arabian intrigues: but we are'0,xii1,
affured by Snelgrave, who was then in the army, that
thofe people treated their captives with fuch horrid 1
cruelty as w'as (hocking to the natives of the fea-coaft,
and leaves no room for doubt but that flavery had been
praftifed among them from the earlieft ages.. A great
part of their prifoners were facrificed to their gods or
eaten by the foldiers 5 and when our author expreffed
to a colonel of the guard fome furprife that a prince fo
enlightened as the fovereign of Dahomy (hould facri-
fice fo many men whom he might have fold ta great
advantage, he was gravely told, that it had been the
cuftom of their nation, from time immemorial, to offer,
after viftory, a certain number of prifoners to the gods;
and that they felefted the old men for viftims, becaufe
they were of lefs value at market, and more dangerous
from their experience and cunning, than the young
men. To thofe perfons who fancy that the wars be¬
tween the African princes are carried on for the (ole
purpofe of fupplying the European drips with (laves, it
may be proper to remark, that one of the kings of Da¬
homy flaughtered at once not only all the captives ta¬
ken in war, but alfo 127 prifoners of different kinds,
that he might have a fufficiency of (hulls to adorn the
walls of his palace ; though at the very time of that
maffacre he knew that there were fix flave-flrips m the
road of Whidah, from which he could have got for eve¬
ry prime (lave a price little ftrort of thirty pounds fler-
ling S. §
Thefe fafts, and numberlefs others which the reader
will find detailed in the 13th volume of the Modern
Univerfal Bliftory, by writers who were at the greateft
pains to procure authentic information ; who were nei¬
ther biafled by intereft nor blinded by enthufiafm •, and
who appear to have held the infamous traffic in utter
abhorrence—prove beyond the poflibility of doubt, that
flavery of the word kind muft have prevailed among all
the negro nations before they were vifited either by the
Portuguefe or by the x\rabs (1). Thefe two nations
b may
(I) The fame thing appears from the voyages of M. Saugnier, who had an opportunity of converimg with
many tribes of negroes, and who always fpeaks of flavery as an eftabliftied praftice among them , .d g,
fucl/as are fold for crimes are put to death by their own countrymen if they fly from their mafter. jf ^
Jikewife in a ftill more ftriking light from Dalzel’s Hiftory of Dahomy, where we are told that all ^
SLA
'Slavery.
si
he route
■ which
e Arabs
rried on
eflave-
ule,
bitaker'.
view,
135-
may indeed have been the firft who dragged the unhap-
' py negro from his native continent, and made his flavery
doubly fevere, by compelling him to labour, without his
own confent, for mailers whom he hardly confidered as
human beings.
On the beginning of this commerce, or the dreadful
cruelty with which it has been carried on to the prefent
day, it is ifnpoiTible to reHedt without horror : but there
is fome confolation, however fmall, in knowing that its
original authors were not Europeans. The purchafe of
Guinea blacks for flaves by foreign nations commenced
ages before the Portuguefe had laid that country open
to the intercourfc of Europe. Even after they had made
many incurfions into it, the inhabitants vvere as regular¬
ly purchafed for Haves by fome of the adjoining Hates as
they are now by the maritime Europeans.
“ The Arabs of Egypt having reduced all the north
of Africa, and carrying with them their love of black
fervants, would be fure to open a ready communication
for themfclves to their country. They certainly had
one fo early as 1512, and before the Europeans had
any for that purpofe (k). They went from Barbary
by a route that was fo much praftifed, as to be denomi¬
nated exprclbly ‘ the way of the camels.1 Meeting to¬
gether at the town of Cape Cantin, or that of Valadie
near it, the commercial caravan traverfed the vaft deferts,
thofe of Sarra, which run like the tropic of Cancer over
them in a long line acrofs the country j to a place of
great population called Hoden, the Waden or Hoden of
our maps, and a little to the fouth-weft of Cape Blanco.
From Hoden they turned to the left, and pulhed di-
rectly into the interior of the continent, to reach Te-
gazza, the Tag axel or Tagaza of our maps, and lying
nearly eaft of Hoden. Here affuredly they did, as the
caravan does certainly at this day -, and added to the
other wares upon their camels a quantity of fait from
thofe mines of rock-fait, which are extraordinary enough
to be noticed as rocks in our maps. This they carried, as
they Hill carry it, to Tanbut, the Tombut of the maps,
and a town in the heart of the African continent. And
from this town they turned on the right for the fea coaft
again, and reached it in the great kingdom of Mele,
the Melli of our maps, to the fouth of the Gambia, and
juft at the fpringing as it were of that grand arch
VOL. XIX. Part I.
f 593 1
SLA
of fea which curves fo deeply into the body of the Slavery.*
land, and conftitutes the extenfive gulf of Guinea. —v——'
At Melli and at Tombut they received a meafure of
gold for a meafure of fait. The caravan colle&s gold
at Tombut to the prefent time ) but at Melli they
purchafed gold, and alfo filver, in pieces as large as peb¬
bles. And at Hoden they had a great mart for Jlaver ;
the blacks being brought thither from the countries ad¬
joining, and bartered away to the traders. Such was
the Slave Coaft and the Gold Coaft of former days.
The ftaple commodity of Hoden is only transferred now
to Whidah ; and diverted from the Arabs of Barbary 22
to the Chriftians of Europe,” by whom the negroes are which is
carried to the cbntinent of America or to the Sugar
Iflands in the Weft Indies. In thefe countries they tjie £ur0i.
are all fold like bedfts in a market; but they experience peans.
very different degrees of fervitude from the different
mafters who hold them as property. Such of them as
are reconciled to the appearance of white men, or have
been born in the European colonies, feel themfelves
as happy under a humane mafter as they could be in
their native continent (l) ; and we believe that few of
them in fuch circumftances have expreffed a defire to
return.”
In the French Weft India iHands, before the late re¬
volution in the mother country, which has produced in of flaves in
all its dependencies anarchy and maffacre, the condition ^rejTen<:*1
of the negro flaves was better than that of the bond- un*jer
men among the ancient Germans. “ Thofe of them 0ld govern-
who cultivated the plantations were attached to the foil, ment.
and could not be drawn off to pay debts, or be fold fe-
parately from the eftate on which they lived. This
gave them a lading property in v their huts and little
fpots of ground, which they might fafely cultivate with¬
out dread of being turned out of poffefiion, or transfer¬
red contrary to their intereft and feelings from one pro¬
prietor to another. . They were under the protection of
law as foon as they arrived in the colony. Proper mif-
fionaries were appointed Jor the purpofe of training them
up to a certain degre^f religious knowledge, and am¬
ple funds were allotted for the maintenance of thofe ec-
clefiaftics. On ill treatment received from his mafter,
or on being deprived^ of his allowance of food and rai¬
ment, the Have was directed to apply to the king’s at-
3 D torney.
23
Condition
mans, from the loweft to the higheft, acknowledge the right of the fovereign to difpofe of their perfons and pro¬
perties at pleafure ; and where we learn, that the fovereign himfelf affured Mr Abfon the Englifh governor at
Whidah, that all his anceftors had from time immemorial put to death every prifoner of war whom they could
not. fell as a Have.
(k) In the year 1442, Anthony Gonfalez, a Portuguefe adventurer, reflored to their native country fome
Moorilb prifoners whom he had two years before forcibly carried oft' from the coaft of Africa. He landed them
at Rio del-Oro, and received from the Moors in exchange ten blacks and a quantity of gold dull. This tranfac-
tion proves, that a commerce in black fervants was then, regularly carried on by the Moors and not by the Por¬
tuguefe. So early as the year 1502, the Spaniards began to employ a few negroes in the mines of Hifpaniola j
but in the year following, Ovando, the governor of that ifland, forbade the further importation of them, alleging
that they taught the Indians all manner of wickednefs, and rendered them lefs tra&abl/'than formerly : and it was
not till the year 1517 that the fupply of negroes to the Spanifli American plantations became an eftablilhed and
regular branch of commerce. Edwards's HiJlonj of the IVeJl Indies, Book IV. chap. ii.
(l) “ I have obferved many of my Haves go on board the veflel with joy, on my aflurance that they would be
well treated and happy on the plantation where I was going fo fend them. When the Banbarans find that they
are trufted by the whites, they never think of making their efcape, choofing to be the flaves of Europeans rather
than of a black man who would treat them with the greateft cruelty. Voyages to the Coaji of Africa by MtfJ'rs
Saugnier and Briffon, p. 332. 335. Englilh Tranflation.
SLA [ 394 ] SLA
tornev, who %vas obliged to profecute the mafter forth- llaves with difcretxon and humanity.
nf Slaves,
Setfl. v.
24
In the Bri-
tifti i(lands.
M‘Neil's
Obferva-
tions on the
Slavery.    0 t
with. That officer was alfo bound to profecute, if by
any other means he heard of the abufe •, the law adding
as the reafon, This we will to be obferved, to check the
* Ramfay's abufe of power in the mafer*.'''1
F.tfay on \^e wiffi it were in our power to fay, that in the Bri-
^untTnd Weft India colonies flaves are equally protected by
Tonverjion law as they were in the French i(lands under the old go¬
vernment, and that the fame care is taken of their mo¬
ral and religious improvement. 'Ibis, however, we are
afraid, cannot be faid with truth. In the ifland of Ja¬
maica, before the paffing of the confolidated fave. aff,
not many years ago, a white man, whether proprietor
or not, who had killed a negro, or by an aft of feverity
been the caufe of his death, was, for the firft offence,
intitled to benefit of clergy, and not liable to capital
puniffiment till a repetition of the crime. By the pre-
fent law, it is enafted, “ That if any perfon, whether
owner or fuperintendant of (laves, (hall be convifted of
tions on the ky any ^ 0f paffion or cruelty, occafioned the
of Negroes death of any negro, it fhall be capital tor the JirJt ot-
in the ijland fence : and for the greater fecurity of the property,
ofjamai- anci as a check on thofe who may have the puniftiment
ca’ of (laves in their power, it is particularly required, that
every furgeon or doftor belonging to each eftate (hall
fwear to the caufe of the death of each negro, to the
beft of hi? knowledge and belief; and if any negro
dies, and is interred by the owner or overfeer, without
the doftor’s having feen or been fent for to fuch negro,
in this cafe the owner or overfeer caufing the negro to
be fo interred is liable to a profecution for fuch con-
duft.”
This law muft doubtlefs be produftive of good effefts 5
but being a colonial aft, it cannot have the vigour of
the Code Noir ; nor do we know of any attorney in the
idand who is obliged \.o defend the rights of the negroes,
or profecute the mafter whofe cruelty has by any means
come to his knowledge. The juftices and veftry of each
pariffi are indeed conftituted a council of proteElion, for
the exprefs purpofe of making full enquiry into the bar¬
barities exercifed on (laves, and bringing the authors to
puniftiment at the public expence •, and by a new (lave-
aft of Grenada, the juftices are required annually to no¬
minate three freeholders to be guardians of the faves,
^Edwards's who are to take an oath to fee the law duly executed f.
Hijlory of Thefe are benevolent regulations •, but we doubt if pro-
theWeJl teftion can be fo promptly afforded by a council of guar¬
dians as by an individual attorney who has no other em¬
ployment. In feme of the other Britiffi iflands, we have
been confidently told that the unfortunate fons of Afri¬
ca have no proteftion Avhatever againft the tyranny of a
fordid owner, or the caprice of a boyiftr overfeer (m) ;
though it is added, that the humanity of many mafters
more than fupplies the want of law's in every refpeft
but that of improvement, and that the attachment of
others has in them a like effeft. In fome cafes good
fenfe, a regard for their reputation, and a well-informed
conviftion of their intereft, induce men to treat their
Indies,
Look iv.
chap. v.
          . The (laves of Slavery.
many a planter poffefs advantages beyond what the la-
bourer even of Britain enjoys % yet thefe advantages (
all depend upon the good will of his mafter •, and in no^ffays,
part of the Britifh colonies are the (laves attached to the l'* ani
foil. This fingle circumftance, together with the total51,
negleft of their moral and religious culture, makes their
fituation much lefs eligible than was that of the French
(laves under the old government •, and affords a ftriking
proof of what the humane author whom we have juft
quoted well obferves, that “ thofe men and nations
whom liberty hath exalted, and who therefore ought to
regard it tenderly in others, are conftantly for rellrain-
ing its bleffings within their own little circle, and de¬
light more in augmenting the train of their dependants
than in adding to the rank of fellow-citizens, or in dif-
fufing the benefits of freedom among their neighbours.”
Having given this ample detail of the rife and pro-The law.
grefs of (lavery in the world, and fhown that it has pre- iuAefbof f
vailed in every age, and under all religions, we fhall now ^yery m j
proceed to enquire whether a practice fo general be in^ure(iin‘!
any inftance lawfful; and if it be, how it muft be modi¬
fied, in order to be rendered confident with the rights
of man and the immutable laws of virtue.
That in a (late of nature one man has a right to
feize upon another, and to compel him by force to la-
beur for his fubfiftence, is a pofition which we believe
has never been ferioufly maintained. But independent
communities (land to each other in the very fame rela¬
tion that individuals do in a (late of nature *, and there¬
fore if in fuch a date the man of greater bodily ftrength
o,r mental fagacity would have no right to convert his
weaker neighbour into perfonal property, neither can
the more powerful and enlightened nation have a right
to carry off by force, or entice by fraud, the fubjefts of
a weaker and more barbarous community for the pur¬
pofe of reducing them to a date of fervitude. This is
a truth fo obvious as to admit neither of proof nor of
denial.
In thus dating the cafe between two independent na¬
tions, we have in our eye that traffic in (laves which is
carried on between the civilized Europeans and the bar¬
barous Africans : and the utmod length which we think
an apologid for that trade can go is to contend, that
we may lawfully purchafe daves in thofe countries where
from time immemorial they have been a common branch ^
of commerce. But the European right to purchafe Tjie com.
cannot be better than the African right to fell •, and mon apo-
we have never yet been informed what gives one Afri- |0?yj°r ‘tj
can a right to fell another. Such a right cannot be na- *n 11 ‘cieI1
tural, for the reafon which we have elfewhere affigned
(fee Right) : neither can it be adventitious 5 for ad¬
ventitious rights are immediately derived from the mu¬
nicipal law, which is the public will of the date. But
the (late has no authority to deprive an innocent man
of his perfonal freedom, or of the produce of his own
labour 5 for it is only to fecure thefe, by protefting the
weak
(m) In Barbadoes there is faid to be a law for the proteftion of llaves, which is the mod infolent trifling with
juftice and humanity that the writer of this article has ever feen. It is enafted, forfooth, “ That if any man (hall,
of wantonnefs, or only of bloody-mindednefs, or cruel intention, wilfully kill a negro or other (lave, if his own, he
(hall pay into the public treafury fifteen pounds ficrling ! See Dickfori's Letters on Slavery, p. 4.
SLA
[ 395 1
SLA
(Slavery.
v1o nun
then
weak from the violence of the ftrong, that ftates are
formed, and individuals united under civil govern¬
ment.
It may perhaps be faid, that by patiently fubmitting
to governments which authorize the traffic in human
fleih, men virtually give up their perfonal liberty, and
veil their governors with a right to fell them as Haves:
but no man can veil another with a right which he
poffefles not himfelf j and we (hail not heiitate to af¬
firm, that in a Hate of nature where all have equal
rights, no individual can fubmit himfelf to the abfolute
difpofal of another without being guilty of the greatell
crime. The reafon is obvious. From the relation in
aright which men Hand to one another as fellow-creatures, and
a:j their common Creator, there are duties in-
the ab- cumbent upon each peculiar to himfelf; in the perform-
5lute dif- ance of which he can be guided only by his own rea-
«fal of an- f()n, which was given him for that very purpofe. But
he who renounces his pcrfonal freedom, and lubmits un¬
conditionally to the caprice of a mailer, impioufly at¬
tempts to let himfelf free from the obligation of that law
which is interwoven with his very being, and choofes
a director of his condu£l different from that which
God has affigned him. A man therefore cannot put
himfelf in a ftate of unconditional fervitude ; and what
he cannot do for himfelf, he furely cannot authorize
others to do for him either by a tacit or by an open
confent.
Thefe confiderations have often made us regret that
writers, for whofe talents and integrity we have the
highelt refpedl, Humid, without accurately defining what
they mean by flavery, have peremptorily affirmed, that,
confiftently with the law of nature men may be redu¬
ced to that Hate as a puniihment for crimes, or to dif-
Vhat'kiml charge debts which they cannot otherwife pay. That
f flavery a criminal, who has forfeited his life to the laws of his
ia7be em-country, may have his puniihment commuted for hard
umfh ^ 1 ^a^our> till death in the courfe of nature fliall put a pe-
,ent> riod to his terrellrial exiltence, is a truth which we ap¬
prehend cannot be controverted ; but to make fuch a
commutation of punilhments confiftent with the laws of
nature and of nature’s God, it appears to us that the
kind and degree of labour mull be precifely afccrtained,
and the condudl of the criminal not left to the capricious
diredlion of any individual.
Punilhments can be jullly inflidled only for one or
other of two ends, or for both. They may be calcula¬
ted either to reform the criminal or to be a warning to
the innocent; and thofe which molt effectually anfwer
both thefe purpofes are furely to be preferred to fuch
as anfwer but one of them. For this reafon we confl-
der hard labour as a much fitter puniihment for moll
crimes than death : but to entitle it to preference, the
kind and degree of the labour mutt be afcertained by the
law ; for if thefe circumftances be omitted, and the of¬
fender delivered over as a Have to the abfolute difpofal
and caprice of a private mailer, the labour to which he
is condemned, inllead of operating to his reformation,
may be converted into the means of tempting him to
the commiffion of new crimes. A young woman, in the
Hate of fervitude, would hardly be able to maintain her
virtue againll the felicitations of a mailer who ffiould
promife her liberty or a remiffion of toil upon her yieldr
mg to his defires; and the felon, who had long been
accultomed to a life, of vagrancy and idlenefs, would
is
not llrenuoufiy objed to the perpetration of any wick- Slavery. ^
ednefs to obtain his freedom, or even a diminution of his ”'v ^
daily talk. Indeed fuch temptations might be thrown in
his way, as human nature could not refill but by means
of much better principles than felons can be fuppofed
to poffefs. He might be fcourged into compliance ; or
his labour might be fo increafed as to make him for s
little refpite eagerly embrace the mofi nefarious propo-
fal which his mailer could make : for being ablolutc
property, there is no earthly tribunal to which he could
appeal for jullice ; and felons do not commonly fupport
themfelves under trials by pious meditations on a future
ftate.
By reafoning in this way, we are far from meaning to
infinuate that Have-holders in general torture their Haves
into the commiffion of crimes. God forbid ! Many of
them we know to be religious, humane, and benevolent:
but they are not infallible ; and fome of them may be
iniligated, fome of them undoubtedly have been inlli-
gated, by avarice and other worfe principles, to compel
creatures, who are fo abfolutely their dependents, to ex¬
ecute deeds of darknefs too hazardous for themfelves.
But the morality or immorality of any aflion, and the
moral fitnefs of any Hate, are to be judged of by their
natural tendency, if the one were univerfally pradlifed
and the other univerfally prevalent (fee Moral Philo¬
sophy, N° 156.) : and as the natural tendency of abfo¬
lute domeHic Havery among fuch creatures as men is to
throw the moft powerful temptations to vice in the
way both of mailer and of Have, it mufl be in every in-
ftance, even when employed as a puniffiment, inconfift-
ent with the fundamental principles of moral virtue. ^
Some writers indeed have maintained, and the civil children
law feems to fuppofe, that children are the property ofnot the
their parents, and may by them be fold as Haves in cafes pr°perfy
of urgent neceffity : but if we duly confider how pro-° 1 ieir Pa*
perty is acquired (fee Property), and attend to the
natural confequences of flavery, we ffiall foon be con¬
vinced that this opinion is very ill founded. The rights
of parents refult from their duties ; and it is certainly
the duty of that man who has been the inffrument of
bringing into the world an intelleflual and moral being,
to do every thing in his power to render the exiftences
of that being happy both in the prefent life and in that
which is to come. If this duty be ccmfcientioufly dif-
charged, the parent has a tnanifeft right to the grati¬
tude, love, and reafonable obedience, of his child ; but
lie cannot, in confequence of any duty performed, claim
a right to transfer that child as property to the uncon¬
trolled difpofal of any private mafter ; for this plain
rcafon, that the man who is confidered as the private
property of another, cannot reafonably be fuppofed to
enjoy happinefs in this world, and is under many temp¬
tations to do what muft neceffarily render him miferable
in the next. See Moral Philosophy, N° 138.
If criminals cannot be lawfully reduced to a ftate of
abfolute private Havery, much lefs furely can it be law¬
ful to reduce infolvent debtors and prifoners of war to
that ftate. Many a virtuous man, who has contra&ed.
debts with the faireit profpefl of paying them, has been
fuddenly rendered infolvent by fire, by ftiipwreck, or by
the bankruptcy of others with whom he ivas neceffarily
engaged in the courfe of his trade. Such a man can be
confidered in no refpefl as criminal. He has been in¬
deed unfortunate; but it wrould be grofsly unjuft, as
3 D 2 well
rents.
nefit of
their cre¬
ditors.
3*.
Twoobjec
SLA [39
Slavery, -well as fliockingly cruel, to add to his misfortune by re-
during liim to a date to which we have jult feen that
the vileft felon cannot be reduced without a violation of
Fraudulent lavvs °f morality. Fraudulent bankrupts indeed, of
bankrupts whom we daily fee many, might with great propriety
may be and ftridtelt jullice be compelled to extenuate their
m'labour* ^e'jts ^7 labouring for the benefit of thofe whom they
for the be- have injured ; and criminals of other defcriptions might
be made to work for the benefit of the public: but in
both cafes the talk to be performed Ihould be afeertain-
cd by the law, and the perfons of the labourers be pro-
tefted by the date. If fuch can be called Haves, their
flavery is undoubtedly confident with every principle of
virtue and religion j for they fulfer nothing but the due
reward of their deeds. Prifoners of war, however, can
upon no honed principle be reduced even to this date of
mitigated bondage ; for they are fo far from incurring
guilt by fighting for their country, that even to their
enemies their courage and conduft in fuch a caufe mud
appear worthy of reward. A victorious general has
certainly a right to pj-event the prifoners taken in battle
from again drawing their fwords againd him during the
continuance of the war ; but there are many ways by
which this may be done effeCtually without chaining the
unfortunate captives to the oar, or felling them like cat¬
tle to private purchafers, by whom they may be treated
with capricious cruelty, and driven to-the perpetration
of the greated crimes.
To thefe conclufions, and the reafoning on which
tions tefour they are built, we are aware it may be objeCled, that if
conclufions. pr}vate davery were in every indance unlawful and in-
confident with the fundamental principles of morality,
it would not have prevailed among the ancient patri¬
archs, and far lefs have been authorifed by the Jewilh
31 law.
The former In reply to this objeClion, it may be obferved, that
Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob, though excellent men, were
not characters abfolutely perfeCt •, that as their practice
does not authorife polygamy or inced among us, it will
not authorife the reducing of our fellow-creatures to a
date of hopelefs fervitude •, and that from the circum-
dances of the age in which they lived, many things
were permitted to them, and were indeed harmlefs,
which are forbidden to us, and would now be pernicious,
The character of Abraham appears to have been much
more perfeCt than that of his fon or grandfon } and was
certainly equal, if not fuperior, to that of any other
mere man of whom we read either in profane or even in
facred hidory. We are to remember, however, that he
was born amidd idolaters, and was probably an idolater
himfelf till enlightened by the inspiration of Jehovah,
and called from his kindred and from his father’s houfe.
Before his converfion, he mud have had much cattle and
many Haves, which condituted the riches of that early
period and liis cafe -would indeed have been peculiarly
hard, had he been commanded to dived himfelf of his
fervants, and to depart into a drange country very thin¬
ly inhabited, without people to proteft his docks and
herds from beads of prey. Nor woufd his lofs have con¬
tributed in any degree to the benefit of his fiaves, who,
as the ranks of men were then adjuded, could not long
have preferved their liberty. Had they not been for¬
cibly reduced to their former date by their idolatrous
countrymen, which in all probability they would have
been,, they muft have foon fubmitted to it, or peri died
anfwered.
6 ] SLA
by hunger. Let it be remembered, too, that the bond- Slavery,
fervants of Abraham, though conftituting the mod va- ^—-v—■
luable part of his property, were not conlidered as a fpe-
cies of inferior beings, but were treated rather as child¬
ren than as Haves. This is evident from his fpeaking
of the deward of his houfe as his heir, when complain¬
ing to God of the want of feed. Indeed the manner in
which this circumdance is mentioned, (hows that it was
then the general praClice to condder dometlic daves as
members of the family $ for the patriarch does not fay,
“ I will leave my fubdance to this Eliezer of Da-
mafeus}” but his words are, “ Behold to me thou had
given no feed j and lo, one born in my houfe is my heir*.'1'1 * Gen. x\.
From this mode of expredion we arc. drongly inclined to 3*
think that captives taken in war were in that age of
fimplicity incorporated into the family or tribe of the
conqueror, as they are faid to be at prefent among the
North American Indians, to fupply the place of thofe
who had fallen in battle. If fo, llavery was then a very
mild thing, unattended with the evils which are now in
its train, and muft often have been highly beneficial to
the captive. ^
The other part of the objection appears at firft fight Anfwtr tr
more formidable : but perhaps a little attention to the the other,
defign of the Mofaic economy may enable us to remove
it even more completely than this. We need not in¬
form our theological readers, that one great purpofe
for which the pofterity of Abraham were feparated
from the heathen nations around them, was td preferve
the knowledge of the true God in a world run head¬
long into idolatry. As idolatry appears to have had
fomething in its forms of wordiip extremely captivating
to rude minds, and as the minds of the Ifraelites at the
era of their departure from Egypt were exceedingly
rude, every method was taken to keep their feparation
from their idolatrous neighbours as complete as pof-
fible. With this view they were commanded to facri-
fice the animals which their Egyptian mafters had wor-
fhipped as gods, and were taught to confider hogs and
fuch other creatures as the heathen offered in facrifice,
when celebrating their myftical and magic rites, as too
unclean to be eaten or even to be touched. Of this di-
ftinflion between clean and unclean beafts, God him¬
felf aftigns the reafon : “ I am the Lord your God
(fays he), who have feparated you from other people $
ye fhall therefore put difference between clean and un¬
clean beafts, and between unclean fowls and clean f.” | LeV( Xx,
For the fame reafon they were prohibited from inter-24,25, iG:
marrying with the heathen, or having any tranfa£lion
whatever with them as neighbours ; and the feven ido¬
latrous nations of Canaan they were ftriftly command¬
ed to exterminate. “ When the Lord thy God (fays
Mofes) fhall deliver them before thee, thou fiialt finite
them, and utterly deftroy them : thou flialt make no
covenant with them, nor fhow mercy unto them : nei¬
ther (halt thou make marriages with them ; thy daugh¬
ter thou (halt not give unto his fon, nor his daugh¬
ter flialt thou take to thy fon ; for they will turn
away thy fon from following me, that they may ferve
other gods J.” | Deut.vil
Under thefe laws, it is plain that no intercourfe what- V3> 41
ever could have place between an Ifraelite and a man
of any other nation, unlefs the latter was reduced to
fuch a ftate as that he could neither tempt the former,
nor praftife himfelf the rites of his idolatrous worfliip.
4 B»t'
'Slavery,
jiSlave-
: trade.
34
ve.
de.
15ee Com
i ny, and
! tinea.
s L . A [397
But the Ifraelites were not feparated from tlte reft of the
the world for their own fakes only : They were intend¬
ed to be the repofitaries of the lix^ely oracles of God,
and gradually fpread the light of divine truth through
other nations, till the fulnefs of time fhould come, when
in Chrift all things xvere to be gathered together in
one. To anfwer this end, it was neceffary that there
thould be fome intercourfe between them and their
Gentile neighbours; but we have feen that fuch an in¬
tercourfe could only be that which fubfills between
mailers and their flaves.
Should this apology for the flavery which avas au-
thorifed by the Jewilh law be deemed fanciful, we beg
heave to fubmit to the confideration of our readers
the following account of that matter, to which the
fame objection will hardly be made. It was morally
impoftible that between nations diftering fo widely in
religion, cuftoms, and manners, as the Jews and Gen¬
tiles, peace fhould for ever reign without interruption ;
but when wars broke out, battles -would be fought,
and prifoners would be taken. How were thefe prifoners
to be difpofed of ? Cartels for exchange were not then
known : it was the duty of the Ifraelites to prevent
their captives from taking up arms a fecond time againft
them ; they could not eftablifti them among themfelves
either as artificers or as hufbandmen *, for their law en¬
joined them to have no communication with the hea¬
then. There was therefore no other alternative but ei¬
ther to maflacre them in cold blood, or to reduce them
to the condition of flaves. It would appear, however,
that thofe flaves urere raifed to the rank of citizens, or
at leaft that their burdens were much lightened, as foon
as they wrere convinced of the truth of the Mofaic re¬
velation, and received into covenant with God by the
rite of circumcifion. They were then admitted to
the celebration of the paffover \ concerning which one
law was decreed to the ftranger, and to him that wras
home-born. Indeed, when we confider who was the
legiflator of the Jews •, when we reflect upon the num¬
ber of faws enadled to mitigate flavery among them,
and call to mind the means by which the due execution
of all their laws was enforced, (fee Theology), wc
cannot help being of opinion that the heathen, who was
reduced to flavery in Judea, might be happier, if he
pleafed, than when living as a freeman in his own coun¬
try. But whether this be fo or not, is a matter with
which we have no concern. On account of the hard-
nefs of their hearts, and the peculiarity of their circum-
flances, many things, of which flavery may have been
one, were permitted to the Jews, which, if praflifed by
Cliriftians, would render them highly guilty.
After treating thus largely of flavery in general, we
need not occupy much of the reader’s time with the
SLAVE-TRADE carried on by the merchants of
Europe withithe natives of Africa. It is well known
that the Portuguefe were the firft Europeans who embark¬
ed in this trade, and that their example was foon fol¬
lowed by the Dutch and the Englifti. Of the rife and
progrefs of the Englifti commerce in flaves, the reader
will find a fufficient account in other articles of this
-work*. That commerce, though long cheriflied by
Slave-
trade.
] SLA
government as a fource of national and colonial
wealth, was from its commencement confidered by the
thinking part of the nation as a traffic inconfiftent with
the rights of man, and fufpe£led to be carried on by
acls of violence. Thefe fufpicions were gradually fpread
through the people at large, and confirmed, in many
inftances, by evidence incontrovertible. Laws were in
confequence enafted to make the negroes more com¬
fortable on what is called the middle paifage, and to
protect them againft the wanton cruelty of their mailers
in the Weft Indies : but the humanity of I he nation
was roufed; and not many years ago a number of gen¬
tlemen of the moft refpedlable chara&ers, finding that
no adequate protection could be afforded to peril ns in a
ftate of hopelefs fervitude, formed themfelves into a fo-
ciety at London, for the purpofe of procuring a total
abolition of the Have trade. That the motives w^hich '
influenced the leading men of this fociety -were of
the pureft kind, cannot, xve think, be queftioned ; for
their objeCt was to deliver thofp who had none to help
them, and from whom they could expeft no other re-
tvard for their labours of love than the bleflings of them
who were ready to periih. To a caufe truly Chriftian,
who did not pray for fuccefs ? or who but muft have
felt the moft pungent regret, if that fuccefs had been
rendered doubtful, or even delayed, by the imprudence
of fome of the agents employed by the fociety ? This
W'e apprehend was really the cafe. Language calcula¬
ted only to exafperate the planters could not ferve the
negroes ; and the legiflature of Great Britain would
never fuffer itfelf to be forced into any meafure by the
menaces of individuals.
In the year 1793, petitions were prefented to parlia-Peth>ons
ment for the abolition of this inhuman traffic, which f
gave a pleafing piClure of the philanthropy of the na-° m°n °
tion •, but, unfortunately for the caufe of freedom, it was
difeovered that many of the names fubjoined to thofe
petitions had been colle£led by means not the moft ho¬
nourable. The difeovery, perhaps, would never have
been made, had not the infulting epithets indiferimi-
nately heaped upon the flave-holders provoked thofe
men to watch with circumfpedion over the conduct of
their opponents. The confequence was, that fufpicions
of unfair dealing on the part of the petitioners were ex¬
cited in the breafts of many who, though they ardent¬
ly wiffied well to the caufe, chofe not to add their
names to thofe of fchool-boys under age, and of pea-
fants who knew not wdiat-they were fubferibing. Let
the rights of the Africans be maintained with ardout
and firmnefs •, but never let their advocates fuppofe that
the caufe of humanity requires the fupport of artifice. .
Abfolute flavery, in which the actions of one man are
regulated by the caprice of another, is a ftate. demon-
ftrably inconfiftent with the obvious plan of the moral
government of the world. It degrades the mental fa¬
culties of the Have, and throws, both in his way and
in his mafter’s, temptations to vice almoft infurmount-
able. Let thefe truths be fet in a proper light by
thofe wdio have doubtlefs feen them exemplified *, and
they will furely have their full effect on the mind's of a
generous, and, we truft, not an impious people (n).
The trade will be generally aboliffied 5 pains will be ta¬
ken
35
(n) We have not infilled upon the impolicy of the flave-trade, or endeavoured to prove that its abolition
would
S L A
E 398 ]
SLA
' Slave- v
trade.
. 36
Objection
to the abo¬
lition
* AJiatic
Rejearcbes,
vol. ii.
f EJfay on
.Colonisa¬
tion.
4 Dalsel's
Hijlory.
ken to cultivate the minds of the Weft Indian negroes j
and the era may be at no great diftancp when ftavery
(hall ceafe through all the Britilh dominions.
But what benefit, it will be alked, will the negroes
of Africa reap from an abolition of the flave trade ?
Should any thing fo wildly incredible happen, as that
all the nations of Chriftendom, in one common paro-
xyfm of philanthropy, Ihould abandon this commerce
in fervants, which has been profecuted in all ages,
and under all religions •, they would only abandon it to
thofe who were originally poffeffed of it, who ftill pe¬
netrate into the country, and who even pulh up to
Gago at the very head of the Slave coaft, and leave the
wool-headed natives of it to Mahometan mailers, m
preference to Chriftian. Under fuch mafters they were
in Judea at the time of the crufades. Under fuch,
as we learn from Meffrs Saugnier, Briffbn, and others,
they ftill are in the defefts of Africa, as weft as in the
illands of Johanna and Madagafcar* •, and it is univer-
fally known that they enllave one another as a punilh-
ment for the mod whimfical crimes. Among them, in¬
deed, flavery feems to be reduced to a fyftem, and to
defcend, as it has done in more poliihed nations, from
father to fony for both Saugnier and Wadftromf fpeak
of particular families of negroes who are exempted from
that degrading ftate by the laws of the country
All this ure admit to be true. Moft certainly the
negroes would not be exempted from the miferies of
fervitude, though Europe and the Weft Indies were
{wallowed up in the ocean. The cujloms of the coun¬
try as the king of Dahomy affured Mr Abfon will
- ’ - • *’ > poffefs
37
of no
ftrength.
be tnade as long as black men (hall continue to
their own territories, in their prefent ftate of depravity
and ignorance*, and thefe cuftoms appear to involve
flavery of the cruelleft kind. But if llavery be in itfelf
unlawful, is it a fufficient excufe for our continuing the
traffic that it is carried on by the rude negroes and the
favage Arabs ? Are people, whom we fometimes affieft
to confider as an inferior order of beings, to furnilh ex¬
amples of conduft to thofe who boaft of their advance¬
ments in fcience, in literature, and in refinement ? Or
will the benevolent Lord of all things pardon us for
oppreffing our helplefs brethren, merely bccaufe they
are cruelly opprefifed by others J It is indeed true that
the natives of Guinea cannot be made really free but
by introducing among them.the bleffings of religion and
the arts of civil life 5 but furely they would have fewer
temptations than at prefent to kidnap one another, or
to commence unprovoked wars for the purpofe of making
captives, were the nations of Europe to abandon the
commerce in (laves (o). I hat commerce, we grant,
would be continued by the Arabs, and perhaps bv
others of the eaftern nations *, but the fame number of
people could not be carried off by them alone that is
now carried off both by them and by the Europeans.
Were it indeed poffible to put the flave-trade under
proper regulations, fo as to prevent all kidnapping and
unjuft wars among the Africans, to fupply the markets ;
and were it likewife poffible to enfure to the negroes in
the Weft Indies mild treatment and religious inftruc-
tion, wre arc far from being fure that while the natives
of Guinea continue fo rude, and their neighbours the
Arabs fo felfilhly favage, it would be proper to abandon
at once to hordes of barbarians the whole of this com¬
merce in bond fervants. 14 I he trade, which in its pie-
fent form is a reproach to Britain, might be made to
take a new ffiape, and become ultimately a bleffing to
thoufands of rvretches rvho, left in their native country,
would have dragged out a life of miferable ignorance,
unknowing the hand that framed them, unconfcious of
the reafon of which they were made capable, and heed-
lefs of the happinefs laid up for them in (lore §.. « Rmfe\
Slavery is, indeed, in every form an evil*, but it feems j
to be one of thofe many evils which, having long pre-P' 2PJ>k
vailed in the world, can be advantageoufly removed on¬
ly by degrees, and as the moral cultivation of the Haves
may enable them to fupport the rank and difeharge the
duties of free men. This is doubtlefs the reafon why it
■was not exprefsly prohibited by the divine Author of
our religion, but'fuffercd to vaniffi gradually before the .g ;
mild influence of his Heavenly doftrines. It has vamfh- Abolitic
ed before thefe doftrines in moft countries of Europe *,oftbefi.j.
and it affords us no fmall gratification to have it in <>ur™|
power to record, what indeed muft be freili in me-
mory of our readers, that the abolition of the flave-trade
was finally accompliflied by the fteady perfeverance and
generous exertions of feme of the moll enlightened and
refpe£lable chara£lers in the kingdom, who, after a long
and arduous ftruggle, obtained a decree of the legifla-
ture, prohibiting, after a limited period, the trade in
(laves to be continued by fuhjecfs of Britain. J he bill
originated in the houfe of lords, and having undergone
confiderable difeuffion in the houfe of commons, fin Jly
palled on the 16th of March, and received his majefiy’s
1 allent
would be advantageous to the fugar-planters j for the planters furely underftand their own miereft V
1 w*L. never been in the Weft Indies, are obliged to content themfelves with v hat information t y
can ’■dean on the fubjeft from a number of violent and contradiflory publications. To countenance avey? ™ ^
any form is undoubtedly immoral. This we know : and therefore upon this ground have we oppofed the flare-
trade, which cannot be continued without preferring mtereft to virUie. , Informed of
(O') In a fpeech which Mr Dalzel fays the king of Dahomy made to Mr Abfon, when he uas in _
whut had paffed in England on the fubjeft of the flave-tradc, are thefe remarkable words : In the naire
mv anceftors and myfelf, I aver that no Dahoman ever embarked in war merely for the fake
wherewithal to purchafe your commodities.” We muft take the liberty to queftion the truth fanny
ment. That the flave-trade is not the/oZ? caufe of the Dahoman wars every man wdl admit ''‘10 ‘
^hat thofe people have neither paffions nor appetites, but for the commodities oi - _0Pe - - 1 . e t])0fe
tion of this bloody defpot, who boafted of having killed many thoufands at cuftoms ^ - the
who have read either Wadftrom’s Effay on Colonization, or the evidence refpeEwg the ^^e-trade given ^ ^
bar of the houfe of commons, “ that no Dahoman ever embarked in war merely to procure fla
.European commodities.’
ISJave-
i trade
II
|: Sleep¬
walker.
& f
-nger or
adden
jiutnif-
:of
les.
S L E
affent on the 25th March 1807.
tire bill, for the total abolition of the trade, we believe,
was the beginning of the following year, viz. January
1808..
We canot conclude without exprefling a hope, that
the period is not very diftant when the Haves in the
Well Indies fhall be fo much improved in moral and re¬
ligious knowledge, as that they may be fafely trufted
with their own freedom. To fet them freetin their pre-
fent Hate of ignorance and depravity, is one of the wild-
eft propofals that the ardour of innovation lias ever
made. Such freedom would be equally ruinous to
themfelves and to their mailers •, and we may fay of it
what Cicero faid of fome unlealonable indulgences pro-
pofed to be granted to the Haves in Sicily : cum
accidunt, nemo ej}< quin intelhgat mere ilium rempubli-
cam; luec ubi veniunt, nemo ejl, qui ullamfpem falutis
reliquam ejfe urbitretur.
Thofe of our readers who wifh to enter into a detail
of this fubje£l, may coniult, with much advantage, The
Hillory of the Rife, Progrefs, and Accomplilhment: of
the Abolition of the African Slave-Trade, by Mr
Clarkfon, 2 vols 8vo.
SLAUGHTER. See Manslaughter, Homicide,
Murder, &c.
SLEDGE, a kind of carriage, without wheels, for
the conveyance of very weighty tilings, as huge Hones,
bells, &.c. I he fledge for carrying criminals, condemn¬
ed for high treafon, to execution, is called HURDLE.
.The Dutch have a kind of Hedge on which they can
carry a veffel of any burden by land. It confilts of a
plank of the length of the keel of a moderate fhip,
raifed a little behind, and hollow in the middle •, fo that
the Hides go a little aflope, and are furnifhed with holes
to receive pins, &c. The reft is quite even.
Sledge is a large fmith’s hammer, to be ufed with
both hands: of this there are two forts, the up-hand
fledge, -which is ufed by under workmen, when the
work is not of the largeft fort; it is ufed with both the
hands before, and they feldom raife it higher than their
head. But the other, which is called the about-fledge,
and which is ufed for battering or drawing out the lar¬
ged work, is held by the handle with both hands, and
fwung round over their heads, at their arm’s end, to
ftrike as hard a blow as they can.
_ SLEEP, that ftate of the body in which, though the
vital fundi ions continue, the fenfes are not affedled by the
ordinary impreflions of external objedls. See Dreams
and Physiology.
SLEEP-Walker, one who walks in his Heep. Many
inftances might be related of perfons who were addidled
to this practice j but it will be fufficient to feleft one
remarkable inftance from a report made to the Phyfical
Society of Laufanne, by a committee of gentlemen ap¬
pointed to examine a young man who was accuftomed to
walk in his fleep.
. “ The difpofition to fleep-walking feems, in the opi¬
nion of this committee, to depend on a particular affec¬
tion of the nerves, which both feizes and quits the pa¬
tient during fleep.. Under the influence of this affec¬
tion, the imagination reprefents to him the objedls that
ftruck him while awake, with as much force as if they
really affedled his fenfes j but does not make him per¬
ceive any of thofe that are adlually prefented to his
ienfes, except in fo far as they are connected with the
[ 399 ] S L E
The time fixed by dreams which engrofs him at the time. If, during tfiis
ftate, the imagination has no determined purpofe, he
receives the impreflion of objedls as if he were awake j
only, however, when the imagination is excited to bend
its attention towards them. The perceptions obtained
in this ftate are very accurate, and, when once received,
the imagination renews them occafionally with as much
force as if they were again acquired by means of the
fenfes. Laftly, thefe academicians fuppole, that the'
impreflioHs received during this ftate of the fenles dif-
appear entirely when the perfon awakes, and do not re--
turn till the return of the fame difpolition in the nervous
fyllem-.
“ Their remarks were made on the Sieur Devaud, a
lad thirteen years and a half old, who lives in the town
of Vevey, and who is fubjefl to that Angular affeftion or
difeafe called Somnambu/ifm or fleep-walking. This lad
poffeffes a ilrong and fobuft eonftitution, but his nervous
fyftem appears to be organifed with peculiar delicacy,
and to difcover marks of the greateft fenlibility and irri¬
tability. His fenfes of fmell, tafte, and touch, are ex-
quifite ; he is fubjeft to fits of immoderate and involun¬
tary laughter, and he fometimes likewife weeps without
any apparent caufe.
“ This young man does not walk in his fleep every
night ; feveral weeks fometimes pafs without any ap¬
pearance of a fit. He is fubjedl to the difeafe generally
two nights fucceflively, one fit lading for feveral hours.
The longeft are from three to four hours, and they
commonly begin about three or four o’clock in the morn-
ing.
“ The fit may be prolonged, by gently pafling the
finger or a feather over his upper lip, and this flight ir¬
ritation likewife accelerates it. Having once fallen afleep
upon a ftaircafe, his upper lip was thus irritated with a
feather, when, he immediately ran down the Heps with
great precipitation, and refumed all his accuftomeu acti¬
vity. This experiment was repeated feveral times.
“ The young Devaud thinks he has obferved, that,
on the evenings previous to a fit, he is fenfible of a cer¬
tain heavinefs in his head, but efpecially of a great
weight in his eyelids.
“ His fleep is at all times unquiet, but particularly
when the fits are about to feize him. During his fleep, „
motions are obfervable in every part of his body, with
ftarting and palpitations ; he utters broken words, fome¬
times fits up in his bed, and afterwards lies down again.
He then begins to pronounce words more diftinClly, he
rifes abruptly, and acts as he is inftigated by the dream
that then pofleffes him. He is fometimes in fleep fubjeCl
to continued and involuntary motions.
“ Thfe departure of the fit is always preceded by two
or three minutes of calm fleep, during which he feores.
He then awakes rubbing his eyes like a perfon who has
flept quietly;
. “ ^ Is. dfnSerous t0 awaken him during the fit, efpe¬
cially if it is done fuddenly ; for then he fometimes falls
into convulfions. Having rifen one night with the in¬
tention of going to eat grapes, he left the houfe, paffed
through the town, and went to a vineyard w here he ex¬
pelled good cheer. He was followed by feveral perfons,
who kept at fome diftance from him, one of whom fired
a piftol, the noife of which inftantly awakened him, and
he fell down, without fenfe. He was carried home and
brought to himfelf, when he recolkdled very well the
5 having
Sleep-
walker.
S L E
[ 40° 1
S L E
Sleep¬
walker.
having been awakened in the vineyard 5 but nothing
more, except the fright at being found there alone,
which had made him iwoon.
“ After the fits he generally feels a degree of lafli-
tude : fometimes, though rarely, of indifpofilion. At
the end of one of thofe fits, of which the gentlemen of
the committee were witneffes, he was affe£ted with vo¬
mitings *, but he is always foon reftored.
“ When he is awaked, he never for the moft part re-
colledts any of the adions he has been doing during the
fit- . , .
“ The fubjeft of his dreams is circumfcribed in a
fmall circle of objeas, that relate to the few ideas with
which at his age his mind is furnilhed ■, fuch as his lef-
fons, the church, the bells, and efpecially tales of ghofts.
It is fufficient to ftrike his imagination the evening be¬
fore a fit with fome tale, to dired his fomnambulifm to¬
wards the objea of it. There was read to him while in
this fituation the ftory of a robber ; he imagined the
very next moment that he law robbers in the room.
However, as he is much difpofed to dream that he is
furrounded with them, it cannot be affirmed that this
-was an ctfetl of the reading. It is obferved, that when
bis fupper has been more plentiful than ufual, his dreams
are more difmal.
“ In their report, the gentlemen of the committee
dwell much on the Hate of this young man’s fenfes, on
the impreffion made upon them by ifrange-objefts, and
on the ufe they are of to him.
“ A bit of ftrong fmtlling wood produced in him a
degree of rellleffnefs; the fingers had the fame effeft,
whether from their fmell or their tranfpiration. He
knew wine in which there was wormwood by the fmell,
and faid that it was not wine for his table. Metals
make no impreffion on him.
Having been prefented witb a little common wine
while he was in a Hate of apathy, and aU his motions
were performed with languor, he drank of it willingly j
but the irritation which it occafioned produced a deal
of vivacity in all his words, motions, and aftions, and
caufed him to make involuntary grimaces.
“ Once he was obferved dreffing bimfelf in perfeft
darknefs. His clothes -were on a large table, mixed
■with thofe of fome other perfons 5 he immediately per¬
ceived this, and complained of it much ; at laft a fmall
light was brought, and then he drefifed himfelf with
fufficient precifion. If he is teafed or gently pinched,
he is always fenfible of .it, except he is at the time
ftrongly engroflfed with fome other thing, and wiffies to
ftrike the offender ; however, he never attacks the per-
fon who has done the ill, but an ideal being whom his
imagination prefents to him, and whom he purfues
through the chamber without running againft the furni¬
ture, nor can the perfons whom he meets in his way di¬
vert him from his purfuit.
« While his imagination was employed on various
fubie&s, he heard a clock ftrike, which repeated at
every ftroke the note of the cuckoo. There are cuc¬
koos here, faid he -, and upon being defired, he imita-
ted the fong of that bird immediately.
“ When he wiffies to fee an objeft, he makes an ef¬
fort to lift his eyelids ; but they are fo little under his
command, that he can hardly raife them a line or two,
while he draws up his eyebrows 5 the iris at that time
appears fixed, and his eye dim* When any thing is
prefented to him, and he is told of it, he always half
opens his eyes with a degree of difficulty, and then (huts
them after he has taken what wras offered to him.
“ The report infers from thefe fafts, and from many
others relative to the different fenfes, that their func¬
tions are not fufpended as to what the lleep-walker wiffi¬
es to fee, that is, as to all thofe perceptions which ac¬
cord witli the objects about which his imagination is oc¬
cupied that he may alfo be difpofed to receive thofe-
impreffions, when his imagination has no other objeft at
the time j that in order to fee, he is obliged to open
his eyes as much as he can, but when the impreffion is
rmr'p made, it remains that objects may ftrike his
Sleep¬
walker;
 — 7 - - ' # .
fight without ftriking his imagination, if it is not mte-
refted in them •, and that he is fometimes informed of the
prefence of obje&s without either feeing or touching
them.
“ Having engaged him to wTrite a theme, fay the
committee, we law him light a candle, take pen, ink,
and paper, from the drawer of his table, and begin ter
write, while his mailer di&ated. As he was writing,
we put a thick paper before his eyes, notwithftanding
which he continued to write and to form his letters very
diftinaiy •, {bowing figns, however, that fomething was
incommoding him, which apparently proceeded from the
obftruaion which the paper, being held too near his
nofe, gave to his refpiration.
“ Upon another occafion, the young fomnambulift
arofe at five o’clock in the morning, and took the ne-
ceffary materials for writing, with his copy -book. He
meant to have begun at the top of a page ; but finding
it already written on, he came to the blank part of the
leaf, and wrote fome time from-the following words,
Fiunt ignan pigrit 1 a—I/s deviennent ignorans pay la pa-
rejfe; and, what is remarkable, after feveral lines he
perceived he had forgotten the j- in the word ignorans,
and had put erroneoufly a double r in parejje ; he then
gave over writing, to add the s he had forgotten, and to
erafe the fuperfluous r.
“ Another time he had finiffied, of his own accord, a
piece of writing, in ordfer, as he laid, to pleafe his mat¬
ter. It confifted of three kinds of writing, text, half
text, and fmall hand •, each of them performed with the
proper pen. He drew, in the corner of the fame pa¬
per, the figure of a hat; he then alkecT for a penknife
to take out a blot of ink which he had made between
two letters, and he erafed it without injuring them.
Laftly, he made fome arithmetical calculations with great
accuracy.
“ In order to explain fome of the facts oblerved by
the academicians which we have here mentioned, they
eftablilh two general obfervations, which refult from
what they have faid with refpeft to the fenfes and the
dreams of this deep-walker.
“ 1. That he is obliged to open his eyes, in order to
recognife objects which he wiffies to fee j but the im¬
preffion once made, although rapidly, is vivid enough
to fuperfede the neceffity of his opening them again, to
view the fame objects anew that is, the fame objects
are afterwards prefented to his imagination with as much
force and precifion as if he actually faw them.
“ 2. That his imagination, thus warmed, reprefents
to him objeas, and fuch as he figures to himfelf, with
as much vivacity as if he really faw them and; laftly,
that all his fenfes, being fubordinate to his imagination,
S L E
Sleep- feem concenfrated in the objeft with which it is occu-
walker. pied, and have at that time no perception of any thing
“■’■‘v'—"'' but what relates to that object.
“ Thefe two caufes united feem to them fufficient
for explaining one of the molt lingular fa£ts that occur¬
red to their obfervation, to wit, how the young Devaud
can write, although he has his eyes (hut, and an ob-
ilacle before them. His paper is imprinted on his ima¬
gination, and every letter which he means to write is
alfo painted there, at the place in which it ought to
Hand on the paper, and without being confounded with
the other letters •, now it is clear that his hand, which
is obedient to the will of his imagination, will trace
them on the real paper, in the fame order in which they
are reprefented on tliat which is pictured in his head.
It is thus that he is able to write feveral letters, feveral
fentences, and entire pieces of writing; and what feems
to confirm the idea, that the young Ucvaud writes ac¬
cording to the paper painted on his imagination is,
that a certain lleep-walker, who is deferibed in the
French Encyclopedic (?Lr\.ic\£ Sommtmbulfai), having writ¬
ten fomething on a paper, another piece of paper of the
fame fize was fubftituted in its Head, which he took for
his own, and made upon this blank paper the corre&ions
he meant to have made on the other which had been
taken away, precifely in the places 'where they wrould
have be’en.
“ It appears from the recital of another fact, that
Devaud, intending to write at the top of the firit leaf
of a white paper book, Vevey, le— flopped a moment
as if to recoiled! the day of the month, left a blank
fpace, and then proceeded to Decembre 1787 ; after
which he a iked for an almanac: a little book, fuch as
is given to children for a new year’s gift, was offered to
him ; he took it, opened it, brought it near his eyes,
■then threw it down on the table. An almanac which
be knew was then prefented to him ; this was in Ger¬
man, and of a form fimilar to the almanac of Vevey: he
took it, and then faid, ‘ What is this they have given
me ; here, there is your German almanac.’ At laft
they gave him the almanac of Berne ; he took this like-
wife, and went to examine it at the bottom of an alcove
that was perfedtly dark. He was heard turning over
the leaves, and faying 24, then a moment afterwards
34. Returning to bis place, with the almanac open at
the month of December, he laid it on the table and
wrote in the fpace which he had left blank the 24th.
This feene happened on the 23d ; but as he imagined
it to be the 24th, he did not miftake. The following
is the explication given of this fad! by tire authors of
the report.
“ The dates 23d, 24th, and 25th, of the month of
December, had long occupied the mind or the young
Devaud. The 23d and 25th wrere holidays, which he
expecled with the impatience natural to perfons of his
age, for the arrival of thofe moments when their little
daily labours are to be fufpended. The 25th efpecially
was the objedt of his hopes ; there was to be an illumi¬
nation in the church, which had been deferibed to him
in a manner that quite tranfported him. The 24th
was a day of labour, which came very difagreeably be¬
tween the two happy days. It may eafily be con¬
ceived, how an imagination fo irritable as that of the
young Devaud would be {truck with thofe pleafing
epochs. Accordingly, from the beginning of the month
Vol. XIX. Part II.
S L E
he had been perpetually turning over the almanac of Sleep-
Vevey. He calculated the days and the hours that, walkcr-
were to elapfe before the arrival of his wilhed-for ho¬
lidays ; he Ihowed to his friends and acquaintance the
dates of thofe days which he expedted with fo much
impatience ; every time he took up the almanac, it was
only to confult the month of December. We now fee
why that date prefented itfelf to his mind. He was
performing a talk, becaufe he imagined the day to be
the Monday which had fo long engrofled him. It is
not furprifing, that it Ihould have occurred to his ima¬
gination, and tliat on opening the almanac in the dark
he might have thought he law this date which he was
feeking, and that his imagination might have reprefent¬
ed it to him in as lively a manner as if he had adtually
feen it. Neither is it furprifing that he Ihould have
opened the almanac at the month of December ; the
cultom of perufing this month mult have made him
find it in the dark by a mere mechanical operation.
Man never feems to be a machine fo much as in the
Hate of fomnambulifm ; it is then that habit comes to
fupply thofe of the fenfes that cannot be ferviceable,
and that it makes the perfon adt with as much precifion
as if all his fenfes were in the utmoll adlivity. Thefe
circmnltances deftroy the idea of there being any thing
miraculous in the behaviour of young Devaud with re-
fpedt to the date and the month that he was in quell of;
and the reader, who has entered into our explanations,
will not be furprifed at his knowing the German alma¬
nac ; the touch alone was fufficient to point it out to
him ; and the proof of this is the Ihortnefs of the time
that it remained in his hands.
“ An experiment was made by changing the place
of the ink-itandifh during the time that Devaud was
writing. He had a light belide him, and had certified
himfelf of the place where his ink-holder was Handing
by means of light. From that time he continued to
take ink with precifion, without being obliged to open
his eyes again : but the ink-ltandilh being removed, he
returned as ufual to the place where he thought it was:
It mull be obferved, that the motion of his hand was
r id till it reached the height of the flandilh, and then
he moved it flowly, till the pen gently touched the
table as he was feeking for the ink : he then perceived
that a trick had been put on him, and complained of
it ; he went in fearch of his ink-ftandifh and put it in
its place. This experiment was feveral times repeated,
and always attended with the fame circumftances. Does
not what we have here Hated prove, that the Handilh,
the paper, the table, &c. are painted on his imagination'
in as lively a manner as if he really faw them, as he
fought the real Handilh in the place where his imagina¬
tion told him it ought to have been ? Does it not prove
that the fame lively imagination is the caufe of the
molt lingular actions of this lleep-walker ? And laflly,
does it not prove, that a mere glance of his eye is fuffi¬
cient to make his impreffions as lively as durable ?
“ The commitee, upon the whole, recommend to
fuch as wilh to repeat the fame experiments, 1. To
make their obfervations on different lleep-walkers. 2.
To examine often whether they can read books that arc
unknown to them in perfedt darknefs. 3. To obferve
whether they can tell the hours on a watch in the dark.
4. To remove when they write the ink-Haudilh from its
place, to fee whether they will return to the fame place
[ 4<=i 1
S L E [ 402 ] S L I
Sleep- in order to take ink. 5. And, laftly, to take notice
walker whether they walk with the lame confidence in a dark
v and unknown place, as in one with which they are ac-
   quain led.
“ t hey like wife recommend to fuch as would con¬
firm or invalidate the above obfervations, to make all
their experiments in the dark5 becaule it has been hi¬
therto lujipnied that the eyes of fleepwalkers are ot no
life to them.”
SLEEPERS, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given to
thole animals which deep all winter 5 fuch as bears,
marmots, dormice, bat-*, hedgehogs, fwallows, See.
Thcte do not feed in winter, have no feniible evacua¬
tions, breathe little or none at all, and molt of the
vifeera ceafe from their functions. Some of thefe ani¬
mals feem to be dead, and others return to a Hate like
that of the foetus betoie oirth: 111 this date they con¬
tinue, till by an increafe of heat the animal is reitored to
its former tundtions.
Sleepkrs, in a Ihip, timbers lying before and aft in
the bottom of the Ihip, as the rungheadsdo: the lower-
mod of them is bolted to the rungheads, and the up-
permod to the futtocks and rungs.
SLE1DAN, John, an excellent German hidorian,
born of obfeure parents, in 1506, at Sleidan, a fmall
town on the confines of the duchy of Juliers. After
dudying fome time in his own country, together with
his townfman the learned John Sturmius, he went to
France, and in 1525 entered into the fervice of the
cardinal and archbithop John du Bellay, He retired
to Stralburg in 1542, where he acquired the edeem
and friend (hip of the mod conliderable perfons, parti-
, cularly of James Sturmius j by whole advice and affilt-
anee he was enabled to write the hiltory of his own
time. He was employed in fome public negotiations;
but the death of his wife, in 1555, plunged him into fo
deep a melancholy, that he lob his memory entirely, and
died the year following. In 1555 came out, in folio,
De flatu Reiigionis et Keipublicce fub Carolo ^uirito, &c.
in 15 books j from the year 1517, when Luther began
to preach, to the year of its publication-, which hidory
was prefently trandated into mod of the languages of
Europe. Befides this great work, he wrote, De qua-
tuor fummis Imperils, hbn Ires ; with fome other hilto-
rical and political pieces.
SLEIGHT o/Hanb. See Legerbemain.
SLESWICK, an ancient and condderable town of
Denmark, the metropolis of a duchy of the fame name,
in the province of Gottorp, the fee of a bilhop, which
was fecularized in the year 1586. The old palace of
Gottorp is clofe to it, which was formerly the ducal
refidence, but afterwards inhabited by the governor.
This town at one period was much more extenlive than
it is now, having differed greatly by the German wars.
It is feated on the gulf of Sley, where there is a com¬
modious harbour, 60 miles north-wed of Lubeck, and
121; fouth-web of Copenhagen. The people boait that
the” German language is here fpoken with as much ac¬
curacy as at Vienna, of which, however, a good Ger¬
man fcbolar can alone be judge. Slefwick has but little
trade, as none but fmall boats can have accefs to it, the
paffage of the Sley having been long lince choked up
with fand and mud ; before which period it was both
flourilhing and populous. It is now chiefly inhabited by
the officers of the cable, and the poorer claffes, or the
45
attendants on the court and on them. The prefent po- Slefwick
pulation is faid not to exceed 5000. E. Long. 10. o. ll
N. Lat. 54. 40. , . ,
Seeswick, the duchy of, or South Jutland, is about
100 miles in length and 60 in breadth. It is bounded
on the north by North Jutland, on the eab by the Bal¬
tic fea, on the fouth by Holitein, and on the welt by
the ocean. It contains 14 cities, 17 towns, 13 cables,
278 parifhes, 1480 villages, 162 farms, 1 16 water-mills,
and ic 6 gentlemen’s feats. It is a plealant, fertile po¬
pulous country, and a lovtreign duchy, bormeiiy the
king of Denmark had half of it, and the other belong¬
ed to the houle of Holbein-Gottorp} but the former
having conquered this duchy, had the pofieilion oi it
confirmed to him by the treaty ot ihe north in 1720.
In 1731, a prince of Bareith-Culmbaeh was made go¬
vernor of ibis duchy, who relidts at Gottorp.
SLEUT-hounbe, the ancient Scots name of the
blood-hound. I he word is from the Saxon Jlot, “ the
impreffion that a deer leaves of its foot in the mire,”
and hound, “ a dog j” fo they derive their name from,
following the track. See the article BLOOD-Huund.
SLICH, in Metallurgy, the ore of any metal, parti¬
cularly of gold, when it has been pounded, and prepa¬
red for farther working.
The manner of preparing the flieh at Chremnitz in
Hungary is this; they lay a foundation of wood three
yards deep, upon this they place the ore, and over this
there are 24 beams, armed at their bottoms with iron;
thefe, by a continual motion, beat and grind the ore,,
till it is reduced to powder: during this operation, the
ore is covered with water. There are four wheels ufed
to move thefe beams, each wheel moving fix; and the
water, as it runs od, carrying fome of the metalline par¬
ticles with it, is received into leveral bafons, one pla¬
ced behind another ; and finally, after having palled
through them all, and depofited fome fediment in each,
it is let off into a very large pit, aimed half an acre in
extent; in which it is differed to band fo long as to de¬
posit all its fediment, of whatever kind, and after this
it is let out. This work is carried on day and night,
and the ore taken away and replaced by more as. often
as occafion requires. That ore which lies next the
beams, by which it was pounded, is always the cleaned
or rieheb.
When the llicfi is walked as much as they can, a hun¬
dred weight of it ufually contains about an ounce, or
perhaps but half an ounce of metal, ivhieh is not all gold;
for there is always a mixture of gold and filver, but the
gold is in the larged quantity, and ulually is two-thirds
of the mixture: they then put the flick into a furnace
witk fome limedone, and llaeken, or the feoria of former
meltings, and run them together. The firb melting pro¬
duces a fubdance called lech; this lech they burn with
charcoal, to make it lighter, to open its body, and render,
it porous, after which it is called roji; to this rod they
add land in fuch quantity as they find neceffary, and then
melt it over again.
At Chremnitz many other ways are pra&ifed ofredu-
cing gold out of its ore, but particularly one, in which
they employ no lead during the whole operation; where¬
as, in general, lead is always neceffary, after the before-
mentioned proceffes. See ORES, Redublion of.
SLIDING RULE, a mathematical indrument, fer-
ving to work quedions in gauging, mcafuring, &c. with-s
S L O
out the ufe of corapafles ; merely by the Hiding of the
parts of the inftrument one by another, the lines and
divifions v hereof give the anfwer by infpedtion.
This inftrument is varioully contrived, and applied
by various authors, particularly Everard, Coggeftiall,
Gunter, Hunt, and Partridge ; but the moft common
and ufeful are thofe of Everard and Coggeftiall.
SLIGO, a county in the province of Connaught, Ire¬
land, 31 miles in length, and 29 in breadth $ bounded
on the eaft by that of Leitrim, on the weft by the coun¬
ty of Mayo, on the north and north-weft by the weftern
ocean, and on the fouth and fouth-weft by Rofcommon
and Mayo. It contains 11,500 houfes, 41 parifhes,
60,000 inhabitants, and fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
Sligo, the only market town in the county, contains
8oco inhabitants, and enjoys a confiderable trade, is
feated on a bay of the fame name, 30 miles weft of
Eillalla, and no north-eaft of Dublin. W. Lon<T.
8. 26. N. Lat. 54. 13.
SLING, an inftrument ferving for calling ftones with
great violence. The inhabitants of the Balearic illands
were famous in antiquity-fw the dexterous management
of the fling ; it is faid they ufed three kinds of flings,
{bme longer, others fliorter, which they ufed according
as their enemies were either nearer or more remote. It
is added, that the firft ferved them for a head-band, the
fecond for a girdle, and that the third they conftantly
carried in their hand.
SLINGING is ufed varioufly at fea ; but chiefly for
hoifting up calks or other heavy things with flings, i. e.
contrivances of ropes fpliced into themfelves at either
end, with one eye big enough to receive the calk or
whatever is to be flung. There are other flings, which
are made longer, and with a fmall eye at each end ;
one of which is put over the breech of a piece of ord¬
nance, and the other eye comes over the end of an iron
crow, which is put into the mouth of the piece, to weigh
and hoife the gun as they pleafe. There are alfo flings
by which the yards are bound fall to the crofe-tree aloft,
and to the head of the mail, with a ftrong rope or chain,
that if the tie fliould happen to break, or to be fhot to
pieces in fight, the yard, neverthelefs, may not fall upon
the hatches.
Slinging a Man overboard, in order to Hop a leak
in a (hip, is done thus : the man is trufied up about the
middle in a piece of canvas, and a rope Jo keep him
from finking, with his arms at liberty, a mallet in one
hand and a plug, wrapped in oakum and well tarred in
a tarpawling clout, in the other, which he is to beat
with all difpatch into the hole or leak.
SLOANE, Sir Hans, Baronet, eminently diftin-
gui/hed as a phyfician and a naturalift, was of Scotch
extraJion, his father Alexander Sloane being at tire
head of that colony of Scots which King James I. fet¬
tled in the north of Ireland, where our author was born,
at Killieagh, on the 19th of April 1660. At a very
early period, he difplayed a ftrong inclination for natu¬
ral hiftory ; and this propenfity being encouraged by a
fuitable education, he employed thofe hours which young
people generally lofe by purfuing low and trifling amufe-
ments, in the ftudy of nature, and contemplating her
Works. When about fixteen, he was attacked by a fpit-
ting of blood, which threatened to be attended with
confiderable danger, and which interrupted the regular
[ 4°3 1
S L 0
courfe of his application for three years ; he had, hbw,-»
ever, already learned enough of pbyfic to know that a
malady of this kind was not to be removed fuddenly,
and he prudently abftained from wine and other liquors
that were likely to increafe it.
By ftridtly obferving this fevere regimen, which in
fome meafure he continued ever after, he was enabled
to prolong his life beyond the ordinary bounds ; being
an example of the truth of his own favourite maxim,
that fobriety, temperance, and moderation, are the beft
and moft powerful prefervatives that nature has granted
to mankind.
As foon as he recovered from this infirmity, he re-
folved to perfect himfelf in the different branches of
phyfic, which was the profeflion he had made choice of;
and with this view he repaired to London, where he
hoped to receive that afliftanee which he could not find
in his own country.
On his arrival in the metropolis, he entered himfelf
as a pupil to the great Stafforth, an excellent chemift,
bred under the illuftrious Stahl \ and by his inftrudtions
he gained a perfect knowledge of the compolition and
preparation of the different kinds of medicines then in
ufe. At the fame time, he ftudied botany at the cele¬
brated garden at Chelfea, affiduoufly attended the pub¬
lic lectures of anatomy and phyfic, and in fhort neglect¬
ed nothing that he thought likely to prove ferviceable
to him in his future practice. His principal merit,
however, was his knowledge of natural hiftory ; and it
was this part of his character which introduced him
early to the acquaintance of Mr Boyle and Mr Ray,
two of the moft eminent naturalifts of that age. His
intimacy with thefe diftinguiflied characters continued
as long as they lived ; and as he vras careful to com¬
municate to them every objeCt of curiofity that attract¬
ed his attention, the oblervations which he occafionally
made often excited their admiration and obtained their
applaufe.
After ftudying four years at London with unremit¬
ting feverity, Mr Sloane determined to vifit foreign
countries for farther improvement. In this view he
fet out for France in the company of two other ftu-
dents, and having croffed to Dieppe, proceeded to Paris,
In the way thither they were elegantly entertained by
the famous M. Lemery the elder ; and in return Mr'
Sloane prefented that eminent chemift with a fpecimen
of four different kinds of phofphorus, of which, upon the
credit of other writers, M. Lemery had treated in his
book of chemiftry, though he had never feen any of
them. .
At Paris Mr Sloane lived as he had done in London.
He attended the hofpitals, heard the leClures of Touirne-
fort, De Verney, and other eminent mafters 5 vifited
all the literati, who received him with particular marks
of efteem, and employed himfelf wholly in ftudy.
From Paris Mr Sloane went to Montpelier ; and,
being furnifhed with letters of recommendation from
M; Tournefort to M. Chirac, then chancellor of that
univerfity, he found eafv accefs, through his means, to
all the learned men of the province, particularly to M.
Mageol, whom he always accompanied in his botanical
excurfions in the environs of that city, where he beheld
witn pleafure and admiration the fpontaneous produc¬
tions O' nature, and learned under his inftruCIions t@
clafs them in a proper manner.
3 E 2
Slofttre.
S L O [ 404 ] s L O
Having here found an ample field for contemplation,
which was entirely fuited to his tafte, he took leave of
his two companions, whom a curiofity of a different
kind led into Italy.
After fpending a whole year in colledting plants, he
travelled through Languedoc with the fame defign ;
and palling through Thouloufe and Lourdeaux, return¬
ed to Paris, where lie made a fhort flay. About the
end of the year 1684 he fet out for England, with an
intention of fettling there as a phyfician. On his ar¬
rival in London, he made it his firit bufinefs to vifit his
two illuilrious friends Mr Ray and Mr Boyle, in order
to communicate to them the difeoveries he had made in
his travels. The latter he found at home, but the for¬
mer had retired to Effex •, to which place Mr Sloane
tranfmitted a great variety of plants and feeds, which
Mr Ray has deferibed in his Hiflory of Plants, and for
which he makes a proper acknowledgement.
About the year 1706 our author became acquainted
with the celebrated Sydenham ; who foon contracted fo
warm an affeCtion for him that he took him into his
houfe, and recommended him in the ftrongeft manner
to his patients. He had not been long in London be¬
fore he was propofed by Dr Martin Lifter as a candi¬
date to be admitted a member of the Royal Society, on
the 26th of November 1684 j and being approved, he
was eleCted on the 21ft of January following.
In 1685 he communicated fome curiofities to the So¬
ciety^ and in July the fame year he was a candidate for
the office of their affiftant fecretary, but without fuc-
cefs, as he was obliged to give way to the fuperior in-
tereft of his competitor Dr Halley. On the 1 2th of
April 1687, he was chofen a fellow of the college of
phylicians in London; and the fame year his friend and
fellow traveller DrTancred Robinfon, having mention¬
ed to the Society the plant called the Jlar of the earth,
as a remedy newly difeovered for the bite of a mad dog,
Dr Sloane acquainted them that this virtue of the plant
was to be found in a book called De Grefs Farriery ;
and that he knew' a man who had cured with it twenty
couple of dogs. This obfervation he made on the 13th
of July, and on the 12th of September following he em¬
barked at Portfmouth for Jamaica with the duke of Al¬
bemarle, who had been appointed governor of that ifland.
The doCtor attended his grace in quality of phyfician,
and arrived at Jamaica on the 19th of December fol¬
lowing.
Here a new field W'as opened for frefh difeoveries in
natural productions ; but the world would have been
deprived of the fruits of them, had not our author, by
incredible application, converted, as we may fay, his
minutes into hours. The duke of Albemarle died foon
after he landed, and the duchefs determined to return to
England whenever an anfwer ffiould be received to the
letter Ihe had fent to court on that melancholy occafion.
As Dr Sloane could not think of leaving her grace in
her diftrefs, w'hilft the reft of her retinue were preparing
for their departure, he improved it in making collections
of natural curiofities 5 fo that, though his whole ftay at
Jamaica wras not above fifteen months, he brought to¬
gether fuch a prodigious number of plants, that on his
return to England, Mr Ray w'as aftoniffied that one
man could procure in one iiland, and in fo ffiort a fpace,
fo vaft a variety.
On his arrival in London, he applied himfelf to the
5
praCHce of his profeffion •, and foon became fo eminent, Sloans,
that he was chofen phyfician to Chrift’s hofpital on the 1 v—
17th OCfober 1694: and this office he held till the year
1730, when, on account of his great age and infirmities,
he found it neceffary to refign. It is fome what lingular,
and redounds much to the doCtor’s honour, that though
he received the emoluments of his office punctually, be-
caufe be would not lay down a precedent which might
hurt his fucceffors, yet he conftantly applied-the money
to the relief of thofe who were the greateft objeCts of
compaffion in the hofpital, that it might never be laid
he enriched himfelf by giving health to the poor. He-
had been eleCted fecretary to the Royal Society on the
30th of November 1693; and upon this occafion he re¬
vived the publication of the Philofophical 1 ranfaCtions,
which had been omitted for fome time. He continued
to be the editor of this work till the year 17125 and
the volumes which appeared during that period are mo¬
numents of his induftry and ingenuity, many of the
pieces contained in them being written by himfelf.
In the mean time he publilhed Catalogus Plantarum
qiue in Infula Jamaica fponte proveniunt, &c. 5 feu Pro-
(Jromi Hfor ice Naturalis parsyrima ; which he dedica¬
ted to the Royal Society and College of Phylieian?..
About the fame time he formed the plan of a difpen-
fary, where the poor might be furnifhed at prime colt
with fuch medicines as their feveral maladies might re¬
quire 5 which he afterwards carried into execution, with
the affiftance of the prefident and other members of the
college of phyficians.
Our author’s thirft for natural knowledge feems to
have been born with him, lo that his cabinet of curio¬
fities may be faid to have commenced with his being.
He was continually enriching and enlarging it 5 and
the fame which, in the courfe of a few years, it had ac¬
quired, brought every thing that was curious in art or
nature to be firft offered to him lor purchafe. Ihcfe
acquifitions, however, increafed it but very {lowly in
comparifon of the augmentation it received in 1701
by the death of William Courten, Efq. a gentleman
who had employed all his time, and the greater part of
his fortune, in colledling rarities, and who bequeathed
the whole to Dr Sloane, on condition of his paying cer¬
tain debts and legacies with which he had charged it*
Thefe terms our author accepted, and he executed the
will of the donor with the moft fcrupulous exaflnefs 5
on which account fome people have faid, that he pur-
chafed Mr Courten’s curiofities at a dear rate.
In 1707 the firft volume of Dr Sloane’s Natural Pli-
ftory of Jamaica appeared in folio, though the publica¬
tion of the fecond w'as delayed till i72J* By this very
ufeful as w'ell as magnificent work, the materia medica
was enriched with a great number of excellent drugs
not before known. In 1708 the Doftor was Hefted a
foreign member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, in the room of Mr Tfchirnaus 5 an honour fo
much the greater, as wTe were then at war with France,
and the queen’s exprefs confent was neceffary before he
could accept it. In proportion as his credit rofe among
the learned, his praftice increafed among the people of
rank : Queen Anne herfelf frequently confulted him,
and in her laft illnefs was blooded by him.
On the advancement of George I. to the throne,
that prince, on the 3d of April 1716, created the Lpc"
tor a baronet, an hereditary title of honour to winch
' no
S L Q
r 405 j
S L O
'wane, no EnglHh phyfician had before attained 5 and at the
'-y—-'fame time made him phyfician general to the army, in
which llation he continued till 1727, when he was ap¬
pointed phyfician in ordinary to George II. He at¬
tended the royal family till his death j and wras partis
cularly favoured by Queen Caroline, who placed the
greateft confidence in his preferiptions. In the mean
time he had,been unanimoufiy chofen one of the clefts
of the college of phyficians June 1. 1716, and he was
elefted prefident of the fame body on September 30.
1719, an office which he held for fixteen years.. Du¬
ring that period he not only gave the higheft proofs of
his zeal and affiduity in the difcharge of his duty, but
in 1721 made a prefent to that fociety of iool.-, and:,
fo far remitted a very confiderable debt, which the cor¬
poration owed him, as to accept it in fuch fmall fums as
were leaft inconvenient to the ftate of their affairs. Sir
Hans was no lefs liberal to other learned bodies. He
had no fooner purchafed the manor of Ghelfea, than he
gave the company of apothecaries the entire freehold of
their botanical garden there, upon condition only that
they thould prefent yearly to the Royal Society fifty new
plants, till the number thould amount to 2000 (a). He
gave befides feveral other confiderable donations for the-
improvement of this garden 5 the fit nation of which, on
the banks of the Thames, and in the neighbourhood of
the capital, was fuch as to render it ufeful in two re-
fpefts : Firft, by producing the moft rare medicinal
plants j and, fecondly, by ferving as an excellent fchool
for young botanifts •, an advantage which he himfelf had
derived from it in the early part of his life.
The death of Sir Ifaac Newton, which happened in
1727, made way for the advancement of Sir Hans to
the prefidency of the Royal Society. He had been
vice-prefident, and frequently fat in the chair for that
great man j and by his long connection with this learn¬
ed body he had contrafted fo ftrong an affeftion for it,
that he made them a prefent of an hundred guineas^
caufed a curious buff of King Charles II. its founder, to
be erefted in the great hall where it met, and, as is faid,
was very inftrumental in procuring Sir Godfrey Copley’s
benefaftion of a medal of the value of five guineas, to
be annually given as an honorary mark of diftinftion to
the perfon who communicates the belt experiments to
the S ociety.
On his being raifed to the chair, Sir Hans laid afide
all thoughts of further promotion, and applied himfelf
wffiolly to the faithful difcharge of the duties of the of¬
fices which he enjoyed. In this laudable occupation he
employed his time from 1727 to 1740, when, at the
age of fourfeore, he formed a refolution of quitting the
fervice of the public, and of living for himfelf. With
this view he refigned the prelidency of the Royal So¬
ciety much againll the inclination of that refpeftable
body, who chofe Martin Folkes, Efq: to fucceed him,
and in a public afl’embly thanked him for the great and
eminent lerviees he had rendered them. In the month
of January 174.1, he began to remove his library, and
his cabinet of rarities, from his houfe in Bloomfbury to
that at Chelfea; and on the 12th of March following,
having fettled all his affairs, he retired thither himfelf,
to enjoy in peaceful tranquillity the remains of a well-
fpent life.. He did not, however, bury himfelf in that
folitude which excludes men from fociety. He recei¬
ved in Chelfea^as he had done in London, the vifits of
people of dillinftion, of all learned foreigners, and of
the royal family, v'ho fometimes did him the honour to
wait on him 5 but, what was ftill more to his praife, he
never refufed admittance or advice to rich or poor who
came to confult him concerning,their health. Not con¬
tented with this contrafted method of doing good, he
now, during his retreat, prefented to the public fuch ufe¬
ful remedies-as fuccefs had warranted, during the eourfe
of a long continued praftice. Among thefe is the ef¬
ficacious receipt for diiiempers in the eyes, and his re¬
medy for the bite of a mad dog.
During the whole courfe of- his life, Sir Hans had
lived with fo much temperance, as had preferved him ■
from feeling, the infirmities of old age ; but in his 90th
year he began to complain of pains, and to be fenfible
of an univerfal decay. He was often heard to fay, that
the approach of death brought no terrors along with .
it ; that he had long expefted the rtroke ; and that he
was prepared to receive it whenever the great Author
of his being fiiould think fit. After a thort illnefs of
three days, he died on the nth of January 1752, and
was interred on the 18th at Chelfea, in the fame vault
with his lady, the folemnity being attended with the
greateft; concourfe of people, of all ranks and conditions,
that had ever been feen before on the like oecafion.
Sir Hans being extremely felicitous left his cabinet
of curiofities, which he had taken fo much pains to eol-
left, fliould be again diffipated at his death, and being
at the fame time unwilling that fo large a portion of
his fortune ffiould be loft to his children, he bequeathed
it to the public, on condition that 20,oool. ffiould be
made good by parliament to his -family. . This fum,
though large in appearance, was fcarcely more than the
intrinfic value of the gold and filver medals, the ores
and precioas ftones that were found in it ; for in his
iaft will he declares, that the firft coft of the whole
amounted at leaft to 50,000!. Befides his library, con-
fifting
Sloane.
(a) This garden was firft eftabliftied by the company in 1673 ? anc^ having after that period been flocked by
them with a great variety of plants, for the improvement of botany, Sir Hans, in order to encourage fo ferviceable
an undertaking, granted to the company the inheritance of it, being part of his eftate and manor of Chelfea, on
condition that it ffiould be for ever preferved as a phyfic garden. As a proof of its being fo maintained, he obliged
the company, in confideration of the faid grant, to prefent yearly to the Royal Society, in one of their weekly meet¬
ings, fifty fpecimens of plants that had grown in the garden the preceding year, and which wrere all to be fpecifi-
cally diftinft from each other, until the number of two thoufand ffiould be completed. This number was completed
in the year 1761. In 1733 the company erefted a marble ftatue of Sir Hans, executed by Ryffirac, which is placed
upon a pedeftal in the centre of the garden, with a Latin infeription, exprefting his donation, and the defign and
advantages of it.
S L U [ 406 ] S M A
Sloanc fifting of more than 50,000 volumes, 347 of -which
Shule were iHuftrated with cuts finely engraven and coloured
‘ . from nature, there were 3560 manuferipts, and an infi¬
nite number of rare and curious works of every kind.
The parliament accepted the legacy, and fulfilled the
conditions.
SLO ANE A, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs
of polyandria, and order of monogynia *, and in the na¬
tural fyftem ranging under the 50th order, Amentucece.
See Botany Index.
SLOE. See Prunus, Botany Index.
SLOOP, a fmall veffel furnilhed with one mail, the
mainfail of which is attached to a gaff above, or to the
mad on its foremoft edge, and to a long boom below,
by which it is occafionally drifted to either quarter. See
Ship.
SLOOP of IVar, a name given to the fmalled vefitls
of war except cutters. They are either rigged as drips
or fnows.
SLOT, in the fportfman’s language, a term ufed to
exprefs the mark of the foot of a flag or other animal
proper for the chace in the day Or earth, by which
they are able to guefs when the animal pafi'ed, and
which way he went. The dot, or treading of the
dag, is very nicely dudied on this occafion ; if the
dot be large, deep printed in the ground, and with
an open cleft, and, added to thefe marks, there is a large
fpace between mark and mark, it is certain that the dag
is an old one. If there be obferved the dots or tread-
jngs of two, the one long and the other round, andbotli
of one fize, the long dot is always that of the larger
animal. There is alio another way of knowing the old
ones from the young ones by the treading •, which is,
that the hinder feet of the old ones never reach to their
fore feet, whereas thofe of the young ones do.
SLO TH. See Bradypus, Mammalia Index.
SLOUGH, a deep muddy place. The cad ddn of
a fnake, the damp of a coal-pit, and the fear of a wound,
are alfo called by the fame appellation. T he dough of
a wild boar is the bed, foil, or mire, wherein he wallows,
or in which he lies in the day-time.
SLUCZK, a large and populous town in Poland, in
Lithuania, and capital of a duchy of the fame name y
famous for three battles gained here by Condantine duke
of Odrog over the Tartars, in the reign of Sigifmund I.
It is feated on the river Sluczk, 72 miles fouth-ead of
Minlki, and 70 fouth of Novogrodeck. E. Long. 27.
44. N. Lat. 53. ■2.
SLUG. See. Limax, Helminthology- Index.
SLUICE, a frame of timber, done, or other matter,
ferving to retain and raife the water of a river, &c. and
on occafion to let it pafs.
Sucli is the duice of a mill, which dops and collefts
the water of a rivulet, &c. to let it fall at length in the
greater plenty upon the mill-wheel 5 fuch alfo are thofe
ufed as vents or drains to difeharge water off land. And
fuch are the duices of Flanders, &c. which ferve to
prevent the waters of the fea from overflowing the low¬
er lands.
Sometimes there is a kind of canal inclofed between
two gates or fluices, in artificial navigations, to fave the
water, and render the paffage of boats equally eafy and
fafe, upwards and downwards; as in the fluices of Bri-
are in France, which are a kind of maflive walls built
parallel to each other, at the diflance of 20 or 24 feet,
clofed with flrong gates at each end, between which is Slufei
a kind of canal or chamber, confiderably longer than fl
broad ; wherein a veffel being inclofed, the water is let
out at the firfi gate, by which the veffel is railed 15 or
16 feet, and paffed out of this canal into another much
higher. By'fuch means a boat is conveyed out of the.
Loire into the Seine, though the ground between them
rife above 150 feet higher than either of thofe rivers*. #Qee£
Sluices are made different ways, according to the ufe^/t
for which they are intended : when they ferve for navi¬
gation, they are ftiut with two gates, prefenting an
angle towards tile ftream; when they are made near the
fea, two pair of gates are made, the one to keep the
water out and the other in, as occafion requires : in this
cafe, the gates towards the fea prefent an angle that
way, and the others the contrary way ; and the fpace
inclofed by thofe gates is called the chamber. When
fluices are made in the ditches of a fortrefs, to keep up
the water in fome parts, inftead of gates, fluitters are
made fo as to Aide up and down in grooves ; and when
they are made to raife an inundation, they are then fhut.
by means of fquare timbers let down in cullifes, fo as to
lie clofe and firm.
The word fluice is formed of the French efclufe, which
JMenage derives from the Latin exclufa, found in the
Salic law in the fame fenfe. But this is to be reftrained
to the fluices of mills, &c. for as to thofe ferving to raife
veffels, they were wholly unknown to the ancients.
SLUR, in Mujic, a mark like the arch of a circle,
drawn from one note to another, comprehending two
or more notes in the fame or different degrees. If the
notes are in different degrees, it fignifies that they are
all to be fung to one fyliable; for wind inftruments,
that they are to be made in one continued breath; and
for ftringed inftruments that are flruek with a bow, as
a violin, &c. that they are made with one ftroke. If
the notes are in the fame degree, it fignifies that it is
all one note, to be made as long as the whole notes fo
conneffed ; and this happens moll frequently betwixt
the laft note of one line and the fir ft of the next; which
is particularly fjncopation.
SLUYS, a town of Dutch Flanders, oppofite the
ifland of Cadfand, with a good harbour, 10 miles north • j
of Bruges, containing 14,000 inhabitants. E. Long.
3. 2?. N. Lat. 51. 19.
SMACK, a fmall veffel, commonly rigged as a floop
or hov, ufed in the coafting or fifliing trade, or as a ten¬
der in the king’s fervice.
SMALAND, or East Gothland, a province of
Sweden, which makes part of Gothland; and is bound¬
ed on the north by Oftrogothia or Eaft Gothland, on
the eaft by the Baltic fea, on the fouth by Schonen
and Bleckingia, and on the weft by Weftrogothia or
Weft Gothland. It is about 112 miles in length, and
62 in breadth. Calmar is the capital town.
SMALKALD, a town of Germany, in Franconia,
and in the county of Henneberg: famous for the con¬
federacy entered into by the German Proteftants againft
the emperor, commonly called the league of Sma/kald.
The defign of it was to defend their religion and liber¬
ties. It is feated on the river Werra, 25 miles foutli-
weft of Erford, and 50 north-weft of Bamberg. E.
Long. 10. 53. N Lat. 50. 49. It is fubjeff to the
prince of Heffe-Caffel.
SMALLAGE. See Apium, Botany Index.
SMALT,
S M E [ 407 ] S M E
Smalt SMALT, a kind of glafs of a dark blue colour,
i| which when levigated appears of a moft beautiful co-
meaton , lour ; and if it could be made fufficiently fine, would be
an excellent fuccedaneum for ultramarine, as not only
refriling all kinds of weather, but even the mdlbviolent
fires.. It is prepared by melting one part of calcined
cobalt with two of flint powder, and one of potalh.
At the bottoms of the crucibles in which the fmalt is
manufaflured, we generally find a regulus of a whitith
colour inclined to red, and extremely brittle. This is
melted afrefh, and when cold feparates into two parts j
that at the bottom is the cobaltic regulus, which is
employed to make more of the imalt 5 the other is bif-
muth.
SMARAGDITE, a fpecies of mineral belonging to
the magnefian genus. See Mineralogy, p. xyy.
SM ARAGDUS, an old name for the emerald. See
Emerald, Mineralogy, p. 159.
SMEA I ON, John, an eminent civil engineer, w'as
born the 28th of May 1724, O. S. at Auflhorpe, near
Leeds, in a houfe built by his grandfather, and where
his family have refided ever fince.
The ftrength of his underllanding and the originality
of his genius appeared at an early age •, his playthings
were not the playthings of children, but the tools which
men employ ; and he appeared to have greater entertain¬
ment in feeing the men in the neighbourhood work,
and afking them queflions, than in any thing elfe. One
day he was feen (to the diftrefs of his family) on the
top of his father’s barn, fixing up fomething like a
windmill ; another time, he attended fome men fixing
a pump at a neighbouring village, and obferving them
cut off a piece of bored pipe, he was fo lucky as to pro¬
cure it, and he actually made with it a working pump
that raifed water. Thefe anecdotes refer to cireumftan-
ces that happened while he u’as in petticoats, and moft
likely before he attained his fixth year.
About his 14th and 15th year, he made for himfelf
an engine for turning, and made feveral prefents to his
friends of boxes in ivory or wood very neatly turned.
He forged his iron and ileel, and melted his metal ; he
had tools of every fort for working in wood, ivory, and
metals. He made a lathe, by which he cut a perpetual
fcrew in brafs, a thing little known at that day, which
was the invention of Mr Henry Hindley of York ; with
whom Mr Smeaton foon became acquainted, and they
fpent many a night at Mr Hindley’s houfe till day-light,
converfing on thofe fubjedb.
Thus had Mr Smeaton, by the ftrength of his ge¬
nius and indefatigable induttry, acquired, at the age
of 18, an extenfive fet of tools, and the art of work¬
ing in moft of the mechanical trades, without the af-
fiftance of any mafter. A part of every day was ge¬
nerally occupied in forming fome ingenious piece of
mechanifm.
Mr Smeaton’s father was an attorney, and defirous
of bringing him up to the fame profefiion ; Mr Smea¬
ton therefore came up to London in 1742, and attend¬
ed the courts in Weftminfter hall ; but finding (as his
common expreftion was) that the law did not fuit the
bent of his genius, he wrote a ftrong memorial to his
father on that fubjeft ; whofe good fenfe from that mo¬
ment left Mr Smeaton to purfue the bent of his genius
in his own way.
In 1751, he began a courfe of experiments to try a
machine of his invention to meafure a (hip’s way at fca, Smeaton.
and alio made two voyages in company with Dr Knight—v~—
to try it, and. a compais of his own invention and ma¬
king, which was made magnetical by Dr Knight’s arti¬
ficial magnets : the fecond voyage was made in the For¬
tune (loop of war, commanded at that time by Captain
Alexander Campbell.
In 1753 he was defied member of the Royal So¬
ciety ; the number of papers publiftied in their Tranf-
aftions will (how the univerfality of his genius and
knowledge. In 1759 vvas honoured by an unani¬
mous vote with their gold medal for his paper intitled
“ An Experimental Inquiry concerning the Natural
Powers of Water and Wind to turn Mills, and other
Machines depending on a Circular Motion.”
This paper, he lays, was the refult of experiments
made on working models in the years 1752 and 1753,
but not communicated to the Society till 1759 ; before
which time he had an opportunity of putting the effefl
of thefe experiments into real praflice, in a variety of
cafes, and (or various purpofes, fo as to affure the So¬
ciety he had found them to anfwer.
In December 1755> the Eddyftone lighthoufe was
burnt down : Mr Wefton, the chief proprietor, and thef
others, being defirous of rebuilding it in the moft fub-
ftantial manner, inquired of the earl of Macclesfield
(then prefident of the Royal Society) whom he thought
the moft proper to rebuild it j his lordftiip recommend¬
ed Mr Smeaton.
Mr Smeaton undertook the work, and completed it
in the fummer of 1759. Of the preparation for this
extrardinary work, of its commencement and progrefs,
Mr Smeaton has given an ample and interefting de-
feription in a fplendid folio volume which was firlt pub¬
liftied in 1791. The fame volume contains the hiftory
of the different buildings which have been erected on
the Eddyftone rock. See Eddystone.
Though Mr Smeaton completed the building of the
Eddyftone lighthoufe in 1759 (a work that does him fo
much cfedit) yet it appears he did not foon get into
full bufinefs as a civil engineer ; but in 1764, while in
Yorklliire, he offered himfelf a candidate for one of
the receivers ot the Derwentwater eftate, and on the
31ft of December in that year, he was appointed at a
full board of Greenwich hofpital, in a manner highly
flattering to hirnfelf j when two other perfons ftrongly
recommended and powerfully fupported were candidates
for the employment. In this appointment he was very
happy, by the afliftance and abilities of his partner Mr
Walton one of the receivers, who taking upon himfelf
the management and accounts, left Mr Smeaton leifure
and opportunity to exert his abilities on public works, as
well as to make many improvements in the mills and in
the eftates of Greenwich hofpital. By the year 1775 he
had fo much bufinefs as a civil engineer, that he wiibed
to refign this appointment; and would have done it
then, had not his friend the late Mr Stuart the hofpi¬
tal furveyor, and Mr Ibbetfon their fecretary, prevailed
upon him to continue in the office about two years
longer.
# Mr Smeaton having now got into full bufinefs as a
civil engineer, performed many works of general utili¬
ty. He made the river Calder navigable ; a work that
required great (kill and judgment, owing to the very
impetuous floods in that river : He planned and at¬
tended
S M E r 408
■Sr*eaton. tended tlie execution of the great canal in Scotland for
J*" v ' conveying the trade of the country either to the .Atlan¬
tic or German ocean } and having brought it to the
place originally intended, he declined a handfome year¬
ly falary, in order that he might attend to the multipli¬
city of his other bufinefs.
On the opening of the great arch at London bridge,
the excavation around and under the iterlings was lo
conliderable, that the bridge was thought to be in great
danger of falling. He was then in York (hire, and was
lent for by exprefs, and arrived with the utmoft dif-
patch : “ I think (fays Mr Holmes, the author of his
life) it was on a Saturday morning, when the apprehen-
lion of the bridge falling was fo general that few would
pafs over or under it. He applied hitnfelf immediately
to examine it, and to found about the fterlings as mi¬
nutely as he could-, and the committee being called
together, adopted his advice, which was to repurchafe
the Hones that had been taken from the middle pier,
then lying in Moorfields, and to throw them into the
•river to guard the Iterlings.” Nothing ftiows the ap-
prehenfions concerning the falling of the bridge more
than the alacrity with which this advice was purfued ;
the Hones were repurchafed that day, horfes, carts, and
barges were got ready, and they began the work on
Sunday morning. Ihus Mr Smeaton, in all human
probability, faved London bridge from falling, and fe-
cured it till more e fie (Huai methods could be taken.
The vafi variety of mills which Mr Smeaton con-
firufted, fo greatly to the fatisfaffion and advantage of
the owners, will (how the great life which he made of
his experiments in 1752 and 1753 -, for he never trufied
to theory in any cafe where he could have an opportu¬
nity to invefiigate it by experiment. He built a fleam
engine at Autlhorpe, and made experiments thereon,
purpofely to afeertain the power of Newcomen’s fleam-
engine, which he improved and brought to a greater
degree of perferiion, both in its conftruriion and powers,
than it was before.
Mr Smeaton during many years of his life was a
frequent attendant on parliament, his opinion being con¬
tinually called for and here his (Length of judgment
and perfpicuity of expreffion had its full difplay : it
was his con ft ant cuflom, when applied to, to plan or
fupport any meafure, to make himfelf fully acquainted
with it, to fee its merits before he would engage in it :
by this caution, added to the clearnefs of his deferip-
tion and the integrity of his heart, he feldom failed to
obtain for the bill which Tie fupported an aft of parlia¬
ment. No one was heard with more attention, nor had
any one ever more confidence placed in his teftimony.
In the courts of law he had feveral compliments paid
him from the bench by Lord Mansfield and others, for
the new light which he threw on difficult fubjects.
About the year 1785 Mr Smeaton’s health began to
decline and he then took the refolution to endeavour
to avoid all the bufinefs he could, fo that he might
have leifure to publifh an account of his inventions and
works, which was certainly the firft wifli of his heart ;
for he has often been heard to fay, that “ he thought
he could not render fo much fervice to his country as
by doing that.” He got only his account of the Ed-
dyftone'lighthoufe completed, and feme preparations to
his intended Treatife on Mills *, for he could not refift
the felicitations of his friends in various works: and
1
S M E
Smellin;
Mr Aubert, whom he greatly loved and refpeified, be- Smeate
ing chofen chairman of Ramfgate harbour, prevailed 11
upon him to accept the place of engineer to that bar- ^
hour 3 and to their joint efforts the public is chiefly in¬
debted for the improvements that have been made there
within thefe few years, which fully appears in a report
that Mr Smeaton gave in to the board of truftees in
179T, which they immediately publilhed.
Mr Smeaton being at Aufthorpe, walking in his gar¬
den on the 16th of September 1792, was flruck with
the palfy, and died the 28th of Oriober. “ In his ill-
nefs (fays Mr Holmes) I had feveral letters from him,
■figned with Ids name, but written and figned by ano¬
ther’s pen 3 the die!ion -of them (bowed that the (Length
his ndnd had not left him. In one written the 26th
of September, after minutely deferibing his health and
feelings, he fays, “ in confequence of the foregoing, I
conclude myfelf nine-tenths dead 3 and the greateft fa¬
vour the Almighty can do me (as I think), will be to
’Complete the other part 3 but as it is likely to be a lin¬
gering illnsfs, it is only in His power to fay when that
is likely to happen.”
Mr ’Smeaton had a warmth of expreffion that might
appear to thofe who did not know him well to border
on harfhnefs 3 but thofe more intimately acquainted with
him, knew it arofe from the interife application of his
mind, which was always in the purfuit of truth, or en¬
gaged in inveiiigating difficult fubjeffs. He would
fometiloes break out haftily, when any thing was faid
that did not tally with his ideas 3 and he would not
give up anv thing he argued for, till his mind was con¬
vinced by found reafoning.
In all the focial duties of life he was exemplary 5 be
was a moft affee}innate hulhand, a good father, a warm,
zealous, and fmeere friend, always ready to aflift thofe
whom he refperied, and often before it was pointed out
to him in what way he could ferve them. He was a lover
and encourager of merit wherever he found it 3 and
many men are in a great meafure indebted to his af-
fiftance and advice for their prefent fituation: As a
companion, be was always entertaining and inftruriive 3
and none could fpend any time in his company without
improvement.
SMELL 3 this word has in moft languages tyro
meanings, fignifying either that fenfation of mind of
which we are confcious, in confequence of certain im-
preflions made on the noftrils, and conveyed to the
brain by the olfactory nerves 3 or that unknown virtue,
or quality in bodies, which is the caufe of our fenfations
of fmell.
SMELLING is the a<H by which we perceive
fmells, or become fenfible of the prefence of odorous
bodies. The fenfations of fmell are excited by certain
effluvia, which, in the open air, are always iffuing from
the furfaces of moft bodies, and (Liking on (he extre¬
mities-of the t)lfa£fory nerves, give them a peculiar fort
of impTeffion, which is communicated to the brain. Ihe
■particles which ilTue thus from bodies are extremely vo¬
latile, and produce fenfatioti by a degree of contaft,
which, though infenfible, is dill more efficient than if
it were more grofs and palpable. It is by a fimilar
fpecies of infenfible 'cental that the eyes and ears are
affeifled by external objects 3 whilft, in the excitation
of the fenfations of touch and of tafte, an ariual and
fenfible contaft of the objeft with the organ is necef-
fary.
S M E
i>iCi{;njr.T,fary. The organs of fmelling are the noftrxls and olfac-
y——tory nerves; the minute ramifications of the latter be¬
ing diftributed throughout the whole concavity of the
former. For a defcription of thefe, fee Anatomy.
The effluvia from odorous bodies are conftantly floating
about in the atmofphere, and muft ofcourfe be drawn into
the noltrils along with the air in infpiration ; “ fo that
there is,” as Dr Reid obferves, “ a manifeld appearance
of defign in placing the organ of fmell in the infide of
that canal, through which the air is continually palling
in infpiration and expiration.” It has been affirmed by
Boerhaave, that the matter in animals, vegetables, fof-
fils, &c. which chiefly affefts the fenfe of fmelling, is
that attenuated fubftance, inherent in their oily parts,
called fpirits ; becaufe, when this is taken away from
the moft fragrant bodies, what remains has fearcely any
fmell at all *, but this, he fays, if poured on the moil;
;ee alfo inodorous bodies, gives them a fragrancy*. We can-
wn- not, however, enter at prefent upon this inquiry.
kA's A- The fenfe of fmell has a dole alliance with that of
'emical ^a{}e . aT1d it feems probable from the proximity in the
' j ’ fituation of their organs in all animals, that both are
i k i. principally intended to guide them in the choice of
up. 9- their food ; fo that from this clofe connexion, they are
better enabled to choofe what is good for them, and to
rejed what would be injurious. This is the opinion of
Dr Reid, as it was, in a very early period of the hiftory
of philofophy, that of Socrates and of Cicero (a).
Dr Reid alfo remarks, that the fenfe of fmell probably
ferves the fame purpofe in the natural Rate of man *, but
it is not always a fure guide for this purpofe. The or¬
gans of fmell differ, like thofe of the other fenfes, ac¬
cording to the deftination of the animals to which they
belong ; and we know, that this fenfe is in man much
lefs acute, than it is in many other animals. We fee,
that in the choice of their food, they are guided by the
fenfes of fmell and of tafte, except when man has brought
them into a fort of unnatural Rate by domeflication.
And this circumRance renders it probable, that both
thefe fenfes were intended to ferve the fame purpofe in
the natural Rate of our fpecies, although lefs calculated
for this end than they are in the brutes, on account of
the great fuperiority of their fmelling organs. Befides,
lince it is probable that man, in the natural Rate, afts
more by inflin61 than when civilized in fociety, foalfo it
is reafonable to think, that he may poffefs fome of the
fenfes, (this of fmell for inRance), in greater acutenefs
than we do. This indeed, we are affured to be a fa£t j
Vol. XIX. Part II.
S M E
for we are told, in the Hijloire des Antilles, that there Smell
are negroes who, by the fmell alone, can difiinguilh the
footfleps of a Frenchman from thofe of a negro.
The fenfe of fmell is much more obtufe in man than
in fome of the lower animals. Dogs we know poffefs a
power of fmelling, of which we can fcarcely form a
conception, and which, it is happy for us we do not pof-
feis (b) ; and birds of prey are faid to poffefs this fenfe
in Rill greater acutenefs. But although this be more
perfect, Rill the fenfe of fmelling in man, who has other
means of judging of his food, &c. is Rich as to fit him
for deriving enjoyment from a diverfity of feents, parti¬
cularly thofe of tlowers and perfumes, to which dogs and
other animals feem perfectly infenfible. It has been faid,
we are aware, that fome animals, the elephant for in-
ftance, are capable of this enjoyment (c) 5 but of this
faff we cannot help being very doubtful.
There is a very great fympatby between the organs
of fmell and of taRe ; for any defeff or difeafe of one is
generally attended with fome correfponding defeff or
difeafe of the other. There is alfo a greater fimilarity
between the fenfations of both thefe, than between thofe
of any otter two fenfes : and hence it is, that we can
fometimes tell the tafie of an objeff from its fmell, and
vice verfa. Hence alfo the realon why we apply the
fame epithets to the names of both thefe claffes of fenfa¬
tions ; as a fweet fmell or tafle, &c.
It deferves alfo to be remarked, that both thefe fenfes
feem fubfervient to the prefervation of the animal exiR-
ence, rather than to any other purpofe. They accord¬
ingly conRitute an objeff of the natural hiRory of man,
rather than of intelleffual or of moral philofophy. The
other three fenfes, on the contrary, feem rather intend¬
ed for (as they certainly are effential to) our intellec¬
tual improvement, and become, of courfe, a proper ob¬
jeff of invefligation in the Tciences of moral philofophy,
or metaphyfics.
The advantages derived by man and the other ani¬
mals from the fenfe of fmelling are not confined to the
affiflance which it affords them in the choice of their
food. Mofl bodies in nature, when expofed to the open
air, are confiantly fending forth emanations or effluvia
of Rich extreme minutenefs as to be perfeffly invifible.
Thefe diffufe themfelves through the air, and however
noxious or falutary, would not be perceived without the
fenfe of fmelling, which if not vitiated by unnatural
habits, is not only a faithful monitor when danger is at
hand, but conveys to us likewife the mofl exquifite
3 -F pleafures.
[ 4°9 1
(a) “ Ut guflus (fays a learned phyfiologifl) cibi itineri, fic olfaffus oflio viarum, quas aer fubire debet, cuflos
pneponitur, moniturus ne quid noxii, via quas femper patet, in corpus admittatur. Porro, ut guflus, fic quoque ol¬
faffus ad falutarem cibum invitat, noxio aut corrupto, putrido imprimis vel rancido, deterret.”
“ When thou feefl the mouth, through which animals take in whatever they defire, always placed near the nofe
and eyes, thinkefl thou not, fays Socrates to Ariflodemus, that this is the work of a providence.” Xenophon’s
Memorables, book i. chap. 4.
(B) “ The exceffive eagernefs which dogs exprefs on fmelling their game, feems to be but little conneffed with
the appetite for food, and wholly independent of any preconceived ideas of the objeffs of their purfuit being fit for
it. Hence feveral kinds of them will not eat the game which they purfue with Rich wild impetuofity •, and of
which the Rent feems to animate them to a degree of eeflafy far beyond what the defire of food can produce ”
Knight on TaRe. ' l
_ (c) There is an animal to which, naturalifls fay, perfume is fo agreeable and fo neceffary, that nature has pro¬
vided it with a little bag Rored with an exquifite odour. “ On pretend, (fays Buffon), que la mangoufle ouvre
•cette poche, pour fe refraichir lorfqu’ elle a trop chaud.”
S M E
Smelling, pleafures. The fragrance of a rofe, and of many other
" 1 flowers, is not only pleafant, but gives a refrelhing
and delightful ftimulus to the Avhole fyftem, whilft the
odours proceeding from hemlock, or any noxious vege¬
table, or other fubftance, are highly offenfive to our
noftrils. Hence we are naturally led to feek the one
clafs of fenfations, and to avoid the other.
In fome fpecies of animals'the fenfe of fmell feems to
be connefted with certain mental fympathies, as thofe
of hearing and fight are in all that poflefs them in any
high degree : for not only their fexual defires appear to
be excited by means of it, but other inftinftive paffions,
which, according to the ufual fyftem of nature, fliould
be ftill more remote from its influence. Dogs, although
wholly unacquainted with lions, will ftuidder at their
roar ; and an elephant that has neverfleen a tiger, will
in the fame manner {how the ftrongelt fymptoms of
horror and aftright at the fmell of it. “ T he late Lord
Clive (fays an ingenious writer), exhibited a combat
between two of thefe animals at Calcutta •, but the fcent
of the tiger had fuch an effeft upon the. elephant, that
nothing could either force or allure him to go. along
the road, where the cage in which the tiger was inclof-
ed, had paffed, until a gallon of arack was given him.
Upon this, his horror fuddenly turning into fury, he
broke down the paling to get at his enemy, and killed
him Avithout difficulty.,1
If riding along a road, near Avhich a dead horfe, or
part of its carcafs, happens to be lying, Ave knoAV, that
our horfe, although he fees it not, cannot be made to
pafs the place but with difficulty. Where blood has
been ftied, particularly that of their oAVn fpecies, oxen
will affemble, and upon fmelling it, roar and bellow,
and ftioAv the moft manifeft figns of horror and diftrefs.
And yet thefe fymptoms could not arife from any al-
fociated notions of danger or death, fince they appear
in fuch as never had any opportunities of acquiring
them. They muft therefore be inftin&ive, like other
inftin&ive antipathies and propenfities. But although
in their mutual intercourfe, animals make much ufe of
the fenfe of fmell, ftill it does not feem to be further
concerned in exciting their fexual defires, than in indi¬
cating their object.
Some of thofe fplenetic philofophers. Avho are ready
upon all occafisns to quarrel with the conftitution of
nature, have taken the liberty of condemning their
Maker, becaufe it has pleafed his unfathomable wifdom
to beftoAV in fome inftances upon the brutes fenfes and
inftinCts more perfect than he has given to man, Avith-
out reflefting that he has given to man an ample equi¬
valent * for 'it may be alked Avith the poet,
“ Is not his reafon all thefe powers in one ?
“ Is Heaven unkind to man and man alone ?
“ Shall he alone, Avhom rational we call,
' “ Be pleafed Avith nothing if not bleffed with all.”
With refpeft to that Unknown peculiarity of bodies,
which is the caufe of our fenfations of fmell, the opinions
of philofophers have been very various. Until oi late,
the do£lrine of Defcartes and Locke on this fubjeft Avas
pretty generally received •, but, fince the publication of
Doflor Reid’s Avorks, his opinion, which Ave deem the
moft correft and fatisfa&ory, has become very, popular.
We Avill endeavour to abridge his account of this matter.
Tor this purpofe, let us fuppofe a perfon, Avho has groAvn
S M E
up without the fenfe of fmell, to be immediately endoAVed Smelling
Avith the ufe of this organ, and placed near fome floAvers'"■’’Y—“
of an exquifite favour. When he examines Avhat he feels
in fuch a fituation, he can find no refemblance between
this neAV fenfation, and any thing with Avhich he is alrea¬
dy acquainted. He finds himfelf unable to explain its
nature, and cannot afcribe to it figure, extenfion, or any
knoAvn property of matter. It is a Ample affedlion, or
feeling, of mind, and, confidered abftraftedly, can have
no necefiary connexion Avith the nerves, the noftrils, or
effluvia, or Avith any thing material AvhateA^er. By the
nature of his conftitution he is, hoAvever, led to refer this
peculiar fenfation to the noftrils, as its organ*, and Avhen,
from experience, and by means of touch, he learns that
external objedls have the poAver of exciting this fenfation,
he concludes, that there muft exift in bodies fome un-
knoAvn caufe by winch it is excited. In the firft part of
this procefs he confiders the feeling, or fenfation, abftraft-
edly. As fuch it exifts in the mind only ; and cannot
exift there but Avhen the mind is confcious of it. His
confcioufnefs foon enables him to diftinguifh different
forts of fmells, all of them very diftinft from one another *,
but, conformably to the nature of all fenfation, extreme¬
ly Ample. He concludes, that each of thefe muft have
a diftindl caufe; and finding, by experience, that this
caufe is an unknoAvn fomething in bodies, he concludes,
that it muft be a property of matter, and, for Avant of
another, gives it the name of fmell. When he removes
an odorous body from the organ, the fenfation vanifhes:
Avhen the body is again applied, the fenfation is excited:
and hence it is, that he is led naturally to conneft the
fenfation with this unknoAvn peculiarity of bodies by
which it is produced. But fince Ave fee, that the fenfa¬
tion is, in a great degree, related to other objefts befides
its unknoAvn caufe, to the mind in Avhich it exifts, for
inftance, and to the organ Avhich is its inftrument,. it
may be aflcedAvhy it becomes aflbeiated in the mind Avith
its caufe only ? The reafon feems pretty obvious. No
Angle fenfation or clafs of fenfations, is more connefled
with the mind, than any others of which it is fufceptible.
Nor is the connexion fubfifting betAveen the organ and
any of the fenfations peculiar to it greater than that
which fubfiils between it and every other fenfation of
which it is the inlet. Hence the connexion between
the fmell of an orange and the mind, or between it and
the noftrils, is very general, and cannot, in the former
inftance, diftinguifti it from any other fenfation of what¬
ever kind, nor, in the latter from any other particular
fmell. But the connexion betAveen this fenfation and
the orange is peculiar and permanent j andAve according¬
ly find them ahvays affociated in the mind, juft as avc
affociate the notion of fire with the fenfation of burn¬
ing. The relation Avhich a fenfation of fmell, or any
fenfation, bears to the mind, to an organ, or to the me¬
mory and conception of itfelt, is common to all fenfa¬
tions. The relation Avhich any fenfation bears to its own
caufe, fuppofe of the fenfation of fmell to a particulai
virtue or quality of bodies, is common to it with.every
other fenfation, when confidered Avilh refpeft to its pe¬
culiar caufe. And finally, a fenfation of any kind bears
the fame fort of relation to the memory and conception
of itfelf, that any other feeling or operation of mind bears
to the conception and memory of that particular feeling
or operation. .
Whatever then be the nature of the minute particles
oL
[ 410 1
S M E [411] S/ M E
nelling. of bodies by wbich our fenfations of fmell are excited,
we cannot help confidering their unknown caufe as a
virtue or quality of matter. Like all other modifica¬
tions of material fubftance, it muft be confeffed, that this
can have no refemblance to the fenfations of mind. But
we are not therefore, to conclude with the followers of
Des Cartes and Locke, that this fecondary quality is a
mere fenfation 5 efpecially as we can readily conceive it
exifting where it is not fmelled, or even after fuppofing
the annihilation of every fentient being throughout the
univerfe. The exittence of the fenfation we'know to be
momentary and fugitive j but in the exiftence of its caufe
we can, without difficulty, or inconfiftency, conceive a
permanency independent of mind and of its fenfations.
The doftrine we have been illuftrating has of late
been called in queftion by a fceptical writer, who, it ap¬
pears to us, has upon this occafion been entirely deficient
in his accuftomed aeutenefs. Dr Reid’s account of this
affair feems fo full, fo clear and convincing, that we are
at a lofs to conceive how his meaning can be mifunder-
itood j and yet the arguments and objections of the wri¬
ter to whom 4ve allude, derive all their plaulibility from
a mifinterpretation of Dr Reid’s meaning, and from a
deviation from the eftablifhed ufe of language. “ An
rReid. eminent metaphyfician * (fays this author) has declared
that he has not the leaft difficulty in conceiving the air
perfumed with aromatic odours in the deferts of Arabia ;
and he has decided, that the man who maintains fmells
to exift only in the mind, muft be mad, or muft abufe
language and difgrace philofophy. There are fome au¬
thors, neverthelefs, who differ widely on this fubjeCf
from the learned metaphyfician. It is poffible for a fen-
lation to exift where there is no fentient P The authors
to whom I allude think it impoffible.” And fo, we
may tell this learned author, does Dr Reid, if he will
take his word for it. Of the fenfation of fmell he re¬
marks : “ It is indeed impoffible, that it can be in any
body : it is a fenfation } and a fenfation can be in a fen-
wTr/rc-tient thing only f.” Again, “ I can think of the fmell
X ch- of a rofe when I do not fmell it; and it is poffible that
‘ 2‘ when I think of it there is no rofe anywhere exiftino-;
but, when I fmell it, I am neceffarily determined to be¬
lieve that the fenfation really exifts. This is common
to all fenfations, that, as they cannot exifl but in being
perceived, fo they cannot be perceived but they muft
id. A. exift I*” But continues this acute metaphyfician, “ a
;ct. 3. fmell is nothing elfe than a fenfation. It is a feeling,
which may be agreeable or difagreeable ; which may, as
fome think, be excited by various combinations of ele¬
ments ; but which, fince it is a feeling, cannot be thofe
elements which are faid to caufe it, and cannot exift
where there is no creature to perceive it. What is to
be underftood, in philofophical ftriiftnefs, by the per¬
fumes of the defert ? We can excufe the poet when he
* Mon. makes the ocean fmile *, the winds dance f, and the
■ fl°wers refpire J •, or even wrere he to perfume the de-
‘ J J ' fert. But the philofopher is no fuch magician, and had
better not wander through the regions of fancy in ft arch
of fenfations where there is no fentient.” And is it then
true that the word fmell means only a fenfation ? A fen¬
fation is no more than an effeft ; it is a tranfient modifi¬
cation of the mind, which the mind itfelf can never pro¬
duce. It muft then have fome caufe which is external
to the mind. Now, it is to this caufe, and not to the
fenfation, that the name fmeilis, moft frequently applied
in all languages 5 and it is this caufe which Dr Reid fup- Smelling-,
pofes capable of exifting in the deferts of Arabia, where
there is no fentient being to perceive it. But let us hear
himfelf: “ We have confidered fmell as fignifying a
fenfation, feeling, or impreffion upon the mind 5 and in
this fenfe it can only be in a mind or fentient being :
but it is evident that mankind give the name of fmell
much more frequently to fomething which they con¬
ceive to be external, and to be a quality of body \ they
underftand by it fomething which does not at all infer a
mind, and have n^t the leaft difficulty in conceiving the
air perfumed with aromatic odours in the deferts of
Arabia, or fome uninhabited illand where the human
foot never trod “ The faculty of fmellingis fome-* Inquiry^
thing very different from the aftual fenfation of fmell-^c. ch. ii.
ing ; for the faculty may remain when we have no fen-^C(^’ ^
fation. And the mind is no lefs different from the fa¬
culty, for it continues the fame individual being when
the faculty is loft. What is fmell in the rofe ? It is a
quality or virtue of the rofe, or of fomething proceeding
from it, which we perceive by the fenfe of fmelling ;
and this is all we know of the matter. But what is
fmelling ? It is an a<ft of the mind, but is never imagined
to be a quality of. the mind. Again, the fenfation of
fmelling is conceived to infer nectflarily a mind or fen¬
tient being ; but fmell in the rofe infers no fuch thing.
We fay, this body fmells fweet and that ftinks ; but we
do not fay, this mind fmells fweet and that ftinksj there¬
fore, fmell in the rofe, and the fenlation which it caufes,
are not conceived, even by the vulgar, to be things of
the fame kind, although they have the fame name f.” , ^
There are fome other remarks on Dr Reid’s opinion U' *
in the work upon which we have been commenting,
which -we ffiall pafs by ; we may, however, notice the
author’s concluding argument : after mentioning fome
examples, he obferves, “ Now in thefe inftances we fee
men and animals that muft have perception of fmell, if
I may be permitted to fay fo, altogether different from
each other. Is not fmell fenfation when the fpaniel finds
fport in the field for his mafter j when the ffiark pur-
fues through the ocean its expedfted vieftim 5 and when
the camel conducts the thirfty wanderer to a fountain of
freffi water acrofs the burning lands of the Arabian de¬
fert ? If no animal had the fenfation of fmell, there
would be no odour; for aroma and oils may be thought
to be material compofitions, but are neither agreeable
nor difagreeable feelings.” If men and animals differ in
their perceptions of fmell, (and no doubt, difference of
organization will caufe them to do fo) the conclufion
thould not be, we think, that fmell is merely fenfation,
but that there is actually fomething external which is
the caufe of their fenfations, and about which they differ.
A rofe put to the noftrils of a man and then to thofe of
a dog, may excite very different fenfations ; but we can¬
not think that the peculiarity of the rofe, which excites
thofe different lenfations, varies by thus changing the
pofition of the rofe. If at table one perfon miftakes
mutton for beef, and another thinks that it is venifon
the conclufion may be, that it is neither venifon nor
beef; but no man in his fenfes can conclude that there
is no meat at the table. But, “ is not fmell fenfation
when the fpaniel finds fport for his mafter in the field ?”
T. here is fenfation no doubt j but we may be permitted
to a Ik, what would become of the fpaniel’s fenfation of
fmdl and of his mafter’s fport, were there no game -in
SF* the
S M E [41
Smelling, tlic field ? What of the (bark’s fenfatlon of fmell and
1 ' 1 purfuit, were there no victim in the ocean ? and what
of the camel and the thirfty wanderer, were there no
fountain of frefii w’ater in the Arabian deferts i* “ 1 he
fmell of a rofe fignifies two things, fays Dr Reid; Tirf,
A fenfation which can have no exiilence but when it is
perceived, and can only be in a lentient being or mind.
Secondly, It fignifies feme power, quality, or virtue, in
the rofe, or in effluvia proceeding irom it, which hath
a permanent exiflence independent of the mind ; and
which, by the eonftitution of nature, produces the fen¬
fation in us. By the original conftitution of our nature
4ve are both led to believe that there is a permanent
eaufe of the fenfation, and prompted to feek after it •,
and experience determines us to place it in the rofe.
The names of all fmells, talles, founds, as well as heat
and cold, have a like ambiguity in all languages; but it
deferves our attention, that thefe names are but rarely,
in common language, uled to fignify the fenfations ; for
the mod part, they fignify the external qualities which
* Inquiry, are indicated by the fenfations*. We have been induced
chap. ii. thus to dilcufs this topic at iome length, becaufe we re-
5* gretted to fee Dr Reid’s opinion and reafoning mifre-
prefented; and we (hall now conclude, not as this mo¬
dern Berkleian does, “ that, if no animal had the fen¬
fation of fmell, there would be no odour but, that if
there were no odour or external caufe of fmell, no ani¬
mal would have this fenfation.
The fenfe of fmell becomes fometimes too acute,
either in confequence of fome defeft or difeafe of the
organ, or from too great a fenfibility of the whole ner¬
vous fyftem, fuch as we fometimes obferve in fevers, in
phrenitis, and in hyfterieal difeafes. It is however more
frequently blunted in confequence of affeclions of the
brain and nerves, arifing from blows on the head, or
from internal caufes; or this may happen on account of
too great a drynefs of the organ, owing to a fuppreffion
of the accuflomed humours, or to their being conveyed
off by fome other channel : or it may arife from too
great a quantity of tears and of mucus choking up the
notlrils. We have infiances of both in cafes of common
cold, in which, at the beginning of the difeafe, the nof-
trils are dry, but as it advances, begin to difcharge a
great deal of humour, or become obfirudred by a thick
mucus. Whatever hinders the free entrance of the air
into the noftrils or its paffage through them, muff alio
injure the fenfe of fmell. It is alfo fometimes fo de¬
praved as to perceive fmells when there is no odorous
body prefent, or to perceive fmells different from thofe
that are really prefent. Some of the particles of the
odorous effluvia, after having remained for fome time in
the caverns of the noftrils, iffuing forth again and affedt-
ing the organ, will fometimes caufe this fpecies of falfe
perception, even in the moft healthy perfons.
The fenfe of fmelling may be diminifired or deftroy-
ed by difeafes; as by the moifture, drynefs, inflamma¬
tion, or fuppuration of the olfadtory membrane, the cotn-
preffion of the nerves which fupply it, or fome fault in
the brain itfelf at their origin. A defedi, or too great
a degree of felidity of the fmall fpongy bones of the up¬
per jaw, the caverns of the forehead, &c. may likewife
impair this fenfe ; and it may be alfo injured by a col-
lediion of fetid matter in thefe caverns, which is conti¬
nually exhaling from them, and alfo by immoderate ufe
©f fnuff. When the nofe abounds with moiffure, after
2
2 J S M I
gentle evacuations, fuch things as tend to take off irri- Smelling
tation and coagulate the thin (harp ferum may be ap- ||
plied ; as the oil of anife mixed with fine flour, cam-,
phor diffolved in oil of almonds, <ke. the vapours of am¬
ber, frankincenfe, gum-mailic, and benjamin, may like¬
wife be received into the nofe and mouth. For moilt-
ening the mucus when it is too dry, fome recommend
fnuff made of the leaves of marjoram, mixed with oil of
amber, marjoram, and anifeed ; or a fternutatory of cal¬
cined white vitriol, twelve grains of which may be mix¬
ed with two ounces of marjoram water and filtrated.
The fleam of vinegar upon hot iron, and received up
the noftrils, is alfo of ufe for foftening the mucus, re¬
moving obftructions, &.c. If there be an ulcer in the
nofe, it ought to be dreffed with fome emollient oint¬
ment, to which, if the pain be very great, a little lau¬
danum may be added. If it be a venereal ulcer, 12
grains of corrofive fublimate may be diffolved in a pint
and a half of brandy, a table fpoonful of which may be
taken twice a-day. I he ulcer ought likewiie to be
waftied with it, and the fumes of cinnabar may be re¬
ceived up the noftrils.
If there be reafon to fufpetff that the nerves which fup¬
ply the organs of fmelling are inert, or want ftimulating,
volatile falls, or ftrong fnuffs, and other things which oc-
cafion fneezing, may be applied to tne^iofe ; the fore¬
head may likewiie be anointed with baxlam of Peru, to
which may be added a little oil of amber.
SMELT. See Salmo, Ichthyology Index.
SMELTING, in Metallurgy, the fufion or melting
of the ores of metals, in order to feparate the metalline
part from the earthy, ftony, and other parts. See OkESy
ReduBzon of.
SMEW. See Merges, Ornithology Index.
SMILAX, Rough Bindweed, a genus of plants
belonging to the clais of duxcia and order of hexandria /
and in the natural fyftem ranging under the nth or¬
der, Sarmentacece. See Botany and Materia Me-
DICA Index. .
SMITH, Sir Thomas, was born at Walden m Ei-
fex in 1512. At 14 he was fent to Queen’s college
Cambridge, where he diftinguifhed himfelf fo much,
that he was made Henry VIII.’s fcholar, together with
John Cheke. He was chofen a fellow of his col¬
lege in 1531, and appointed two years after to read
the public Greek le£cure. The common mode of read¬
ing Greek at that time was very faulty ; the fame found
being given to the letters and diphthongs, », v, v, u, »i, ti*.
Mr Smith and Mr Cheke had been for fome time fenfible
that this pronunciation w’as w'rong : and after a good
deal of confultation and refearch, they agreed to intro¬
duce that mode of reading which prevails at prefent.
Mr Smith was lecturing on Ariftotle de Re pub Ida m
Greek. At fir ft he dropped a word or two at inter¬
vals in the new pronunciation, and fometimes he would
ftop as if he had committed a miftake, and correft him¬
felf. No notice was taken of this for two or three
days; but as he repeated more frequently, his audience
began to wonder at the unufual founds, and at laft feme
of his friends mentioned to him what they had remar
ed. He owned that fomething was in agitation, but
that it was not yet fufficiently digefted to be made pub¬
lic. They entreated him earneftly to difcover his pro-
jea: he did fo; and in a fhort lime great numbers re¬
torted to him for information. The new pronunciation
was
S M I [ 41
was adopted with enthufiafm, and foon became uni verfal
' at Cambridge. It was afterwards oppofed by Eifhop
Gardiner the chancellor; but its fuperiority to the old
mode was fo vifihle, that in a few years it fpread over
all England.
In 1539 be travelled into foreign countries, and ftu-
died for fome time in the univerfities of France and Ita-
]v. On his return he was made regius profeffor of ci¬
vil law at Cambridge. About this time he publifhed a
treatife on the mode of pronouncing Englilh. He was
ufeful likewife in promoting the reformation. Having
gone into the family of the duke of Somerfet, the pro¬
tector during the minority of Edward VI. he was em¬
ployed by that nobleman in public affairs j and in 1548
was made fecretary of ftate, and received the honour of
knighthood. While that nobleman continued in office,
he was fent ambaffador, firft to Eruffels and afterwards to
France.
Upon Mary’s acceffion he loft all his places, but was
fortunate enough to prefer vs the friendlhip of Gardiner
and Bonner. He was exempted from perfecution, and
•was allowed, probably by their influence, a penflon of
look During Elizabeth’s reign he was employed in
public affairs, and was fent three times by that prin-
cefs as her ambaffador to France. He died in 1577*
His abilities were excellent, and his attainments un¬
commonly great: He was a pbilofopher, a phyfician, a
chemift, mathematician, linguift, hiftorian, and architeft.
He wrote, 1. A treatife called the EngJiJb Common¬
wealth. 2. A letter De ReSla et Emendata Linguae Gree¬
ce Pronunciatione. 3. De Moribus Turcarum. 4. De
Druidum Mori bur.
Smith, Edmund, an Engliffi poet, the only fon of
Mr Neale an eminent merchant, by a daughter of Ba¬
ron Lechmere, was born in 1668. By his father’s death
he was left young to the care of Mr Smith, who had
married his father’s After, and who treated him with fo
much tendernefs, that at the death of his generous guar¬
dian he affumed his name. His writings are not many,
and tbofe are fcattered about in mifcellanies and collec¬
tions : his celebrated tragedy of Phaedra and Hippolitus
was a<fted in 1 707 ; and being introduced at a time
when the Italian opera fo much engroffed the polite
world, gave Mr Addifon, who wrote the prologue, an
opportunity to rally the vitiated tafte of the public.
However, notwithftanding the efteem it has always
been held in, it is perhaps rather to be confldered as a
Ane poem than as a good play. 1 his tragedy, with a
Poem to the memory of Mr John Philips, three or four
Odes, with a Latin oration fpoken at Oxford in lau-
dem Thome Bodleii, were published as his works by
his friend Mr Oldifworth. Mr Smith died in 1710,
funk into indolence and intemperance by poverty and
difappointments: the hard fate of many a man of ge¬
nius.
Smith, John, an excellent mezzotinter, flourifhed
about 1700-, but neither the time of his birth nor
death is accurately known. He united foftnefs with
ftrength, and ftniffied with freedom. Fie ferved his
time wit h one "Tillet a painter in PToorfields ; and as
foon as he became his own mafter, learned from Becket
the fecret of jnezzotinto, and being farther inftrudled
by Van der Vaart, was taken to work in Sir Godfrey
Kneller’s houfe ; and as he was to be the publilher of
that mafter’s works, doubtlefs received confiderable h.nts
3 ] SMI
from him, which he amply repaid. “ To pofterity par- sWmh.
haps his prints (fays Mr Walpole) will carry an idea of^~^/
fomething burlefque ; perukes of an enormous length Catalogue
flowing over fuits of armour, compofe wonderful habits. ofEngra-
It is equally, ftrange that faihion could introduce the irri.
one, and eftabliffi the pradice of reprefenting the other
when it was out of fafhion. Smith excelled in exhibi¬
ting both, as he found them in the portraits of Knel-
ler, who was lefs happy in what he fubftituted to ar¬
mour. In the Kit-cat club he has poured full bottoms
chiefly over night-gowns. If thofe ftreams of hair were
incommode in a battle, I know nothing (he adds) they
were adapted to that can be done in a night-gown.
Smith compofed two large volumes, with proofs of his
own plates, for which he alked 50I. His Aneft works
are Duke Schomberg on horfeback ", that duke’s fon
and fucceflor Maynhard : the earls of Pembroke, Dor-
fet, and Albemarle •, three plates with two Agures in
each, of young perfons or children, in which he fhone :
William Cow per*, Gibbons andhis wife j Queen Anne}
the duke of Gloucefter, a whole length, with a flower¬
pot} a very curious one of Queen Mary, in a high head,
fan, and gloves; the earl of Godolphin ; the duchefs of
Ormond, a whole length, with a black ; Sir George
Rooke, &c. There is a print by him of James II. with
an anchor, but no inferintion ; which not being Anifhed
when the king went away, is fo fcarce that it is fome-
times fold for above a guinea. Smith alfo performed
many hiftoric pieces : as the loves of the gods, from
Titian, at Blenheim, in ten plates ; Venus ftanding in a
ftiell, from a pi&ure by Corregio, and many more, of
which perhaps the moft delicate is the holy family with
angels, after Carlo Maratti.”
Smith, Dr Adam, the celebrated author of Philofophi-
Inquiry into the Nature and Caufes of the Wealth o{eal Tranf-
Nations, was the only fon of Adam Smith comptroller ^
of the outturns at Kirkaldy, and of Margaret Douglas Society of
daughter of Mr Douglas of Strathenry. He was born Edinburgh,
at Kirkaldy on the 5th June 1723, a few months after v«l. iii.
the death of his father. His conftitution during his
infancy was inflrm and Ackly, and required all the care
of his Surviving parent. When only three years old he
was carried by his mother to Strathenry on a viflt to
his uncle Mr Douglas ; and happening one day to be
amuflng himfelf alone at the door of the houfe, he was
ftolen by a party of thofe vagrants who in Scotland are
called tinkers. Luckily he was miffed immediately, and
the vagrants purfued and overtaken in Leflie wood ;
and thus Dr Smith was preferved to extend the bounds
of fcience, and reform the commercial policy of Eu¬
rope.
He received the rudiments of his education in the
fchool of Kirkaldy under David Miller, a teacher of
conflderable eminence, and whofe name deferves to be
recorded on account of the great number of eminent
men which that feminary produced while under his di-
reftion. Dr Smith, even while at fchool, attradled no¬
tice by his paffionate attachment to books, and by the
extraordinary powers of his memory ; while his friend¬
ly and generous difpofltion gained and fecured the af-
feflion of his fchoolfellows. Even then he was remark¬
able for thofe habits which remained with him through
life, of fpeaking to himfelf when alone and of abfence
in company. He was fent in 1737 to the univerflty of
Glafgow, where he xemained till 1740, when he went
to
SMI [ 41
to Baliol college Oxford, as an exhibitioner on Snell’s
foundation. His favourite purfuits while at the uni-
verfity were mathematics and natural philofophy. Af¬
ter his removal to England he frequently employed him-
felf in tranflating, particularly from the French, with a
view to the improvement of his own ftyle : a praftice
which he often recommended to all who wifhed to cul¬
tivate the art of compofition. It Was probably then al-
fo that he applied himfelf with the greateft care to the
fludy of languages, of which, both ancient and modern,
his knowledge w'as uncommonly extenfive and accu¬
rate.
After feven years refidence at Oxford he returned to
Kirkaldy, and lived two years with his mother without
any fixed plan for his future life. He had been defign-
ed for the church of England 5 but dilliking the eccle-
liaftical profefiion, he refolved to abandon it altogether,
and to limit his ambition to the profpeft of obtaining
fome of thofe preferments to which literary attainments
lead in Scotland. In 1748 he fixed his refidence in E-
dinburgh, and for three years read a courfe of leftures
on rhetoric and belles lettres under the patronage of
Lord Karnes. In 1751 he was defied profeffor of lo¬
gic in the univerfity of Glafgow, and the year follow¬
ing was removed to the profefforfhip of moral phi¬
lofophy, vacant by the death of Mr Thomas Cragie,
the immediate fucceflbr of Dr Hutchefon. In this fi-
tuation he remained 13 years, a period he ufed frequent¬
ly to look back to as the molt ufeful part of his life.
H is lectures on moral philofophy were divided into four
parts : The firll contained natural theology ; in which
he confidered the proofs of the being and attributes of
God, and thofe truths on which religion is founded :
the fecond comprehended ethics, ftriflly fo called, and
confided chiefly of thofe doftrines which he afterwards
publiflied in his theory of moral fentiments : in the
third part he treated more at length of that part of mo¬
rality called jw/P/ce; and which, being fufceptible of
precife and accurate rules, is for that reafon capable of
a full and accurate explanation : in the laft part of his
le&ures he examined thofe political regulations which
are founded, not upon the principle of juftice, but of
expediency $ and which are calculated to increafe the
riches, the power, and the profperity of a ftate. Un¬
der this view he confidered the political inftitutions re¬
lating to commerce, to finances, to ecclefiaftical and
military governments : this contained the fubftanee of
his Wealth of Nations. In delivering his le6lures he
trufted almoft entirely to extemporary elocution : his
manner was plain and unalfedled, and he never failed to
intereft his hearers. His reputation foon rofe very high,
and many fludents reforted to the univerfity merely up-
on his account.
"When his acquaintance wuth Mr Hume firfi: com¬
menced is uncertain ; but it had ripened into friendfliip
before the year 1752.
In 1759 he publifhed his Theory of Moral Senti¬
ments } a work which defervedly extended his reputa¬
tion : for, though feveral of its conclufions be ill-
founded, it muft be allowed by all to be a Angular ef¬
fort of invention, ingenuity, and fubtilty. Befides, it
contains a great mixture of important truth •, and,
though the author has fometimes been mifled, he has had
the merit of direfling the attention of philofophers to a
view of human nature, which had formerly in a.great
t ] SMI
meafure efcaped their notice. It abounds everywhere Smith,
with the pureft and moft elevated maxims concerning '’■"“w**
the praflical condufl of life 5 and when the fubjeft of
his work leads him to addrefs the imagination and the
heart, the variety and felicity of his illuftrations, the
richnefs and fluency of his eloquence, and the Ikill with-
which he wins the attention and commands the paflion?
of his readers, leave him among our Britilh moralitis
without a rival.
Towards the end of 1763 Dr Smith received an in¬
vitation from Mr Charles Townfend to accompany the
duke of Buccleugh on his travels j and the liberal
terms in which this propofa] was made induced him to
refign his office at Glafgow. He joined the duke of
Buccleugh at London early in the year 1764, and fet
out with him for the continent in the month of March
following. After a flay of about ten days at Pari«,
they proceeded to Thouloufe, where they fixed their
refidence for about 18 months ; thence they went
by a pretty extenfive route through the foutli of France
to Geneva, where they palled turn months. About.
Chriftmas 1765 they returned to Paris, and remained
there till Oflober following. The fociety in which
Dr Smith paffed thefe ten months may be conceived in
confequence of the recommendation of Mr Hume. Tur¬
got, Quefnai, Necker, d’Alembert, Helvetius, Mar-
montel, Madame Pdccoboni, were among the number
of his acquaintances 5 and fome of them he continued
ever after to reckon among the number of his friends.
In Oflober 1766 the duke of Buccleugh returned to
England.
Dr Smith fpent the next ten years of his life with
his mother at Kirkaldy, occupied habitually in intenfe
ftudy, but unbending his mind at times in the company
of fome of his old fchoolfellows, who Hill continued to
refide. near the place of their birth. In 1776 he pub-
liffied his Inquiry into the Nature and Caufes of the Wealth
of Nations; a book fo univerfally known, that any pa¬
negyric on it would be ufelefs. The variety, impor¬
tance, and (may u’e not add), novelty, of the informa¬
tion which it contains *, the fkill and comprehenfivenefs
of mind difplayed in the arrangement^ the admirable
illuftrations with which it abounds; together with a
plainnefs and perfpicuity which makes it intelligible to all
—render it unqueftionably the moft perfedf work which
has yet appeared on the general principles of any branch
of legiflation.
He fpent the next two years of his life in London,
where he enjoyed the foeiety' of fome of the moft emi¬
nent men of the age : but he removed to Edinburgh in
1778, in confequence of having been appointed, at the
requeft of the duke of Buccleugh, one of the commif-
fioners of the cuftoms in Scotland. Here he fpent the
laft twelve years of his life in an affluence which was
more than equal to all his wants. But his ftudies feem-
ed entirely fufpended till the infirmities of old age re¬
minded him, Avhen it was too late, of what he yet owed
to the public and to his own fame. The principal mate¬
rials of the Avorks w hich he had announced had long
ago been colledted, and little probably W’as wanting but
a few years of health and retirement to complete them.
The death of his mother, who had accompanied him to
Edinburgh in 1784, together with that of his coufin
Mifs Douglas in 1788, contributed to fruftrate thefe
proje&s. They had been the objects of his aftedlkm
moke.
S M O [4
for more than 60 years, and in their fociety he had en¬
joyed from his infancy all that he ever knew of the en-
J dearments of a family. He was now alone and help-
lefs; and though he bore his lofs with equanimity, and
regained apparently his former cheerfulnefs, yet his
health and ftrength gradually declined till the period
of his death, which happened in July 1790. Some
days before his death he ordered all his papers to be
burnt except a few effays, which have lince been pub-
liihed.
Of the originality and comprehenlivenefs of his views j
the extent, the variety, and the corre&nefs of his infor¬
mation 5 the inexhauftible fertility of his invention—he
has left behind him lafting monuments. To his private
worth, the moil certain of all teilimonies may be found
in that confidence, refpecf, and attachment, which fol¬
lowed him through all the various relations of life. He
was habitually abfent in converfation, and was apt
when he fpoke to deliver his ideas in the form of a lec¬
ture. He was rarely known to Hart a new topic him*
felf, or to appear unprepared upon thofe topics that were
introduced by others. In his external form and appear¬
ance there was nothing uncommon. When perfectly at
eafe, and when warmed with converfation, his geftures
were animated and not ungraceful j and in the fociety
of thofe he loved, his features were often brightened by
a fmile of inexpreflible benignity. In the company of
flrangers, his tendency to abfence, and perhaps ftill more
his confcioufnefs of that tendency, rendered his manners
fomewhat embarrafled 5 an effedt which was probably
not a little heightened by thofe fpeculative ideas of pro¬
priety which his reclufe habits tended at once to per¬
fect in his conception, and to diminith his power of re¬
alizing.
SMITHIA, a genus of plants belonging to the dia-
delphia clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking under
the 32d order, Papilionacex. See Botany Index.
SMITHERY, a fmith’s (hop j alfo the art of a fmith,
by which iron is wrought into any fhape by means of
fire, hammering, filing, &c.
SMITING-line, in a fhip, is a fmall rope faftened
to the mizen-yard-arm, below at the deck, and is always
furled up with the mizen-fail, even to the upper end
of the yard, and thence it comes down to the poop.
Its ufe is to loofe the mizen-fail without ftriking dowm
the yard, which is eafily done, becaufe the mizen-fail is
furled up only with rope-yarns and therefore when
this rope is pulled hard, it breaks all the rope-yarns,
and fo the fail falls down of itfelf. The failor’s phrafe is,
fnute the nuxen (whence this rope takes its name), that
is, hale by this rope that the fail may fall down.
SMOKE, a denfe elaftic vapour, arifing from burn¬
ing bodies. As this vapour is extremely difagreeable
to the fenfes, and often prejudicial to the health, man-
xind have fallen upon feveral contrivances to e^joy (he
benefit of fire, without being annoyed by fmoke. The
moil univerfal of thefe contrivances is a tube leading
irom the chamber in which the fire is kindled to the
top of the building, through which the fmoke afeends,
and is difperfed into the atmofphere. Thefe tubes are
called chimneys ; which, when conftru&ed in a proper
manner, carry off the fmoke entirely ; but, when im¬
properly conftrudled, they carry off the fmoke imper-
fedlly, to the great annoyance of the inhabitants. As
our mafons at prefent feem to have a very imperfect
3
Smokei
15 ] S M O
knowledge of the manner in which chimneys ought to
be built, we can hardly perform a more acceptable fer-
vice to the public than to point out the manner in
which they ought to be conftrufted, fo as to carry off
the fmoke entirely ; as well as to explain the caufes
from which the defefts fo often complained of generally
proceed, and the method of removing them.
Thofe who would be acquainted with this fubjedf, Tran/ac-
Ihould begin by confidering on what principle fmoke °f the
afeends in any chimney. At firft many are apt to think
that fmoke is in its nature, and of itfelf, fpecifically cal societ\i
lighter than air, and rifes in it for the fame reafon that
cork rifes in water. Thefe fee no caufe why fmoke
lliould not rife in the chimney though the room be ever
fo clofe. Others think there is a power in chimneys to
dt'aw up the fmoke, and that there are different forms
of chimneys which afford more or lefs of this power.
Thefe amufe themfelves with fearching for the bell form.
The equal dimenfions of a funnel in its whole length is
not thought artificial enough, and it is made, for fancied
reafons, fometimes tapering and narrowing from below
upwards, and fometimes the contrary, &c. &c. A
fimple experiment or two may ferve to give more cor¬
rect ideas. Having lighted a pipe of tobacco, plunge
the Hem to the bottom of a decanter half filled with
cold water ; then putting a rag over the bowl, blow
through it, and make the fmoke defeend in the Item of
the pipe, from the end of which it will rife in bubbles
through the water *, and being thus cooled, will not af¬
terwards rife to go out through the neck of the decan¬
ter, but remain Ipreading itfelf and retting on the fur-
face of the water. This thows that fmoke is really hea¬
vier than air, and that it is carried upwards only when
attached to or a£ted upon by air that is heated, and
thereby rarefied and rendered fpecifically lighter than
the air in its neighbourhood.
Smoke being rarely feen but in company with heat¬
ed air, and its upward motion being vifible, though that
of the rarefied air that drives it is not fo, has naturally
given rife to the error. It is now well known that air
is a fluid which has weight as well as others, though
about 800 times lighter than water ; that heat makes
the particles of air recede from each other, and take up
more fpace, fo that the fame weight of air heated will
have more bulk than equal weights of cold air which
may furround it, and in that cafe mull rife, being forced
upwards by fuch colder and heavier air, which preffes
to get under it and take its place. That air is fo ra¬
refied or expanded by heat, may be proved to their com-
prehenfion by a lank blown bladder, which laid before
a fire, will foou fwell, grow tight, and burft.
Another experiment may be to take a glafs tube
about an inch in diameter, and 1 2 inches long, open at p!a(e
both ends, and fixed upright on legs fo that it need not ccccxcvir.
be handled, for the hands might warm it. At the end
of a quill faften five or fix inches of the fineft light fila¬
ment of filk, fo that it may be held either above the
upper end of the tube or under the lower end, your
warm hand being at a diftance by the length of the
quill. . If there were any motion of air through the
tube, it would manifeft itfelf by its effe6t on the filk 5
but if the tube and the air in it are of the fame tempe¬
rature with the furrounding air, there will be no fuch
motion, whatever may be the form of the tube, whether
crooked or ftraight, narrow below and widening up¬
wards.
S M O
wards, or the contrary, the air in it will be quiefcent.
Warm the tube, and you will find as long as it continues
warm, a conftant current of air entering below and paf-
fing up through it till difcharged at the top *, becaufe
the warmth of the tube being communicated to the air
it contains, rarefies that air, and makes it lighter than
the air without ; which therefore preffcs in below, forces
it upwards, follows and takes its place, and is rarefied
in its turn. And, without warming the tube, if you
hold under it a knob of hot iron, the air thereby heat¬
ed will rife and fill the tube, going out at its top and
this motion in the tube will continue as long as the
knob remains hot, becaufe the air entering the tube be¬
low, is heated and rarefied by pafiing near and over that
knob.
That this motion is produced merely by the difference
of fpecific gravity between the fluid within and that
without the tube, and not by any fancied form of the
tube itfelf, may appear by plunging it into water con¬
tained in a glafs jar a foot deep, through which fuch
motion might be feen. The w'ater within and without
the tube being of the fame fpecific gravity, balawee
each other, and both remain at reft. But take out the
tube, flop its bottom with a finger, and fill it with olive
oil, which is lighter than water; then flopping the
top, place it as before, its lower end under water, its
top a very little above. As long as you keep the bot¬
tom flopped the fluids remain at reft ; but the moment
it is unftopt, the heavier enters below, forces up the
lighter, and takes its place : and the motion then ceafes,
merely becaufe the new fluid cannot be fucceftively
made lighter, as air may be by a 'warm tube.
In fa<ft, no form of the funnel of a chimney has any
{hare in its operation or effeft refpefting fmoke except
its height. The longer the funnel, if ere£l, the greater
its force when filled with heated and rarefied air to
draw in below and drive up the imoke, if one may, in
compliance with cuftom, ufe the expreffion draw, w'hen
in fact it is the fursrior weight of the furrounding at-
mofphere that prefled to enter the funnel below, and fo
drives up before it the fmoke and warm air it meets
w'ith in its paflage.
What Ls it then which makes a fmoky chimney, that
is, a chimney which, inftead of conveying up all the
fmoke, difeharges a part of it into the room, offending
the eyes and damaging the furniture ?
The caufes of this effeft may be reduced to nir/e, dif¬
fering from each other, and therefore requiring different
remedies.
X. Smoky chimneijs in a new houfe are fuch frequently
from mere want of air. The workmanfhip of the rooms
being all good, and juft out of the workman’s hands, the
joints of the boards of the fiooring, and of the pannels
of wainfeotting, are all true and tight } the more fo as
the walk, perhaps not yet thoroughly dry, preferve a
dampnefs in the air of the room which keeps the wood¬
work fwelled and clofe. The doors and the fafties too,
being worked with truth, <hut with exattnefs, fo that
the room is as tight as a fnuff-hox, no paffage being
left open for air to enter except the key-hole, and even
that is fometimes covered by a little dropping {butter.
Now if fmoke cannot rife but as conne&ed with rare¬
fied air, and a'column of fuch air, fuppofe it filling the
funnel, cannot rife unltfs other air be admitted to fup-
ply its place j and if therefore no current of air enter
S M O
the opening of the chimney—there is nothing to prevent Smoke,
the fmoke from coming out into the room. If the motion
upwards of the air in a chimney that is freely fupplied
be obferved by the rifing of the fmoke or a feather in
it, and it be conlidered that in the time fuch feather
takes in rifing from the fire to the top of the chimney,
a column of air equal to the content of the funnel muft
be difeharged, and an equal quantity fupplied from the
room below, it will appear abfolutely impoffible that
this operation fhould go on if the tight room is kept
fhut ; for were there any force capable of drawing con-
llantly fo much air out of it, it mnft foon be exhaufted
like the receiver of an air-pump, and no animal could
live in it. Thofe therefore who flop every crevice in a
room to prevent the admiftion of frefh air, and yet would
have their chimney carry up the fmoke, require incon-
fiftencies, and expeft impoflibilities. Yet under this fi-
tuation it is not uncommon to fee the owner of a new
houfe in defpair, and ready to fell it for much lefs than
ij^coft j conceiving it uninhabitable becaufe not a chim¬
ney in any one of its rooms will carry off the fmoke
unlefs a door or window be left open. Much ex¬
pence has alfo been made to alter and amend new chim¬
neys which had really no fault : in one houfe particu¬
larly which Dr Franklin knew that belonged to a no¬
bleman in Weftminfter, that expence amounted to no
lefs than 300!. after his houfe had been, as he thought,
finifhed and all charges paid. And after all, feveral of
the alterations were ineffe6fual, for want of underftand-
ing the true principles.
Remedies. When you find on trial that opening the
door or a window enables the chimney to carry up all
the fmoke, you may be fure that want of air from with¬
out is the caufe of its fmoking. “ I fay from with¬
out, (adds Dr Franklin), to guard you againft a com¬
mon miftake of thofe who may tell you the room is
large, contains abundance of air fufficient to fupply any
chimney, and therefore it cannot be that the chimney
wants air. Thefe reafoners are ignorant that the large-
nefs of a room, if tight, is in this cafe of fmall import¬
ance, fince it cannot part with a chimneyful of its air
without occafioning fo much vacuum *, which it requires
a great force to eft eft, and could not be borne if ef-
feaed.”
It appearing plainly then, that fome of the outward
air muft be admitted, the queftion will be, how much is
abfolutely neceffary ? for you would avoid admitting
more, as being contrary to one of your intentions in
having a fire, viz. that of warming your room. To
difeover this quantity, (hut? the door gradually while a
middling fire is burning, till you find that before it is
quite (hut the fmoke begins to come out into the room j
then open it a little till you perceive the fmoke comes
out no longer. There hold the door, and obferve the
width of the open crevice between the edge of the door
and the rabbet it fhould fhut into. Suppofe the di-
ftance to be half an inch, and the door eight feet high;
vou find thence that your room requires an entrance
for air equal in area to 96 half inches, or 48 fquare
inches, or a paffage of 6 inches by 8. This, however,
is a large fuppofition 5 there being few chimneys that,
having a moderate opening and a tolerable height of
funnel, will not be fatisfied with fuch a crevice of a
quarter of an inch : Dr Franklin found a fquare of 6
by 6, or 36 fquare inches, to be pretty good medium
[ 416 ]
S MO [4
Smoke, that will ferve for moft chimneys. High funnels with
«—V***''fmall and low openings may indeed be fupplied through
a lefs fpace 5 becaufe, for reafons that will appear here-
after, the force of levity, if one may fo fpeak, being
greater in fuch funnels, the cool air enters the room
with greater velocity, and confequently more enters in
the fame time. This, however, has its limits ; for ex¬
perience {hows, that no increafed velocity fo occafioned
has made the admiflion of air through the key-hole
fcqual in quantity to that through an open door, though
through the door the current moves (lowly, and through
the key-hole with great rapidity.
It remains then to be confidered, how and where
this neceffary quantity of air from without is to be ad¬
mitted fo as to be leait inconvenient : for if at the door,
left fo much open, the air thence proceeds direftly to
the chimney, and in its way comes cold to your back
and heels as you (it before your fire. If you keep the
door (hut, and raife a little the falh of your window,
you feel the fame inconvenience. Various have been
the contrivances to avoid this ; fuch as bringing in frefh
air through pipes in the jams of the chimney, which
pointing upwards fhould blow the fmoke up the funnel;
opening palfages into the funnel above, to let in air for
the fame purpofe. But thefe produce an effedt con¬
trary to that intended : for as it is the conftant current
of air paffing from the room through the opening of the
chimney into the funnel which prevents the fmoke from
coming out into the room, if you fupply the funnel by
other means or in other ways with the air which it
wants, and efpecially if that air be cold, you diminilh
the force of that current, and the fmoke in its efforts to
enter the room finds lefs refiftance.
The wanted air muft then indifpenfably be admitted
into the room, to fupply w;hat goes off through the
opening of the chimney. M. Gauger, a very ingenious
and intelligent French writer on the fubjedt, propofes
with judgment to admit it above the opening of the
chimney j and to prevent inconvenience from its cold-
nefs, he diredls that it may be fo made, that it fhall
pafs in its entrance through winding cavities made be¬
hind the iron back and fides of the fire place, and un¬
der the iron hearth-plate *, in which cavities it wdll be
warmed, and even heated, fo as to contribute much, in-
ffead of cooling, to the Avarming of the room. This
invention is excellent in itfelf, and may be ufed Avith
advantage in building neAV houfes; becaufe the chim¬
neys may then be fo difpofed as to admit conveniently
the cold air to enter fuch paifages : but in houfes built
Avithout fuch views, the chimneys are often fo fituated
as not to afford that convenience Avithout great and ex-
penfive alterations. Eafy and cheap methods, though
not quite fo perfedt in themfelves, are of more general
utility } and fuch are the following.
In all rooms Avhere there is a fire, the body of air
Avarmed and rarefied before the chimney is continually
changing place, and making room for other air that is
to be Avarmed in its turn. Part of it enters and goes
up the chimney, and the reft rifes and takes place near
the ceiling. If the room be lofty, that Avarm air re¬
mains above our heads as long as it continues warm,
and Ave are little benefited by it, becaufe it does not
defcend till it is cooler. FeAV can imagine the difference
of climate betAveen the upper and lower parts of fuch a
room, Avho have not tried it by the thermometer, or by
Vol. XIX. Part II.
17 ] S M O
going up a ladder till their heads are near the ceiling. Smoke.
It is then among this Avarm air that the wanted quan- ——v~~
tity of outAvard air is beft admitted, with which being
mixed, its coldnefs is abated, and its inconvenience di-
minifhed fo as to become icarce obfervable. 'I his may
be eafily done by draAving doAvn about an inch the upper
fafti of a window ; or, if not moveable, by cutting fuch
a crevice through its frame ■, in both which cafes it Avill
be avcII to place a thin fhelf of the length to conceal
the opening, and Hoping upwards, to dirt61 the entering
air horizontally along and under the ceiling. In fome
houfes the air may be admitted by fuch a crevice made
in the wainfeot, cornice, or plaftering, near the ceiling
and over the opening of the chimney. This, if pradti-
cable, is to be chofen, becaufe the entering cold air
Avill there meet Avith the warmeti riling air from before
the fire, and be fooneft tempered by the mixture. The
fame kind of Ihelf fhould alfo be placed here. Another Fig. 2.
way, and not a very difficult one, is to take out an up¬
per pane of glafs in one of your falfies, fet it in a tin
frame, giving it two fpringing angular fides, and then
replacing it, with hinges below on Avhich it may be
turned to open more or lefs above. It will then have
the appearance of an internal fky-light. By drawing
this pane in, more or lefs, you may admit what air you
find neceflary. Its pofition will naturally throAv that
air up and along the ceiling. This is what is called in
France a IVas ifl das ? As this is a German queftion,
the invention is probably of that nation, and takes its
name from the frequent afking of that queftion when it
firft appeared. In England fome have of late years cut
a round hole about five inches diameter in a pane of the
fafh, and placed againft it a circular plate of tin hung on
an axis, and cut into vanes ; which, being feparately
bent a little obliquely, are adfed upon by the entering
air, fo as to force the plate continually round like the
vanes of a Avindmill. This admits the outward air,
and by the continual Avhirling of the vanes, does in
fome degree difperfe it. The noife only is a little in¬
convenient.
2. A fecond caufe of the fmoking of chimneys is,
their openings in the room being too large; that is, too
wide, too high, or both. Architects in general have no
other ideas of proportion in the opening of a chimney
than Avhat relate to fymmetry and beauty refpedling the
dimenfions of the room \ Avhile its true proportion re-
fpefting its function and utility depends on quite other
principles $ and they might as properly proportion the
flop in a ftaireafe to the height of the ftory, inftead of
the natural elevation of men’s Legs in mounting. The
proportion then to be regarded, is what relates to the
height of the funnel. For as the funnels in the different
(lories of a houfe are neccflarily of different heights or
lengths, that from the lowed floor being the highell or
longeft, and thofe of the other floors (horter and ihorter,
till we come to thofe in the garrets, Avhich are of courfe
the fliortell ; and the force of draft being, as already
faid, in proportion to the height of funnel filled Avith ra¬
refied air, and a current of air from the room into the
chimney, feffieient co fill the opening, being neceffary
to oppofe and prevent the fmoke from coming out into
the room ; it folloAVS, that the openings of the longed:
funnels may be larger, and that thofe of the ihort. r fun¬
nels ftiould be fmaller. For if there be a large opening
to a chimney that does not draw ftrongly, the funnel
3 G may
S M O
i»mok«. may happen to be furnifhed with the air which it de-
 v 1 mands by a partial current entering on one fide of the
opening, and leaving the other fide free of any oppofing
current, may permit the Imoke to blue there into the
room. Much too of the force of draft in a funnel de¬
pends on the degree of rarefa&ion in the air it contains,
and that depends on the nearnefs to the fire of its paf-
fage in entering the funnel. If it t^n enter far from
the fire on each fide, or far above the fire, in a wide or
high opening, it receives little heat in palling by the
fire, and the contents of the funnel are by thole means
lefs different in levity from the furrounding atmofphere,
and its force in drawing confequently weaker. Hence
if too large an opening be given to chimneys in upper
rooms, thofe rooms will be iinoky : On the other hand,
if too fmall openings be given to chimneys in the
lower rooms, the entering air operating too direftly and
violently on the fire, and afterwards ffrengthening the
draft as it afcends the funnel, will confume the fuel too
rapidly.
Remedy. As different circumftances frequently mix
themfelves in thefe matters, it is difficult to give precife
dimenfions for the openings of all chimneys. Our fa¬
thers made them generally much too large : we have
leffened them *, but they are often Hill of greater di¬
menfions than they Ihould be, the human eye not being
eafily reconciled to fudden and great changes. If you
fufpeft that your chimney fmokes from the too great di-
meniion of its opening, contrail it by placing moveable
boards fo as to lower and narrow it gradually till you
find the fmoke no longer iffues into the room. The pro¬
portion fo found will be that which is proper for that
chimney, and you may employ the bricklayer or mafon
to reduce it accordingly. However, as in building new
houfes fomething muff be fometimes hazarded, Dr
Franklin propofes to make the openings in the lower
rooms about 30 inches fquare and 18 deep, and thofe in
the upper oniy 18 inches fquare and not quite fo deep j
the intermediate ones diminifhing in proportion as the
height of the funnel is diminiffied. In the larger open¬
ings, billets of two feet long, or half the common length
of cordwood, may be burnt conveniently ; and lor the
fmaller, fuch wood may be fawed into thirds. Where
coals are the fuel, the grates will be proportioned to the
openings. The fame depth is nearly neceffary to all,
the funnels being all made of a fize proper to admit a
chimney-fvveeper. If in large and elegant rooms cuf-
tom or fancy ffioffid require the appearance of a larger
chimney, it may be formed of expenfive marginal deco¬
rations, in marble, &c. But in time perhaps, that
which is fitteft in the nature of things may come to be
thought handfomeft.
3. Another caufe of fmoky chimneys is too Jhort a
funnel. This happens neceffarily in fome cafes, as where
a chimney is required in a low building *, for, if the fun¬
nel be raifed high above the roof, in order to ftrengthen
its draft, it is then in danger of being blown down, and
erufiling the roof in its fall.
Remedies. Contradf the opening of the chimney, fo
as to oblige all the entering air to pafs through or very
near the fire \ whereby it will be more heated and rare¬
fied, the funnel itfelf be more warmed, and its contents
have more of what may be called the force of levitv, fo
as to rife ftrongly and maintain a good draft at the
•pening.
S M O
Or you may in fome cafes, to advantage, build addi- Smoke,
tional llories over the low building, which will fupport '’"■—v—'
a high funnel.
If the low building be ufed as a kitchen, and a con¬
traction of the opening therefore inconvenient, a large
one being necefiary, at leaff when there are great din¬
ners, for the free management of fo many cooking uten-
fils •, in fuch cafe the bell expedient perhaps would be
to build two more funnels joining to the firit, and hav¬
ing three moderate openings, one to each funnel, inftead
of one large one. When there is occafion to ufe but
one, the other two may be kept flmt by Aiding plates,
hereafter to be deferibed } and two or all of them may
be ufed together when wanted. This will indeed be an
expence, but not an ufelefs one, fince your cooks will
work with more comfort, fee better than in a fmoky
kitchen what they are about, your vibluals will be
cleaner dreffed and not taife of fmoke, as is often the
cafe 5 and to render the effed more certain, a flack of
three funnels may be lately built higher above the roof
than a fingle funnel.
The cafe of too ffiort a funnel is more general than
would be imagined, and often found where one would
not expeft it. For it is not uncommon, in ill-contrived
buildings, inftead of having a funnel for each room or
fire place, to bend and turn the funnel of an upper room
fo as to make it enter the fide of another funnel that
comes from below. By thefe means the upper room
funnel is made Ihort of courfe, fince its length can only
be reckoned from the place where it enters the lower
room funnel \ and that funnel is alfo Ihortened by all
the diftance between the entrance of the fecond funnel
and the top of the Hack : for all that part being readily
fupplied with air through the fecond funnel, adds no
ftrength to the draft, efpecially as that air is cold when
there is no fire in the fecond chimney. The only eafy
remedy here is, to keep the opening of that funnel (hut
in which there is no fire.
4. Another very common caufe of the fmoking of
chimneys is, their overpowering one another. For in-
ftance, if there be two chimneys in one large room, and
you make fires in both of them, the doors and windows
clofe ffiut, you will find that the greater and ftronger
fire fiiall overpower the weaker, from the funnel of
which it will draw air down k> fupply its own demand j
which air defeending in the weaker funnel, will drive
down its fmoke, and force it into the room. If, inftead
of being in one room, the two chimneys are in two dif¬
ferent rooms, communicating by a door, the cafe is the
fame whenever that door is open. In a very tight houfe,
a kitchen chimney on the loweft floor, when it had a
great fire in it, has been known to overpower any other
chimney in the houfe, and draw' air and (moke into its
room as often as the door communicating with the flair-
cafe was opened.
Remedy. Take care that every room have the means
of fupplying itlelf from without with the air which its
chimney may require, fo that no one of them may be
obliged to borrow from another, nor under the neceffity
of lending. A variety of thefe means have been already
deferibed. _ _ it
5. Another caufe of fmoking is, when the tops oj
chimneys are commanded by higher buildings, or by a hi/l,
fo that the wind blowing over fuch eminences tails like
water over a dam, fometimes almoft perpendicularly
[ 418 ]
»
S M O [41
Smoke, tlie tops of the chimneys that lie in its way, and beats
-'-v——' down the fmoke contained in them.
To illuftrate this, let A (fig. 3.) reprefent a fmall
b building at the fide of a great rock B,'and J:he wind
coming in the dire&ion CD ; when the current of air
comes to the point D, being hurried forward with great
velocity, it goes a little forward, but foon defcends
downward, and gradually is refiedted more and more in¬
ward, as reprefented by the dotted lines EE, &c. fo
that, defcending downwards upon the top of the chim¬
ney A, the fmoke is beat back again into the apart¬
ments.
It is evident that houfes fituated near high hills or
thick woods will be in fome meafure expofed to the
fame inconvenience ; but it is likewife plain, that if a
houfe be fituated upon the Hope of a hill (as at F,
fig. 3.), it will not be in any danger of fmoke when the
wind blows towards that fide of the hill upon which it
is fituated ■, for the current of air coming over the houfe-
top in the diredtion GH, is immediately changed by the
Hope of the hill to the direction HC, which powerfully
draws the fmoke upward from the top of the chimney.
But it is alfo evident, that a houfe in this fituation will
be liable to fmoke when the wind blows from the hill •,
for the current of air coming downward in the diredtion
CH, will beat downward on the chimney F, and pre¬
vent the fmoke from afcending with freedom. The ef¬
fect will be much heightened if the doors and windows
are chiefly in the lowermoft fide of the houfe.
Remedy. That commonly applied in this cafe is a
turncap made of tin or plate iron, covering the chimney
above and on three fides, open on one fide, turning on
a fpindle ; and which being guided or governed by a
vane always prefents its back to the current. This
may be generally effedtual, though not certain, as there
may be cafes in which it will not fucceed. Railing your
funnels if pradticable, fo as their tops may be higher,
or at leaft equal, with the commanding eminence, is
more to be depended on. But the turning cap, being
eafier and cheaper fiiould firft be tried. “ If obliged to
build in fuch a fituation, I would choofe (fays Dr
Franklin) to place my doors on the fide next the hill,
and the backs of my chimneys on the fartheft fide j for
then the column of air falling over the eminence, and of
courfe preffing on that below, and forcing it to enter
the doors or was-i/i-dases on that fide, would tend to
balance the preflure down the chimneys, and leave
the funnels more free in the exercife of their func¬
tions.”
6. There is another cafe which is the reverfe of that
laft mentioned. It is where the commanding eminence
is farther from the wind than the chimney commanded.
To explain this a figure may be neceffary. Suppofe then
a building whofe fide AB happens to be expofed to the
wind, and forms a kind of dam againfl: its progrefs.
Suppofe the wind blowing in the diredtion FE. The
air obfirufted by this dam or building AB will like
water prefs and fearch for paffages through it; but find¬
ing none, it is beat back with violence, and fpreads it-
felf on every fide, as is reprefented by the curved lines
e, e, e, e, e, e. It will therefore force itfelf down the
finall chimney C, in order to get through by fome door
or window open on the other fide of the building. And
if there be a fire in fuch chimney, its fmoke is of courfe
beat down, and fills the room.
9 ] s M o
Remedy. There is but one remedy, which is to raife
fuch a funnel higher than the roof, fupporting it if ne-
ceflary by iron bars, for a turncap in this cafe has no
effect, the dammed-up air prefling down through it in
whatever poiition the wind may have placed its open¬
ing.
Dr Franklin mentions a city in which many houfes
are rendered fmoky by this operation. For their kitch¬
ens being built behind, and connected by a paflage with
the houfes, and the tops of the kitchen chimneys lower
than the tops of the houfes, the whole fide of a itreet
when the wind blows againft its back forms inch a dam
as above deferibed 5 and the wind fo obftructed forces
down thofe kitchen-chimneys (elpecially when they have
but weak fires in them) to pals through the pafiage and
houfe into the ftreet. Kitchen-chimneys fo formed and
fituated have another inconvenience. In fummer, it you
open your upper room windows for air, a light breeze
blowing over your kitchen-chimney towards the houfe,
though not ft rung enough to force down its imoke a,->
aforefaid, is fufficient to watt it into your windows, and
fill the rooms with it ; which, befides the difagreeable-
nefs, damages your furniture.
7. Chimneys, otherwife drawing well, are fometimes
made to fmoke by the improper and inconvenientfit nation
of a door. When the door and chimney are on tlie
fame fide of the room, if the door being in the corner
is made to open againlt the wall, which is common, as
being there, when open, more out of the way, it tol-
lows, that when the door is only opened in part, a cur¬
rent of air rufiiing in paflfes along the wall into and
acrofs the opening of the chimney, and flirts fome of the
fmoke out into the room. This happens more certainly
when the door is (hutting, for then the force of the cur¬
rent is augmented, and becomes very inconvenient to
thofe who, warming themfelves by the fire, happen to
fit in its way.
The remedies are obvious and eafy. Either put an
intervening fcreen from the wall round great part of
the fireplace •, or, which is perhaps preferable, fliift the
hinges of your door, fo as it may open the other way,
and when open throw the air along the other wall.
8. A room that has no fire in its chimney is fome¬
times filled with fmoke which is received at the top of its
funnel, and defcends into the room. Funnels without
fires have an effeft according to their degree of cold-
nefs or warmth on the air that happens to be contained
in them. The furrounding atmofphere is frequently
changing its temperature ; but flacks of funnels covered
from winds and fun by the houfe that contains them,
retain a more equal temperature. If, after a warm fea-
fon, the outward air fuddenly grows cold, the empty
warm funnels begin to draw ftrongly upward ; that is,
they rarefy the air contained in them, which of courfe
rifes, cooler air enters below to fupply its place, is ra¬
refied in its turn, and rifes ; and this operation continues
till the funnel grows cooler, or the outw'ard air warmer,
or both, when the motion ceafes. On the other hand,
if after a cold feafon the outward air fuddenly grows
warm and of courfe lighter, the air contained in the
cool funnels being heavier defcends into the room ; and
the warmer air which enters their tops being cooled in
its turn, and made heavier, continues to defcend ; and
this operation goes on till the funnels are warmed by the
pafling of warm air through them, or the air itfelf grows
3 G 2 cooler.
S M O [ 420 ] S M O
cooler. When the temperature of the air and of the
funnels is nearly equal, the difference of warmth in the
nir between day and night is fufhcient to produce thefe
currents: the air will begin toafcend the funnels as the
cool of the evening comes on, and this current will con¬
tinue till perhaps nine or ten o’clock the next morning,
when it begins to hefitate •, and as the heat of the day
approaches, it fets downwards, and continues fo till to-
wards evening, when it again hefitates for fume time,
and then goes upwards conftantiy during the night, as
before mentioned. Now when fmoke iffiung from the
tops of neighbouring funnels paffes over the tops of fun¬
nels which are at the time drawing downwards, as they
often are in the middle part of the day, fuch ftnoke is
of neceffity drawn into thefe funnels, and defcends with
the air into the chamber.
The remedy is to have a Aiding plate that will Amt
perfeflly the offending funnel. Dr Franklin has thus
defcribed it : “ The opening of the chimney is contra£f-
ed by brick-work faced with marble Aabs to about two
feet between the jams, and the breaft brought down to
within about three feet of the hearth. An iron frame is
placed juA under the breaft, and extending quite to the
back of the chimney, fo that a plate of the fame metal
may Aide horizontally backwards and forwards in the
grooves on each Gde of the frame, i his plate is juft fo
large as to fill the whole fpace, and ihut the chimney
entirely when thruft quite in, which is convenient when
there is no fire. Draw it out, fo as to leave between
its further edge and the back a fpace of about two inches j
this Ipace is fufficient for the fmoke to pafs ; and fo large
a part of the funnel being ftcpt by the reft of the plate,
the paffage of warm air out of the room, up the chim¬
ney, is obftrufled and retarded ; and by thofe means
much cold air is prevented from coming in through cre¬
vices, to fupply its place. This effeft is made manifeft
three way*-. 1. When the fire burns brifidy in cold
weather, the howling or whiffling noife made by the
wind, as it enters the room through the crevices, when
the chimney is open as ufual, ceafes as foon as the plate
is Aid in to its proper diftance. 2. Opening the door
of the room about half an inch, and holding your hand
againft the opening, near the top of the door, you feel
the cold air coming in againft your hand, but weakly,
if the plate be in. Let another perfon fuddenly draw it
out, fo as to let the air of the room go up the chimney,
with its ufual freedom where chimneys are open, and
you immediately feel the cold air rufhing in ftrongly.
3. If fomething be fet againft the door, juft fufficient,
when the plate is in, to keep the door nearly {but, by
refilling the prtffure of the air that would force it open:
then, when the plate is drawn out, the door will be for¬
ced open by the increafed preffure of the outward cold
air endeavouring to get in to fupply the place of the
warm air that now pafics out of the room to go up the
chimney. In our common open chimneys, half the fuel
is wafted, and its effeff loft; the air it has warmed be¬
ing immediately drawn off.”
9. Chimneys which generally draw well, do neverthe-
lefs fometimes give <’moke into the rooms, it being driven
doivn brjjirong winds 'puffing over the tops of their funnels,
though not defcending from any commanding eminence.
This cafe is moft frequent where the funnel is Abort and
the opening turned from the wind. It is the more
grievous, when it happens to be a cold wind that produ¬
5
ces the effeff, becaufe when you moft want your fire Stnek*.
you are fometimes obliged to extinguiftr it. To under-—v--*
ftand this, it may be confidered that the rifing light air,
to obtain a free ifi'ue from the funnel, muft pulh out o£
its way or oblige the air that is over it to rife. In a
time of calm or of little wind this is done vilibly ; for
we fee the fmoke that is brought up by that air rife in a
column above the chimney : but when a violent current
of air, that is, a ftrong wind, paft'es over the top of a
chimney, its particles have received fo much force, which
keeps them in a horizontal direftion and follow each
other fo rapidly, that the rifing light air has not ftrength
fufficient to oblige them to quit that direction and move
upwards to permit its ifiue.
Remedies. In Venice, the cuftom is to open or widen
the top of the flue, rounding it in the true form of a fun¬
nel. In other places the contrary is pra&ifed ; the tops
of the flues being narrowed inwards, fo as to form a flit
for the iffue of the fmoke, long as the breadth of the fun¬
nel, and only four inches wide. This feems to have been
contrived on a fuppofition that the entry of the wind
would thereby be obftruefed ; and perhaps it might have
been imagined, that the whole force of the rifing warm
air being condenfed, as it were, in the narrow opening,
would thereby be {Lengthened, fo as to overcome the re-
fiftance of wind. This, however, did not always fucceed;
for when the wind was at north-eaft and blew frefh, the
fmoke was forced down by fits into the room where Dr
Franklin commonly fat, fo as to oblige him to fiiift the
fire into another. The politico of the flit of this fun¬
nel was Indeed north-eaft and fouth-weft. Perhaps if
it had lain acrofs the wind, the effeft might have been
different. But on this we can give no certainty. It
feems a matter proper to be referred to experiment.
Poffibly a turncap might have been ferviceable, but it
was not tried.
With all the fcience, however, that a man ftiall fup-
pofe himfelf poffeffed of in this article, he may fometimes
meet with cafes that ftiall puzzle him. “ I once lodged
(fays Dr Franklin) in a houfe at London, which in a
little room had a Angle chimney and funnel. The open¬
ing was very fmall, yet it did not keep in the fmoke,
and all attempts to have a fire in this room were fruit-
lefs. I could not imagine the reafon, till at length ob-
ferving that the chamber over it, which bad no fireplace
in it, was always filled with fmoke when a fire was kind¬
led below, and that the fmoke came through the cracks
and crevices of the wainfeot ■, I had the wainfeot taken
down, and difeovered that the funnel which went up
behind it had a crack many feet in length, and wide
enough to admit my arm ; a breach very dangerous with
regard to fire, and occafioned probably by an apparent
irregular fettling of one fide, of the houfe. The air en¬
tering this breach freely, defhoyed the,drawing force
of the funnel. The remedy would have been, filling
up the breach, or rather rebuilding the funnel: but the
landlord rather chofe to flop up the chimney.
“ Another puzzling cafe 1 met with at a friend’s
country houfe near London. His beft room had a
chimney in which, he told me, he never could have a
fire, for all the fmoke came out into the room. I flat¬
tered myfelf I could eafily find the caufe and preferibe
the cure. I opened the door, and perceived it was not
want of air. I made a temporary contra&ion of the
opening of the chimney, and found that it was not its
S M o [ 421 ] S M O
smoke, being too large that caufed the fmoke to iflue. I went
moke- out and looked up at the top of the chimney : Its fun-
-fack~ , nel was joined in the fame ftaek with others ; fome of
them fhorter, that drew very well, and I faw nothing to
prevent its doing the fame. In fine, after every other
examination I could think of, I was obliged to own the
xnfufficiency of my Ikill. But my friend, who made no
pretenfion to fuch kind of knowledge, afterwards difco-
vered the caufe himfelf. He got to the top of the fun¬
nel by a ladder, and looking down found it filled with
twigs and ftraw cemented by earth and lined with fea¬
thers. It feems the houfe after being built, had Hood
empty fome years before he occupied it ; and he con¬
cluded that fome large birds had taken the advantage of
its retired fituation to make their neft there. The rub-
bifh, confiderable in quantity, being removed, and the
funnel cleared, the chimney drew well, and gave fatis-
faflion.”
Chimneys whofe funnels go up in the north wall of a
houfe, and are expofed to the north winds, are not fo apt
to draw well as thofe in a fouth wall; becaufe when
rendered cold by thofe winds, they draw downwards.
Chimneys incloled in the body of a houfe are better
than thofe whofe funnels are expofed in cold walls.
Chimneys in ftacks are apt to draw better than fena-
rate funnels, becaufe the funnels that have contlant fires
in them warm the others in feme degree that have
none.
SMOKE-Jack. This ingenious machine is of German
origin, and Meffinger, in his Col/eciion of Mechanical
Performances, fays it is very ancient, being reprefented
in a painting at Nurenbergh, which is known to be old¬
er than the year 1350.
Plate Its confiruftion is abundantly fimple. An upright
cxcvn. iron fpindle GA (fig. 5.), placed in the narrow part of
’S'51 the kitchen chimney, turns round on two points H and
I. The upper one H paflfes through an iron bar, which
is built in acrofs the chimney 5 and the lower pivot I is
of tempered fteel, and is conical or pointed, refting in a
conical bell metal focket fixed on another crofs bar.
On the upper end of the fpindle is a circular fly G, con-
fifting of 4, 6, 8, or more thin iron plates, fet obliquely
on the fpindle like the fails of a windmill, as we fhalj
deferibe more particularly by and by. Near the lower
end of the fpindle is a pinion A, which works in the
teeth of a eontrate or face wheel B, turning on a ho¬
rizontal axis BC. One pivot of this axis turns in a
cock fixed on the crofs bar, which fupports the lower
end of the upright fpindle HI, and the other pivot turns
in a cock fixed on the fide 'wall of the chimney ; fo
that this axle 3-s parallel- to the front of the chimney.
On the remote end of this horizontal axle there is a
fmall pulley C, having a deep angular groove. Over
this pulley there paffes achain CDE, in the lower bight
of which hangs the large pulley E of the fpit. This
end of the fpit turns loofely between the branches of the
fork of the rack or raxe F, but without reiting on it.
’I Jiis is on the top of a moveable (land, which can be
fhifted nearer to or farther from the fire. The other
end turns in one of the notches of another rack. The
number of teeth in the pinion A and wheel B, and the
diameters of the pulleys C and E, are fo proportioned
that the fly G makes from 12 to 20 turns,for one. turn
of the fpit.
The manner of operation of this ufeful machine is
eafily underfiood. The air which contributes to the
burning of the fuel, and pafles through the midft of it,
is greatly heated, and expanding prodigioufly in bulk,
becomes lighter than the neighbouring air, and is there¬
fore puihed by it up the chimney. In like manner, all
the air which comes near the fire is heated, expanded,
becomes lighter, and is driven up the chimney. Tmis
is called the draught or fudlion, but would with greater
propriety be termed the drift of the chimney. As the
chimney gradually contra&s in its dimenfions, and as
the fame quantity of heated air paffes through every
fedfion of it, it is plain that the rapidity of its afeent
muff be greateft in the narrowed place. There the fly
G tbould be placed, becaufe it will there be expufed to
the drongefl current. The air, driking the dy vanes
obliquely, putties them afide, and thus turns them round
with a confiderable force. If the joint of meat is ex-
affly balanced on the fpit, it is plain that the only re--
fidance to the motion of the tty is what arifes from the
fridiion of the pivots of the upright fpindle, the fridlion
of the pinion and wheel, the fridlion of the pivots of
the horizontal axis, the fridion of the fmall end of the
fpit, and the fridion of the chain in the top pulleys.
The whole of this is but a mere trifle. But there is fre¬
quently a confiderable inequality in the weight of the
meat on different fides of the fpit: there mud therefore
be a fufficient overplus of force in the impulfe of the
afeending air on the vanes of the tty, to overcome this
want of equilibrium occafioned by the unlkilfulnefs or
negligence of the cook. There is, however, common-'
ly enough of power when the machine is properly con-
ftruded. The utility of.this machine will, rve hope,
procure us the indulgence of fome of our readers, while
we point out the circumdances on which its performance
depends, and the maxims which diould be followed in
its condrudion.
The upward current of air is the moving power, and
diould be. increafed as much as poflible, and applied in
the mod advantageous manner. Every thing will in-
creafe the current which improves the-draught of the
chimney, and fecures it from fmokirig, A fmoky chim¬
ney mud always have a weak current. For this parti¬
cular, therefore, we refer to what has been delivered in
the article Pneumatics, N° 3591 and the article
Smoke.
With refped to the manner of applying this force, it
is evident that the bed condrudion of a windmill fails
will be nearly the bed condrudion for the dy. Ac¬
cording to the ufual theory of the impulfe of fluids,
the greateft efft-dive impulfe (that is, in the dirediun of
the. fly’s-motion) will be produced if the plane of the
vane be inclined to the axis in an angle of 54 degrees
46 minutes. But, fince we have pronounced this the¬
ory to be fo very defedive, we had better take a deter¬
mination founded on the experiments on the impulfe of
fluids made by the academy of Paris. Thefe authorife
us to fay, that 49-i or 50 degrees will be the beft angle
to give the vane .• but this:muft be underftood only of
that part of it which is clofe adjoining to the axis. The
vane itfelf mud he twitted, or weathered as the mill¬
wrights term it, and mud be much more oblique at its
outer extremity. The exad pofition cannot be deter¬
mined with any precifion j becaufe this depends on the
proportion
Smokes.
Jack.
S M O
I 422 ]
S M 0
proportion of the velocity of the vane to that of the
current of heated air. This is fubjeft to no rule, being
changed according to the load of the jack. We ima¬
gine that an obliquity of 65 degrees for the outer ends
of the vanes will be a good pofition for the generality
of cafes. Me dinger delcribes an ingenious contrivance
for changing this angle at pleafure, in order to vary the
velocity of the motion. Each vane is made to turn
round a midrib, which ftands out like a radius from the
fpindle, and the vane is moved by a itiif wire attached to
one of the corners adjoining to the axle, ihefe wires
are attached to a ring which Hides on the fpindle like
the fpreader of an umbrella *, and it is Hopped on any
part of the fpindle by a pin thru'ft through a hole in the
fpindle and ring. We mention this briefly, it being
eafily undetftood by any mechanic, and but of little con-
fequence, becaufe the machine is not fufceptible of much
1>r It is eafy to fee that an increafe of the furface of the
vanes will increafe the power : therefore they fhould oc¬
cupy the whole fpace of the circle, and not confift of
four narrow arms like the fails of a windmill. It is bet¬
ter to make many narrow vanes than a few broad ones *,
as will appear plain to one well acquainted with the
mode of impulfe of fluids afting obliquely. We recom¬
mend eight or twelve at leaft •, and each vane fhould
be fo broad, that when the whole is held perpendicular
between the eye and the light, no light tball come
through the fly, the vanes overlapping each other a very
fmalhnatler. We alfo recommend the making them
of ftiff plate. Their weight contributes to the fteady
motion, and enables the fly, which has acquired a con-
fiderable velocity during a favourable pofition of things,
to retain a momentum fufficient to pull round the fpit
while the heavy fide of the meat is riling frota itsloweft
pofition. In fuch a fituation a light fly foon lofes its
momentum, and the jack flaggers under its load.
It is plain, from what has been faid, that the fly Ihould
occupy the whole of that fedion of the vent where it is
placed. The vent muft therefore be brought to a round
form in that place, that none of the current may pafs
ufelefsly by it.
It is an "important queftion where Urn fly Ihould be
nlaced. If in a wide part of the vent, it will have a
great furface, and aft by a lung lever 5 but the. current
fn that place is flow, and its impulfe weak. This is a fit
fubjeft of calculation. Suppofe that we have it in our
choice to place it either as it is drawn in the figure, or
farther up at g, where its diameter muft be one half of
what it is at G. Since the fame quantity of heated air
paffes through both feftions, and the feftion g has only
one-fourth of the area of the feftion G, it is plain that
the air muft be moving four times fafter, and that its im¬
pulfe is 16 times greater. But the furface on which it
is afting is the fourth part of that of the fly G the ac¬
tual impulfe therefore is only four times greater, fuppo-
fing both flies to be moving with the. fame relative ve¬
locity in refpeft of the current •, that is, the rim of each
Amoving with the fame portion of the velocity of the cur¬
rent. This will be the cafe when the fmall fly turiis
eight times as often in a minute as the large fly: for
the air is movihg four times as quick at g, and the dia¬
meter of g is one half of that of G. Therefore, when
.the fmall fly is turning eight times as quick as the great
Smoke
one, there is a quadruple impulfe afting at half the di-
ftance from the axis. The momentum or energy there¬
fore df the current is double. Therefore, fuppofing the
pinion, wheel, and pulleys of both jacks to be the fame,
the jack with the fmall fly, placed in the narrow part of
the vent, will be 16 times more powerful.
By this example, mote eafdy underftood than a ge¬
neral proccfs, it appears that it is of particular impor¬
tance to place the fly in an elevated part of the vent,
where the area may be much contrafted. In order ftill
farther to inereafe the power of the machine, it would
be very proper to lengthen the fpindle ftill more, and to
put another fly on it at a confiderable diftance above the
firft, and a third above,this, &c.
As the velocity of the current changes by every
change of the tire, the motion of this jack muft be very
unfteady. To render it as adjuftable as may be to the
particular purpofe of the cook, the pulley E has feveral
grooves of different diameters, and the fpit turns more
or lefs flowlv, by the fame motion of the fly, according
*as it hangs in the chain by a larger or fmaller pulley or
groove.
Such is the conftruftion of the fmoke-jack in its moft
Ample form. Some are more artificial and complicated,
having, in place of the pulleys and connefting chain, a
fpindle coming down from the horizontal axis BC. On
the upper end of this fpindle is a horizontal contrate
wheel, driven by a pinion in place of the pulley C. On
the lower end is a pinion, driving a contrate wheel in
place of the pulley E. This conftruftion is reprefent-
ed in fig. 6. Others are conftrufted more Amply, in Fig. 6,
the manner reprefented in fig. *]. But our firft con-Fig. 7.
ftruftion has great advantage in point of fimplicity, and
allows a more eafy adjuftment of the fpit, which may be
brought nearer to the fire or removed farther from it
without any trouble ; whereas, in the others, with a
train of wheels and pinions, this cannot be done with¬
out feveral changes of pins and ferews. The only im-
perfeftion of the pulley is, that by long ufe the grooves
become flippery, and an ill-balanced joint is apt to hold
back the fpit, while the chain Aides in the grooves.
This may be completely prevented by making , the
grooves flat inftead of angular (which greatly diminithes
the friftion), and furnilhing them with Ihort finds or
pins which take into every third or fourth link of the
chain. If the chain be made of the fimpleft form, with
flat links, and each link be made of an exaft length
(making them all on a mould), the motion will be as
eafy as with any wheelwork, and without the leaft
chance of flipping. _ . .
It is always of importance to avoid this flipping ot
the chain by balancing the loaded fpit. For this pur¬
pofe it will be extremely convenient to have what is
called a balance-Jkewer. Let a part of the fpit, imme¬
diately adjoining to the pulley, be made round, and let
an arm be made to turn on it ftiffly, fo that it may be
made fall in any pofition by a ferew. Let a leaden ball
be made to Aide along this arm, with a ferew to faften
it at any diftance from the fpit. When.the meat is
fpitted, lay it on the racks, and the heavieft fide will
immediately place itfelf undermoft. Now turn round
the balance-fkewer, fo that it may point ftraight up¬
wards, and make it fall in that pofition by the ferew.
Put the leaden ball on it, and Aide it inwards or out¬
wards
PZu 1TE CCCC XC YU.
Fii?- J.
Fuj. 6.
I
-Fig. 4.
Fig. 2.
Jig.3.
.V o rArI>IX<x JHArHESE
FzgJ-
Frg.J.
-Zhyraped &r W& azizctn ' Edisif
S M O [ 423 ] S M O
wards till it exa&ly balances the heavy fide, which will
appear by the fpit’s remaining in any pofition in which
it is put.
The greateft difficulty is to keep the machine in re¬
pair. The effential part of it, the firft mover, the fly,
and the pinion and wheel, by which its motion is tranf-
xnitted to the reft of the machine, are fituated in a place
of difficult accefs, and where they are expofed to vio¬
lent heat and to the fmoke and foot. The whole weight
of the fly, refting on the lower pivot I, muft exert a
great preffure there, and occafion great friftion, even
when this pinion is reduced to the fmalleft fize that is
compatible with the neceffary ftrength. The pivot muft
be of hardened fteel, tapered like an obtufe cone, and
muft turn in a conical focket, alfo of hardened fteel or
of bell-metal; and this feat of preflure and friftion muft
be continually fupplied with oil, which it confumes very
quickly. It is not fufficient that it be from time to time
fmeared with an oiled feather ; there muft be an iron
cup formed round the focket, and kept filled with oil.
It is furprifing how quickly it difappears; it foon be¬
comes clammy by evaporation, and by the foot which
gathers about it. The continued rubbing of the pivot
and focket wears them both very fall ; and this is in-
creafed by hard powders, fuch as fandy dull, that are
hurried up by the rapid current every time that the
cook ftirs the fire. Thefe, getting between the rub¬
bing parts, caufe them to grind and wear each other
prodigioully. It is a great improvement to invert thefe
rubbing parts. Let the lower end of the fpindle be of
a confiderable thicknefs, and have a conical hollow nice¬
ly drilled in its extremity. Let a blunt-pointed coni¬
cal pin rife up in the middle of the oil cup, on which
the conical hollow of the fpindle may reft. Here will
be the fame Heady fupport, and the fame fridlion as in
the other way •, but no grinding dull can now lodge be¬
tween the pivot and its focket: and if this upright pin
be fcrewed up through the bottom of the cup, it may
be fcrewed farther up in proportion as it wears; and
thus the upper pivot g will never defert its hole, a thing
which foon happens in the common way. We can fay
from experience, that a jack conftrufled in this way will
not require the fifth part of the repairs of one done in
the other way.
It is of importance that the whole be fo put toge¬
ther as to be eafily taken down, in order to fweep the
vent, or to be repaired, &c. For this purpofe, let the
crofs bar which carries the lower end of the upright
fpindle be placed a little on one fide of the perpendicu¬
lar line from the upper pivot hole. Let the cock which
carries the oil cup and the pivot of the horizontal axis
BC be fcrewed to~one fide of this crofs bar, fo that the
centre of the cup may be exadlly under the upper pivot
hole. By this conftruftion we have only to unferew
this cock, and then both axles come out of their places
at once, and may be replaced without any trouble. We
have Iketched in fig. 8. the manner in which this may
be done, where M reprefents a fe£Hon of the lower crofs
bar. BCDE is the cock, fixed to the bar by the pins
which go through both, with finger nub* a and b on the
oppofite fide. F z is the hard fteel pin with the conical
top z, on which the lower end I of the upright fpindle
AG refts, in the manner recommended as the beft and
tnoft durable. The pivot of the horizontal axis turns
a hole at E the top of the cock.
After all, we muft acknowledge that the fmoke-jack
is inferior to the common jack that is moved by a weight.
It is more expenfive at firft, and requires more frequent
repairs j its motion is not fo much under command; it
occafions foot to be thrown about the fire, to the great
annoyance of the cook ; and it is a great encumbrance
when we would clean the vent.
SMGKE-Farthings. T he pentecoftals or cuftomary
oblations offered by the difperfed inhabitants within a
diocefe when they made their proceffion to the mother
or cathedral church, came by degrees into a Handing
annual rent called fmoke fur things.
SMOKE-Silver. Lands were holden in fome places by
the payment of the fum of 6d. yearly to the tlieriff,
called fnokeflver (Par. 4. Edw. VI.). Smoke-filver
and fmoke-penny are to be paid to the minifters of di¬
vers pariftics as a modus in lieu of tithe-wood: and
in fome manors formerly belonging to religious houfes,
there is ft ill paid, as appendant to the faid manors, the
ancient Peter-pence, by the name offmoke-maney fl'wifd.
Hi/}. Vindicat. 77.).—/The bifhop of London anno 1444,
iffued out his commifllon, Ad levandum le fmoke-far-
things, &c.
SMOLENSKO, a large and ftrong city of Ruflia,
and capital of a palatinate of the fame name, with a
caftle feated on a mountain, and a bifhop’s fee. It is
ftrong by its fituation, being in the middle of a wood,
and furrounded by almoft inacceflible mountains. It
has been taken and retaken feveral times by the Poles
and Ruffians; but thefe laft have had poffeffion of it
ever fince the year 1687. It is feated on the river
Nieper, near the frontiers of Lithuania, 1 88 miles fouth-
weft of Mofcow. E. Long. 31. 22. N. Lat. 54. 50.
Smolensk©, a duchy and palatinate of Ruffia, bound¬
ed on the north by Biela, on the eaft by the duchy of
Mofcow, on the fouth by that of Severia and the pal-
tinate of Meiflaw, and on the weft by the fame palati¬
nate and by that of Witepfk. It is full of forefts and
mountains: and the capital is of the fame name, ft
SMOLLET, Dr Tobias, an author whofe writings
will tranfmil his name with honour to pofterity, was
born in the year 1720 at a fmall village within two
miles of Cameron, on the banks of the river Leven.
He appears to have received a claffical education, and
was bred to the pradlice of phyftc and furgery ; and in
the early part of his life ferved as a furgeon’s mate in
the navy.
The incidents that befel him during his continuance
in this capacity ferved as a foundation for Roderic Ran¬
dom, one of the moft entertaining novels in the Englilli
tongue. He was prefent at the fiege of Carthagena;
and in the before-mentioned novel he ha'- given a faith¬
ful, though not very pleafing, account of the manage¬
ment of that ill-condudled expedition, which he cenfureS
in the warmeft terms, and from circumftances which fell
under his own particular obfervation.
His connexion with the fea feems not to have been
of long continuance ; and it is probable that he wrote
feveral pieces before he became known to the public by
his capital produdlions. The firft piece we know of
with certainty is a Satire in two parts, printed firft in
the years 1746 and i747> anc^ reprinted in a Collection,
of his Plays and Poems in 1777. About this period, or
fome time before, he wrote for Mr Rich an opera intitled
Alcefte, which has never been performed nor printed.
As
S M 0 [ 424 J S M Q
■Sraolkt. At tlie age of 18 he wrote a tragedy Intitled The
—‘""V " Regicide, founded on the ftory of the affaflination of
James I. of Scotland. In the preface to this piece,
publiihed by fubfcription in the year i749> bitterly
exclaimed againft falfe patrons, and the duplicity of
theatrical managers. The warmth and impetuolity of
his temper hurried him, on this occafion, into unjuit re-
Redtions againft the late George Lord Lyttleton and
Mr Garrick : the character of the former he charadter-
ifed in the novel of Peregrine Pickle, and he added a
tmrlefque of the Monody written by that nobleman on
the death of his lady. Againft Mr.Garrick he made
illiberal ill-founded criticifms ; and in his novel of Ro¬
derick Random gave a very unfair reprefentation.of his
treatment of him refpedling this tragedy. Of this.con-
•dudt he afterwards repented, and acknowledged his er-
•rors } though in the fubfequent editions of the novel the
naffages which were the hafty effufions of difappointment
were not omitted.
However, in giving a {ketch of the liberal arts in
his Hiftory of England, he afterwards remarked, “ the
exhibitions of the ftage were improved to the moft ex-
quifite entertainment by the talents and management of
Garrick, who greatly furpaffed all his predeceffors of
this and perhaps every other nation, in his genius for
• aiding, in the fweetnefs and variety of his tones, the ir-
refiftible magic of his eye, the fire and vivacity of his
action, the eloquence of attitude, and the whole pathos
of expreflion.
Not fatisfied with this public declaration, he wrote
an apology to Mr Garrick in ft ill ftronger terms. With
• thefe ample conceflions, Mr Garrick was completely fa¬
tisfied j fo that in 1757, when Dr Smollet’s comedy of
the Reprifals, an afterpiece of two aids, was performed
at. Drury Lane theatre, the latter acknowledged himfelf
highly obliged for the friendly care of Mr Garrick ex¬
erted in preparing it for the ftage j and ftill more for
bis aiding the part of Lufignan in Zara for his benefit,
on the fixth inftead of the ninth night, to which he was
.-only intitled by the cuftom of the theatre.
The Adventures of RodericRandom,publiftiedin 174^>
2 vols 1 2mo, a book which ftill continues to have a moft
extenfive fale, find eftabliftied the Doidor’s reputation.
All the firft volume and the beginning of the fecond ap¬
pear to confift of real incident and charaider, though
'Certainly a good deal heightened and dilguifed. I he
Judge his grandfather, Crab and Potion the two apo¬
thecaries, and ’Squire Gawky, were characters well
known in that part of the kingdom where the feene was
laid. Captains Oakhum and Whiffle, Doctors Mack-
{hane and Morgan, were alfo faid to be real perfonages j
but their names we have either never learned or have
now forgotten. A bookbinder and barber long eager¬
ly contended for being ftiadowed under the name of
Strap. The Doctor feems to have enjoyed a peculiar
felicity in deferibing fea charadters, particularly the
officers and Tailors of the navy. His Trunnion, Hatch¬
way, and Pipes, are highly finiftied originals; but
what exceeds them all, and perhaps equals any charac¬
ter that has yet been painted by the happieft genius of
ancient or modern times, is his Lieutenant Bowling.
This is indeed nature itfelf j original, unique, and fm
generis.
By the publication of this work the Dodtor had ac¬
quired fo great a reputation, that henceforth a certain
degree of fuccefs was infured to every thing known or Smolle;
fuipedled to proceed from his hand. In the courfe of ——v''
a few years, the Adventures of Peregrine Pickle ap¬
peared \ a work of great ingenuity and contrivance in
the compolition, and in which an uncommon degree of
erudition is difplayed, particularly in the defeription of
the entertainment given by the Republican Dodfor, af¬
ter the manner of the ancients. Under this perfonage
the late Dr Akenfide, author of The Pleafures of Ima¬
gination, is fuppofed to be typified ; and it would be
difficult to determine whether profound learning or ge¬
nuine humour predominate moft in this epifode. An¬
other epifode of the Adventures of a Lady of (Quality,
likewife inferted in this work, contributed greatly to its
fuccefs, and is indeed admirably executed j the materials,
it is faid, the lady herftlf Hlie celebrated Lady Vane)
furniftied.
Thefe were not the only original compofitions of this
ftamp with which the Dodlor has favoured the public.
Ferdinand Count Fathom, and Sir Launcelot Greaves,
are ftill in the lift of what may be called reading novels,
and have gone through feveral editions ; but there is no
injuftice in placing them in a rank far below the former.
No doubt invention, chara&er, compofition, and con¬
trivance, are to be found in both ; but then fituations
.are deferibed which are hardly poflible, and charadlers
are painted which, if not altogether unexampled, are at
leaft incompatible with modern manners j and which
ought not to be, as the feenes are laid in modern
times.
The laft work which we believe the Dodlor publiftied
was of much the fame fpecies, but call into a different
form—The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker. It con-
fifts of a feries of letters, written by different perfons to
their refpedtive correfpondents. He has here carefully
avoided the faults which may be juftly charged to his two
former produdhons. Here are no extravagant charac¬
ters nor unnatural fituations. On the contrary, an ad¬
mirable knowledge of life and manners is difplayed j and
moft ufeful leffons are given applicable to interefting but
to very common fituations.
We know not whether the remark has been made,
but there is certainly a very obvious fimilitude between
the charadlers of the three heroes of the Doftor’s chief
produdlions. Roderic Random, Peregrine Pickle, and
Matthew Bramble, are all brothers of the fame family.
The fame fatirical, cynical difpofition, the fame gene-
rofity and benevolence, are the diftinguiftfing and cha-
ra&eriftical features of all three : but they are far from
being fervile copies or imitations of each other. They
differ as much as the Ajax, Diomed, and Achilles of
Homer. This was undoubtedly a great effort oi ge¬
nius •, and the Dodtor feems to have deferibed his own
charader at the different ftages and fituations of his
life. ,
Before he took a houfe at Chelfea, he attempted to
fettle as pradlitioner of phyfic at Bath ; and with that
view wrote a treatife on the "waters j but was unfuccefs-
ful, chiefly becaufe he could not render himfelf agree¬
able to the women, whofe favour is certainly of great
confequence to all candidates for eminence, whether in
medicine or divinity. This, however, was a little ex¬
traordinary *, for thofe who remembered Dr Smollet at
that time, cannot but acknowledge that he was as grace¬
ful and handfome a man as any of the age he lived in*
beudesr
S M O [ 425 ] S M O
iSmollet. befides, there was a certain dignity in his air and raan-
ner which could not but infpire refpedt wherever he ap¬
peared. Perhaps he was too foon difcouraged; in all
probability, had he perfevered, a man of his great learn¬
ing, profound fagacity, and intenfe application, befidcs
being endued with every other external as well as inter¬
nal accomplilhment, mult have at laft fucceeded, and,
had he attained to common old age, been at the head of
his profeflion.
Abandoning phyfic altogether as a profeflion, he fix¬
ed his refidence at Chelfea, and turned his thoughts en¬
tirely to writing. Yet, as an author, he was not near
fo fuccefsful as his happy genius and acknowledged me¬
rit certainly deferved. Pie never acquired a patron
among the great, who by his favour or beneficence re¬
lieved him from the neceflity of writing for a fubfiftence.
The truth is, Dr Smollet poffefTed a loftinefs and eleva¬
tion of fentiment and character which appear to have
difqualified him for paying court to thofe who were ca¬
pable of conferring favours. It would be wrong to call
this difpofition pride or haughtinefsj for to his equals
and inferiors he was ever polite, friendly, and generous.
Bookfellers may therefore be faid to have been his on¬
ly patrons’, and from them he had conflant employ¬
ment in tranflating, compiling, and reviewing, He
tranflated Gil Bias and Don (Quixote, both fo happily,
that all the former tranfiations of thefe excellent pro-
duftions of genius have been almoft fuperfeded by his.
His namelikewife appears to a tranflation of Voltaire’s
Profe Works; but little of it was done by his own
hand 5 he only revifed it, and added a few notes. He
was concerned in a great variety of compilations. His
Hiftory of England was the principal work of that
kind. It had a moft extenfive fale •, and the Doctor is
Paid to have received 2000I. for writing it and the con¬
tinuation.
In 1755 he fet or foot the Critical Review, and
continued the principal manager of it till he went abroad
for the firft time in the year 1763, He was perhaps
too acrimonious fometimes in the condudl of that work 5
and at the fame time difplayed too much fenfibility
when any of the unfortunate authors attempted to reta¬
liate whofe works he had perhaps juftly cenfured.
Among other controverfies in which his engagements
in this publication involved him, the moft material in
its confequences was that occafioned by his remarks on
a pamphlet publifhed by Admiral Knowles. That gen¬
tleman, in defence of his conduct on the expedition to
Rochfort, publiftied a vindication of himfelf; which fal¬
ling under the Doctor’s examination, produced fome
very fevere ft natures both on the performance and on
the chara£ter of the writer. The admiral immediately
commenced a profecution againft the printer) declaring
at the fame time that he defired only to be informed
who the writer was, that if he proved to be a gentle¬
man he might obtain the fatisfaftion of one from him.
In this affair the Dofror behaved both with prudence
and with fpftit. Defirous of compromifing the difpute
with the admiral in an amicable manner, he applied to
his friend Mr Wilkes to interpofe his good offices wdth
his opponent. The admiral, however, was inflexible)
and juft as fentence was going to be pronounced againft
the printer, the Doctor came into court, avowed him-
felf the author of the Strictures, and declared himfelf
ready to give Mr Knowles any fatisfaCtion he chofe*
..Vol, XIX. Part II.
The admiral immediately commenced a frefh aCtion Smollet.
againft the DoCtor, who was found guilty, fined loOl. -V
and condemned to three months imprifonment in the
King’s Bench. It is there he is faid to have written
the Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves, in which' he
has defcribed fome remarkable characters, then his fel-
low-prifoners.
When Lord Bute was called to the chief adminiftra-
tion of affairs, he was prevailed upon to write in defence
of that nobleman’s meafures) which he did in a weekly
paper called the Briton. This gave rife to the famous
North Briton ) wherein, according to the opinion of
the public, he was rather baffled. The truth is the
DoCtor did not feem to poffefs the talents neceffary for
political altercation. He wanted temper and coolnefs)
and his friends accufed his patron of having denied him
the neceffary information, and even negleCted the fulfil¬
ling of fome of his other engagements with him. Be
that as it will, the DoCtor is faid not to have forgotten
him in his fubfequent performances.
Befides the Briton, Dr Smollet is fuppofed to have
written other pieces in fupport of the caufe he efpoufed.
The Adventures of an Atom, in two volumes, areknown
to be his production.
His conftitution being at laft greatly impaired by a
fedentary life and affiduous application to ftudy, he
went abroad for his health in June 1763, and continued
in France and Italy two years. He v'rote an account
of his travels in a feries of letters to fome friends, which
were afterwards publifhed in two volumes oCtavo, 1766.
During all that time he appears to have laboured under
a conftant fit of chagrin. A very flight perufal of thefc
letters will fufficiently evince that this obfervation is
founded in faCt, and is indeed a melancholy inftance of
the influence of bodily diftemperover the beft difpofx-
tion.
His relation of his travels is aClually cynical ; for
which Sterne, in his Sentimental Journey, has animad¬
verted on him under the chara&er of Smelfungus. The
DoCtor lived to return to his native country: but his
health continuing to decline, and meeting with frefh
mortifications and difappointments, he went back to
Italy, where he died October 21. 1771. He was em¬
ployed, during the laft years of his life, in abridging the
Modern Univerfal Hiftory, great part of which he had
originally written himfelf, particularly the hiftories of
France, Italy, and Germany.
He certainly met with many mortifications and dif¬
appointments) which, in a letter to Mr Garrick, he
thus feelingly expreffes : “ I am old enough to have
feen and obferved, that we are all playthings of For¬
tune) and that it depends upon fometliing as infignifi-
cant and precarious as the toffing up of a halfpenny,
whether a man rifes to affluence and honours, or conti¬
nues to his dy ing day ftruggling with the difficulties and
difgraces of life.”
It would be needlefs to expatiate on the charafter of
a man fo well known as Dr Smollet, who has, befides
given fo many ftriftures of his own character and man¬
ner of living in his writings, particularly in Humphrey
Clinker ) where he appears under the appellation of
Mr Ser/e, and has an interview with Mr Bramble; and
his manner of living is defcribed in another letter, where
young Melford is fuppofed to dine with him athishoufc
in Chelfea. No doubt he made money by his connec-
3 H tion*:
S M U
[ 426 1
S M U
Srhollet,
Smugglers.
Tiiirlt S
Law Dic¬
tionary,
vol. ii.
tions 'with the bookfellers j and had he been a rigid
economift, or endued with the gift of retention (an ex-
preflion of his own), he might have lived and died very
independent. However, to do juitice to his memory,
his difficulties, whatever they were, proceeded not from
extravagance or wrant of economy. He vras hofpitable,
but not ollentatioufly fo 5 and his table wto plentiful, but
not extravagant. No doubt he had his tailings ; but
itill it rvould be difficult to name a man who was fo re-
fpectable for the qualities of his head, or more amiable
for the virtues of his heart.
Since his death a monument has been erefted to his
memory near Leghorn, on which isinfcribed an epitaph
written in Latin by his friend Dr Armftrong, author
of The Art of Preferving Health, and many other ex¬
cellent pieces. An infcription written in Latin was like-
wife infcribed on a pillar ere£ted to his memory on the
banks of the Leven, by one of his relations.
To thefe memoirs we are extremely furry to add, that
fo late as 1785 the widow of Dr Smollet was refiding in
indigent circumftances at Leghorn. On this account
the tragedy of Venice Preferved was a£ted for her bene¬
fit at Edinburgh on the 5th of March, and an excellent
prologue fpoken on that occafion.
The pieces inferted in the pofthumous colleftion of
Dr Smollet’s plays and poems are, The Regicide, a
tragedy : The Reprifal, a comedy ; Advice and Re¬
proof, two fatires j The Tears of Scotland 5 Verfes on
a Young Lady; a Love Elegy, in imitation of Tibullus;
two Songs ; a Burlefque Ode 5 Odes to Mirth, to
Sleep, to Leven Water, to Blue-ey’d Ann, and to In¬
dependence.
SMUGGLERS, perfons who import or export pro¬
hibited goods without paying the duties appointed by
the lawn
The duties of cuftoms, it is faid, were originally in-
ftituted, in order to enable the king to afford protec¬
tion to trade againft pirates : they have fince been con¬
tinued as a branch of the public revenue. As duties
impofed upon the importation of goods neceffarily raife
their price above what they might otherwife have been
fold for, a temptation is prefented to import the com¬
modity clandeftinely and to evade the duty. Many
perfons, prompted by the hopes of gain, and confider-
ing the violation of a pofitive law of this nature as
in no refpeft criminal (an idea in which they have
been encouraged by a great part of the community,
who make no fcruple to purchafe fmuggled goods),
have engaged in this illicit trade. It was impoffible
that government could permit this practice, which is
highly injurious to the fair trader, as the frnuggler is
enabled to underfell him, while at the fame time he im¬
pairs the national revenue, and thus wholly deftroys the
end for which thefe duties were appointed. Such penal¬
ties are therefore inflicted as it was thought would pre¬
vent fmuggling.
Many laws have been made with this view. If any
goods be flipped or landed without warrant and pre-
fence of an officer, the veffel fhall be forfeited, and the
wharfinger (hall forfeit tool, and the mafter or ma¬
riner of any fhip inward bound fnall forfeit the value of
the goods : and any carman, porter, or other affifting,
ffiall be committed to gaol, till he find furety of his
apod behaviour, or until he (hall be difcharged by the
court of exchequer (13 and 14 C, II. c. II.). If goods
4'
be relanded after drawback, the veffel and goods fliall Smuggle
be forfeited •, and every perfon concerned therein fliall1—y-~
forfeit double the value of the drawback (8 An. c. 13.).
Goods taken in at fea thall be forfeited, and alio the
veffel into which they are taken 5 and every perfon con¬
cerned therein fliall forfeit treble value (9 G. II. c. 35.). I
A veffel hovering near the coaft fliall be forfeited, if
under 50 tons burden 5 and the goods fliall alfo be for¬
feited, or the value thereof (5 G. III. c. 43.). Perfons
receiving or buying run goods iliall forfeit 20I. (8 G.
c. 18.). A concealer of run goods fliall forfeit treble
value (8 G. c. 18.). Offering run goods to fale, the
fame fliall be forfeited, and the perfon to whom they
are offered may feize them } and the perfon offering
them to iale fliall forfeit treble value (11 G. e. 30•)■ A
porter or other perfon carrying run goods fliall forfeit
treble value (9 G. II. c. 35.). Perfons armed or dif-
guifed carrying run goods fliall be guilty of felony,
and tranfported for feven years (8 G. c. 18. 9 G. II.
c‘ 35-)*
But the laft ftatute, 19 G. II. c. 34. is for this pur-
pofe w/iar omnium; for it makes all forcible acts of
fmuggling, carried on in defiance of the laws, or even
in difguife to evade them, felony without benefit of cler¬
gy : enacting, that if three or more perfons ffiall af-
femble, with fire-arms or other offenfive weapons, to af-
fift in the illegal exportation or importation of goods,
or in refcuing the fame after feizure, or in refcuing of¬
fenders in cuftody for fuch offences ; or fliall pafs with
fuch goods in difguife ; or fliall wound, (hoot at, or af-
fault, any officers of the revenue when in the execution
of their duty •, fuch perfons fliall be felons, without the
benefit of clergy.
When we confider the nature, and ft ill more the hi-
ftory of mankind, we muff allow that the enabling of
fevere penal laws is not the -way to prevent crimes. It
were indeed much to be wiffied that there were no fueh
thing as a political crime ; for the generality of men,
but efpecially the lower orders, not difcerning the pro¬
priety or utility of fuch laws, confider them as oppref-
five and tyrannical, and never hefitate to violate them
when they can do it with impunity. Inftead therefore Smith's
of puniffiing fmugglers, it would be much better to re- Wealth o|
move the temptation. But the high duties which have^L*’
been impofed upon the importation of many different
forts of foreign goods, in order to difcourage their con-
fumption in Great Britain, have in many cafes ferved
only to encourage fmuggling \ and in all cafes have re¬
duced the revenue of the cuftoms below what more mo¬
derate duties would have afforded. The faying of Dr
Swift, that in the arithmetic of the cuftoms two and
two, inftead of making four* make fometimes only one,
holds perfectly true with regard to fueh heavy duties,
which never could have been impofed, had not the mer¬
cantile fyftem taught us, in many cafes, to employ tax¬
ation as an inftrumenl, not of revenue, but of mono-
p°ly- . ,
The bounties which are fometimes given upon the
exportation of home produce and manufactures, and the
drawbacks which are paid upon the re-exportation of
the greater part of foreign goods, have given occafion
to many frauds, and to a fpecies of fmuggling more de-
ftruCtive of the public revenue than any other. In or¬
der to obtain the bounty or drawback, the goods, it is
well known, are fometimes fhipped and fent to fea, but
7 focn
S' M Y [ 427 ] SNA
Higglers foon afterwards clandeftinely relanded in iome other part
!! of the country.
:^rna', Heavy duties being impofed upon almoft all goods
imported, our merchant importers fmuggle as much,
and make entry of as little as they can. Our merchant
exporters, on the contrary, make entry of more than
they export; fometimes out of vanity, and to pafs for
great dealers in goods which pay no duty ; and fome¬
times to gain a bounty or a drawback. Our exports,
in confequence of thefe different frauds, appear upon
the cuftomhoufe books greatly to overbalance our im¬
ports ; to the unfpeakable comfort of thofe politicians
who meafure the national profperity by tv hat they call
the balance of trade.
SMU T, in Hujbandry, a difeafe in corn, when the
grains, inflead of being filled with Hour, are full of a
ftinking black powder. See Wheat.
SMYRNA, or Ismir, at prelent the largell and
rieheft city of Afia Minor-, is fituated in north latitude
3S0 28', and in E. Long. 270 25' from Greenwich, and
about 183 miles weft by fouth of Conftantinople. The
town extends along the {bore about half a mile on a
gentle declivity. The houfes of the Englifh, French,
and Dutch confuls, are handfome ftrudtures j thefe, with
mod of thofe occupied by the Chriftian merchants, are
walked on one fide by the fea, forming a ftreet named
TrankJireet, from its being folely inhabited by Euro¬
pean Chriftians. In the year 1763 the whole of this
quarter was confirmed by fire: the lofs fuftained by
this calamity in merchandife was eftimated at a million
and a half of Turkilh dollars, or near 200,000!. fter-
ling. The port is one of the fineft of the Levant, it
being able to contain the Jargeft fleet; and indeed
there are feldom in it fewer than too Ihips of different
nations.
A caftle Rands at its entrance, and commands all the
fhipping which lail in or out. There is likewifean old
ruinous caftle, near a mile in circumference, which Hands
in the upper part of the city, and, according to tradi¬
tion, W’as built by the emprefs Helena : and near it is
an ancient ftrudlure, faid to be the remains of a palace
where the Greek council rvas held when Smyrna was
the metropolis of Afia Minor. They alfo Ihow the
ruins of an amphitheatre, where it is faid St Polycarp,
the firft bilhop, fought with lions.
This city is about four miles in circumference, and
nearly of a triangular form ; but the fide next the
mountain is much longer than the. other fides. The
houfes are low, and moftly built with clay w'alls, on ac¬
count of the earthquakes to which the country is fub-
jeef ; but the caravanferas and fome other of the public
buildings have an air of magnificence. The ftreets are
wide, and almoft a continued bazar, in which a great
part of the merchandife of Europe and Afia is expofed
to fale, with plenty of provifions; though thefe are not
fo cheap as in many other parts of Turkey, on account
of the populoufnefs of the place, and the great refort
of foreigners. It is faid to contain 15,000 Turks,
10,000 Greeks, 1800 Jews, 200 Armenians, and 200
Franks: but the whole population is computed at
120,000. 1 he Turks have ig mofques j two churches
belong to the Greeks *, one to the Armenians j and the
• ews have eight fynagogues. The Romanifts have
three convents. There is alfo one of the fathers Della
lerra Santa. Here refides an archbifliop of the Greek
church •, a Latin bilhop who has a falary from Rome, Smyn a
with the title of bilhop of Smyrna in par tibus infidelium; !i
and the Englifh and Dutch fadtories have each their , "n!in'
chaplain. ^
The walks about the town are extremely pleafanf,
particularly on the weft fide of Frank ftreet, where
there are feveral little groves of orange and lemon trees,
which being always clothed with leaves, bloiToms, and
fruit, regale feveral of the fenfes at the fame time. The
vines which cover the little hills about Smyrna afford
both a delightful profpecl and plenty of grapes, of
which good wine is made. 1 hefe hills are agreeably
interfperfed with fertile plains, little forefts of olives
and other fruit-trees, and many pleafure-houfes, to
which the Franks ufually retire during the fummer. In
the neighbourhood of Smyrna is great plenty of game
and wild-fowl, and particularly deer and wild-hogs.
The fea alfo abounds with a variety of good fifh. The
European Chriftians are here allowed all imaginable li¬
berties, and ufually clothe themfelves after the Euro¬
pean manner.
The chief commerce of this city confifts in raw filk,
filk-ftuffs, grograms, and cotton yarn.
However, the unhealthfulnefs of the fituation, and
more especially the frequent earthquakes, from which,
it is faid, they are fcarcely ever free for two years to¬
gether, and which have been felt 40 days fuccefiively,
are an abatement of the plealure that might otherwifts-
be enjoyed here. A very dreadful one happened in
June 1688, which overthrew a great number of the
houfes; and the rock opening where the caftle flood,
fu allowed it up, and no lefs than 5000 perfons perilhed.
on this occafion.
In the year 1758, fo defolating a plague raged here,
that fcarcely a fufficient number of the inhabitants fur-
vived to gather in the fruits of the earth. In the year
I772> three-fourth parts of the city were confumed by
fire ; and fix years after it was vifited by the moft dread¬
ful earthquakes, which continued from the 25th of June
to the 5th of July ; by which fucceflive calamities the
city has been fo much reduced, that its former confe¬
quence is never likely to be reftored.
The ladies here wear the oriental drefs, confifting of
large trowfers or breeches, which reach to the ancle -r
long veils of rich filk or velvet, lined in winter with
coftly furs; and round their -waift an embroidered zone
with clafps of filver or gold. Their hair is plaited,
and defeends down the back often in great profufion.
The girls have fometimes above twenty thick treffes
befides two or three encircling the head as a coronet *
and let oft with flowers and plumes of feathers, pearls,
or other jewels. They commonly ftain it of a chefnut
colour, which is the moft defired. Their apparel and
carriage are alikepantique. It is remarkable that the
trowfers are mentioned in a fragment of Sappho as part
of the female drefs.
SMYRNIUM, Alexanders; a genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs of pentandria, and to the order of
digynia; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
45th order. Umbellate^. See Botany Index.
SNAFFLE, in the manege, is a very {lender bit-
mouth without any branches, much ufed in England ;
the true bridles being referved for War.
SNAIL, in Zoology. See Helix, Conchologt
Jnde&) and .ciiiiiAx, Helminthology Index.
3 H 2 SNAKE,
SNA ['428] SNE
See AnguiS and Serpens, or fnake-ftones, are found in many parts of England,
Snake. SNAKE, in Zoology.
Ophiology Index.
SNAKE-Stones, Ammonites, in Natural Hijlory, the
name of a large genus of foflxl fhells, very few if any of
which are yet. known 4fn- their recent date, or living
either on our own or any other (liores j fo that it feems
wonderful whence fo vaft a number and variety of them
Ihould be brought into our fubterranean regions. They
feem indeed difperfed in great plenty throughout the
world, but nowhere are found in greater numbers, beau¬
ty, and variety, than in our ifland.
Mr Harenberg found prodigious numbers of them on
the banks of a river in Germany. He traced this river
through its feveral windings for many miles j and among
a great variety of belemnitae, cornua ammonis, and coch-
litle, of various kinds, he found alfo great quantities of
wood of recent petrifa&ion, which ftill preferved plain
marks of the axe by which it had been cut from the
trees then growing on the {bore. The water of this river
he found in dry feafons, when its natural fprings were
not diluted with rains, to be confiderably heavier than
common water-, and many experiments fhowed him
that it contained ferruginous, as wrell as ftony particles,
in great quantity, whence the petrifaftions in it appear¬
ed the lefs wonderful, though many of them of recent
date.
Of the cornua ammonis, or ferpent-ftones, he there
obferved more than 30 different fpecies. They lie im-
merfed in a bluilh foffil ftone, of a foft texture and fatty
appearance, in prodigious numbers, and of a great va¬
riety of lizes, from the larger known forts down to
fuch as could not be feen without very accurate inspec¬
tion or the affiftance of a microfcope. Such as. lie in
the fofteft of thefe .(tones are foft like their matrix, and
eafdy crumble to pieces others are harder. In a piece
of this ftone, of the bignefs of a finger, it is common to
find 30 or more of thefe foffils -, and often they are feen
only in form of white fpecks, fo minute that their fi¬
gure cannot be diftinguiftied till examined by the mi¬
crofcope.
They all confift of feveral volutge, which are different
in number in the different fpecies, and their ftria; alfo
are extremely various -, fome very deep with very high
ridges between them, others very (light 5 fome ftraight,
others crooked *, others undulated, and (ome termina¬
ting in dots, tubercles, or cavities, towards the back,
and others having tubercles in two or three places.
They are all compofed of a great number of chambers
or cells, in the manner of the nautilus Greecorum., each
having a communication with the others, by means of a
pipe or fiphunculus. There is a fmall white (hell fifh of
Barbadoes, which feems truly a recent animal of this
genus and in the Eaft Indies there is another alfo,
fmall and grayilh ; but the large and beautifully mark¬
ed ones are found only foffil.
They are compofed of various foffil bodies, often of
quarry ftone, fometimes of the matter of the common
pyrites, and of a great variety of other fubftances ; and
though they appear ufually mere (tones, yet in fome the
pearly part of the original (hell is preferved in all its
beauty. Sometimes alfo, while the outer fubftance is
of the matter of the pyrites, or other coarfe,. ftony, or
mineral matter, the inner cavity is filled with a pure
white fpar of the common plated texture. This gives
great beauty to the fpecimen. The cornua ammonis,
Snake
particularly in Yorkfhire, where they are very plentiful
in the alum rocks of feveral fizes.
SNAKE-Root. See Polygala, Botany Index.
SNAKE-JVeed. See Polygonum, Botany Index.
SNAPEDKAGON. See Antirrhinum, Botany
Index.
SNEEZING, a convulfive motion of the mufcles of
the breaft, whereby the air is expelled from the nofe
with much vehemence and noife. It is caufed by the
irritation of the upper membrane of the nofe, occafioned
by acrid fubftances floating in the air, or by medicines
called Jlernutatory.
This irritation is performed either externally, by
ftrong fmells, as marjoram, rofes, &c. or by duft float¬
ing in the air, and taken in by infpiration 5 or by (harp
pungent medicines, as creffes and other fternutatories,
which vellicate the membrane of the nofe $ or internally,
by the acrimony of the lympha or mucus, which natu¬
rally moiftens that membrane. The matters caft forth
in fneezing come primarily from the nofe and throat j
the pituitary membrane continually exuding a mucus
thither -, and, fecondarily, from the breaft, the trachea,
and the bronchia of the lungs.
The praftice of fainting the perfon who fneezed ex-
ifted in Africa, among nations unknown to the Greeks
and Romans. The accounts we have of Monomotapa
inform us *, that when the prince fneezes, all his fub- * strata,
jedfts in the capital are advertifed of it, that they may Prol. Ac.
offer up prayers for his fafety. The author of the con-
queft of Peru affures us, that the cacique of Guachoia
having fneezed in prefence of the Spaniards, the In¬
dians of his train fell proftrate before him, ftretched
forth their hands, and difplayed to him the accuftomed
marks of refpeft, while they invoked the fun to en¬
lighten him, to defend him, and to be his conftant
guard.
Every body knows that the Romans faluted each
other on thefe occafions : and Pliny relatesf, that .Tibe-f
rius exacted thefe figns of homage when drawn in his Nat. lib.
chariot. Superftition, whofe influence can debafe every cap. 2.
thing, had degraded this cuftom for feveral ages, by
attaching favourable or unfavourable omens to fneezing
according to the hour of the day or night, according to
the figns of the zodiac, according as a work was more
or lefs advanced, or according as one had fneezed to the
right or to the left If a man fneezed at rifing from j Sfonl
table or from his bed, it was neceffary for him to fit or Hotneri|
lie down again. You are (truck with aftonifliment, faid Comment
Timotheus to the Athenians, who wiffied to return into
the harbour Avith their fleet §, becaufe he had fneezed ; § Fmtil
you are (truck with aftoniftiment, becaufe among lo,oool>b. 1. «|
there is one man whofe brain is moift. 1 ’
Polydore Virgil pretends, that in the time of Gre¬
gory the Great, there reigned in Italy an epidemic dif-
temper, Avhich carried oft' by fneezing all thofe who
A\Tere feized by it ; and that this pontiff ordered prayers
to be made againit it, accompanied by certain figns of
the crofs. But befides that, there are very few cafes m
Avhich fneezing can be confidered as dangerous, and that
it is frequently a favourable fymptom [| : it is evident,|j jupp^l
that we ought not to date from the fixth century thecrat-Hd
origin of a cuftom which lofes itfelf in the obfeurity oil*’1 !'-j
antiquity. Avicenna and Cardan fay, it is a fort of con-
vullion, which gives occafion to dread an epilepfy, and
’ 0 that
S N E r 429 ] S N O
pfzing- that this difeafe is endeavoured to be warded off by
prayers.
Clement of Alexandria confiders it as a mark
tomcri
vf lib.
enopb-
of intemperance and effeminacy, which ought to be
profcrlbed. And he inveighs bitterly againft thofe who
endeavour to procure fneezing by external aid. Mon¬
taigne, on the contrary, explains this faft in a tone ra¬
ther cynical. It is lingular enough, that fo many ridi¬
culous, contradidlory, and fuperftitious opinions, have
not abolilhed thofe cuftomary civilities which are ftill
preferved equally among high and low j and which only
the Anabaptifts and Quakers have rejedted, becaufe
they have renounced falutations in every cafe.
Among the Greeks fneezing was almoft always a good
omen. It excited marks of tendernefs, ®f refpedt, and
attachment. The genius of Socrates informed him by
Ward fneezing, when it was neceffary to perform any action
£«!. So-The young Parthenis, hurried on by her paffion, refol-
at. ved to write to Sarpedon an avowal of her love f ; (he
drijlen- fneezes ;n the moft tender and impaffioned part of her
letter : This is fufficient for her j this incident fupplies
the place of an anfwer, and perfuades her that Sarpedon
is her lover. Penelope, haraffed by the vexatious court-
Ihip of her fuitors, begins to curfe them all, and to pour
forth vows for the return of Ulyffes J. Her fon Tele-
machus interrupts her by a loud fneeze. She inftantly
exults with joy, and regards this fign as an affurance of
the approaching return of her hulband. Xenophon was
haranguing his troops •, a foldier fneezed in the mo¬
ment when he was exhorting them to embrace a dange¬
rous but neceffary refolution. The whole army, moved
by this prefage, determine to purfue the projedt of their
general ; and Xenophon orders facrifices to Jupiter the
preferver $.
This religious reverence for fneezing, fo ancient and
fo univerfal even in the times of Homer, always excited
the curiolity of the Greek philofophers and of the rab¬
bins. Thefe laft have fpread a tradition, that, after the
creation of the world, God made a general law to this
purport, that every living man fhould fneeze but once
in his life, and that at the fame inftant he fliould render
up his foul into the hand of his Creator ||, without any
preceding indifpofition. Jacob obtained an exemption
from the common law, and the favour of being informed
of his laft hour : He fneezed and did not die ; and this
fign of death was changed into a fign of life. Notice
of this was fent to all the princes of the earth ; and they
ordained that in future fneezing fhould be accompanied
with forms of bleffing, and vows for the perfons who
fneezed.
Ariftotle remounts likewife to the fources of natural
religion. He obferves, that the brain is the origin of
the nerves, of our fentiments, our fenfations, the feat of
the foul, the image of the Divinity* ; that upon all
thefe accounts, the fubftance of the brain has ever been
held in honour ; that the firft men fvvore by their head ;
that they durft not touch nor eat the brains of any ani¬
mal •, that it was even a facred word which they dared
not to pronounce. Filled with thefe ideas, it is not
wonderful that they extended their reverence even to
fneezing. Such is the opinion of the moft ancient and
iagacious philofophers of Greece.
According to mythology, the firft fign of life Pro¬
metheus’s artificial man gave was by fternutation. This
fuppofed creator is faid to have ftolen a portion of the
folar rays } and filling with them a phial, which he had
(ad, des
(rip.
irifint.
Prab.
made on purpofe, fealed it up hermetically. He inftant¬
ly flies back to his favourite automaton, and opening
the phial holds it clofe to the ftatue 5 the rays ftill re¬
taining all their a&ivity, xnfinuate themfelves through
the pores, and fet the fiftitious man a fneezing. Pro¬
metheus, tranfported with the fuccefs of his machine,
offers up a fervent prayer, with wilhes for the preferva-
tion of fo Angular a being. His automaton obferved
him, remembering his ejaculations, was very careful, on
the like occafions, to offer thefe willies in behalf of his
defcendants, who perpetuated it from father to fon in
all their colonies.
SNIGGLING, a method of fifiiing for eels, chiefly
ufed in the daytime, when they are found to hide
themfelves near wears, mills, or flood-gates. It is per¬
formed thus: Take a ftrong line and hook, baited with
a garden worm, and obferving the holes where the eels
lie hid, thruft your bait into them by the help of a
flick } and if there be any, you Ihall be fure to have
a bite : and may, if your tackling hold, get the largeft
eels.
SNIPE, in Ornithology. See ScOLOPAX and Shoot-
Sneezmg
1!
Snoring.
ING.
SNORING, in Medicine, other wife called Jlertor, is
a found like that of the cerchnon, but greater and more
manifeft.
Many confound thofe affeftions, and make them to
differ only in place and magnitude, calling by the name
of Jlertor that found or noife which is heard or fuppofed
to be made in the paffage between the palate and the
noftrils, as in thofe who fleep j that boiling or bubbling
noife, which in refpiration proceeds from the larynx or
head, or orifice of the afpera arteria, they call cerchnon ;
but if the found comes from the afpera arteria itfelf,
it is called cerchnos, that is, as fome underftand it, a
rattling, or as others a ftridulous or wheezing roughnefs
of the afpera arteria. In dying perfons this affedlion is
called by the Greeks rhenchos, which is a fnor-
ing or rattling kind of noife, proceeding as it were from
a conflict between the breath and the humours in the
afpera arteria.
This and fuch like affeflions are owing to a weak-
nefs of nature, as when the lungs are full of pus or hu¬
mours : to which purpofe we read in the Prognoftics of
Hippocrates, “ it is a bad fign when there is no expec¬
toration, and no difcharge from the lungs, but a noife as
from an ebullition is heard in the afpera arteria from a
plenitude of humour.” Expectoration is fuppreffed ei¬
ther by the vifcidity of the humour, which requires to
be difcharged, and which adhering to the afpera arteria,
and being there agitated by the breath, excites that
bubbling noife or llertor ; or by an obftruClion of the
bronchia •, or, laftly, by a compreflion of the afpera ar¬
teria and throat, whence the paffage is ftraitened, in
which the humours being agitated, excite fuch a kind
of noife as before defcribed. Hence Galen calls thofe
who are ftrait-breafted y^er/aror/x. That author aftigns
but two caufes of this fymptom, which are either the
ftraitnefs of the paffage of refpiration or redundance of
humours, or both together; but it is neceffary to add a
third, to wit, the weaknefs of the faculty, which is the
caufe of the rhenchos in dying perfons, where nature is
too weak to make difcharges.
From what has been faid we conclude, that this
fymptom or this fort of fervour or ebullition in the
throaty
S N O | 430 ]■ S N O
Snoring,
"Snow.
throat, is not always mortal, but only when nature is
oppreffed with the redundance, of humour, in filch a
manner, that the lungs cannot difcharge themielves by
fpittingy or the paffage appointed for the breath (being
the afpera arteria) is very much obftru&ed, upon which,
account many dying perfons labour under a flertor with
their mouths gaping.
SNOW, a well known meteor, formed by the freez¬
ing of the vapour of water in the atmofphere. It differs
from hail and hoar-froft, in being as it were cryftalli-
zed, which they are not. This appears in examining a
flake of fnow by a magnifying glafs 5 whjen the whole
of it will appear to be cotupofed of fine fhining fpicula
diverging like rays from a centre. As the flakes fall
down through the atmofphere, they are continually
joined by more of thefe radiated fpicula, and thus in-
crcafe in bulk like the drops of rain or hailftones. Dr
Grew, in a difeourfe of the nature of fnow, obffrves,
that many parts thereof are of a regular figure, for the
moft part liars of fix points, and are as perfect and
tranfparent ice as any we fee on a pond, &c. Upon
each of thefe points are other Collateral points, fet at
the fame angles as the main points themfelves : among
which there are divers other h'rregular, ;whieh are chief¬
ly broken points, and fragments of the regular ones.
Others alfo, by various winds, feem to have been thaw¬
ed and frozen again into irregular duffel's ; fo that it
feems as if the whole body of fnow were an infinite mafs
of icicles irregularly figured. That is, a cloud of va¬
pours being gathered into drops, the laid drops forth¬
with defeend ; upon which defeent, meeting with a
freezing air as they pafs through a colder region, each
drop is immediately frozen into an icicle, {hooting itfelf
forth into feveral points •, but thefe {till continuing their
defeent, and meeting with feme intermitting gales of
warmer air, or in their continual waftage to and fro
touching upon each other, finne of them are a little,
thawed, blunted, and again frozen into duffers, or en¬
tangled fo as to fall down in what we call Jluies,
The lightnefs of fnow, although it is firm ice, is ow¬
ing to the excefs of its furface, in comparifon to the
matter contained under it; as gold itfelf may be ex¬
tended in furface till it ride upon the leaft breath of
air.
The whitenefs of fnow is owing to the fmall particles
into which it is divided j for ice, when pounded, will
become equally white. An artificial fnow has been
made by the following experiment. A tall phial of
aquafortis being placed by the fire till it is warm, and
filings of pure filver, a few at a time, being put into it;
after a brifk ebullition, the filver will diffolve flowly.
The phial being then placed in a cold window, as it
cools the.filver particles will {hoot into cryftals, feveral
of which running together will form a flake of fnow,
which will defeend to the bottom of the phial. While
they are defeending, they reprefent perfedly a {bower
of filver fnow, and the flakes will lie upon one another
at the bottom, like real fnow upon the ground.
According to Signior Beccaria, clouds of fnow differ
in nothing from clouds of rain, but in the circumftance
of cold that freezes them. Both the regular diffufion
of the fnow, and the regularity of the ftruflure of its
parts (particularly fome figures of fnow or hail which
fall about Turin, and which he calls rofette) fliow that
•-clouds of fnow are a&ed upon by fome uniform caufe
like eleflricity ; and he endeavours to Ihow how ele£lrh
city is capable of forming thefe figures. He was con¬
firmed in his conjectures by obftrving, that his appara¬
tus for obferving the eleCtricity of the atmofphere never
failed to be electrified by fnow as well as rain. Pro-
feffor Winthrop fometinTes found ills apparatus electri¬
fied by fnow when driven about by the wind, though it
had not been affected by it when the fnow itfelf was.
falling, A more intenfe electricity, according to Bee-
caria, unites the particles of hail more clqfely than the
more moderate electricity does thole of fnow, in the
fame manner as we fee that the drops of rain which
fall from thunder-clouds are larger than thofe which fall
from others, though the former dt (tend through a lefs
fpace.
But we are not to confider fnow merely as a curious
and beautiful phenomenon. The Great Difpenfer of
univerial bounty has lo ordered it, that it is eminently
fubfervient, as well as all the works ot creation, to his
benevolent defigns. Were we to judge from appearan¬
ces only, we might imagine, t’tiat io far from being ufe-
ful to the earth, the cold humidity of fnow would be
detrimental to vegetation. But the experience of all
ages afferts the contrary. Snow, particularly in thofe
northern re gions where the ground is covered with it
for feveral months, frunifies the earth, by guarding the
corn or other vegetables from the intenfer cold of the
air, and efpecialiy from the cold piercing winds. It has
been a vulgar opinion, very generally received, that {now
fertilizes the lands on which it falls more than rain, in
confequence of the nitrous {alts which it is fuppofed to
acquire by freezing. But it appears from the experi¬
ments of Margraaf, in the year 1751, that the chemi¬
cal difference between rain and fnow water is exceed¬
ingly fmall ; that the latter contains a lefs proportion of
earth than the former; but neither of them contain ei¬
ther earth or any kind of fait in any quantity which
can be fenfibly efficacious in promoting vegetation. Al¬
lowing, therefore, that nitre is a fertilizer of lands, which
many are upon good grounds difpofed utterly to deny,
yet fo very fmall is the quantity of it contained in fnow,
that it cannot be fuppofed to promote the vegetation of
plants upon which the fnow has fallen. The pecu¬
liar agency of fnow, as a fertilizer in preference to ram,
may admit of a very rational explanation, without re¬
curring to nitrous {alts fuppofed to be contained in it. It
may be rationally aferibed to its fui nifliing a covering to
the roots of vegetables, by which they are guarded from
the inffuence of the atmofpheric cold, and the internal
heat of the earth is prevented from efcaping.
The internal part of the earth, by fome principle
which we do not underftand, is heated uniformly to the
48th degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. This degree
of heat is greater than that in which the watery juices
of vegetables freeze, and it is propagated from the in¬
ward parts of the earth to the furface, on which the ve¬
getables grow. The atmofphere being variably heated
by the action of the fun in different climates, and in the
fame climate at different feafons, communicates to the
furface of the earth and to fome diftance below it the
degree of heat or cold which prevails in itfelf. Diffe¬
rent vegetables are able to preferve life under different
degrees of cold, but all of them perifli when the cold
which reaches their roots is extreme. Providence has
therefore, in the coldeff climates, provided a covering
S N O
[ 43i ]
S N O
Snow, of fnotv for the roots of vegetables, by which they are
"'V—-'prote&ed from the influence of the atmofpherical cold.
The fnow keeps in the internal heat of the earth, which
furrounds the roots of vegetables, and defends them from
the cold of the atmofphere.
Snow or ice water is always deprived of its fixed air,
which efcapes during the procefs of congelation. Ac¬
cordingly, as fome of the inhabitants of the Alps who
life it for their conftant drink have enormous wens upon
their throats, it has been afcribed to this circumftance.
If this urere. the caufe of thefe wens, it would be eafy
to remove it by expofing the fnow-vater to the air for
fome time. But feveral eminent phyfieiaris have rejeft-
ed the notion that fnow-water is the caufe of thefe wens;
for in Greenland, where fnow-water is commonly ufed,
the inhabitants are not affedled with fuch fwellings: on
the other hand, they are common in Sumatra where
fnow is never feen,
SNOW, in Tea-affairs, is generally the largeft of all
two-mafted veflels employed by Europeans, and the moft
convenient for navigation.
The fails and rigging on the mainmaft and foremaft
of a fnow are exactly fimilar to thofe on the fame mafts
in a ihip ; only that there is a fmall malt behind the
Hiainmatt of the former, which carries a fail nearly re-
fembiing the mizen of a (hip. The root of the maft is
fixed on a block of wood on the quarter-deck abaft the
mainmaft ; and the head of it is attached to the after¬
top of the maintop. The fail which is called the trij-
failis extended from its maft towards the ftern of the
veffel.
When the floops of war are rigged as fnows, they
are furnifhed with a horfe, which anfwers the purpofe
of the tryfail-maft, the fore-part of the fail being at¬
tached by rings to the faid horfe, in different parts of
its height.
SNOJV-Grotto, an excavation made by the rvaters on
the fide of Mount Etna, by making their way under
the layers of lava, and by carrying away the bed of
pozzolana below them. It occurred to the proprietor,
that this place was very fuitable for a magazine of
fnow : for in Sicily, at Naples, and particularly at Mal¬
ta, they are obliged for want of ice to make ufe of fnow
for cooling their wine, fherbet, and other liquors, and
for making fweetmeats.
This grotto was hired or bought by the knights of
Malta, who having neither ice nor fnow on the burning
rock which they inhabit, have hired feveral caverns on
Etna, into which people whom they employ colleft and
preferve quantities of fnow to be lent to Malta when
needed The grotto has therefore been repaired with¬
in at the expence of that order ; flights of lleps are cut
into it, as well as two openings from above, by which
they throw in the fnow, and through which the grotto
is enlightened. Above the grotto they have alfo le¬
velled a piece of ground of confiderable extent : this
they have inclofed with thick and lofty walls, fo that
when the winds, which at this elevation blow with great
violence, carry the fnow from the higher parts of the
mountains, and depofit it in the inclofure, it is retained
and amaffed by the walls. The people then remove it
into the grotto through the two openings ; and it is
there laid up, and preserved in fuch a manner as to re-
the force of the fummer heats 5 as the layers of lava
Snow,
Snowdon-
Hill.
with which the grotto is arched above prevent them
from making any impreflion.
When the feafon for exporting the fnow comes on, it  
is put into large bags, into which it is preffed as clofely
as poffible ; it is then carried by men out of the grotto,
and laid upon mules, which convey it to the fliore,
where fmall veffels are waiting to carry it away.
But before thofe lumps of fnow are put into bags,
they are wrapped in frelh leaves ; fo that while they
are conveyed from the grotto to the Ihore, the leaves
may prevent the rays of the fun from making any im-
preflion upon them.
The Sicilians carry on a confiderable trade in fnow,
which affords employment to fome thoufands of mules,
horfes, and men. They have magazines of it on the
fummits of their loflieit mountains, from which they
diftribute it through all their cities, towns, and houfes ;
for every perfon in the iiland makes ufe of fnow. They
confider the praftice of cooling their liquors as abfolute-
ly neceffary for the prefervation of health ; and in a cli¬
mate, the heat of which is conftantly relaxing the fibres,
cooling liquors, by communicating a proper tone to the
fibres of the ftomach, mutt greatly ftrengthen them for
the performance of their functions.
In this climate a fcarcity of fnow is no lefs dreaded
than a fcarcity of corn, wine, or oil. We are inform¬
ed by a gentleman who was at Syracufe in the year
I777» when there was a fcarcity of fnow, the people of
the town learned that a fmali Veffel loaded with that ar¬
ticle was pafling the coaft : without a moment’s delibe¬
ration they ran in a body to the ftiore, and demanded
her cargo ; which, when the crew refufed to deliver up,
the Syracufans attacked and took, though with the lofs
of feveral men.
SNOW-Drop. See Chionanthus, Botany Index.
SNOWDON hill, the name of a mountain in Caer-
narvon-ftiire in Wales, generally thought to be the liiglw
eft in Britain ; though fome have been of opinion that
its height is equalled, or even exceeded, by mountains
in the Highlands of Scotland. The mountain is fur-
rounded by many others, called in the Welfti language
Crib Coch, Crib y Dijli//, Lliweddy yr Arran, &c.
According to Mr Pennant *, this mountainous traft * Journey
yields fcarcely any corn. Its produce is cattle and ftieep ; Snow*
which, during fummer, keep very high in the moun-rfow*
tains, followed by their owners with their families, who
refide during that feafon in havodtys, or “ fummer dairy-
houfes,” as the farmers in the Swifs Alps do in their
fennes. Thefe houfes confift of a long low room, with
a hole at one end to let out the fmoke from the fire
which is made beneath. Their furniture is very fimple ;
ftones are fubftituted for ftools, and their beds jp-e of
hay, ranged along the fides. They manufa&ure their
own clothes, and dye them with the lichen omphaloides
and lichen parietinns, moffes colle&ed from the rocks.
During fummer the men pafs their time in tending their
herds or in making hay, &c. and the women in milking
or in making butter and cheefe. For their own ufe they
milk both ewes and gnats, and make cheefe of the
milk. Their diet confifts of milk, cheefe, and butter ;
and their ordinary drink is whey ; though they have,
by way of referve, a few bottles of very ftrong beer’
which they ufe as a cordial when fick. They are people
of good underftanding, wary, and circumfpea ; tall,
thin,
ijno'vclon-
Hill.
S N O [ 432 ]
tliln, and of ftrong conftitutions. In the winter-time hard,
they defcend into the hen-dref, or_ “ old dwelling,”
where they pafs their time in inactivity.
The view from the higlieft peak of Snowdon is very
extenfive. From it Mr Pennant law the county of
Chefter, the high hills of Yorklhire, part of the north of
England, Scotland, and Ireland ; a plain view of theifle
of Man •, and that of Anglefea appeared like a map ex¬
tended under his feet, with every rivulet vifible. Our
author took much pains to have this view to advantage 5
lat up at a farm on the weft, till about * 2, and walked
up the whole way. The night was remarkably fine
and Harry j towards morning the ftars faded away, lea-
vino- an interval of darknefs, which, however, was foon
difpelled by the dawn of day. The body of the fun ap¬
peared mott diftinft, with the roundnefs of the moon,
before it appeared too brilliant to be looked at. The
fea, which bounded the weftern part of the profpett,
appeared gilt with the fun-beams, firft in fiender ftreaks,
and at length glowed with rednefs. T he profpedl was
difclofed like the gradual drawing up of a curtain in a
theatre till at laft the heat became fufficiently ftrong
to raife mifts from the various lakes, which in a flight
degree obfcured the profpea. The fhadow of the moun¬
tain extended many miles, and flrowed its bicapkated
form ; the Wyddfa making one head, and Crib y Diftill
the other. At this time he counted between 20 and
30 lakes either in Caernarvon or in Merionethfhire. In
making another vifit, the Iky was obfcured very loon
after he got up. A vaft mift involved the v-hole cir¬
cuit of the mountain, and the profpeft down was hor¬
rible. It gave an idea of numbers of abyffes, concealed
by a thick fmoke furioufly circulating around them.
Very often a guft of wind made an opening in the
clouds, which gave a fine and diftinft villa of lake and
valley. Sometimes they opened in one place, at others
in many at once •, exhibiting a moft ftrange and perplex¬
ing fight of water, fields, rocks, and chafms.. They then
clofed again, and every thing was involved in darknefs *,
in a few minutes they would feparate again,, and repeat
the above-mentioned fcene with infinite variety. From
this profpedl our traveller defcended with great reluc¬
tance ; but before he had reached the place where his
horfes were left, he was overtaken by a thunder ftorm.
The rolling of the thunder-claps, being reiterated by
the mountains, was inexpreflibly awful ; and after he
had mounted, he was in great danger of being fwept
away by the torrents w'hieh poured down in confequence
of a very heavy rain.
It is very rare (Mr Pennant obferves^ that the tra¬
veller gets a proper day to afcend this hill : it indeed
often appears clear ; but by the evident attra&ion of the
clouds by this lofty mountain, it becomes fuddenly and
unexpectedly enveloped in mift, when the clouds have
]uft before appeared very high and very remote. At
times he obferved them lower to half their height j and
notwithftanding they have been difperfed to the right
and left, yet they have met from both fides, and united
to involve the fummit in one great obfcurity.
The height of Snoivdon was meafured, in 1682, by
Mr Cafwell, with inftruments made by Flamftead : ac¬
cording to his menfuration, the height is 3720 feet; but
more moderate computations make it only reckon¬
ing from the quay at Caernarvon to the higheft peak.
The ftone that compofes this mountain is exceftively
S O A
Large coarfe cryftals, and frequently cubic py- Snowdoi;
rites, are found in the fiffures. An immenfe quantity of
water nifties down the fides of Snowdon and the neigh- <Jj
bouring mountains, infomuch that Mr Pennant fuppofes, u—^
if collected into one ftream, they would exceed the wa¬
ters of the Thames.
SNUFF, a powder chiefly made of tobacco, the ufe
of which is too well known to need any defcription
here.
Tobacco is ufually the bafts of fnuff; other matters
being only added to give it a more agreeable icent, &c.
The kinds of fnuff, and their feveral names, are infinite,
and new ones are daily invented j fo that it would be
difficult, not to fay impoffible, to give a detail of them.
We (hall only fay, that there are three principal forts:
the firft granulated •, the fecond an impalpable powder \
and the third the bran, or coarfe part remaining after
fifting the fecond fort.
“ Every profefl'ed, inveterate, and incurable fnuff-
taker (fays Lord Stanhope), at a moderate computa¬
tion, takes one pinch in ten minutes. Every pinch,
with the agreeable ceremony of blowing and wiping the
nofe and other incidental circumftances, confumes a mi¬
nute and a half. One minute and a half out of every
ten, allowing 16 hours to a fnuff-taking day, amounts
to two hours and 24 minutes out of every natural day,
or one day out of every ten. One day out of every 10
amounts to 36 days and a half in a year. Hence if we
fuppofe the practice to be ptrfifted in 40 years, two en¬
tire years of the fnuff-taker’s life will be dedicated to
tickling his nofe, and two more to blowing it. .The
expence of fnuff", fnuft'-boxes, and handkerchiefs, will be
the fubjeft of a fecond effay *, in which it will appear,,
that this luxury encroaches as much on the income of
the fnuff-taker as it does on his time 5 and that by a
proper application of the time and money thus loft to
the public, a fund might be conftituted for the difcharge
of the national debt.” See Nicotiana.
SNYDERS, Francis, a Flemifti painter, born at
Antwerp in 1579) anc^ un^er countryman Hen¬
ry Van Balen. His genius firft difplayed itfelf in pamt-
Jno- fruit: he afterwards attempted animals, huntings,
&c. in which he exceeded all his predeceffors. He
alfo painted kitchens, &c.. and gave dignity to .fubjea*
that feemed incapable of it. He was made painter to
Ferdinand and Ifabella, archduke and duchefs, and be¬
came attached to the houfe of the cardinal infant, of
Spain. The king of Spain and the ele&or Palatine
adorned their palaces with huntings by this artift.. Ru¬
bens, Jordaens, and Snyders, ufed to co-operate m the
enriching of each other’s piaures according to their
feveral talents •, and thus they became more valuable
than if finiftied by either of them fingly. Snyders died
in 1657.
SOAL-fish. See Pleuronectes, Ichthyology
SOAP, a compofition of cauftic, fixed alkaline fait,
and oil, fometimes hard and dry, fometimes foft an i-
quid; much ufed in waffling, whitening linens, and by
dyers and fullers.—Soap may be made by feveral me¬
thods, which, however, all depend upon the fame prin¬
ciple. The foap which is ufed in medicine is matte
without heat. . . f.
In manufactures where large quantities of it ar p
pared, foap is made with heat. A lixivium of quicklime
S O A [ 433 ] S O A
Soap, and foda is made, but is lefs concentrated than that
—v—^ above referred to, and only fo much that it can fuflain
a frefh egg. A part of this lixivium is to be even di¬
luted and mixed with an equal weight of oil of olives.
The mixture is to be put on a gentle fire, and agitated,
that the union may be accelerated. When the mix¬
ture begins to unite well, the reft of the lixivium is to
be added to it j and the whole is to be digefted with a
very gentle heat, till the foap be completely made. A
trial is to be made of it, to examine whether the juft
proportion of oil and alkali has been obferved. Good
foap of this kind ought to be firm, and very white when
cold •> not fubjedl to become moift by expofure to air,
and entirely mifcible with pure water, to which it com¬
municates a milky appearance, but without any drops
of oil floating on the furface. When the foap has not
thefe qualities, the combination has not been well made,
or the quantity of fait or oil is too great, which faults
muft be correfted.
In foft or liquid foap, green or black foaps, cheaper
oils are employed, as oil of nuts, of hemp, of fiftr, &c.
Thefe foaps, excepting in confiftence, are not effentially
different from white foap.
Fixed alkalies are much difpofed to unite with oils
that are not volatile, both vegetable and animal, fince
this union can be made even without heat. The com¬
pound refulting from this union partakes at the fame
time of the properties of oil and of alkali $\ but thefe
properties are modified and tempered by each other,
according to the general rule of combinations. Alkali
formed into foap has not nearly the fame acrimony as
when it is pure •, it is even deprived of almoft all its
eaufticity, and its other faline alkaline properties are
almoft entirely abolifhed. The feme oil contained in
foap is lefs combuftible, than when pure, from its union
with the alkali, which is an uninflammable body. It
is mifcible, or even foluble, in water, to a certain de¬
gree, by means of the alkali. Soap is entirely foluble
in fpirit of wine j and ftili better in aquavitge iharpened
by a little alkaline felt, according to an obfervation of
Mr Geoffrey.
The manufacture of foap in London firft began in
the year 1524 ; before which time this city was ferved
with white foap from foreign countries, and with gray
foap fpeckled with white from Briftol, which wras fold
for a penny a pound •, and alfo with black foap, which
fold for a halfpenny the pound.
The principal foaps of our own manufacture are the
foft, the bard, and the ball foap. The foft foap is ei¬
ther white or green. The proeefs of making each of
thefe (hall now be defcribed.
. Green foft foap. The chief ingredients ufed in ma¬
king this are lees drawn from potafh and lime, boiled
up with tallow and oil. Firft, the ley of a proper de¬
gree of ftrength (which muft be eftimated by the weight
ft the liquor), and tallow, are put into the copper to¬
gether, and as foon as they boil up the oil is added 5
the fire is then damped or flopped up, while the ingre¬
dients remain in the copper to unite ; when they are
united, the copper is again made to boil, being fed or
filled with lees as it boils, till there be a fufficient quan¬
tity put into it; then it is boiled off and put into calks.
When this foap is firft made it appears uniform ; but
in about a week’s time the tallow feparates from the
uil into tbofe white grains which we fee in common
Vol. XIX. Part II.
foap. Soap thus made would appear yellcwr, but by a Soap.,
mixture of irtcago added at the end of the boiling, it is ' ’v 1
rendered green, that being the colour which refults
from the mixture of yellow and blue.
White foap. Of this one fort is made after the fame
manner as green foft loap, oil alone excepted, which is
not ufed in white. The other fort of white foft foap is
made from the lees of allies of lime boiled up two differ¬
ent times with tallow. Firft, a quantity of lees and
tallow are put into the copper together, and kept boil¬
ing, being fed wuth lees as they boil, until the whole is
boiled fufficiently; then the lees are feparated or dif-
charged from the tallowilh part, which part is removed
into a tub, and the lees are thrown away; this is called
the firf half-boil: then the copper is filled again with
frelh tallow and lees, and the firft half-boil is put out
of the tub into the copper a fecond time, where it is
kept boiling with frelh lees and tallow till the foap is
produced. It is then put out of the copper into the
fame fort of calks as are ufed for green foft foap. The
common foft foap ufed about London, generally of a
greenilh hue, with fome white lumps, is prepared chief¬
ly with tallow : a blackilh fort, more common in fome
other places, is feid to be made with whale oil.
Hard foap is made with lees from allies and tallow,
and is moft commonly boiled twice; the firft, called the
half-boil, hath the fame operation as the firft half-boil of
foft white foap. Then the copper is charged with frelh
lees.again, and the firft half-boil put into it, where it
is kept boiling, and fed with lees as it boils, till it grains
or is boiled enough: then the ley is difeharged from it,
and the foap put into a frame to cool and harden. Com¬
mon felt is made ufe of for the purpofe of graining the
foap ; for when the oil or tallow has been united with
the ley, after a little boiling, a quantity of felt is thrown
into the mafs, which diffolving readily in -water, but
not in the oil or tallow, draws out the water in a con-
fiderable degree, fo that the oil or tallow united with
the felt of the ley fwims on the top. When the ley is
of a proper ftrength, lefs felt is neceffary to raife the
curd than when it is too weak. It muft be obferved,
that there is no certain time for bringing off a boiling
of any of thefe forts of foap: it frequently takes up part
of two days.
Ballfoap, commonly ufed in the north, is made with
lees from afhes and tallow. The lees are put into the
copper, and boiled till the watery part is quite gone,
and there remains nothing in the copper but a fort of
feline matter (the very ftrength or efience of the ley) ;
to this the tallow is put, and the copper is kept boil¬
ing and ftirring for above half an hour, in which time
the foap is made ; and then it is put out of the copper
into tubs or bafkets with {beets in them, and imme¬
diately (whilft foft) made into balls. It requires near
24 hours in this procefs to boil away the watery part of
the ley.
When oil unites with alkali in the formation of foap,
it is little altered in the connexion of its principles;
for it may be foparated front the alkali by decorapofmg
foap with any acid, and may be obtained nearly in its
original ftate.
Concerning the decompofition of foap by means of
acids, we rauft obforve, firft, that all acids, even the
weakeft vegetable acids, may occafion this decompofi¬
tion, becaufe every one of them has a greater affinity
3 I than
Swap.
S O A [ 43
than oil with fixed alkali. Secondly, thefe acids, even
when united with any bafis, excepting fixed alkali, are
capable of occafioning the fame decomppfition 5 whence
all ammoniacal lalts, all halts with bales of earth, and all
thofe with metallic bafes, are capable of decompofing
foap, in the fame manner as difengaged acids are; with,
this difference, that the oil feparated from the fixed al¬
kali, by the acid of thefe halts, may unite more or lefs
intimately with the fubifance Avhich was the bafis ol the
neutral fait employed for the decompofition.
Soap may alio be decompofed by diifillation, as Le-
mery has done. When firtt expofed to fire, it yields a
phlegm called by him a fpirit; which neverthelefs is
neither acid nor alkaline, but fome water which enters
into the compofition of loap. It becomes more and
more coloured and empyreumatic as the fire is increa-
l*:d, which (hows that it contains the moil fubtle part
of the oil. It feems even to raife along with it, by
help of the oil and action of the fire, a fmall part of the
alkali of the foap : for as the fame chemift obferves, it
occafions a precipitate in a folution of corrofive lubli-
mate. After this phlegm the oil rifes altered, precife-
ly as if it had been diiiilled from quicklime, that is,
empyreumatic, foluble in fpirit of wine, at firft fuffi-
ciently fubtle and afterwards thicker. An alkaline re¬
fid unus coal remains in the retort, confifting chiefly of
the mineral alkali contained in the foap, and which may
be difengaged from the coal by calcination in an open
fire, and obtained in its pure Hate.
Alkaline foapsare very ufeful in many arts and trades,
and alio in chemiftry and medicine. Their principal uti¬
lity confifts in a deterfive quality that they receive from
their alkali, which, although it is in fome meafure fatura-
ted with oil, is yet capable of afting upon oily matters,
and of rendering them faponaceous and mifcible with
water. Hence foap is very ufeful to cleanfe any fub-
ftances from all fat matters with which they happen to
be foiled. Soap is therefore daily ufed for the waihing
and whitening of linen, for the cleanfing of woollen
cloths from oil, and for w'hitening filk and freeing it
from the refinous varniib with which it is naturally co¬
vered. Pure alkaline lixiviums being capable of diflol-
ving oils more effe&ually than foap, might be employed
for the fame purpofes ; but when this aflivity is not
mitigated by oil, as it is in foap, they are capable of al¬
tering, and even of deftroying entirely by their caulti-
city, moft fubftances, efpecially animal matters, as filk,
wool, and others : whereas foap eleanfes from oil almoft
as effectually as pure alkali, Avithout danger of altering
or deftroying ; which renders it very ufeful.
Woodvtile's Soap was imperfectly known to the ancients. It is
mentioned by Pliny as made of fat and allies, and as an
invention of the Gauls. Aretseus and others inform us,
that the Greeks obtained their knowledge of its medi¬
cal ufe from the Romans. Its virtues, according to
Bergius, are detergent, refolvent, and aperient, and its
ufe recommended in jaundice, gout, calculous complaints,
and in obftmCtions of the vifeera. The efficacy of foap
in the firft of thefe difeafes was experienced by Sylvius,
and fince recommended very generally by various au¬
thors who have written on this complaint; and it has
alfq been thought of ufe in fupplying the place of bile
in the primcB vite. The utility of this medicine in iCfe-
rical cafes w^a1- inferred chiefly from its fuppofed power
diffolving biliary concretionsbut this medicine has
M. Heal
Botany,
p. 390.
1 ] S O A
loft much of its reputation in jaundice, fince it is now !
known that gall-ftones have been found in many after l'“
death who had been daily taking foap for feveral months
and even years. Of its good effects in urinary calcu¬
lous affections, we have the teftimony of feveral, efpe¬
cially when diffolvedin lime-water, by which its efficacy
is confiderably increased; for it thus becomes a power¬
ful folvent of mucus, which an ingenious modern author
fuppofes to be the chief agent in the formation of cal¬
culi ; it is, however, only in the incipient ftate of the
difeafe that thefe remedies promile effectual benefit ;
though they generally abate the more violent fymptoms
where they cannot remove the caufe. With Boerhaave
ibap was a general medicine : for as he attributed moft
complaints to vifeidity of the fluids, he, and moft of the
Boerhaavian fehool, preferibed it in conjuncfion with
different refinous and other fubftances, in gout, rheu-
matifm, and various vifceral complaints. Soap is alio
externally employed as a refolvent, and gives name to
feveral officinal preparations.
From the properties of foap we may know that it
muft be a very effeftual and convenient anti-acid. It
abforbs acids as powerfully as pure alkalies and abfor-
bent earths, without having the eaufticity of the for¬
mer, and without oppreffing the ftomach by its weight
like the latter.
Laftly, we may perceive that foap muft be one of
the beft of all antidotes to flop quickly, and with the
leaft inconvenience, the bad eftefts of acid corrofive poi-
fons, as aquafortis, corrofive fublimate, &c.
Soap imported is fubjeft by 10 Ann. cap. 19. to a
duty of 2d. a pound (over and above former duties) ;
and by 1 2 Ann. flat. 2. cap. 9. to the farther fum of
id. a-pound. And by the fame a£ls, the duty on foap
made in the kingdom is lid. a-pound. By 19 G. III.
cap. 52. no perfon within the limits of the head office
of excife in London ffiall be permitted to make any
foap unlefs he occupy a tenement of 10I. a year,
be affeffed, and pay the parifti rates ; or elfewhere,
unlefs he be affeffed, and pay to church and poor.
Places of making are to be entered on pain of 50k
and covers and locks to be provided under a foiftilure
of JOOl. ; the furnace-door of every utenfil ufed in the
manuiatture of foap {hall be locked by the excife offi¬
cer, as foon as the fire is damped or drawn out, and
faftenings provided, under the penalty of 50I.; and
opening or damaging fuch fattening incurs a penalty of
look * Officers are required to enter and furvey at all
times, by day or night, and the penalty of obflrafting
is 20I.; and they may unlock and examine every copper,
&c. between the hours of five in the morning and ele¬
ven in the evening, and the penalty of obftrufting is
look Every maker of foap before he begins any ma¬
king, if within the bills of mortality, ffiall give 12 hours,-
if elfewhere 24 hours, notice in writing to the officer,
of the time when he intends to begin, on pain of 50I.
No maker fhall remove any foap unfurveyed on pain of
20I. without giving proper notice of his intention.
And if any maker fliall conceal any foap or materials,
he ffiall forfeit the fame, and alfo 500I. _ Every barrel
of foap ffiall contain 2561b. avoirdupois, half barrel
1281b. firkin 641b. half-firkin 321b. befides the weight
or tare of each calk : and all foap, excepting hard cake
foap and ball foap, ftiall be put into fueh calks and no-
other, on pain of forfeiture, and 5I. The maker fhalh
’ 1 weekly
I
Soap
II
| iociety.
tackji.
mment.
[. ii.
t
S O C [ 43
weekly enter in writing at the next office the foap made
by him in each week, with the weight and quantity at
j each boiling, on pain of 50I.; and within one week
after entry clear off the duties, on pain of double duty.
See, beiidesthe ftatutes above cited, 5 Geo. III. cap.
•12 Geo. III. cap. 46. 11 Geo. cap. 30. 1 Geo. flat. 2.
cap- 36.
Acid Soap. This is formed by the addition of con¬
centrated acids to the expreffed oils. Thus the oil is
rendered partially foluble in water ; but the union is not
fuffieiently complete to anfwer any valuable purpofe.
SOAP-Bcrry Tree. See Sapindus, Botany Index.
SOAP-Earth. See STEATITES, Mineralogy Index.
SOAPWOHT. See Saponaria, Botany Index.
SOC (Sax.), fignifies power or liberty to mini Her
juftice or execute laws j alio the circuit or territory
wherein fuch power is exercifed. Whence our law-
Latin word focca is ufed for a feigniory or lordffiip en-
franchifed by the king, with the liberty of holding or
keeping a court of his fockmen : And this kind of li¬
berty continues in divers parts of England to this day,
and is known by the names of foie and foken.
SOCAGE, in its molt general and extenlive fignifi-
calion, fee ms to denote a tenure by any certain and
determinate fervice. And in this fenfe it is by our
ancient writers conftantly put in oppofition to chivalry
or knight-fervice, where the render was precarious and
uncertain. The fervice mutt therefore be certain, in or¬
der to denominate it focage ; as to hold by fealty and
20s, rent ; or, by homage, fealty, and 20s. rent; or,
by homage and fealty without rent *, or, by fealty and
certain corporal fervice, as ploughing the lord’s land for
three days •, or, by fealty only without any other fer¬
vice : for all thefe are tenures in focage.
Socage is of two forts : yrec-focage, where the fer-
yices are not only certain but honourable ; and vil/ein-
focage, where the fervices, though certain, are of a bafer
nature (lee Villenage). Such as hold by the former
tenure are called, in Glanvil and other fublequent au¬
thors, by the name of liben fokemanni, or tenants in free-
foeage. The word is derived from the Saxon appella¬
tion yoc, which fignifies liberty or privilege ; and, being
joined to an nfual termination, is called focage, in La¬
tin focagiu/n ; fignifying thereby a free or privileged te¬
nure.
It ieems probable that the focage-tenures were the
relics of Saxon liberty ; retained by fuch perfons as had
neither forfeited them to the king, nor been obliged to
exchange their tenure for the more honourable, as it
was called, but at the fame time more burthenfome,-te¬
nure of knight-fervice. This is peculiarly remarkable
in the tenure which prevails in Kent, called gavelkind,
which is generally acknowledged to be a fpecies of fo-
cage-tenure ; the prefervatioji whereof inviolate from
ihe innovations ot the Norman conqueror is a faft uni-
verfally known. And thole who thus preferved their
liberties were faid to hold in free and common focage.
As therefore the grand criterion and diftinguilhing
mark ot this fpecies of tenure are the having its renders
or fervices afcertained, it will include under it all other
methods of holding free lands by certain and invariable
rents and duties; and in particular, Petit SERJEANTT,
J- enure in BURGAGE, and Gavelkind. See thefe ar¬
ticles.
SOCIETY, a number of rational and moral be-
5 ] SOC
ings, united for their common prefervation and happi- Society.
There are Ihoals of filhes, herds of quadrupeds, andH )W^ar
flocks of birds. But till oblcrvation enable us to de- brutes are
termine with greater certainty, how far the inferior ani-capable ot
mals are able to look through a feries of means to thea l°cial
end which thefe are calculated to produce, how far ftate‘
their conduft may be influenced by the hope of re¬
ward and the fear of punithment, and whether they are
at all capable of moral diftindtions—we cannot with
propriety apply to them the term Society. We call
crows and beavers, and feveral other fpecies of animals,
gregarious ; but it is hardly good Englifli to fay that
they are facial.
It is only human fociety, then, that can become the Mankind
fubjeft of our prefent inveftigation. The phenomena the only
which it prefents are highly worthy of our notice. focial bo.
Such are the advantages which each individual evi-'^s
dently derives from living in a focial Hate ; and fo help-ubfervation
lefs does any human being appear in a folitary Hate, 4
that we are naturally led to conclude, that if there ever A focial
was a period at which mankind were folitary beings,
that period could not be of long duration ; for their ^
averfion to fobtude and love of lociety would foon in¬
duce them to enter into focial union. Such is the opi¬
nion which we are led to conceive, when wre compare
our own condition as members of civilized and en¬
lightened fociety with that of the brutes around us, or
with that of favages in the earlier and ruder periods of
focial life. When we hear of Indians wandering naked
through the woods, deftitute of arts, unlkilled in agri¬
culture, fcarce capable of moral diftinflions, void of^all
religious fentiments, or poffeffed with the moft abfurd
notions concerning fuperior powers, and procuring
means of fubfiflence in a manner equally precarious with
that of the hearts of prey—-we look down with pity on
their condition, or turn from it with horror. When
we view the order of cultivated fociety, and confider
our inftitutions, arts, and manners—we rejoice over our
fuperior wifdom and happinefs.
Man in a civilized ftate appears a being of a fuperior
order to man in a favage ftate ; yet fome philofophers
tell us, that it is only he who, having been educated in
fociety, has been taught to depend upon others, that
can be helplefs or miferable when placed in a folitarr
ftate. They view the favage who exerts himfelf with
intrepidity to fupply his wants, or bears them with for¬
titude, as the greateft hero, and pcffeffing the greateft
happinefs. And therefore if we agree with them, that
the propenfities of nature may have prompted men to
enter into focial union, though they may have hoped
to enjoy fuperior fecurity and happinefs by engaging
to protett and fupport each other, we muft conclude
that the Author of the univerfe has deftined man to at¬
tain greater dignity and happinefs in a favage and fo¬
litary than in a focial ftate ; and therefore that thofe
difpofitions and views which lead us to fociety are fal¬
lacious and inimical to our real intertft.
Whatever .be the fuppofed advantages of a folitary
ftate, certain it is that manivind, at the earlieft periods,
were united in fociety. Various theories have been
formed concerning the circumftances and principles
which gave rife to this union : but we have elfewhere
ftrown, that the greater part of them are founded in er-
; that they fuppofe the original ftate of man to have
3 2 been
ror
Society.
* See Scrip
ture, N°
7—15-
5
Firft ftate
of fociety
according
to authen¬
tic hiftory.
Theories of
philofo-
pher- con¬
cerning the
origin of
fociety
been that of favages and that fuch a foppontion is con-
tradifted by the moil authentic records of antiquity.
For though the records of the earlier ages are gene¬
rally obicure, fabulous, and imperfeft; yet happily
there is one free from the imperfections of the red, and
of undoubted authenticity, to which we may fafely have
. recourfe *. This record is the Pentateuch of Moles,
which presents us with a genuine account of the origin
of man and of iociety, perfectly conlonant to what we
have laid down in the article referred to (fee Savage).
According to Mutes, the firft fociety was that of a
hulband and wife united in the bonds of marriage : the
firft government that of a father and hulband, the maf-
ter of his family. Men lived together under the patri¬
archal form of government while they employed them-
felves chiefly in tending flocks and herds. Children in
fuch circumftanees cannot loon rife to an equality with
their parents, where a man’s importance depends on his
property, not on Ills abilities. When flocks and herds
are the chief articles of property, the fon can only
obtain thefe from his father; in general therefore the
fon mull be entirely dependent on the father foi the
means of fubfiHence. If the parent during his life be-
ftow on his children any part of his property, he may
do it on fuch conditions as lhall make their dependence
upon him continue till the period of his death. ^ YV hen
the community are by this event deprived ol their head,
in dead of continuing in a ftate of union, and felt fling
fome one from among tbemfelves whom they may T>m ft
with the authority of a parent, they feparate into fomany
difth-a tribes, each fubjefted to the authority of a differ¬
ent lord, the mailer of the family, and the proprietor
of all the flocks and herds belonging to it. Such was
the ftate of the firft focieties which the narrative of
Mofes exhibits to our attention.
Thole philofopbers who have made foeiety, in its va¬
rious ft ages between rudenefs and refinement, the fubjedl
of their {peculations, have generally confidered mankind,
in whatever region of the globe, and under whatever
climate, as proceeding uniformly through certain regu¬
lar gradations from one extreme to the other. 'Hiey
regard them, firft, as gaining a precarious fubn lie nee by
gathering the fpontaneous fruits of the earth, preying
on the inhabitants of the waters, if placed on the lea-
{bore, or along the banks of large rivers ; or hunting
wild beafts, if in a fituation where thefe are to be found
in abundance ; without forefight or induftry to pro ide
for future wants when the prelent call of appetite is gra¬
tified. Next, they fay, man rifes to the (bepherd bate,
and next to that of hulbandmen, when they turn their
attention from the management of flocks to the culti¬
vation of the ground. Next, thefe hulbandmen improve
their powers, and better their condition, by becoming
artizans and merchants; and the beginning of this pe¬
riod is the boundary between barbarity and civiiiza^
tion.
Thefe are the ftages through winch they who have
employed themfelves on the natural hiftory of fociety
have generally conduced mankind in their progrefs from
rudenefs to refinement: but they feem to have over! Hik¬
ed the manner in which mankind were at firft eftabllfh-
ed on this earth ; for the eircumftances in which the
parents of the human race were originally placed ; for
the degree of knowledge communicated to them ; and
for the inftruflion which they muft have been capable
of communicating to their pofterity. They rather ap- [ Society,
pear to conlider the inhabitants of every different region ^ V--
of the globe as aborigines, fpringing at firft from the
ground, or dropped on the fpot which they inhabit; no
let ignorant than infants of the nature and relations of
the objects around them, and of the purpofes which they
may aceomplifh by the exercife of their organs and fa¬
culties. 7
The abfurdity of this theory has been fully demon-are fancy
ftrated in another place: and if we agree to receive the
Mofaic account of the original eftabliihment of man¬
kind, we lhall be led to view the phenomena of focial
life in a light very different. We muft firft allow, that
though many of the rudeit tribes are found in the ftate
of hunters or fjhers-; yet the hunting or fiftiing ftate
cannot have been invariably the primary form of fociety.
Not with Handing the powers with which we. are endow¬
ed, we are in a great meafure the creatures of circum-
ftances. Phyfieal caufes exert, though indirc&ly, a
mighty influence in forming the chara61er and direft-
ing the exertions of the human race. From the infor¬
mation of Mofes we gather, that the firft focieties of
men lived under the 'patriarchal forrnof govemmeRt,
and employed themfelves in the cultivation of the ground
and the management of flocks And as we know t| at
mankind, being fubiected to the influence, both of phy¬
fieal and moral caufes, are no left liable to degt-neracy
than capable of improvement; we may ealily conceive,
that though defeending ail from the fame original pair,
and though enlightened with much traditionary know¬
ledge relative to the arts of life, the order of foeiety,
moral diftindlions, and religious obligations; yet as
they were gradually, and by various accidents, dilperfed
over the earth, being removed to fituatioUs in which the
arts with which they were acquainted could but little
avail them, where induftry was overpowered, or indo¬
lence encouraged, by the fcverity or the profuficn^ of
nature, they might degenerate and fall into a condition
almoft as humble and precarious a« that of the bintal
tribes. Other moral caufes might alfu concur to debate
or elevate the human charafter in that early period.
The particular character of the original fettlers in any
region, the manner in which they were corrnefted with
one another, and the arts which they were bell qualified
to exercife, with various other caufes of a fimilar nature,
would have confiderable influence in determining the
char after of the fociety.
When laying afide the fpirit of theory and tylteffi,
we fet ourfelves, with due humility, to trace fafts, and
-to Men to evidence, though our difeoveries may be
fewer than we fhoidd otherwife fancy them ; yet the
knowledge which we thus acquire will be more ufeiul
and folid, and our {peculations more confiHent with the
fpirit of true philofophy. Here, though « e learn in m
the information of the fncred writings, that the firft fa¬
mily of mankind was not cruelly expofed in the world,
as children whom the inhumanity of their parents indu¬
ces them to defert ; yet we are not, in confequence ot
admitting this faft, laid under any neeeflity ot denying
or explaining away any of the other phenomena which
occur to our obfervation when tracing the natural hi ory
of fociety. Tradition may be corrupted; arts ana .ci-
ences may be loft ; the fublimeft religious doftnnes
xnav be debated into abfurdity.
If then we are defirous of furveying fociety m its^ru-
s o c
[ 4.57 ]
S O C
ociety. deft form, we muft look, not to the earlieft period of
-nr-^its exiftence, but to thofe diftridls of the globe where
•external cireumftances concur to drive them into a ftate
of ftupidity and wretchednefs. Thus in many places of
the happy clime of Alia, which a variety of ancient re¬
cords concur with the facred writings in reprefenting as
the firft peopled quarter of the globe, we cannot trace
the form of feciety backwards beyond the fhepherd ftate.
In that ftate indeed the bonds which connedf fociety ex¬
tend not to a wide range of individuals, and men remain
for a long period in diftinft families 5 but yet that ftate
s is highly favourable to knowledge, to happinefs, and to
?t in fomevirtue. Again, the torrid and the frozen regions of the
Society.
ticular
tances
lifted.
earth, though probably peopled at a later period, and
by tribes fprung from the fame Hock with the Ihepherds
of Alia, have yet exhibited mankind in a much lower
ftate. It is in the parched deferts of Africa and the
wilds of America that human beings have been found
in a condition approaching the neareft to that of the
brutes.
We may therefore with feme propriety defert the
order of time, and take a view of the different ftages
through which philofopbers have confidered mankind as
advancing, beginning with that of rudenefs, though we
have fhown that it cannot have been the firft in the pro-
grefs.
.deflate Where the human fpecres are found in the 1 owl ft and
Milagerudeft ftate, their rational and moral powers are very
| fociety. faintly difplayed 5 but their external fenfes are acute,
and their bodily organs aclive and vigorous. Hunting
and filhing are then their chief employments on which
they depend for fuppott. During that portion of their
time which is not fpemt in thefe purfaits, they are funk
in liftlefs indolence. Deftitute of forefight, they are
routed to aftive exertion only by the preffure of imme¬
diate neceffity or the urgent calls of appetite. Accuf-
tomed to endure the feverity of the elements, and but
fcantily provided with the means of fubfiftence, they ac¬
quire habits of reftgnation and fortitude, which are be¬
held with aftonifhment by thofe who enjoy the plenty
and indulgence of cultivated life. But in this ftate of
want and depreflron, when the powers and poffeffions of
every individual are fearcely fufficient for his own fup-
port, when even the calls of appetite are repreffed be-
caufe they cannot alwavs be gratified, and the more re¬
fined pafiions, which either originate from fuch as are
merely animal, or are intimately connected with them,
have not yet been felt—in this ftate all the milder af¬
fections are unknown 5 or if the bread is at all fenfible
to their impulfe, it is extremely feeble. Hulhand and
wife, parent and child, brother and brother, are united
by the weakeft tie's. Want and misfortune are not pi¬
tied. Why indeed ihould they, where they cannot be
relieved ? It is impoftible to determine how far beings
in this condition can be capable of moral diftinftions.
One thing certain is, that in no ftate are the human
race entirely incapable of thefe. If we liften, however,
to the relations of refpeftable travellers, we muft admit
that human beings have fometimes been found in that
abje£I ftate where no proper ideas of fubordinatron, go¬
vernment, or diftinfftion of ranks, could be formed.
No diftinft notions of Deity can be here entertained.
Beings in fo humble a condition cannot look through
the order of the univerfe and the harmony of nature to
that Eternal Wiidom and Goedncfs which contrived,
and that Almighty Power which brought into exift¬
ence, the fyftern of things. Of arts they muft be almoft v '
totally deftitute. They may ufe feme inftruraents for
fiftiing or the cbace 5 but thefe muft; be extremely rude
and limple. If they be acquainted with any means to
ftielter them from the inclemency of the elements, both
their houfes and clothing will be awkward and inconve¬
nient. _ 10
But human beings have not been often found in fo Second
rude a ftate as this. Even thofe tribes which we deno- ttage ip th«
minate favage, are for the moft part farther removed oi
from mere animal life. They generally appear united " ''
under fome fpecies of government, exercifing the powers
of reafon, capable of morality, though that morality be
not always very refined; difplaying fome degree of fo-
cial virtues, and adting under the influence of religious
fentiments. Thofe who may be confidered as but one
degree higher in the fcale than the ftupid and wretched
beings wbofe condition . we have fonteyed, are to be
found ftill in the hunting and fifhing ftate ; but they
are farther advanced towards facial life, and are become
more fenfible to the impulfe of focial affedlion. By un¬
avoidable intercourfe in their employments, a few indi¬
vidual hunters or fiftiers contrail a certain degree of
fondnefs for each other’s company, and are led to take
fome part in each other’s jays and furrows •, and when
the focial affedlions thus generated (fee Passion) begin
to exert themfelves, all the other powers of the mind
are at the fame time called forth, and the circumftanees
of the little fociety are immediately improved. We be¬
hold its members in a more comfortable condition, and
find reafbn to view the human charailer with more com¬
placency and refpecl. Huts are now built, more com¬
modious clothes are faftiioned, inftruments for the annoy¬
ance of wild beafts and even of enemies are contrived j
in fhort, arts, and fcience, and focial order, and reli¬
gious fentiment, and ceremonies, now make their ap¬
pearance in the riling fociety, and ferve to charadlerize
it by the particular form which diftfnguiihes each of
them. But though fooial order is no longer unknown
nor unobferved, yet the form of government is ftill ex¬
tremely fimple, and its ties are but loofe and feeble. It
will perhaps bear fume rtfemblanee to the patriarchal j
only all its members are on a more equal footing, and
at the fame time Idfs clofely eonnefted than in the
fhepherd ftate, to which that form of government feems
almoft peculiar. The old men are treated with venera¬
tion ; but the young are not entirely fubjt*6t to -them.
They may liften refpe&fully to their advice ; but they
do not fubmit to their arbitrary commands. Where
mankind are in the ftate of hunters and fiftiers, where
the means of fubftftenee are preeavioufly acquired, and
prudent forefight does not prompt to accumulate much
provifion for the future, no individual can acquire com¬
parative wealth. As foon as the fon is grown up, he
ceafes to be dependent on his lather, as well as on the
fociety in general. Differ* nee of experience therefore
conftitutes the only diftimftion between the young and
the old •, and if the old have experience, the young have
ftrength and aftivity. Here, then, neither age nor pro¬
perty can give rife to any ftriking diftindlion of ranks.
All who have attained to manhood, and are not difabled
by unufual deficiency of ftrength or agility, or by the
infirmities of old age, are on an equal footing; or if any
one poffefs a pre-eminence over the reft, he owes it to
fuperior
Society.
s O C [ +38 ]
fuperlor addrefs or fortitude. The whole tribe delibe- characters
rate j the old give their advice ; each individual of the
aflembly receives or rejeCfs it at his pleafure (for the
whole body think not of exercifing any compulfatory
power over the will of individuals) ; and the warrior
who is molt diltinguilhed for ftrength, addrefs, and va¬
lour, leads out the youth of the tribe to the chace or
againlt the enemy. War, which in the former ftage
did not prevail, as they who were ftrangers to focial
fentiments were, at the fame time, fcarce capable of be¬
ing enemies, now firlt begins to depopulate the thinly
inhabited regions where thofe hunters and filliers purfue
their prey. They are fcattered, poffibly in fcanty and
feparate tribes, over an immenfe trad of country 5 but
they know no medium between the affeftion which
brethren of the fame tribe bear to each other and the
hatred of enemies. Though thinly fcattered over the
earth, yet the hunting parties of different tribes will
fometimes meet as they range the forefts j and when
they meet, they will naturally view each other with a
jealous eye ; for the fuccefs of the one party in the
chace may caufe the other to be unfuccefsful •, and
while the one fnatches the prey, the other mull return
home to all the pangs of famine. Inveterate hoftility
will therefore long prevail among neighbouring tribes
in the hunting Hate.
If we find them not incapable of focial order, we may
naturally expeCl that their conduCl will be influenced
by fome fentiments of religion. They have at this pe¬
riod ideas of fuperior beings. They alio praClife certain
ceremonies to recommend them to thofe beings •, but
both their fentiments and ceremonies are fuperllitious
and abfurd.
We have elfewhere Ihown (fee Polytheism) how
favage tribes have probably degenerated from the pure
worlhip of the one true God to the adoration of a
multitude of imaginary divinities in heaven, earth, and
hell. We have traced this idolatrous worlhip from that
of the heavenly bodies, through all the gradations of
daemon-worlhip, hero-worfhip, and llatue-worlhip, to
that -wonderful inftance of abfurd fuperftition which in¬
duced the inhabitants of fome countries to fall proftrate
in adoration before the vileft reptiles. But though we
are convinced that the heavenly bodies have by all ido¬
laters been conlidered as their firft and greatell gods,
we pretend not that the progrefs through the other
ilages of polytheifm has been everywhere in the very
fame order. It is indeed impoflible to exhibit under
one general view an account of arts, manners, and reli¬
gious fentiments, which may apply to fome certain pe¬
riod in the hiltory of every nation. The chara61ers and
circumfiances of nations are fcarce lefs various and ano¬
malous than thofe of individuals. Among many of the
American tribes, among the ancient inhabitants of the
forelts of Germany, whofe manners have been fo accu¬
rately delineated by the mafterly pen of Tacitus, and
in fome of the illands fcattered over the fouthern ocean,
religion, arts, and government, have been found in that
flate which we have defcribed as charadlerifing the fe¬
cund ftage of focial life. But neither can we pretend
that all thofe fimple and rude focieties have been de¬
fcribed by hiftorians and travellers as agreeing precifely
in their arts, manners, and religious fentiment^; or that
the difference of circumftances always enables us to ac¬
count in a fatisfaftory manner for the diftimflion of their
s o c
There is a variety of fails in the hiftcry of Society;
the early periods of fociety, which no ingenuity, no in-' 
duftry, however painful, can reduce under general heads.
Here, as well as when we attempt to philofophize on
the phenomena of the material world, we find reaion to
confefs that our pow’ers are weak, and our obfervation
■ confined within a narrow fphere. ^
But we may now carry our views a little forward,Third fl-
and furvey human life as approaching fomewhat nearer m the p -
to a civilized and enlightened ftate. As property is ac- &reh 01 i
quired, inequality and fubordination of ranks neceffarily
follow : and when men are no longer equal, the many 0f
are foon fubjedled to the will of the few. But what and inea
gives rife to thefe new phenomena is, that after having'hy of
often fuffered from the precarioufnefs of the hunting and tan*4s ^
fifhing ftate, men begin to extend their cares beyond^1*
the prefent moment, and to think of providing fome
fupply for future wants. When they are enabled to
provide fuch a fupply, either by purfuing the chace with
new eagernefs and perfeverance, by gathering the fpon-
taneous fruits of the earth, or by breeding tame aui-
nials—thefe acquisitions are at firft the property of the
whole fociety, and diftributed from a common ftore to
each individual according to his wants : But as various
reafons will foon concur to convince the community,
that by this mode of diftribution, induftry and activity
are treated with injuftice, w'hile negligence and indo¬
lence receive more than their due, each individual will
in a fhort time become his own fteward, and a commu¬
nity of goods will be aboliftied. As foon as diftinft
ideas of property are formed, it muft be unequally di¬
ftributed ; and as foon as property is unequally diftribu¬
ted, there arifes an inequality of ranks. Here we have
the origin of the depreflion of the female fex in rude
ages, of the tyrannical authority exercifed by parents
over their children, and perhaps of ftavery. The wo¬
men cannot difplay the fame perfeverance, or aftivity,
or addrefs, as the men, in purfuing the chace. They
are therefore left at home ; and from that moment are
no longer equals, but flaves and dependants, who muft
fubfift by the bounty of the males, and mull therefore
fubmit with implicit obedience to all their capricious
commands. Even before the era of property, the female
fex were viewed as inferiors ; but till that period they
were not reduced to a date of abjedl ftavery.
In this period of fociety new notions are formed of
the relative duties. Men now become citizens, mafters,
and fervants, hulbands, parents, &c. It is impoflible
to enumerate all the various modes of government which
take place among the tribes who have advanced to this
ftage •, but one thing certain is, that the authority or
the few over the many is now firft eftablifhed, and that
the rife of property firft introduces inequality of ranks.
In one place, we (hall perhaps find the community fub-
je£ted during this period to the will of a Jingle perfon ;
in another, power may be lodged in the hands of a
number of chiefs ; and in a third, every individual may
have a voice in creating public officers, and in enacting
laws for the fupport of public order. But as no code of
laws is formed during this period, juftice is not very im¬
partially adminiftered, nor are the rights of individuals
very faithfully guarded. Many actions, which will af¬
terwards be confidered as heinoufty immoral, are now
confidered as praife-worthy or indifferent. I his is the
age of hero- worftiip, and of houfehold and tutelary gods j
for
s O C [4
iety. for it is in this ftage of fociety that the invention of arts,
v ivhieh gave rife to that worilhp, contributes moft con-
fpicuoufly to the public good. War, too, which we
coniidered as beginning firft to ravage the earth during
the former period, and which is another caufe of the dei¬
fication of dead men, will ftill prevail in this age, and
be carried on with no lefs ferocity than before, though
in a more fyftematic form.
The prevalence of war, and the means by which fub-
fftence is procured, cannot but have confiderable influ¬
ence on the chara&er and fentiments of focieties and in¬
dividuals. The hunter and the warrior are characters
■ in many refpects different from the Ihepherd and the
huibandman. Such, in point of government, arts, and
manners, religious and moral fentiments, were feveral of
the German tribes deferibed by Tacitus; and the Bri¬
tons whole character has been Iketched by the pen of
Gee far: fuch, too, were the Romans in the early period
of their hiltory ; fuch too the inhabitants of Afia Minor
about the time of the fiege of Troy, as well as the
Greeks whom Homer celebrates as the deftroyers of the
Trojan flate : the northern tribes alfo, who poured
through Afia, Africa, and Europe, and overthrew the
Roman empire, appear to have been of a nearly fimilar
character. It feems to be a general opinion among thofe
who have direCted their attention to the hiftory of fo¬
ciety, that, in the fcale afeending from the lowed con¬
dition of human beings to the molt civilized and enlight¬
ened Hate of fociety, the fliepherd Itate is the next in
order above the hunting ; and that as mankind improve
in knowledge and in moral fentiments, and as the forelts
are gradually depopulated of their inhabitants, inftead of
deftroying the inferior animals, men become their guar¬
dians and proteCtors. But we cannot unrefervedly fub-
feribe to this opinion : we believe, that in the Ihepherd
Itate focieties have been fometimes found fuperior to the
molt polilhed tribes of hunters; but upon viewing the
annals of mankind in early ages, we obferve that there
is often no inconliderable refemblance even between
hunters and fliepherds in point of the improvement of
the rational faculties and the moral fenfe ; and we are
therefore led to think, that thefe two Hates are fome-
times parallel : for in fiance, feveral of the American
tribes, who ftill procure their i'ubfiftence by hunting, ap¬
pear to be nearly in the flate which we have deferibed
as the third ftage in the progrtfs of fociety •, and the an¬
cient fhepherds of Afia do not appear to have been much
more cultivated and refined. We even believe that
men have fometimes turned their attention from hunting
to agriculture, without palling through any intermediate
date. Let us remember, that much depends upon local
circumftances, and fomewhat undoubtedly on original
infpiration and traditionary inftruClion. In this period
of fociety the ftate of the arts well deferves our atten¬
tion. We (hall find, that the fhepherds and the hunters
are in that refpeft on a pretty equal footing. Whether
we examine the records of ancient hiftory, or view the
illands fcattered through the South fea, or range the
■wilds of America, or furvey the fnowy waftes of Lap-
land and the frozen coaft of Greenland—ftill we find the
wfeful arts in this period, though known and cultivated,
in a very rude ftate ; and the fine arts, or fuch as are
cultivated merely to pleafe the fancy or to gratify ca¬
price, displaying an old and fantaftic, not a true or na-
kwal, tafte ; yet this is the period in which eloquence
39 ] S O C
(tunes with the trueft luftre : all is metaphor or glowing Societv.
fentiment. Languages are not yet copious ; and there- y 111
fore fpeech is figurative, expreflive, and forcible. The
tones and geftures of nature, not being yet laid afide,
as they generally are, from regard to decorum, in more
polilhed ages, give a degree of force and expreflion to
the harangues of the ruitic or favage orator, which the
moft laborious ftudy of the rules of rhetoric and elocu¬
tion could not enable even a more polilhed orator to dif-
Play- . I2
But let us advance a little farther, and contemplate Fourth
our fpecies in a new light, where they will appear with Huge; in
greater dignity and amiablenefs of character. Let uswh'ch agri-
view them as hulbandmen, artizans, and legillators. nllltUne
7 * o tlourilnes
Whatever circumftances might turn the attention of the arts are
any people from hunting to agriculture, or caufe the fubdivided,
herdfman to yoke his oxen for the cultivation of thecoramerce
ground, certain it is that this change in the occupation ai1tl regular-
would produce a happy change on the character and rn^ntTre
circumftances of men ; it would oblige them to exert introduced,
a more regular and perfevering indullry. The hunter
is like one of thofe birds that are deferibed as palling
the winter in a torpid ftate. The Ihepherd’s life is ex¬
tremely indolent. Neither of thefe is very favourable
to refinement. But different is the condition of the
huibandman. His labours fucceed each other in regu¬
lar rotation through the year. Each feafon with him
has its proper employments: he therefore muft exert
aftive perfevering induftry ; and in this ftate we often
find the virtues of rude and polifhed ages united. This
is the period where barbarilm ends and civilization be¬
gins. Nations have exifted for ages in the hunting
or the Ihepherd ftate, fixed as by a kind of ftagnation,
without advancing farther. But fcarcely any inftances
occur in the hiftory of mankind of thofe who once
reached the ftate of hulbandmen, remaining long in
that condition without rifing to a more civilized and
polilhed ftate. W here a people turn their attention in
any confiderable degree to the objects of agriculture, a
diftindlion of occupations naturally arifes among them.
The hulbandman is fo clofely employed through the fe¬
veral feafons of the year in the labours of the field, that
he has no longer leifure to exercife all the rude arts
kno wn among his countrymen. He has not time to
falhion the inftruments of hulbandry, to prepare his
clothes, to build his houfe, to manufaflure houfehold
utenfils, or to tend thofe tame animals which he con¬
tinues to rear. Tbofe different departments therefore
now begin to employ different perfons ; each of whom
dedicates his whole time and attention to his own oc¬
cupation. The manufadhire of cloth is for a confider^
able time managed exclufively by the women; but fmiths
and joiners arife from among the men. Metals begin
now to be confidered as valuable materials. Theinter-
courfe of mankind is now placed on a new footing. Be¬
fore, every individual praftifed all the arts that were
known, as far as was neceffary for fupplying himfelf
with the conveniences of life. Now he confines him¬
felf to one or to a few of them ; and, in order to ob¬
tain a neceffary fupply of the produdtions of thofe arts
which he does not cultivate himfelf, he gives in ex¬
change a part of the produ&ions of his own labours.
Here we have the origin of commerce.
After continuing perhaps for fome time in this ftate,
as arts and diftindions multiply in fociety, the ex*
change
s o c
[ 440 ]
s o c
Society, change of one commodity fof another is found trouble-
  ir"-—' foine and inconvenient. It is ingeniouily contrived to
adopt a medium of commerce, which being eftimated
not by its intrinfic value, but by a certain nominal^va¬
lue which it receives from the agreement of the fociety
among whom it is ufed, ferves to render the exchange
of property, which is fo neceffary for the purpofes of
focial life, eafy and expeditious. Wherever metals
have been known, they appear to have been adopted
as the medium of commerce almoft as foon as fuch a
medium began to be uled i and this is one important
purpofe for which they ferve *, but they have dill more
important ufes. Almoft all the neceffary arts depend
on them. Where the metals are known, agriculture
pradlifed, and the neceffary arts diftributed among diffe¬
rent orders of artifans—civilization and refinement, if
not obftrufted by fome accidental circumftances, ad¬
vance with a rapid progrefs. With regard to the firft
applying of the precious metals as the medium of com¬
merce, we may obferve, that this was probably not ac-
complifhed by means of a formal contrad. They might
be firft ufed as ornaments ; and the love of ornament,
which prevails among rude as much as among civilized
nations, would render every one willing to receive
them in exchange for fuch articles as he could fpare.
Such might be the change produced on fociety with ic-
As foon as ornament and amufement are thought of,
the fine arts begin to be cultivated. In their origin
therefore they are not long pofterior to the neceffary
and ufeful arts. They appear long before men reach
the comfortable and refpedable condition of hufband-
mcn j but fo rude is their character at then firft origin,
that our Dilettanti would probably view the produe-
which will refult from the invention of arts, though per- Scciet-
haps not immediately, will be, to render the character u**v*'j
of the deities more benevolent and amiable, and the rites
of their worfhip more mild and humane.
The female fex in this period generally find the yoke
of their flavery fome what lightened. Men now become
eaficr in their cirumftances ; the focial affections alfume
ftronger influence over the mind ; plenty, and fecurity,
and eafe, at once communicate both delicacy and keen-
nefs to the fenfual defires. All thefe circumftances con¬
cur to make men relax in fome degree that tyrannic
fway by which they before depreffed the fofter fex.
The foundation of that empire, where beauty triumphs
over both wifdom and ftrength, now begins to be laid.
Such are the effedts which hiftory warrants as to attri¬
bute to agriculture and the arts ; and fuch the outlines
of the charaCler of that which we reckon the fourth
ftage in the progrefs of fociety from rudenefs to refine¬
ment. ^ j.
Let us advance one ftep farther. We have not yetp;^^
furveyed mankind in their moft poliftied and cultivated in the p
ftate. Society is rude at the period when the arts firft grefs of
begin to (how themfelves, in comparifon of that ftate
to which it is raifed by the induftrious cultivation ofter‘ture
them. The neighbouring commonwealths of Athens arts, am
and Lacedaemon afford us a happy opportunity of com- feiences,
his with the former ftage in the progrefs of fo-
ciety. The chief effe& produced by the inftitutions ofaQdreli
Lycurgus feems to have been, to fix the manners of his afiumes
countrymen for a confiderable period in that ftate to mild an
which they had attained in his days. Spartan virtue JjgH
has been admired and extolled in the language of en- p
thufiafm j but in the fame manner has the charadler
and the condition of the favage inhabitants of the wilds
o-ardtTtfieim^effary arts by the origin o agriculture, paring this with the former ftage in the progrefs of fo- -
gard Lo the neceiiary ^ts Dy tne ong 8 ± , . f Droduced by the inftitutions of "
ST and of America been preferred by fomep^
r. t~» ■ ■ .1 „  • j nnw virtues and the emoyments of focial life in the moft po-
difguft. But in the period of fociety which we now
confider, they have afpired to a higher charaaer j yet
poetry is now perhaps lefs generally cultivated than
during the thepherd ftate. Agriculture, confidered by
itfelf, is not direaiy favourable either to refinement of
manners or to the fine arts. T he converiation of ftiep-
herds is generally fuppofed to be far more elegant than
that of hulbandmen but though the direa and imme¬
diate effeas of this condition of life be not favourable
to the fine arts, yet indireaiy it has a ftrong tendency
to promote their improvement. Its immediate influ¬
ence is extremely favourable to the neceffary and ufe¬
ful arts ; and thefe are no lefs favourable to the fine
arts.
One of the nobleft changes which the introduaion oi
the ails by agriculture produces on the form and cir-
cumftances of iociety, is the introduaion of regular ^go¬
vernment and laws. In tracing the hiftory of ancient
nations, we fcarcely ever find laws introduced at an ear¬
lier period. Minos, Solon, and Lycurgus, do not ap¬
pear to have formed codes of wifdom and juftke for re*
o-ulaling the manners of their countrymen, till after the
Cretans, the Athenians, and even the Lacedaemonians,
had made forae progrefs in agriculture and the ufeful
arts.
Religion, under all its Various forms, has in every
ftage of fociety. a mighty influence on the fentimenls
and con dud! of men (Tee Religion) ; and the arts cul¬
tivated in focietv have < n the other hand feme influence
on the fyftem of religious belief. One happy effect
virtues and the enjoyments of focial life in the moft po-
liftied and enlightened ftate. The Spartans in the days
of Lycurgus had begun to cultivate the ground, and
were not unacquainted with the ufeful arts. I. hey
muft foon have advanced farther had not Lycurgus ari-
fen, and by effedting the eftablifhment of a code of laws,
the tendency of which appears to have been in many
particulars diredtly oppofite to the defigns of. nature,
retarded their progrefs towards complete civilization
and refinement. The hiftory of the Lacedaemonians,
therefore, while the laws of Lycurgus continued in
force, exhibits the manners and charafter of a people in
that which we have denominated the fourth ftage in the
progrefs of fociety. But if we turn our eyes, to their
neighbours the Athenians, we behold in their hiftory
the natural progrefs of opinions, arts, and manners*
The ufeful arts are firft cultivated with fuch fteady in*
duftry, as to raife the community to opulence, and to
furnilh them with articles for commerce with, foreign
nations* The ufeful arts cannot be raifed to this height
of improvement without leading men to the purfuit of
fcience. Commerce with foreign nations, fkill in the
ufeful arts, and a tafte for fcience, mutually aid each
other, and confpire to promote the improvement of the
fine arts. Hence magnificent buildings, noble ftatues,
paintings expreflive of life, adlion, and paffion *, and
poems in which imagination adds new grace and.fubh-
mity to nature, and gives the appearances of foeial hie
more irrefiftible power over the affetliuus of the heart.
Hence are mural diftincUons more carefully ftudied, and
the
s o c
Society, tlie rights of every individual and every order in fociety
*—v—-1 better underftood and more accurately defined. Moral
feience is generally the firft fcientific purfuit which
• ftrongly attracts the attention of men. Lawgivers ap¬
pear before geometricians and aftronomers. Some par¬
ticular circumftanceshnay caufe thefe fciences to bejcul-
tivated at a very early period. In Egypt the overflow¬
ing of the Nile caufed geometry to be early cultivated.
Caufes- no lefs favourable to the ftudy of aitronomy,
concurred to recommend that fcience to the attention of
the Chaldeans long before they had attained the height
of refinement. But, in general, we find, that the laws
of morality are underftood, and the principles of morals
inquired into, before men make any considerable progrefs
in phyfical fcience, or even profecute it with any degree
of keennefs. Accordingly, when we view the ftate of
literature in this period (for it is now become an objed
of fo much importance as to force itfelf on our atten¬
tion), we perceive that poetry, hiftory, and morals, are
the branches chiefly cultivated. Arts are generally
cafual inventions, and long practifed before rules and
principles on which they are founded affume the form
of fcience. But morality, if confidered as an art, is
that art which men have fooneft and moft conftantly oc-
cafion to pradife. Befides, we are fo conftituted by
the wifdom of nature, that human adions, and the events
which befal human beings, have more powerful influ¬
ence than any other objed to engage and fix our at¬
tention. Hence we are enabled to explain why mora¬
lity, and thofe branches of literature more immediately
'Conneded with it, are almoft always cultivated in prefer¬
ence to phyfical fcience. Though poetry, hiftory, and
morals, be purfued with no fmall eagernefs and fuccefs
in that period of fociety which we now confider, we
need not therefore be greatly furprifed that natu¬
ral philofophy is neither very generally nor very fuccefs-
fully cultivated. \'Vrere we to confider each particular
in that happy change which is now produced on the
eircumftances of mankind, we ftrould be led into a too
minute and perhaps unimportant detail. This is the
period when human virtue and human abilities ftiine with
moft fplendour. Rudenefs, ferocity, and barbarifm, are
now banilhed. Luxury has made her appearance j but
as yet the is the friend and the benefadrefs of fociety.
Commerce has ftimulated and rewarded induftry, but
has not yet contraded the heart and debafed the cha-
rader. Wealth is not yet become the foie objed of
purfuit. ft he charms of focial intercourfe are known
and rcliftrpd ; but domeflic duties are not yet deferted
for public amutements. ftftie female fex acquire new
influence, and contribute much to refine and polifli the
manners of their lords. Religion now aflumes a milder
and more pleafing form ; fplendid rites, magnificent
temples, pompous facrifices, and gay feftivals, give even
fuperftition an influence favourable to the happinefs of
mankind. J he gloomy notions and barbarous rites of
former periods fall into difufe. ft'he fyftem of theology
produced in former ages ftill remains : but only the mild
and amiable qualities of the deities are celebrated j and
none but the gay, humane, and laughing divinities, are
worfhipped. Philofophy allb teaches men to difcard
fuch parts of their religion as are unfriendly to good
morals, and have any tendency to call forth or cherifh
unfocial fentiments in the heart. War (for in this pe¬
riod of fociety enough of caufes will arife to arm one
Vol. XIX. Part II.
f 441 1
s o c
nation againft another)—war, however, no longer retains Society,
its former ferocity j nations no longer ftrive to extirpate
one another : to procure redrefs for real or imaginary
injuries 5 to humble, not to deftroy, is now its objedh
Prifoners are no longer murdered in cold blood, fub-
jefted to horrid and excruciating tortures, or condemn¬
ed to hopelels flavery. They are ranfomed or exchan¬
ged 5 they return to their country, and again fight un¬
der its banners. In this period the arts of government
are likewife better underftood, and prasRifed fo as to
contribute moft to the interefts of fociety. Whether
monarchy, or democracy, or ariftocracy, be the efta-
bliflied form, the rights of individuals and of fociety
are in general refpetled. ft'he interefts of fociety are
fo well underftood, that the few, in order to pre-
ferve their influence over the many, find it neceflary to
aft rather as the faithful fervants than the imperious
lords of the public. Though the liberties of a nation
in this ftate be not accurately defined by law, nor their
property guaranteed to them by any legal inftitutions,
yet their governors dare not violate their liberties, nor
deprive them wantonly of their properties. This is truly
the golden age of foeiety : every trace of barbarifm is
entirely effaced 5 and vicious luxury has not yet begun
to fap the virtue and the happinefs of the community.
Men live not in liftlefs indolence •, but the induftry in
which they are engaged is not of fuch a nature as to
overpower their ftrength or exhauft their fpirits. ft'he
focial affections have now the ftrongeft influence on
men’s fentiments and conduct.
But human affairs are fearcely ever flationary. The Degeneracy
circumftances of mankind are almoft always changing, and decline
either growing better or worfe. ft heir manners are ever of fociety.
in the fame fluftuating ftate. They either advance to¬
wards perfeftion or degenerate. Scarcely have they at¬
tained that happy period in which we have juft contem¬
plated them, when they begin to decline till they per¬
haps fall back into a ftate nearly as low as that from
which we fuppofe them to have emerged. Inftances
of this unhappy degeneracy occur more than once in
the hiftory of mankind j and we may finifh this ihort
fketch of the hiftory of fociety by mentioning in what
manner thh degeneracy takes place. Perhaps, ftriftly
fpeaking, every thing but the fimple neceffaries of life
may be denominated luxury: For a long time, how¬
ever, the welfare of fociety is beft promoted, while its
members afpire after fomething more than the mere ne¬
ceffaries of life. As long as thefe fuperfluitics are to
be obtained only by aftive and honeft exertion 5 as long
as they only engage the leifure hours, without becoming
the chief objefts of purfuit—the employment which they
give to the faculties is favourable both to the virtue and
the happinefs of the human race.
The period arrives, however, when luxury is no long¬
er ferviceable to the interefts of nations ; when fhe is no
longer a graceful, elegant, aftive form, but a languid,
overgrown, and bloated earcafe. It is the love of lux¬
ury, which contributed fo much to the civilization of
fociely, that now brings on its decline. Arts are cul¬
tivated and improved, and commerce extended, till enor¬
mous opulence be acquired : the effeft of opulence is to
awaken the fancy, to conceive ideas of newr and caprici¬
ous wants, and to inflame the breaft with new defires.
Here rye have the origin of that felfifhnefs which, ope¬
rating in conjunftion with caprice and the violence of
3 K unbridled
s o c
[ 442 3
S O C
Society, unbridled paffions, contributes fu much to the corruption
v of virtuous manners. Selfirtmefs, caprice, indolence, ef¬
feminacy, all join to loofen the bonds ot fociety, to bring
on the degeneracy both of the uletul and the fine aits,
to banifh at once the mild and the auttere virtues, to de-
itroy civil order and fubordination, and to introduce in
their room anarchy or defpotiim.
Scarcely could we have found an example of the beau¬
tiful form of fociety which welaft attempted to defcnbe.
Never, at leait, has any nation continued long to enjoy
fuch happy circumftances, or to dilplay fo amiable and
refpeftable a charafter. But when we Ipeak of the de¬
clining ilate of fociety, we have no difficulty in finding
inftances to which we may refer. Hiitory tells ol the
Affyrians, the Egyptians, and the Periians, all of them
once tlourilhing nations, but brought lovy by luxury and
an unhappy corruption of manners. The Greeks, the
Romans, and the Affyrians, owed their fall to the fame
caufes} and we know not if a fimilar fate does not now
threaten many of thofe nations who have long made a
diftinguffied figure in the fyftem of Europe. i'he Por-
tuguefe, the Venetians, and the Spaniards, have already
fallen •, and what is the prefent date of our neighbours
the French ? They have long been a people deditute of
religion, corrupted in morals, undeady in condudt, and
flaves to pleafure and public amufements. Among them
luxury had arrived at its highed pitch •, and the confe-
quence has been, that after capricioudy diaking off the
yoke of detpotifm, they have effablilhed, or rather fet
up (for edablidied it cannot be), a motley kind of go¬
vernment, which, in the courfe of a few' years, has exhi¬
bited fcenes of tyranny and oppreffion, to which we
doubt if the annals of the world can furnidi any parallel.
Yet this is the people whofe manners the other nations
of Europe were ambitious to imitate. May thofe na¬
tions take warning in time, and avoid the rocks upon
which they have fplit.
15
Concluding
remarks.
Thus have we viewed the feveral dages in which fo¬
ciety appears in its progrefs from rudenefs to refinement
and decay. The intelligent reader will perceive,' that
the various and anomalous phenomena which occur in
the natural hidory of fociety, cannot eafily be folyed *,
becaufe the neceffary information cannot be obtained.
Others have been well accounted for by the refearches
of curious philofophical inquirers. Local circumdances,
the influence of climate, the intercourfe of nations in
different dates of civilization, have been taken notice ot,
as caufes ferving to accelerate or retard the progrefs of
arts and manners. But our proper buiinefs here was
merely to mark the gradations between barbarifm and
refinement: and as the painter who is to exhibit a feries
of portraits reprefenting the human form in infancy,
puerility, youth, and manhood, will not think of deli¬
neating all that variety of figures and faces which each
of thofe periods of life affords, and will find himfelf un¬
able to reprefent in any fingle figure all diverfities of
form and features j fo we have not once thought of de-
fcribing particularly under this article, all the vaiious
national characters reducible to any one of thofe divi-
fions under which we‘have viewed the progrefs of fo¬
ciety, nor have found it poffible to comprehend under
one confident view, all the particulars which may be
gathered from the remains of antiquity, from the rela¬
tions of later travellers, and the general records of hi- Society,
dory concerning the progrefiive charader of mankind Societies
in various regions, and under the induCnce of various
accidents and circumdances. This indeed would even
have been improper, as all that information appears un¬
der other articles in this Work. .
SOCIETIES, affociations voluntarily formed by a
number of individuals for promoting knowledge, indu-
dry, or virtue. They may therefore be divided into
three claffes *, focieties for promoting fcience and litera¬
ture, focieties for encouraging and promoting arts and
manufattures, and focieties for diffufing religion and mo¬
rality and relieving didrefs. Societies belonging to the
fird clafs extend their attention to all the fciences and
literature in generator devote it to one particular fcience.
The fame obfervation may be applied to thofe which are
indituted for improving arts and manufactures. I hole
of the third clafs are edablidied, either with a view to
prevent crimes, as the Philanthropic Society 5 tor the
diffufion of the Chridian religion among unenlightened
nations, as the Society for the Propagation of the Golpel
in Foreign Parts j or for introducing arts and civiliza¬
tion, along with a knowledge of the Chridian religion,
as the Sierra Leona Company.
The honour of planning and indituting focieties for
thofe valuable purpofes is due to modern times. . A li¬
terary affociation is faid to have been formed in the
reign of Charlemagne (fee Academy) } but the plan
feems to have been rude and defective. Several others
were indituted in Italy in the 16th century , but fiom
the accounts which we have feen of them, they feem to J.
have been far inferior to thofe which are mod dourilhing
at prefent. The mod enlarged idea of literary focieties
feems to have originated with the great Lord Bacon, the
father of modern philofophy, who recommended to the
reigning prince to inditute focieties of learned men, who
ffiould give to the world from time to time a regular
account of their refearches and difcoveries. It was the
idea of this great philofopher, that the learned world
fhould be united, as it were, into one immenfe republic ;
which, though confiding of many detached dates, ffiould
hold a drift union and preferve a mutual intelligence
with each other, in every thing that regards the com¬
mon intered. The want of this union and intelligence
he laments as one of the chief obdacles to the advance¬
ment of feience ; and, judly confidering the inditution
of public focieties, in the different countries of Europe,
under the aufpices of the fovereign, to be the bed re¬
medy for that defeft, he has given, in his fanciful work,
the New Atlantis, the delineation of a philofophical fo¬
ciety on the mod extended plan, for the improvement
of all arts and fciences *, a work which, though written
in the language, and tinftured with the colouring of
romance, is full of the nobled philofophic views. The , j
plan of Lord Bacon, which met with little attention
from the age in which he lived, was dedined to produce
its effeft in a period not very didant. The fcheme of a
philofophical college by Cowley is acknowledged to have
had a powerful influence in procuring the eftabhih-
ment of the Royal Society of London by charter from
Charles II. f *, and Cowley’s plan is mamfeftly copiedtjraf’j
in aimed all its parts from that m the New Atlantis.tf/yj
The inffitution of the Royal Society of London waa^.^
foon followed by the edabliffiment of the Royal Aca-^ e<jlt,
^ demv o. w.
S O C [ 443 ] ' s O C
i Religious
and Hu-
nane So¬
cieties.
demy of Sciences at Paris •, and tlxefe two have ferved
as models to the philofophical academies of higheft re¬
putation in the other kingdoms of Europe.
The experience of ages has Ihown, that improvements
of a public nature are belt carried on by focieties of li¬
beral and ingenious men, uniting their labours without
regard to nation, fe£t, or party, in one grand purfuit
alike interefting to all, whereby mutual prejudices are
worn off, and a humane philofophical fpirit is cherifhed.
Men united together, and frequently meeting for the
purpofe of advancing the fciences, the arts, agriculture,
manufactures, and commerce, may oftentimes fuggeft
fuch hints to one another as may be improved to im¬
portant ends 5 and fuch focieties, by being the repofito-
ries of the obfervations and difcoveries of the learned
and ingenious, may from time to time furnilh the world
with ufeful publications which might otherwife be loft :
for men of ingenuity and modefty may not choofe to
rilk their reputation, by fending abroad unpatronized
what a learned fociety might judge richly worth the
public eye 5 or perhaps their circumftances being ftrait-
ened, they may not be able to defray the expence of
publication. Societies inrtituted for promoting know¬
ledge may alfo be of eminent fervice, by exciting a fpirit
of emulation, and by enkindling thofe fparks of genius
which otherwife might for ever have been concealed ;
and if, when poffeffed of funds fufficient for the pur¬
pofe, they reward the exertions of the induftrious and
enterprifing with pecuniary premiums or honorary me¬
dals, many important experiments and ufeful difcoveries
will be made, from which the public may reap the
higheft advantages.
Eminent inftances of the beneficial effeCfs of fuch in-
ftitutions we have in the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, the Royal Society, and the Society inftituted for
the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Com¬
merce, in London, and many others of a fimilar kind.
Hereby a fpirit of difcovery and improvement has been
excited among the ingenious in almoft every nation *,
knowledge of various kinds, and greatly ufeful to fnan-
kind, has taken place of the dry and uninterefling fpe-
culations of fchoolmen •, and bold and erroneous hypo-
thefis has been obliged to give w ay to demonftrative ex¬
periment. In fhort, fince the eftabliflunent of thefe fo-
'cieties, folid learning and philofophy have more in-
creafed than they had done for many centuries before.
As to thofe focieties eftablilhed for promoting in-
duftry, religion and morality, and relieving diftrefs, the
defign is laudable and excellent, and prefents a beauti ¬
ful picture of the philanthropy of modern times. We
are happy to find, from the minutes of feme of thefe fo¬
cieties, that their beneficial effefts are already confpi-
cuous.
We will now give feme account of the moft eminent
focieties 3 arranging them under the three claffes into
w hich we have divided them : I. Religious and Humane
Societies. II. Societies for Promoting Science and Li¬
terature. III. Societies for Kncouraging Arts, Manu-
faBures, &c.
I. Religious and Humane Societies.
1. Society for the Propagation of the Gofpel in Foreign
Parts, was inftituted by King William III. in 1701,
in order to fecure a maintenance for an orthodox cler¬
gy, and to make other provifions for propagating the
gofpel in the plantations, colonies, and faClories beyond
the feas. To that end he incorporated the archbilhops,
feveral of the bifhops, and others of the nobility, gentry,
and clergy, to the number of 90, into one body, which,
by the name of The Society for the Propagation oj the
Gofpel in Foreign Parts, was to plead and be impleaded 3
to have perpetual fucceflion, with privilege to purchafe
2000I. a-year inheritance, and eftates for lives or years,
with other goods and chattels to any value. By its
charter the fociety is authorifed to ufe a common feal 3
and to meet annually on the third Friday in February
for the purpofe of choofing a prefident, vice prefident,
and officers for the year enfuing 3 and on the third Fri¬
day in every month, or oftener if there ffiould be occa-
fion, to tranfaCl bufinefs, and to depute perfons to take
fubfcriptions, and colleCt money contributed for the pur-
pofes aforefaid 3 and of all moneys received and laid out,
it is obliged to give account yearly to the lord-chan¬
cellor or keeper, the lord-chief juftice of the King’s-
bench, the lord-chief-juftice of the Common-pleas, or to
any two of thefe magiftrates. Of this fociety there is a
Handing committee at St Paul’s chapter-houfe, to pre¬
pare matters for the monthly meeting, w hich is held at
St Martin’s library.
Before the incorporation of the fociety for the pro¬
pagation of the gofpel in foreign parts, there had been
formed, for the promoting of Chriftian knowledge both
at home and in the colonies, a voluntary affociation of
perfons of rank and refpedlability, who in March 1699
began to hold ftated meetings in London for that pur¬
pofe, regulating themfelves by the laws of the land and
the canons of the church 3 and when the new fociety
was formed, they had already tranfmitted to America
and the Weft Indies 800I. worth of Bibles, Books of’
Common Prayer, and treatifes of praftical religion, be-
fides fecuring a tolerable maintenance to feveral clergy¬
men on that continent. This affociation ftill fubfifls un¬
der the denomination of The Society for Promoting Chri-
fian Knowledge, and has been productive of much good
in the cities of London and Weftminfter 3 but upon the
formation of the newr fociety, into which all its original
members were incorporated by name, the care w'hich
the voluntary aflbciation had taken of the colonies de¬
volved of courfe upon the Incorporated fociety 3 of
which incorporation we believe the objedt has been
fometimes miftaken, and the labours of its miffionaries
grofsly mifreprefented. It has by many been fuppofed
that the fociety was incorporated for the foie purpofe of
converting the favage Americans 3 and it has been much
blamed for fending miffionaries into provinces where, in
the common language of the complainers, a gofpel mini-
fry was already eftabliffied. But an impartial view of
the rife and progrefs of the American provinces, now
become independent ftates, will ftiow the folly and in-
juft ice of thofe complaints.
The Englith colonies in North America were in the
laft century formed and firft peopled by religious nun 3
who, made uneafy at home by their intolerant brethren,
left the old world to enjoy in peace that firft and chief
prerogative of man, the free worjl'ip of God according to
his own confcience. At one time PurItans were driven
acrofs the Atlantic by the epifcopaF’church 3 at another,
CHURCHMEN were forced away by the prefbyterians,
juft as the revolutions of ftate threw the civil power into
the hands of the one or the other party ; and not a few
3 K 2 members
Religious
and Hu¬
mane So¬
cieties.
■
s o c
[ 444 ]
s o c
Religious
and Hu¬
mane So¬
cieties.
* See liis
Sermon,
vol. ii. of
his Works,
410.
members of the church of Rome were chafed to the
wilds of America by the united exertions of both. It
has been often obferved, that people perfecuted for their
religion become for the molt part enthufiaftically at¬
tached to it 5 and the conduct of thofe colonifts was in
perfect harmony with this obfervation. Their zeal, in¬
flamed by their violent removal to the other hemilphere,
kept religion alive and active among themfelves ; but
their poverty difabled them from fupplying fuel to the
flame, by making provifion for a miniftry to inttru6t
their offspring. The confequence was, that the new
Chriftian commonwealth, without the kindly affiftance
of its mother-country, would have been, in the words of
the Roman hiltorian, Res nnuis cetatis. Againft this
danger a timely aid was to be provided by the fociety ;
which, as it confifted not of fanatical members, would
not intruft the important bufinefs of the million to fana¬
tical preachers, who, though always ready for fuch fpi-
ritual enterprifes, are never qualified to carry them on
with fuccefs.
It was therefore thought fit to affign a decent main¬
tenance for clergymen of the church of England, who
might preach the gofpel to their brethren in America :
and though thofe miffionaries in general carefully avoid¬
ed the conduct of thofe of Rome, whofe principal aim
is to reduce all churches under fubmiflion to the papal
tyranny j yet fo lately as 1765, did fome of the colo¬
nies, in which the puritanic fpirit of the laft century
charafterifed the church eftablilbed by lawr, raife a hi¬
deous outcry againft the fociety for fending a irnffion
into their quarters, though only for the fervice of the
difperfed members of the Epifcopal church refiding
among them, and for the converfion of thofe men whom
their rigid fanaticifm had prejudiced againft Chriftianity
itfelf.
Indeed the commodity called FREETHINKING, as
Bifliop Warburton exprefies it, was at an early period
imported by the opulent and fafhionable colonifts. The
celebrated Berkeley, who had refided fome years in
Rhode Ifland, and at his return was called upon to
preach the anniverfary fermon before the fociety *, in¬
forms us, that the ifland where he lived was inhabited
by an Englifh colony, confifting chiefly of fe6taries
of many different denominations ; that feveral of the
better fort of the inhabitants of towns were accuftomed
to aflemble themfelves regularly on the Lord’s day for
the performance of divine worfhip ; but that moft of
thofe who were difperfed through the colony rivalled
fome well-bred people of other countries, in a thorough
indifference for all that is facred, being equally carelefs
of outward worfhip and of inward principles. He adds,
that the miffionaries had done, and were continuing to
do, good fervice in bringing thofe planters to a ferious
feme of religion. “ I fpeak it knowingly (fays-he),
that the mlnifters of the gofpel, in thofe provinces which
go by the name of New England, fent and fuppojted at
the expence of the fociety, have, bv their fobriety of
manners, difereet behaviour, and a competent degree of
ufeful knowledge, (hewn themfelves worthy of the choice
of thofe who fent them.” We have the honour to be
acquainted with fome of the miffionaries fent at a later
period, and have reafon to believe that, down to the
era of the American revolution, they had the fame vir¬
tues, and were doing the fame good fervices, which pro¬
cured to their predeceffors this honourable teftimony
from one of the greateft and the belt of men. Surely
fuch a miffion deferved not to be evil fpoken of by fee-
tariffs of any denomination who believe in Chrift •, efpe-
cially as the very charter of incorporation affigns as a 1
reafon for miffionaries being fent to the colonies, “ that
by reafon of their poverty thofe colonies were deftitute
and unprovided of a maintenance for minifters and the
public worihip of God.”
The fociety, however, was incorporated for other
purpofes than this. It was obliged by its charter to
attempt the converfion of the native Americans and the
negro flaves \ and we have reafon to believe, that, as
foon as the fpiritual wants of the colonifts were decent¬
ly fupplied, it was not inattentive to thefe glorious ob-
jedls. Its fuccefs indeed in either purfuit has not been
fo great as could be wiftied 5 but it would be rafh and
unfair to attribute this failure to the prefident, vice-
prefident, or other officers of the corporation at home.
An erroneous notion, that the being baptized is incon-
fiilent with a Hate of flavery, rendered the ftlfifti colo¬
nifts for a long time averfe from the converfion of their
negroes, and made them throw every obftacle in the
way of all who made the attempt j while the difficul¬
ties of the Indian miffion are fuch as hardly any clergy¬
man educated in a Proteftant country can be fuppoled
able to furmount.
He who hopes fuccefsfully to preach the gofpel
among a tribe of favage wanderers, muff have an ardent
zeal and unwearied diligence ; appetites fubdued to all
the diftreffes of want \ and a mind fuperior to all the
terrors of mortality. Thefe qualities and habits may
be acquired in the church of Rome by him who from
infancy has been trained up in the feverities of fome of
the monaftie orders, and afterwards fent to the college
de propaganda fide to be inftructed in the languages, and
inured to the manners and euftoms, of the barbarous na¬
tions whofe converfion he is deftined to attempt. But
in the reformed churches of Britain there are no mo~
naftic orders, nor any college de propaganda fide ; and
yet without the regular preparation, which is to be
looked for in fuch inftitutions alone, it is not in nature,
whatever grace may effeft, for any man cheerfully, and
at the fame time foberly, to undergo all the accumulat¬
ed diftrefl’es ever ready to overtake a faithful miffionary
among favage idolaters. A fanatic zealot will indeed
undertake it, though he is totally unqualified for every
fober and important work •, and a man of ruined for¬
tunes may be preffed into the fervice, though the impo-
tency of his mind has fhown him unable to bear either
poverty or riches. The failure of the fociety therefore
in its attempts to convert the American Indians may
be attributed, we think, in the firft inftance, to the
want of a college de propaganda for training up young
men for the American nyffion.
Perhaps another caufe of this failure may be found
in the conduit of the miffionaries, who, it is to be }fre-
fumed, have not always employed in a proper manner
even the fcanty qualifications which they aitually pof-
feffed. The gofpel, plain and fimple as it is, and fitted
in its nature for what it was ordained to effeit, cannot
be apprehended but by an intelleit fomewhat raifed
above that of a favage. Such of the miffionaries there¬
fore as began their work with preaching to favage and
brutal men, certainly fet out at the wrong end , for to
jnake the gofpel underftood, and much more to propa¬
gate
Religious,
anti Hu.,
mane $q«;
cieries.
s o c
[ 445 ]
s o c
Migious
! d Hu-
lune So-
i-ieiies.
•ofal
fie bet-
ti ippiy-
]cbet
r Fo-
' Plan-
gate and eftablilh it, thofe favages (hould have been firft
taught the necefiary arts of civil life, which, while they
improve every bodily accommodation, tend at the fame
time to enlarge and enlighten the underftanding. For
want of this previous culture, we doubt not, it hath
happened that fuch of the favages as have been baptized
into the faith have fo feldom perfevered themfelves, or
been able in any degree to propagate among their tribes
the Chriftianity which they had been taught, and that
fucceflive millions have always found it neceffary to be¬
gin anew the work of converfion.
To one or other of thefe caufes, or to both, may
pftly be attributed the little progrefs which reformed
Chriftianity has made among the Indians of North A-
merica; and not to any want of zeal, attention, or libe¬
rality, in the direflors of the fociety at home. During
the dependence of the United States on the mother-
country, great part of the fociety’s funds was properly
expended in keeping alive a juft fenfe of religion among
the Chrittian colonifts from Europe, who had furely the
firfl. claims upon this beft of charities; but now that
America has feparated herfelf from Great Britain, and
Ihown that Hie is able to maintain her independence,
and to make ample provifion for a regular clergy of
her own, the members of the corporation mull feel them¬
felves at liberty to bellow greater attention, and to ex¬
pend more money than they could formerly do, on the
converlion of fucli Indians as have any intercourfe with
the fettlements which we IIill poffefs. To a body fo
refpe£lable, we prefume not to offer advice 5 but we
cannot help thinking, with Bilhop Berkeley, that the
moll fuccefsful miliionaries would be children of In¬
dians, educated in a conliderable number together from
the age of ten or twelve in a college de propagandaJide,
where they Ihould be in no danger of lofing their mo¬
ther-tongue while they were acquiring a competent
knowledge of religion, morality, hiilory, praflical m-a-
thematics, and agriculture. “ If there were a yearly
fupply (fays he) of a dozen fuch miHionaries fent abroad
into their refpeclive countries, after they had received
the degree of mailer of arts, and been' admitted into
holy orders, it is hardly to be doubted but that in a
'little time the world would fee good and great effeiffs of
their million.”
2. Society in Scotland for Propagating Chrijlian Know-
ledge, was inllituted in the beginning of the 18th cen¬
tury. At that period the condition of the Scotch High¬
landers was truly deplorable. Shut up in defolate iilands
by tempeftuous feas, or difperfed over a wide extent of
country, interfered by high mountains, rapid rivers,
and arms of the fea, without bridges or highways, by
which any communication could be kept open either
with remote or neighbouring diftrifts, they lived in
fmall detached companies in hamlets or folitary huts.
Being thus fecluded from intercourfe with the more ci»
vilized part of the illand, they could not enjoy the ad¬
vantages of trade and manufaflures. As their foil was
barren and their climate fevere, in agriculture no pro¬
grefs was to be expelled : and as they were acquainted Religious
with no language but Gaelic, in which no books were an<* I*u“
then written, to poffefs knowledge was impoffible. Their
parilhes being of great extent, often 30 or 40 miles
long and of a proportionable breadth, and fometimes
conlilling of feveral iilands feparated by feas, which are
often impaffable, a confiderable number of the inhabi¬
tants was entirely deprived of religious inltruftion or
fell a prey to Popilh emiffaries. A fingle fchool in fuch
extenfive parilhes could be of little benefit j yet many
parithes were entirely dellitute even of this refource j
and where fchools were ellablilhed, the want of books
prevented them from producing the ufeful effefts other-
wife to have been expefled from them (a). To all
this we mull add, that they lived in a Hate of the great-
ell oppreffion : For though the Highlands formed a
part of the Britilh empire, the bleffings of the Britilh
conllitution had not reached them. The feudal fyllem
reigned in its utmoft rigour •, the chieftains exercifing
the moll defpotic fway over the inferior Highlanders,
‘whom at their pleafure they deprived of their lives or
property (b).
Thus the Highlanders were ignorant, oppreffed, and
uncivilized; Haves rather than fubjedts; and either en¬
tirely dellitute of the advantages of the Chrillian reli¬
gion, or unqualified to improve them. Hitherto they
had been unhappy and ufelefs to themfelves and danger¬
ous to the Hate ; for they were ready at the call of
their chieftains to iffue from their mountains, and to
turn their arms againft their lawful king and his loyal
fubjecls. This charafler, however, arol’e from their fi-
tuation. It was therefore impoliible for benevolent
minds to contemplate this unhappy fituation of their
countrymen without feeling a defire to raife them to the
dignity of rational beings, and to render them ufeful as
citizens.
Accordingly, in the year 1701, fome private gentle¬
men of the city of Edinburgh, who had formed them¬
felves into a fociety for the reformation of manners, di-
redled their attention to the Highlands of Scotland, and
endeavoured to devife fome plan for alleviating the
diftreffes of the inhabitants. The remedy which pro-
mifed to be moll efficacious was, to ellablilh charity
fchools in different places. But as the exigency was
great, it was no eafy matter to raife a fufficient fund for
this purpofe. They began therefore with what volun¬
tary fubferiptions they could procure, hoping after-
avards to increafe their capital by vacant ftipends and
public contributions. A memorial with this view was
prefented to the General Affembly in 1704, which re¬
ceived their approbation ; and they accordingly palfed
an adl, recommending a general contribution. In 1706
the General Affembly appointed fome of their number
to inquire more carefully into the date of the High¬
lands, and the year following appointed a feledl com¬
mittee to confer with the gentlemen who had fuggefted
the plan. The refult of thefe conferences was the pub¬
lication of propofals “ for propagating Chriitian know¬
ledge
(a) Even fo late as the year 1758, not fewer than 175 pariffies, within the bounds of 39 prefbyteries, had no
parochial fchool. We are forry to add, that even in the prefent enlightened and benevolent age the complaint is
not entirely removed.
(B) The feudal fyllem was at length abolilhed in the year 1748 by the jurifdifteon ack
s o c
[ 446 ]
s o c
Religious ledge in the Highlands and Iflands of Scotland, and in
foreign parts ot the world.” Copies of thefe propolals,
with fubfcription papers, were diftributed through the
kingdom} and the contributions having foon amounted
to 1000.I. her majefty Queen Anne encouraged this in¬
fant fociety by her royal proclamation, and at the fame
time iffued letters patent under the great feal of Scot¬
land for crediting certain of the fubfcribers into a corpo¬
ration ; the firft nomination of whom was lodged with
the lords of council and feffion.
This corporation held its firit meeting on Thurfday
3d November x 709. It was attended by feveral of the
nobility, fourteen of the lords of feffion, many gentle¬
men of rank, together with molt of the minilters of the
city of Edinburgh and neighbourhood. A prelident,
fecretary, and treafurer, with a committee of fifteen di-
reftors, were appointed for the difpatch of bufinefs. At
their fecund meeting in January 1710, 3 fcheme of ma¬
nagement was formed and approved j in which it was
propofed, I. To ereft and maintain fchools in fuch
plftces of Scotland, particularly in the Highlands and
Iflands, as Ihould be found to need them molt 5 in which
fchools all perfons whatfoever ffiould be taught by fit
and well qualified fchoolmafters, appointed by the So¬
ciety, to read the Holy Scriptures and other pious
books*, as alfo to write, and to underltand the common
rules of arithmetic, with fuch other things as ftiould be
thought full able to their circum fiances. 2. That the
-fchoolmafters Ihould be particularly careful to inftruft
their fchokrs in the principles of the Chriftian reformed
religion j and for that end Ihould be obliged to catechife
them at leaft twice a week, and to pray publicly with
them twice a-day. 3. That not only fuch as were un¬
able to pay fliould be taught.gratis, but that thofe
whofe circum fiances required it, ffiould have fuch farther
encouragement as the fociety fliould think fit in a con-
fiftency with their patent. 4. To name fome prudent
perfons, minifters and others, to be overfeers of thofe
fchools, who ffiould take care that, the fchoolmafters do
their duty, and that the inftruaions to be given from
time to time by the fociety or their committee be punc¬
tually obferved ■, which overfeers ftiould make their re¬
port to the fociety quarterly or half-yearly at fartheft.
5. To give fuitable encouragement to fuch minifters or
catechifts as ffiould be willing to contribute their affifl-
ance towards the farther inftruelion of the fcholars
remote from church, by not only catechifing, but
preaching to them-, which minifters or catechifts ffiould
take the fame care of the other inhabitants as of
the fcholars. 6. To extend their endeavours for the
advancement of the Chriftian religion to heathen na¬
tions ^ and for that end to give encouragement to mini-
ilers to preach the gofpel among them.
Having thus formed a plan, they immediately pro¬
ceeded to eftabliffi fchools in the molt ufeful and eco¬
nomical manner j'Tnd-as the capital continued to ac¬
cumulate, the intereft was faithfully applied, and
the utility of the inftitution was more extenfively dif-
fufed. >
Until the year 1738 the attention of the fociety had
been wholly direfled to the eftabliffiment of fchools;
but their capital being then confiderably augmented,
they began to extend their views of utility much farther.
The grand objeft of all public aflbciations ought cer-
4
tainly to be the promoting of religion and morality. It ReligioJ
muft, however, be evident to every man of reflexion, that an<^ Hu-
thefe can neither be propagated nor preferved among a m/“"e ^
people without agriculture, unaccultomed to commerce s ^ _
and manufactures, and confequently without labour or
exertion. Languor and debility of mind muft always
be the companions of idlenefs. While the Highlanders
roved about with arms in their hands, the latent vigour
of their minds muft: often have been called forth into ac¬
tion; but when their arms were taken away, and them-
felves confined to a domeftic life, where there was no¬
thing to roufe their minds, they muft have funk into in¬
dolence and inactivity. All attempts therefore to inftruCt
them in religion and morality, without introducing a-
mong them fome of the neceffary arts of life, would pro¬
bably have been unavailing. The fociety accordingly
refolved to adopt what appeared to them the molt effec¬
tual methods of introducing induftry among the High¬
landers. But as their patent did not extend far enough,
they applied to his majefty George II. for an enlarge¬
ment of their powers; and accordingly obtained a fe-
cond patent, by which they are empowered, “ befides
fulfilling the purpofes of their original patent, to caufe
fuch of the children as they fhall think fit to be bred to
huffiandry and houfewifery, to trades and manufaClures,
or in fuch manual occupations as the fociety fhall think
proper.”
The objeCls of this fecond patent the fociety have
not failed to purfue; and though many obftacles and
difcouragements to their efforts occurred among a rude
and barbarous people, yet their perfeverance, and the
obvious utility of their plans, at length fo far overcame
tlie reluCtance of the inhabitants, that not fewer than 94
fcbools of induftry in various parts of the Highlands and
Iflands are now upon their eftabliffiment, at which are
educated 2360 fcholars.
The fociety, while anxioufly endeavouring to diffufe
a fpirit of induftry through the Highlands, were ftill
equally felicitous to promote the knowledge of the
Chriftian religion. As the Engliffi language had been
the only channel by which knowledge was conveyed to
them (a language which, being not ufed in converfa-
tion, was in all refpefts foreign to them), it was judged
requifite that they ffiould have the Scriptures in their
vernacular tongue. The fociety therefore firft appoint¬
ed a tranflation of the New Teftament to be made in¬
to Gaelic : A tranflation was accordingly undertaken
by the Rev. Mr Stewart minifter of Killin in Perth*
{hire, and printed in 1767, which is faid to be executed
with much fidelity. Of this work many thoufand co¬
pies have been diftributed in the Highlands. The great¬
er part of the Old Teftament has alfo been tranflated
by the Rev. Dr Smith of Campbelton and others, but
chiefly by the Rev. Dr Stewart of Lufs, by the appoint¬
ment and at the expence of the fociety: and as foon as
the remaining part can begot ready, the whole will be
fold at fo low a price as the poor may without difficulty
afford. This plan the fociety have judicioufly cho-
fen, in order to prevent difcontent and murmuring; ef-
fedfs which the diffufion of the Scriptures ought never
to produce; but which could not poffibly have been
prevented, had the diftribution been gratuitous, and of
courfe partial.
For fome years paft the funds of the fociety have ra-
pidly
S O G
pidly accumulated,
feveral individuals.
[ 447 1
s o c
from the very liberal donations of daily, to no fmall expence of time and labour, have no Religious
Lady Glenorchy,
Bv a perfon unknown,
Lord Van Vryhouven of Holland,
Mifs Gray of Teaffes,
L. 5,000
10,000
20,000
3>50°
In confequence of thefe great additions to their Hock,
infmuations have been thrown out that the fociety have
become fo wealthy as to be at a lofs for proper objects
on which to bellow their increafed revenue. If fuch
an opinion be ferioujly entertained by any one, we muft
beg him to remember, that the fociety have eroded and
endowed not fewer than 323 fchools for religion, the firft
principles of literature and induftry, at' the annual ex¬
pence of 3214I. 1 os. fterling ; and that at thefe femi-
naries are educated from 14,000 to 15,000 children *,
who, but for the means of inltrudlion thus obtained,
would in all probability be bred up in ignorance and
idlenefs : That they employ 12 miffionary minifters and
catechifts in remote parts of the Highlands and illands,
or among the ignorant Highlanders fettled in the great
towns of Scotland, at the annual expence of 296I. :
That they bellow a burfary or penlion of 15I. per
annum on each of fix Undents of divinity having the
Gaelic language : That they employ two miffionary
minillers and one fchoolmafler among the Oneida and
Stockbridge Indians of North America (being the def-
tination of certain legacies bequeathed to them for that
purpofej, at the annual expence of 140I. Such is their
fixed fcheme of annual expenditure, amounting in all
to 3740I. 1 os. fterling—a fum it will be acknowledged
of very confiderable magnitude. The whole of their
incidental expences arifing from the Gaelic tranllation
of the Scriptures of the Old Tellament ; from annui¬
ties which they have to pay, in confequence of fums left
them as reliduary legatees 5 from land and houfe taxes ;
from enabling candidates for the office of fchoolmailer
to come to Edinburgh for examination *, from furnilhing
books to poor fcholars in their various fchools ; and
from removing fehoolmafters from one ftation to an¬
other, is generally about S75I. which added to the
former fum makes the whole annual expenee amount to
461 5I. 1 os.
If it be inquired at what expence, in the management
of it, this extenlive and complicated charity is annually
eondu61ed, we are authorifed to fay, that the treafurer,
bookholder, and clerk, are allowed each 25I. per an¬
num, the fame falaries which were annexed to thefe of¬
fices from the commencement of the fociety. The
beadle or officer is allowed 12I. per annum. No falary
whatever is enjoyed by any of the other officers of
the foeietv. The fecretary, comptroller, accountant,
and librarian, although fubjefled, fome of them efpe-
pecuniary recompenfe or emolument. Theirs are la¬
bours of love, for which they feek and expe£l no other
reward than the coftfcioufnefs of endeavouring to pro¬
mote the bell interefts of mankind. The whole amount
of the expence of managing the bufinefs of the fociety,
including the above falaries, and coals, candle, ftation-
ary ware, pottages, and other incidents, exceeds not at
an average 11 $1. per annum. From this ftatement it
appears, that hitherto at leatt the directors have been at
no lofs for important objects within the proper fphere
of their inftitution on which to beftow their increafed
funds. They have, it is true, the difpofal of very con¬
fiderable fums for promoting the obje6ts of the inftitu¬
tion *, but they are fo far from accumulating wealth, that
every year their expenditure, notwithftanding the late
increafe of their capital, exceeds rather than falls fhort
of their income. They have depended upon a kind
Providence and a generous public to refund thefe antici¬
pations of their revenue, and hitherto they have never
been difappointed.
Thus has the Society for Propagating Chriftian Know¬
ledge proceeded for almoft a century. It was founded
by the pious exertions of a few private individuals,
whofe names are unknown to the world j and its funds,
by faithful and judicious management, as well as by ge¬
nerous contributions, have now become of fuch magni¬
tude, as to excite the hope that they will be produftive
of the moft valuable effects. The benefits arifing from
public focieties, it is well known, depend entirely upon
the management of their directors. If fo, the advanta¬
ges which have accrued from this fociety intitle it to
the praife and gratitude of the nation. While eager to
increafe the number of fchools, the fociety have not
been inattentive to their profperity. In the year 1771
Mr Lewis Drummond, a gentleman in whom they pla¬
ced great confidence, was commiffioned by them to vifit
their fchools, ancf to make an exacl report of their ftate
and circumftances. Again, in the year 1790, a com-
miffion was granted to the Rev. Dr Kemp, one of the
minifters of Edinburgh and fecretary to the fociety, to
vifit all the fchools on their eftablilhment. This labo¬
rious and gratuitous talk he accomplilhed in the courfe
of four fummers with much ability and care, and highly
to the fatisfaftion of the fociety. At his return he com¬
municated a variety of important information refpedling
the ftate of the Highlands and Illands, and the means
neceffary for their improvement in religion, literature,
and induftryj an abftradl of which was published by the
fociety in appendixes to the anniverfary fermons preach¬
ed before them in the years 1789, 90, 91, and 92 (c).
The following table will exhibit at a glance the funds,
eftablilhment, and expenditure, of the fociety, from a
few years after its commencement to the prefent time.
Where
(c) It is well known, that the number of Roman Catholics in the Highlands is confiderable ; but it muft give
much pleafure to the Proteftant reader to be informed, that the ancient malignant fpirit of Popery has in that
diftridt given place to mildnefs and liberality. This is chiefly owing to the gentleman who fuperintends the
priefts in that quarter, whofe mind is enlightened by fcience and learning. So far from being hoftile to the
views of the fociety, he recommended to his clergy to promote them. They accordingly received the fecretary with
much politenefs ; exhorted the people to fend their children to the Proteftant fchools to be inftrudled in literature,
to be taught to read the Scriptures in their own language, and to be made acquainted with thofe great principles
of religion in which all Chriftians are agreed. What a bleffed reformation !
S O C [ 448 ] s o c
'Religious \\Hnere the number of fcholars is not mentioned, the de¬
mand Hu- £e(c^ may. £je fuppi;e^ by taking an average from thofe
detk-'s°* years where a computation has been made. Where the
‘ 1- capital is not mentioned, it may eafily be made out by
confidering the falarics as the intereft.
A.D.
17x9
1727
WS2
1742
1753
1758
1781
1793
1794
Capital.
,.6,177
8,168
9’I3I
19,287
24,308
28,413
34,ooo
Salaries
3,080
3»2I4
Schools.
12
25
48
78
109
128
i52
176
180
3°7
323
Scholars.
2757
6409
7000
12,913
M>370
Hitherto we have taken no notice of the correfpond-
xng board which was eftablifhed at London fo early as
the year 1729, to receive fubfcriptions and lay out fums.
That board indeed remained long inactive ; but in 1773
its members began to co-operate more cordially with
their brethren in Scotland. Since that period an annual
fermon has been preached in recommendation of the
charity and the preacher is now feledted without any re¬
gard to the religious denomination to which he belongs )
fometimes from the church of England, fometimes from
the church of Scotland, and fometimes from fe&aries of
different perfuafions. The meetings of the correfpond-
ent board have been attended by many of the nobility
and gentry, who have made great exertions to promote
the views of the lociety. From its prefent flourithing
■ftate therefore, from the indefatigable exertion and lau¬
dable zeal of the managers, and from the countenance
and fupport which they have received from perfons of
the firft rank and refpedtability in the nation, tlie bene¬
volent mind may look forward xvith much confidence
and fatisfaftion to a period not very diftant, when its
beneficial effects (hall be felt not only in the Highlands,
but flrall be communicated to the reft of the nation.
We have been thus particular in our account of the So¬
ciety for Propagating Chriftian Knowledge, becaufe we
have had acccfs to the moft authentic fources of informa¬
tion, and becaufe wm know it to be an inftitution calcu¬
lated to enlighten and improve a confiderable part of the
Britiftx nation.
3. Society of the Sons of the C/ergy, was incorporated
by King Charles II. in 1678, by the name of The Go¬
vernors of the Charity for Relief of the Poor Widows and
Children of Clergymen. This fociety is under the direc¬
tion and management of a prefident and vice-prefident,
three treafurers, and a court of afliftants compofed of
fortv members. Several hundreds of widows and chil¬
dren of the clergy have annually received confiderable
relief from this ufeful charity.
4. Society for the Sons of the Clergy of the Efablifhed
Church of Scotland, was inftituted at Edinburgh in Fe¬
bruary 1790, and was conftituted a body corporate by
his majefty’s royal charter in 1792. The fociety, after
feveral meetings, are of opinion, that the period in which
the families of clergymen feel moft urgently the need
■'both of friends and of pecuniary aid, is that which com¬
mences with the introduction of the fons either to an Feligi0f
univerfity or to bufinefs, and terminates with their efta- an(l Hu
blifhment in their refpeClive profeflions 5 that many of
the minifters of this church,living at great diftancesfrom , f
the feats either of univerfities or of bufinefs, poflefs in¬
comes which, in the prefent ftate of the country, are in¬
adequate to the purpofes of procuring for their fons either
the literary or profeftional education which might enable
them to come forward with credit and fuccefs in the
world ; that the fons of clergymen, from domeftic tuition
and example, have in general very advantageous means
of receiving in their early years the impreflions of virtue
and honour, together with the rudiments of liberal know¬
ledge ; and that of courfe the public intereft may be pro¬
moted, by enabling this clafs of young men to obtain
their ihare in the refpeCtable fituations of life. The
views of the fociety have been limited to the fons only
of clergymen *, as they are of opinion, that within the li¬
mits which they have fixed, the field of beneficence will
be ftill very extenfive, and the claims for aid as many
and as great as their funds can be fuppofed able to
anfwer, at leaft for many years to come. If the focie¬
ty fhall ever be in a fituation to undertake more than
the aids which will be neceffary in bringing forward
the fons of the clergy, it may then be confidered in what
manner the daughters alfo may become fliarers in its
bounty.
A fociety of the fame nature, and having the fame
objects in view, was inftituted at Glafgow we think the
year before •, and both focieties, we know, have in many
cafes proved highly beneficial in promoting the views
for which they were inftituted.
5. Royal Humane Society, was inftituted in London in
J774, for the recovery ot perfons drowned or otherwife
fuffocated. We have already given feme account of
focieties inftituted in other countries with the fame views,
and have alfo copied the directions of this fociety for the
recovery of life, for which fee the article Drowning.
We have therefore only to ftate, that the plan of this fo¬
ciety is fo averfe to any private interefted views, that it
acquits its founders of all fordid motives. For the me¬
dical practitioners accept no pecuniary recompenfe for
the time which they devote to a difficult and tedious pro-
cefs; for the anxiety which they feel while the event is
doubtful: for the mortification which they too often un¬
dergo, when death, in fpite of all their efforts, at laft car¬
ries off his prey; nor for the infults to which they willing¬
ly expofe themfelves from vulgar incredulity. Their foie
reward is in the holy joy of doing good. Of an inftitu¬
tion thus free in its origin from the fufpicion of ambitious
view's, and in its plan renouncing felf-intereft in every
fhape, philanthropy muft be the only bafis. The good
intention therefore of the fociety is proved by its confti-
tution ; the wifdom and utility of the undertaking are
proved by its fuccefs: not fewer than 3 OOO fellow-creatures
having fince its commencement been (1794) reftored to
the community by its timely and indefatigable exertions.
For it is to be obferved, that the benefit of this fociety
is by no means confined to the two cafes of drowning
and fufpenfion. Its timely fuccours have roufed the le¬
thargy of opium taken in immoderate and repeated dofes j
they have refeued the wretched viflims of intoxication ; .
rekindled the life extinguifhed by the fudden ftroke of
lightning *, recovered the apopledlic ; reftored life to the
infant that had loft it in the birth j they have proved
efficacious
s O C [ 449 ] S O C
. igious efBcacious in cafes of accidental fmothering and of fuffo-
l 1 Hu- cation by noxious damps ; in inftances in which the ten-
I joe So- ^ernefs 0f the infant body or the debility of old ago
i ■ greatly leffened the previous probability of fuccefs : inib-
much that no fpecies of death feems to be placed beyond
the reach of this fociety’s affiftanee, where the mifchief
had gone no farther than an obftrublion of the move¬
ments of the animal machine without any damage of the
organs themfelves. In confequence of every neceflary
affiftance afforded by this fociety,fimilar inftitutions have
been eftablilhed at Algiers, Lifbon, Philadelphia, Bofton,
Jamaica, Dublin, Leith, Glafgow, Paifley, Aberdeen,
Birmingham, Gloucefter, Shropfhire, Northamptonlhire,
Lancafter, Briftol, Whitehaven, Norwich, Exeter, Kent,
and Newcaftle. The fociety has publifhed an 8vo vo¬
lume with plates, confifting of cafes, eorrefpondence, and
a variety of interefting matter relating to the objeff of
this benevolent inftitution.
6. T/ie Philanthropic Society, was inftituted in Sep¬
tember 1788. It aims at the prevention of crimes, by
removing out of the way of evil counfel, and evil com¬
pany, thofe children who are, in the prefent date of
things, deftined to ruin. It propofes to educate and
inftruft in fome ufeful trade or occupation the children
of convidds or other infant poor who are engaged in
vagrant or criminal courfes ; thus to break the chain of
thofe pernicious confederacies, deprive the wicked of
fucceffors, the gaols of inhabitants, juftice of its viblims,
and by all thefe means add citizens to fociety. This
inftitution is not only calculated to decreafe vice and
infamy, but to incrcafe ufeful induftry 5 fo that thofe
children who would otherwife fucceed to their parents
hereditary crimes, and become the next race of beggars
and thieves, will now be taught to fupply by honeft
means their own wmnts and the wants of others.
To carry into efFe£I thefe defirable purpofes, it is the
firft bufinefs of the fociety to feleft from prifons, and
from the haunts of vice, profligacy, and beggary, fuch
objedls as appear moft likely to become obnoxious to
the laws, or prejudicial to the community ; and, in the
execution of this duty, the afliftance of the magiftrates,
the clergy, and all who are interefted in the promotion
of good morals and good government, is moft: earneftly
requefted. For the employment of the children, feveral
houfes are fupported, at Cambridge Heath, near Hack¬
ney, in each of which a mafter-workman is placed for
the purpofe of teaching the children fome ufeful trade.
The trades already eftabliflied are thofe of a printer,
carpenter, flioemaker, and taylor. The girls are at pre-
! ; fent educated as menial fervants.
In the year 1791 not fewer than 70 children were un¬
der the protection of this fociety, among whom were ma¬
ny who have been guilty of various felonies, burglaries,
and other crimes. Yet, Angular as it may appear, in
lefs than two years thofe very children became no lefs re¬
markable for induftry, adiivity, decency, and obedience,
than they formerly were for the contrary vices. Such
are the grounds on which the Philanthropic Society
now claims the attention and folicits the patronage of
-the public. If we regard humanity and'religion, this
inftitution opens an afylum to the moft forlorn and ab«
jeCl of the human race; it befriends the moft friend-
lefs; it faves from the certain and fatal confequences of
infamy and vicious courfes orphans and deferted chil¬
dren. If we regard national profperity and the public
VOL. XIX, Part II.
welfare, It is calculated to increafe induftry ; and it di- Religious
reds that induftry into the moft ufeful and neceflary
channels. If we regard felf-intereft, its immediate object cteties,
is to proteft our perfons from aflault and murder, our 1——y—»»
property from depredation, and our peaceful habitations
from the defperate fury of midnight incendiaries.
One guinea per annum conftitutes a member of the
fociety ; and iol. at one payment a member for life.
A life-fubfcription, or an annual payment of at leaft two
guineas, is a neceffary qualification for being elected in¬
to the committee.
II. Societies for Promoting Science and Li¬
terature.
1. The Royal Society of London is an academy or body
of perfons of eminent learning, inftituted by Charles II.
for the promoting of natural knowledge. The origin
of this fociety is traced by Dr Sprat, its earlieft hifto-
rian, no farther back than to “ fome fpace after the end
of the civil wars” in the 17th century. The fcene of the
firft meetings of the learned men who laid the founda¬
tion of it, is by him fixed in the univerfity of Oxford, at
the lodgings of Dr Wilkins warden of Wadham col¬
lege. But Dr Birch, on the authority of Dr Wallis,
one of its earlieft and moft confiderable members, af-
figns it an earlier origin. According to him, certain
worthy perfons, refiding in London about the year
1645, being “ inquifitive into natural and the new and
experimental philofophy, agreed to meet weekly on a
certain day, to difcourfe upon fuch fubjedls, and were
known by the title of The Invifble or Philofophical Col¬
lege.^ In the years 1648 and 1649, company who
formed thefe meetings was divided, part retiring to Ox¬
ford and part remaining in London ; but they conti¬
nued the fame purfuits as when united, correfponding
with each other, and giving a mutual account of their
refpedtive difeoveries. About the year 1659 l^!e great¬
er part of the Oxford fociety returned to London, and
again uniting with their fellow-labourers, met once, if
not twice, a-week at Grefliam college, during term
time, till they were fcattered by the public diftradtions
of that year, and the place of their meeting made a
quarter for foldiers. On the reftoration 1660 their
meetings wrere revived, and attended by a greater con-
courfe of men eminent for their rank and learning.
They were at laft taken notice of by the king, who
having himfelf a confiderable tafte for phyfical fcience,
was pleafed to grant them an ample charter, dated the
15th of July 1662, and afterwards a fecond dated 15th
April 1763, by which they were ere&ed into a corpo¬
ration, confifting of a prefident, council, and fellows, for
promoting natural knowledge ; and to give their invefti-
gations, againft which ftrange prejudices were entertain¬
ed, every poflible fupport, he fometimes honoured their
meetings with his prefence.
Their manner of ele&ing fellows is by balloting.
Their council are in number 21, including the prefi¬
dent, vice-prefident, treafurer, and two fecretaries ; 11
of which are continued for the next year, and 10 more
added to them ; all chofen on St Andrew’s day. Each
member at his admiflion fubferibes an engagement that
he will endeavour to promote the good of the fociety -,
from which he may be freed at any time, by fignifyi’ng
to the prefident that he defires to withdraw. The
charges have been different at different times, and were
/ 1
Societies for
Promoting
Science and
Literature.
S O C [ 450 ] s o c
at firft irregularly paid : but they are now five guineas
paid to the treafurer at admiflion, and 13 s. per quar¬
ter To long as the perfon continues a member j or, in
lieu of the annual fubfcription, a compofition of 25 gui¬
neas in one payment.
Their defign is, to “ make faithful records of all the
works of nature or art which come within their reach 5
ib that the prefent as well as future ages may be enabled
to put a mark on errors which have been ftrengthened
by long prefcription •, to reftore truths that have been
neglefted ; to pu(h thofe already known to more various
ufes; to make the way more paffable to what remains
unrevealed,” &c. To this purpofe they have made a
great number of experiments and obfervations on moft
of the works of nature } and alfo numbers of fhort
hiftories of nature, arts, manufaftores, ufeful engines,
contrivances, &c. I he fervices 'which they have ren¬
dered to the public are very great. They have im¬
proved naval, civil, and military architecture ; advanced
the fecurity and perfection of navigation •, improved
agriculture j and put not only this kingdom, but aifo
Ireland, the plantations, &c. upon planting. They
have regiitered experiments, hiftories, relations, obfer¬
vations, &c. and reduced them into one common ftock j
and have, from time to time, publilhed thofe which they
reckoned moft ufeful, under the title of Phi/ofophical
TranfaElions, &c. and laid the reft up in public regifters,
to be nakedly tranfmitted to pofterity, as a folid ground¬
work for future fyftems.
They have a library adapted to their inftitution; to¬
wards which Mr Henry Howard, afterwards duke of
Norfolk, contributed the Norfolcian library, and which
is, at this time, greatly increafed by a continual feries
of benefactions. The mufeum or repofitory of natural
and artificial rarities, given them by Daniel Colwal,
Efq. and fince enriched by many others, is now remo¬
ved to the Britiih mufeum, and makes a part of that
great repofitory. Their motto is Nu/lius in verba ; and
their place of affemblingis Somerfet houfe in the Strand.
Sir Godfrey Copley, baronet, left five guineas to be
given annually to the perfon who Ihould write the belt
paper in the year, under the head of experimental phi-
lofophy. This reward, which is now changed to a
gold medal, is the higheft honour the fociety can bellow.
It is conferred on St Andrew’s day.
2. The Royal Society of Edinburgh, was incorporated
by royal charter on the 29th of March 1783, and has
for its objeft the cultivation of every branch of fcience,
erudition, and tafte. Its rife and progrefs towards its
prefent ftate was as follows : In the year 1718a literary
fociety was eftablilhed in Edinburgh by the learned
Ruddiman and others, which in 1731 was fuceeeded by
a fociety inftituted for the improvement of medical
knowledge. In the year 1739 the celebrated Mac-
laurin conceived the idea of enlarging the plan of this
fociety, by extending it to fubjeCts of philofophy and
literature. The inftitution was accordingly new-mo¬
delled by a printed fet of laws and regulations, the
number of members was increafed, and they were di-
ftinguilhed from that time by the title of 7 he Society for
Improving Arts and Sciences, or more generally by the
title of The Philofophical Society of Edinburgh. . Its
meetings, however, were foon interrupted by the difor-
ders of the country during the rebellion in 1745 » anc^
they were not renewed till the year 1752. Soon after
this period the firft volume of the TranfaClions of the Societies
Philofophical Society of Edinburgh was publiftied, un- pf°motiJ
der the title of EJfays and Obfervations, Phyfical
Literary, and was followed by other volumes of acknow-. ‘ erat^
lodged merit. About the end of the year 1782, in a
meeting of the profeflbrs of the univerfity of Edinburgh,
many of whom are likewife members of the Philofo¬
phical Society, and warmly attached to its interefts, a
fcheme was propofed by the Rev. Dr Robertfon, prin¬
cipal of the univerfity, for the eftablilhment of a new
fociety on a more extended plan, and after the model of
fome of the foreign academies. It appeared an expe¬
dient meafure to folicit the royal patronage to an infti¬
tution of this nature, which promifed to be of national
importance, and to requeft an eftablilhment by charter
from the crown. The plan was approved and adopted*,
and the Philofophical Society, joining its influence as
a body in feconding the application from the univerfity,
his majefty, as we have already obferved, was moft
gracioufly pleafed to incorporate The Royal Society of
Edinburgh by charter.
The fociety confifts of ordinary and honorary mem-
bers j and the honorary places are reftri&ed to per-
fons refiding out of Great Britain and Ireland, f lie
eledhon of new members is appointed to be made at
twro ftated general meetings, which are to be held on
the fourth Monday of January and the fourth Monday
of June. A candidate for the place of an ordinary
member muft fignify by a letter, addreffed to one of
the members, his wifh to be received into the fociety.
He muft then be publicly propofed at Icaft a month
before the day of eleftion. If the propofal be feconded
by two of the members prefent, his name is to be infert-
ed in the lift of candidates, and hung up in the ordinary
place of meeting. 1 he election is made by ballot, and
is determined in favour of a candidate, if he fliall have
the votes of two-thirds of thofe prefent, in a meeting
confifting of at lead 21 members. The general bufi-
nefs of the fociety is managed by a prefident, two vice-
prefidents, with a council of I2,a general fecretary, and
a treafurer. Thefe officers are chofen by ballot annually
on the laft Monday of November. All public deeds,
whether of a civil or of a literary nature, are tranfa&ed
by this board, and proceed in the name of thepreiident
or vice-prefident.
As it was thought that the members would have a
greater inducement to pun&ual attendance on the meet¬
ings of the fociety, if they had fome general intimation
of the nature of "the fubje&s which were to be confi-
dered, and made the topics of converfation, it was there¬
fore refolved to divide the fociety into two elaffes,
which fhould meet and deliberate feparately. One of
thefe clafles is denominated the Phyfical Llafs, and has
for its department the fciences of mathematics, natura
philofophy, chemiftry, medicine, natural hiftory, and
whatever relates to the improvement of arts and tnanu-
fa&ures. The other is denominated the Literary Clajs,
and has for its department literature, philology, hiftory,
antiquities, and fpeculative philofophy. Every member
is defired at his admiflion to intimate which of thole
clafles he wifhes to be more particularly affociated with;
but he is at the fame time intitled to attend the. meet¬
ings of the other clafs, and to take part in all its pro¬
ceedings. Each of the clafles has four prefidents and
two fecretaries, who officiate by turns* The meetings
S 0 c
•ties for of the pliyfical clafs are held on the firft Mondays of
noting January, February, March, April, July, Auguft, No-
,ce ^ “ vember, and December •, and the meetings of the Lite*
.. j rary clafs are held on the third Mondays of January,
February, March, April, June, July, November, and
December, at 7 o'clock afternoon.
At thefe meetings the written eflays and obfervations
of the members of the fociety, or their correlpondents,
are read publicly, and become the fubjefls of converfa-
tion. The fubjefts of thefe eflfays and obfervations are
announced at a previous meeting, in order to engage the
attendance of thofe members who may be particularly
interefted in them. The author of each diflfertation is
likewife defired to furnith the fociety with an abftraft of
it, to be read at the next enfuing meeting, when the
converfation is renewed with increafed advantage, from
the knowledge previoufly acquired of the fubjeft. At
the fame meetings are exhibited fuch fpecimens of natu¬
ral or artiticial curiofities, fuch remains of antiquity,
and fuch experiments, as are thought worthy of the at¬
tention of the fociety. All objefts of natural hiftory
prefented to the fociety, are ordered by the charter of
the inftitudon to be depofited, on receipt, in the mufeum
of the univertity of Edinburgh ; and all remains of an¬
tiquity, public records, or ancient manuferipts, in the
library belonging to the faculty of advocates at Edin¬
burgh.
The ordinary members, whofe ufual refidence is in
the city of Edinburgh or its immediate neighbourhood,
are expefted to attend regularly the monthly meetings;
and are required to defray, by an annual contribution,
the current expences of the inftitution. The members
who refide at fuch a didance from Edinburgh, that
they cannot enjoy the advantages arifing from a regular
attendance on the meetings of the fociety, are not fub-
jefted to any contribution for defraying its expences,
but have a right to attend thofe meetings when occa-
lionally in Edinburgh, and to take part in all their pro¬
ceedings.
Five volumes of the Tranfaflions of the fociety have
been publithed, which bear ample teltimony to the learn¬
ing and acutenefs of their various authors.
3. Medical Societij of London, inilituted in the year
1752, on the plan recommended by Lord Bacon (Be
Augm. Sclent, lib. iv. cap. 2.), to revive the Hippocra¬
tic method of compofing narratives of particular cafes,
in which the nature of the difeafe, the manner of treat¬
ing it, and the confequences, are to be fpecified; to at¬
tempt the cure of thofe difeafes which, in his opinion,
have been too boldly pronounced incurable \ and, laft-
ly, to extend their inquiries after the powers of par¬
ticular medicines in the cure of particular cafes ; the
collections of this fociety have been already publilhed,
under the title of Medical Obfervations and Inquiries, in
feveral volumes.
4. The Medical Society of Edinburgh was incorporated
by royal charter in 1778 •, but there appears to have
been in that city a voluntary affociation of the fame
name from the firft ellablifhment of a regular fchool of
phyfic in the univerlity. To the voluntary fociety the
public is indebted for fix volumes of curious and ufe-
ful eflays, collected principally by the late Dr Monro
from June 1731 to June 1736 •, but in the year 1739
that fociety was united to another, as we have already
^bferted in a former article. The ordinary members
[ 451 1
s o c
of the prefent medical fociety are eleCted by ballot, and S^etxesjbr
three diffentients exclude a candidate •, an ordinary mem-
ber may alfo be elefted an honorary member, who en- literature.
joys the privileges of the others, and receives a diploma,1 
but is freed from the obligation of attendance, deliver¬
ing papers in rotation, &c. to which the ordinary mem¬
bers are fubjed ; but in this cafe the votes muft be una¬
nimous. The meetings of this fociety are held every
Friday evening (formerly Saturday) in their otvn hall,
during the winter feafon, when papers on medical fub-
jedls are delivered by the feveral members in rotation j
and four of thefe are annually eledled to fill the chair in.
rotation, with the title of annual prefidents. This fo¬
ciety poffeffes an excellent library of books on fubjeCls
connected with its purfuits.
5. The Royal Medical Society of Paris was inftituted
in 1776. The members are divided into afibciates ordi¬
nary, limited to 30, honorary to 12, extraordinary to 60$,
and foreign to 60, and correfpondents. This fociety has
publifhed feveral volumes of Memoirs in 4to.
6. Afatic Society, an inftitution planned by the late
illuftrious Sir William Jones, and adually formed at
Calcutta on the 15th of January 1784, for the purpofe
of tracing the hiftory, antiquities, arts, fciences, and li¬
terature, of the immenfe continent of Afia. As it was
refolved to follow as nearly as poftible the plan of the
Royal Society of London, of which the king is pa-
tron, the patronage of the Afiatic Society was offered
to the governor-general and council, as the executive
power in the territories of the company. By their ac¬
ceptance of this offer, Mr Haftings, as governor-gene¬
ral, appeared among the patrons of the new fociety j
“ but he feemed in his private ftation, as the firft liberal
promoter of ufeful knowledge in Bengal, and efpecially
as the great encourager of Perfian and Shanfcrit litera¬
ture, to deferve a particular mark of diftinftion he
was requefted, therefore, to accept the honorary title of
prefident. This was handfomely declined in a letter
from Mr Haftings, in which he requefted “ to yield his
pretenfions to the gentleman whofe genius planned the
inftitution, and was moft capable of conduCling it to the
attainment of the great and fplendid purpofes of its for-
mation.,'> On the receipt of this letter, Sir William
Jones AVas nominated prefident of the fociety 5 and we
cannot give the reader a view of the objeCt of the infti¬
tution in clearer language than that which he employed
in his firft difeourfe from the chair.
“ It is your defign, I conceive (faid the prefident),
to take an ample fpace for your learned inveftigations,
bounding them only by the geographical limits of Afia j
fo that, confidering Hindoftan as a centre, and turning
your eyes in idea to the north, you have on your right
many important kingdoms in the eaftern peninfula, the
ancient and wonderful empire of China with all her Tar¬
tarian dependencies, and that of Japan, Avith the clufter
of precious ifiands, in Avhich many Angular curiofities
have too long been concealed : before you lies that pro¬
digious chain of mountains, which formerly perhaps
Avere a barrier againft the violence of the fea, and be¬
yond them the very interefting country of Tibet, and
the vaft regions of Tartary, from Avhich, as from thb
Trojan horfe of the poets, have iffued fo many confum-
mate Avarriors, whofe domain has extended at leaft from
the banks of the Ilyffus to the mouths of the Ganges ;
bn yeur left are the beautiful and celebrated provinces
3 L 2 «f
s O C [45
Societies for of Iran 0r Perfia, the unmeafured and perhaps unmea-
Promoting furakie defcrts of . Arabia, and the once flourifhing king-
Xhteratiire' ^om of Yemen, with the pleafant ides that the Arabs
- n — v--- have fubdued or colonized ; and farther weft ward, the
Afiatic dominions of the Turkiih lultans, whofe moon
feems approaching rapidly to its wane. By this great
circumference the field of your uleful refearches will be
inclofed j but fince Egypt had unqueftionably an old
conneftion with this country, if not with China, fince
the language and literature of the Abyffinians bear a
manifeit affinity to thofe of Afia, fince the Arabian
arms prevailed along the African coaft of the Mediter¬
ranean, and even eredled a powerful dynafty on the
continent of Europe, you may not be difpleafed occa-
fionally to follow the ftreams of Afiatic learning a little
beyond its natural boundary j and, if it be neceffary or
convenient that a Ihort name or epithet be given to our
fociety, in order to diftinguiffi it in the world, that of
slfiatic appears both claffical and proper, whether rve
confider the place or the object of the inftitution, and
preferable to Oriental, which is in truth a word merely
relative, and though commonly ufed in Europe, con¬
veys no very diftinft idea.
“ If now it be alked, What are the intended objefls
of our inquiries within thefe fpacious limits ? w;e anfwer,
Man and Nature ; whatever is performed by the one
or produced by the other. Human knowledge has been
elegantly analyfed according to the three great laculties
of the mind, memory, reafon, and imagination, which we
conftantly find employed in arranging and retaining,
comparing and diftinguiihing, combining and diverfify-
ing, the ideas, which we receive through our fenfes, or
acquire by reflection *, hence the three main branches ot
learning are, hijiory, fcience, and art; the firft compre¬
hends either an account of natural productions, or the
genuine records of empires and ftates j the fecond em¬
braces the whole circle of pure and mixed mathematics,
together with ethics and law, as far as they depend on
the reafoning faculty •, and the third includes all the
beauties of imagery and the charms of invention, dif-
played in modulated language, or reprefented by colour,
figure, or found.
1 “ Agreeable to this analyfis, you will inveftigate
■whatever is rare in the ftupendous fabric of nature, will
correCt the geography of Afia by new obfervations and
difcoveries ; will trace the annals and even traditions of
thofe nations who from time to time have peopled or
defolated it; and will bring to light their various forms
of government, with their inftitutions civil and religious 5
you will examine their improvements and methods in
arithmetic and geometry •, in trigonometry, menfuration,
mechanics, optics, aftronomy, and general phyfics -, their
fyftems of morality, grammar, rhetoric, and dialect j
their {kill in ehirurgery and medicine and their ad¬
vancement, whatever it may be, in anatomy and ehe-
miftry. To this you will add refearches into their agri¬
culture, manufactures, trade •, and whilft you inquire
with pleafure into their mufic, architecture, painting,
and poetry, will not negleCt thofe inferior arts by which
the comforts and even elegancies of focial life are fup-
plied or improved. You may obferve, that I have
omitted their languages, the diverfity and difficulty of
which are a fad obftacle to the progrefs of ufeful know¬
ledge •, but I have ever confidered languages as the
mere inftruments of real learning, and think them im-
2 ] ,s 0 c
properly confounded with learning itfelf: the attain-Societies!'
ment of them is, however, indifpenfably neceflary ; and
if to the Perfian, Armenian, Turkifb, and Arabic, could
be added not only the Shanfcrit, the treafures of which ^
we may now hope too fee unlocked, but even the Chi-
nefe, Tartarian, Japanefe, and the various infular dia-
leCts, an immenfe mine would then be open, in which
we might labour with equal delight and advantage.”
Of this foeiety three volumes of the TranfaClions
have been publfthed, which are replete with informa¬
tion in a high degree curious and important} and we
hope that the European world {hall foon be favoured
with another. The much-to-be-lamented death of the
accompliffied prefident may indeed damp the fpirit of
inveftigation among the members j for to conquer diffi¬
culties ib great as they muft meet with, a portion feems
to be neceffary of that enthufiafm which accompanied
all the purfuits of Sir William Jones j but his fucceffor
is a man of great Avorth and learning, and we truft will
ufe his utmoft endeavours to have the plan completed of
which Sir William gave the outlines.
5. The American Philofophical Society, held at Phila¬
delphia, was formed in January 1769 by the union of
two focieties which had formerly fubfifted in that city.
This fociety extends its attention to geography, ma¬
thematics, natural philofopby, and aftronomy j medi¬
cine and anatomy ; natural hiftory and chemiftry ; trade
and commerce j mechanics and architecture j hutbandry
and American improvements. Its officers are a patron,
prefident, three vice-prefidents, one treafurer, four fe-
cretaries, and three curators, who are annually chofen
by ballot. The duty of the prefident, vice-prefidents,
treafurer, and fecretaries, is the fame as in other focie¬
ties. The bufinefs of the curators is to take the charge
of all fpecimens of natural productions, whether of the
animal, vegetable, or fofiil kingdom 5 all models of
machines and inftruments ; and all other matters be¬
longing to the fociety which {hall be intrufted to them.
The ordinary meetings are held on the firft and third
Fridays of every month from OCtober to May inclulive.
This fociety was incorporated by charter 15th March
1780 j and has publiftied three volumes of its Iranfac-
tions, containing many ingenious papers on general li¬
terature and the fciences, as well as refpeCling thofe
fubjeCls peculiar to America. It is a delightful pro-
fpeft to the philosopher to confider, that Afia, Europe,
and America, though far feparated and divided into a
variety of political ftates, are all three combined to pro¬
mote the caufe of knowledge and truth.
6. A Literary and Philofophical Society of confider-
able reputation has been lately eftabliffied at Man-
chefter, under the direction of two prefidents, four vice-
prefidents, and two fecretaries. The number of mem¬
bers is limited to §0 j befides whom there are fevcral
honorary members, all of whom are eleCted by ballot;
and the officers are chofen annually in April. Five vo¬
lumes of valuable effays have been already publnhed by
this fociety. _
A fociety on a fimilar plan has been eftabhfhed at
Newcaftle. It is compoled of a number of moft re>
fpeCtable members, and poffeffes a very valuable library
and philofophical apparatus. LeClures on the different
branches of natural philofophy have been delivered for
feveral years at this inftitution.
7. Society for Promoting the Difcovery of the
S O C [ 453 ] s O C
eties for Parts of Africa. This fociety or affocialion for explor-
moting jng the internal diftrids of Africa, of which fo little is
nee ptefent known, was formed in London by feme opu-
^ ^ lent individuals in 1788 ^ who, ftrongly impreffed with
a convidlion of the prafticability and utility of thus en¬
larging the fund of human knowledge, determined if
poffible to refeue the age irom that iligma which at¬
taches to its ignorance of fo large and fo near a portion
of the globe. The founders of this fociety refolved to
admit no man a member for a fhorter period than three
years, during which he mull pay annually into the
public fund five guineas. After three years, any mem¬
ber, upon giving a year’s notice, may withdraw himfelf
from the affociation. During the firft 12 months each
of the members was allowed to recommend for the ap¬
probation of the fociety fuch of his friends as he might
think proper to be admitted into it ; but fince that pe¬
riod we believe all additional members have been elected
by a ballot of the affociation at large. A committee
was ehofen by ballot to manage the funds of the fociety,
to choofe proper perfons to be fent on the difeovery of
the interior parts of Africa, and to carry on the fociety’s
correfpondence, with exprefs injun£tions to difclofe no
intelligence received from their agents but to the foeiety
at large. But a fuller account of the nature of this
ellablilhment, and the very happy efforts they have
made, may be feen in the fuperb edition of their pro¬
ceedings printed in 1790, gto, for their own ufe j or in
the 8vo edition fince made public. They foon found
two gentlemen, Mr Lucas and Mr Ledyard, who were
Angularly well qualified for the important million. The
information they have acquired wfill be found in the
above work •, with a new map by Mr Runnel, exhibit¬
ing the geographical knowledge collected by the Afri¬
can affociation. Mr Ledyard very unfortunately died
during his refearches at Cairo.
Few of our readers are unacquainted with the travels
of Mr Park under the patronage of the fociety. For an
account of which fee Africa. A fecond journey was
undertaken by the fame gentleman within thefe three
years; but as he has not been heard of for a long time,
the mofl ferious apprehenfions are entertained that he
and his companions have fallen vi&ims either to the in-
hofpitable climate, or to the watchful jealoufy of the
Moors. Another enterprifing traveller, Mr Horneman,
was fent out by the fociety about 1800. He departed
from Cairo with a caravan, and reached Mourzouk, a
place fituated fouth from Tripoli j and from thence fent
a communication to his conftituents which has fince been
publifhed by the fociety. This is the laft account that
was received of this traveller, from which it is feared
that he has alfo perifhed.
8. The Society of Antiquaries of London, was founded
about the year 1572 by Archbilhop Parker, a munifi¬
cent patron of learned men. For the fpace of 20 years
it affembled in the houfe of Sir Robert Cotton ; in 1 589
they refolved to apply to Queen Elizabeth for a charter
and a public building where they might hold their meet¬
ings \ but it is uncertain whether any fuch application
was ever made. In the mean time, the reputation of
the fociety gradually increafed, and at length it excited
the jealoufy of James I. who w-as afraid left it ftiould pre -
fume to eanvafs the fecret tranfactions of his government.
He accordingly diffolved it. But in the beginning of
the laft century, the Antiquarian fociety began to re¬
vive ; and a number of gentlemen, eminent for their Societies for
affection to this fcience, had weekly meetings, in which
they examined the antiquities and hiftory of Great Bri- Literaturf.’.
tain preceding the reign of James I. but without ex-
eluding any other remarkable antiquities that might be
offered to them. From this time the fociety grew in
importance ; and in 1750 they unanimoufly refolved to
petition the king for a charter of incorporation. This
they obtained the year following, by the influence of
the celebrated earl of Hardwicke, then lord chancellor,
and Martin Folkes, Efq 5 who was then their prefident.
The king declared himfelf their founder and patron, and
empowered them to have a body of ftatutes, and a com¬
mon feal, and to hold in perpetuity lands, &c. to the
yearly value of 1000I.
The chief objeft of the inquiries and refearches of
the fociety are Britilh antiquities and hiftory ; not,
however, wholly excluding thofe of other countries. It
muft be acknowledged, that the ftudy of antiquity of¬
fers to the curious and inquifitive a large field for re-
fearch and amufement. The inquirer in this branch
furnifties the hiftorian with his beft materials, while he
diftiaguifties from truth the fiftions of a bold invention,
and afeertains the credibility of fads ; and to the philo-
fopher he prefents a fruitful lource of ingenious ipecu-
lation, while he points out to him the way of thinking,
and the manners of men, under all the varieties of afpect
in which they have appeared.
An antiquarian ought to be a man of folid judgment,
poffeffed of learning and fcience, that he may not be an
enthufiaftic admirer of every thing that is ancient mere¬
ly becaufe it is ancient j but be qualified to diftinguifti
between thofe refearches which are valuable and impor¬
tant, and thofe which are trifling-and ufelefs. It is from
the want of thefe qualifications that fume men have con-
traded fuch a blind paflion for every thing that is an¬
cient, that they have expofed themfelves to ridicule,
and their ftudy to contempt. But if a regard to utility
vrere always to regulate the purfuits of the antiquarian,
the fhafts of fatire would no longer be levelled at him ;
but he would be refpeded as the man rvho labours to re-
ftore or to preferve fuch ancient produdions as are fuited
to illuminate religion, philofophy, and hiftory, or to im¬
prove the arts of life.
We by no means intend to apply thefe obfervations
to any particular fociety of antiquarians •, but we throw
them out, becaufe we know that an aftiduous ftudy of
antiquity is apt, like the ardent purluit of money, to
lole fight of its original objed, and to degenerate into a
paflion which miftakes the mean for the end, and con-
iiders poffeflion without a regard to utility as enjoy¬
ment.
An affociatien fimilar to that of the Antiquarian So¬
ciety of London was founded \n Edinburgh in 1780,
and received the royal charter in 1783. A volume of
the tranfadions of this foeiety has been publifhed 5 but
with the exception of two or three memoirs, it contains
little worthy of notice ; and accordingly, it has never
attraded the attention of the public.
Befides thefe literary fbeieties here mentioned, there
are a great number more in different parts of Europe,
fome of which are noticed under the article Academy.
Thofe which are omitted are not omitted on account
of any idea of their inferior importance ; but either be-
eaufe
s o c
f 454 1
s o c
rjoetfeties for ckufe 4Ve have liad no accefs to authentic information,
Encoura- or becaufe they referable the focieties already defcribed
Promotiii'T clofely, that we could have given nothing but their
Arts, Ma- names,
nufadlures,
III. Societies for Encouraging and pROMOTiNti
Arts, Manufactures, &c.
i. London Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Ma-
nufa&ures, and Commerce, was inftituted in the year
l*7 ^'4 by Lord Folkitone, Lord Romney, Dr Stephen
Hales, and a few private gentlemen •, but the merit of
this intlitution chiefly belonged to Mr William Shipley,
an ingenious mechanic *, who, though deriving no ad¬
vantages from learning, by unwearied perfonal attend¬
ance found means to engage a few perfons of rank and
fortune to meet at Peek’s coffeehoufe in Fleet-ftreet,
and to adopt a plan for promoting arts and manufac¬
tures.
The office-bearers of this fociety are a prefident, 12
vice-prefidents, a fecretary, and vegifter. Their pro¬
ceedings are regulated by a body of rules and orders
eftablilhed by the whole fociety, and printed for the ufe
of the members. All queftions and debates are determi¬
ned by the holding up of hands, or by ballot if required }
and no matter can be confirmed without the alfent of a
majority at two meetings. They invite all the world
to propofe fubje£ls for encouragement $ and whatever is
deemed deferving of attention is referred to the confi-
deration of a committee, which, after due inquiry and
deliberation, make their report to the whole fociety,
where it is approved, rejedled, or altered. A lift is
printed and publithed every year of the matters for
which they propofe to give premiums •, which premiums
are either fums of money, and thofe fometimes very
eonfiderablte ones ) or the fociety’s medal in gold or fil-
Ver, which they confider as the greateft: honour they
can beftow. All poffible care is taken to prevent par¬
tiality in the diftribution of their premiums, by defiring
the claimants names to be concealed, and by appoint¬
ing committees (who when they find occafion call to
their afliftance the raoft Ikilful artifts) for the ftricl ex¬
amination of the real merit of all matters and things
brought before them, in confequence of their pre¬
miums.
The chief obje&s of the attention of the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, Manufaftures, and Com¬
merce, in the application of their revenues, are ingenuity
in the feveral branches of the polite and liberal arts,
ufeful difcoveries and improvements in agriculture, ma-
nufadtures, mechanics, and chemiftry, or the laying open
of any fuch to the public ■, and, in general, all fuch
ufeful inventions, difcoveries, or improvements (though
not mentioned in the book of premiums) as may appear
to have a tendency to the advantage of trade and com-
inerce.
The following are fome of the xnoft important regula¬
tions of this fociety. It is required that the matters
for which premiums are offered be delivered in without
names, or any intimation to w'hom they belong , that
each particular thing be marked in what manner each
claimant thinks fit, fuch claimant fending with it a pa¬
per fealed up, having on the outfide a correfponding
mark, and on the infide the claimant’s name and ad
drefs
and all candidates are to take notice, that no
claim for a premium will be attended to* unlefs the con- Societies} I
ditions of the advertifement are fully complied with. £ncouta„ j
No papers fhall be opened but fuch as ihall gain pre- ^an,: |
miums, unlefs where it appears to the fociety abfolutely Arts, m; [
neceffary for the determination of the claim : all the nutactun: I
reft ffiall be returned unopened, with the matters to
which they belong, if inquired after by the marks with¬
in two years •, after which time, if not demanded, they
ffiall be publicly burnt unopened at fome meeting of the
fociety. All the premiums of this fociety are defigned
for that part of Great Britain called England, the do¬
minion of Wales, and the town of Berwick upon
Tweed, unlefs expreisly mentioned to the contrary.
No perfon ftiall receive any premium, bounty, or encou¬
ragement, from the fociety for.any matter for which he
has obtained or propofes to obtain a patent. No mem¬
ber of this fociety ffiall be a candidate for or intitled to
receive any premium, bounty, or reward whatever, ex¬
cept the honorary medal of the fociety.
The relpedfability of the members who compofe it
may be feen by peruling the lift which generally accom¬
panies their tranfaftions. In the laft volume (vol. xii.)
it occupies no lels than 43 pag®Si Some idea may be
formed of the wealth of this fociety, by obferving that
the lift of their premiums fills 96 pages, and amounts to
250 in number. T hefe confift of gold medals worth
from 30 to 50, and in a f«w inftances to 100 guineas j
and filver medals valued at 10 guineas.
This fociety is one of the moft important in Great
Britain. Much money has been expended by it, and
many are the valuable effefts of which it has been pro-
dudfive. Among thefe we reckon not only the difco¬
veries which it has excited, but the inftitution of other
focieties on the fame principles to w'hich it has given
birth ; and we do not hefitate to conclude, that future
ages will confider the founding of this fociety as one of
the moft: remarkable epochs in the hiftory of the arts.
We contemplate with pleafure the beneficial effedts
which muft refult to this nation and to mankind by the
diffufion of fuch inftitutions j and rejoice in the hope
that the adtive minds of the people of Great Britain,
inftead of being employed as formerly in controverfies
about religion, which engender ftrife, or in difculhons
concerning the theory of politics, which lead to the
adoption of fchemes inconfiftent with the nature and
condition of man, will foon be more generally united
into affociations for promoting ufeful knowledge and fo-
lid improvement, and for alleviating the diftreffes 01
their fellow creatures.
I. Society infituted at Bath for the Encouragement
of Agriculture, Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. It
was founded in the year 1777 by feveral gentlemen who
met at the city of Bath. This fcheme met with a veiy
favourable reception both from the wealthy and learned.
The wealthy fubfcribed very liberally, and the learned
communicated many important papers.. On application
to the London and provincial focieties inftituted for the
like purpofes, they very politely offered their affiftance.
Seven volumes of their tranfadlions have already been
pubiilhed, containing very valuable experiments and ob-
fervations, particularly refpedling agriculture, which wet
deferve the attention of all farmers in the kingdom.
We have confulted them with much fatisfa&ion on ie-
veral occafions, and have frequently referred to them in
the courfe of this work j and therefore, with pleature*
embrace
5
s o c
; etiesfor embrace the prefent opportunity of repeating our obli-
coura- gations. We owe the fame acknowledgments to the
tine Socjety ^or t^ie Improvement of Arts, &c. of London.
™°Ma- 3- Society for working Mines, an affociation lately
,taftures, formed on the continent of Europe. This inftitution
iStc. arofe from the accidental meeting of feveral mineralo-
J at gyeno near Schemnitz in Hungary, who were
collefted in order to examine a new method of amalga¬
mation. Struck with the fhackles impofed on minera¬
logy by monopolizers of new and ufeful proceffes, they
thought no method fo effectual to break them, as form¬
ing a fociety, whofe common labours fhould be dire&ed
to fix mining on its fureft principles; and whofe memoirs,
fpread all over Europe, might offer to every adventurer
the refult of the refearches, of which they are the ob¬
ject. By thefe means they fuppofed, that there would
be a mafs of information collect'd ; the interefts of in¬
dividuals would be loft in the general intereft ; and the
one 'would materially affift the. other. Impofture and
quackery would, by the fame means, be banilhed from
a fcience, which mull be improved by philofophy and
experience ; and the fociety, they fuppofed, would” find,
in the confidence which they infpired, the reward and
the encouragement of their labours. They defign, that
the memoirs which they publifti lhall be ftiort and
clear ; truth mult be their balls, and every idle difeuf-
fion, every foreign digreffion, mull be banilhed ; poli¬
tics and finance mull be avoided, though the differta-
tions may feem to lead towards them ; and they oblip-e
themfelves to oppofe the affe&ation of brilliancies, and
the oftentation of empty fpeculation, Avhen compared
with plain, Ample, and ufeful fafls.
The object of the foeiety is phyfical geography ; mi¬
neralogy founded on chemiftry ; the management of ore
in the different operations which it undergoes ; fubter-
raneous geometry ; the hiftory of mining ; founderies,
and the proceffes for the extradtion of metals from the
ores, either by fufion or amalgamation, in every inftance
applied to pradlice. The end of this inftitution is to
colledt, in the moll extenfive fenfe, every thing that can
affift the operations of the miner, and to communicate
it to the different members, that they may employ it
for the public good, in their refpedtive countries. Each
member muft conlider himfelf as bound to fend to the
fociety every thing which will contribute to the end of
its inftitution ; to point out, with precifion, the feveral
fadls and obfervations ; to communicate every experi¬
ment which occurs, even the unfuccefsful ones, if the
relation mav feem to be advantageous to the public ;
to communicate to the fociety their examination of
fchernes, and their opinions on queftions propofed by
it; and to pay annually two ducats (about 18s. 6d.) to
the diredlion every Eafter. The fociety, on the other
•hand, is bound to publifti every novelty that ftiall be
communicated to it ; to communicate to each member,
at the member’s expence, the memoirs, defigns, models,
productions, an<I every ’king eonnedted with the inftitu¬
tion •, to anfwer all the neceffary demands made, relat¬
ing in anv refpedl to mining ; and to give its opinion on
every plan or projedl communicated through the medium
of an honorary member.
The great centre of all intelligence is to be at Zeller-
field in Hartz, Brunfwick : but the fociety is not fixed
to any one fpot; for every particular ftate fome pradti-
■cal mineralogift is nominated as diredlor. Among thefe
[ 455 1
s o c
are the names of Baron Born, M. Pallas, M. Charpen- Societies tor
tier, M. Prebra, and M. Henkel. Their office is to EPC01^"
propofe the members; to take care that the views of the pgr^ot;ng
fociety are purfued in the different countries where they Arts, Ma-
refide ; to anfwer the requefts of the members of their aufadtures,
country who are qualified to make them ; in cafe of the ^cc* .
death of a diredtor, to choofe another; and the majority
is to determine where the archives and the ftrong box is
to be placed.
All the eminent mineralogifts in Europe are members
of this fociety. It is eredted on fo liberal and fo exten¬
five a plan, that we entertain the higheft hopes of its
fuccefs ; and have only to add, that we wifti much to
fee the ftudy of feveral other fciences purfued in the fame
manner.
4. The Society for the Improvement of Naval Architec¬
ture, was founded in 1791. The objedt of it is to en~
wmrage every ufeful invention and difeovery relating to
naval architecture as far as ftiall be in their power, both
by honorary and pecuniary rewards. They have in view
particularly to improve the theories of floating bodies
and of the refiftance of fluids ; to procure draughts and
models of different veffels, together with calculations of
their capacity, centre of gravity, tonnage, &c. ; to
make obfervations and experiments themfelves, and to
point out fuch oblervations and experiments as appear
beft calculated to further their defigns, and moll deferv-
ing tfiofe premiums which the fociety can beftow. But
though the improvement of naval architecture in all its
branches be certainly the principal objedt of this inftitu¬
tion, yet the fociety do not by any means intend to con¬
fine themfelves merely to the form and itructure of vef¬
fels. Every lubordinate and collateral purfuit will claim
a lhare of the attention of the fociety in proportion to its
merits; and whatever may have any tendency to render
navigation more fafe, falutary, and even plealant, will
not be negledted.
I his inftitution owes its exiftence to the patriotic dif-
pufilion and extraordinary attention of Mr Sewel a pri¬
vate citizen of London, who (though engaged in a line
of bufinefs totally oppofite to all concerns of this kind)
has been led, by mere accident, to take fuch ocular no¬
tice of, and make luch obfervations on, the adtual ftate
of naval architedlure in this country, as naturally occur¬
red to a man of plain underitanding, zealous for the ho¬
nour and intereft of his country, and willing to beftow a
portion of that time for the public good, which men of
a different defeription would rather have devoted to their
own private advantage. His attention was the more le-
rioufly excited, by finding that it was the opinion of
fome private {hip-builders, who, in a debate on the fail¬
ure of one of our naval engagements, pronounced, that
fuch “ would ever be the cafe while that bufinefs (the
conftru&ion of our (hips of war) was not ftudied as a fci¬
ence, but carried on merely by precedent ; that there
had not been one improvement in our navy that did not
originate with the French, who had naval fchools and
feminaries for the ftudy of it; and that our flaps were
not a match for thofe of that nation either finely or in a
fleet,” &c. &c.
In a fliort lime the fociety were enabled to offer very
ctenfiderable premiums for particular improvements in
the conftruftion of our {hipping, &c. &c. and alfo to
encourage our philctfophers, mathematicians, and me¬
chanics, to make fatisfadlory experiments, tending to afi-
eertaiu
8cc.
S ° C [4
Societies for certain tlie laws of refiftance of water to folids of differ-
Encoura- ent forms> in all varieties of circumftance. On this
Fromot’iitr head the reward is not lefs than one hundred pounds
ArtsMa- or a gold medal. Other premiums of 50, 30, and 20
"nufadtures, guineas, according‘to the importance or difficulty of the
particular fubjeft or point of inveftigation, are likewife
’ offered, for different difcoveries, inventions, or improve¬
ments. The terms of admiffion into the fociety are a
fubfcription of two guineas annually, or twenty guineas
for life.
r Society of Artifts of Great Britain, which confifts
of dire6fors and fellows, was incorporated by charter in
1765, and empowered to purchafe and hold lands,^ not
exceeding 1000I. a-year. The dire&ors of this fociety,
annually ele&ed, are to confift of 24 perfons, including
the prefident, vice-prefident, treafurer, and fecretary 5
and it is required that they be either painters, fculptors,
architects, or engravers by profeffion. _
6. Britifh Society for Extending the Fijheries and Im-
proving the Sea-Coafs of this Kingdom, was inflituted in
1786. The end and defrgn of this fociety will belt
appear from their charter, of which we prefect an ab-
ftraCt. ■ .
The preamble dates, “ the great want of improve¬
ment in fifheries, agriculture, and manufactures, in the
Highlands and Iflands of North Britain -, the prevalence
of emigration from the -want of employment in thole
partsy the profpeCt of a new nurfery of feamen, by the
eftablifhment of fifhing towns and villages in that quar¬
ter. The aft therefore declares, that the perfons there¬
in named, and every other perfon or perfons who fhall
thereafter become proprietors of the joint flock men¬
tioned therein, fhall be a diftinCl: and feparate body po¬
litic and corporate, by the name of The Britif!} Society
for Extending the Fijheries and Improving the Sea-coajls
of this Kingdom: That thefaid fociety may raife a ca¬
pital joint flock not exceeding 150,000!. to be applied
to purchafing or otherwife acquiring lands and tenements
in perpetuitv, for the building thereon, and.on no other
land whatever, free towns, villages, and fifhing flations.
That the joint flock fhall be divided into {hares of 50I.
each: That no one perfon fhall in his or her name pof-
fefs more than ten fhares, or 5®^- • f hat the fociety
fhall not borrow any fum or fums of money whatsoever:
-That the fums to be advanced for this undertaking, and
the profits arifing therefrom, fhall be divided proportion¬
ally to the fum fubfcribed; and that no perfon fhall be
liable for a larger fum than he or fire fhall have refpec-
tivOly fubfcribed : 11 hat one or two fhares fhall entitle
to one vote, and no more, in perfon or by proxy, at all
meetings of proprietors } three or four fhares to two
votes ; five, fix, or feven fhares, to three votes 5 eight
or nine fhares to four votes} and ten fhares to five votes
and no more: That more perfons than one inclining to
hold in their joint names one or more fhares fhall be in-
titled to vote, by one of fuch perfons, according to the
priority of their names, or by proxy : 1 hat bodies cor¬
porate fhall vote by proxy under their feal : That all
perfons holding proxies fhall be proprietors, and that no
one perfon fhall hold more than five votes by proxy :
That the affairs of the fociety fhall be managed b'y a
governor, deputy governor, and 13 other direClors, to
be eleCled annually on the 25th of March, from among
the proprietors of the fociety, holding at leafl one full
fhare, by figned lifts of their names to be tranimittid by
56 ] s o c
the proprietors to the fecretary of the fociety : That five Societiest
proprietors, not being governor, direCtor, or other offi-
oer, fhall be in like manner annually elefted to audit
the accounts of the fociety : 1 hat there fhall be one ge- A.rts> M.
neral meeting of the proprietors annually on the 25th of nufaduf:
March: That occafional general meetings fhaU be call- |
ed on the requefl of nine or more proprietors : That the gjl
general meetings of the proprietors fhall make all bye- v—^
laws and conflitutions for the government of the fociety,
and for the good and orderly carrying on of the bufinefs
of the fame : That no transfer {hall be made of the flock
of the fociety for three years from the 10th of Auguft
1786 : That the cafh of the fociety fhall be lodged in
the bank of England, bank of Scotland, or the royal
bank of Scotland: That no diredor, proprietor, agent,
or officer of the fociety, fhall retain any fum or fums of
money in his hands beyond the fpace of 30 days on any _
account whatfoever: That all payments by the fociety
fhall be made by drafts on the faid banks, under the
hands of the governor or deputy-governor, counterfign-
ed by the fecretary or his deputy, and two or more di-
redlors : And that the books in which the accounts of
the fociety fhall be kept fhall be open to all the pro¬
prietors.” .
The inflitution of this public-fpirited fociety was m
a great meafure owdng to the exertions of the patriotic
John Knox} who in the courfe of 23 years traverfed
and explored the Highlands of Scotland not fewer than
16 times, and expended feveral thoufand pounds of his
own fortune in purfuing his patriotic defigns.
7. Britifh Wool Society. See Britifh Wool Society.
SOCIETY Jles, a duller of ifles, fo named by Captain
Cook in 1769. They are fituated between the latitudes
of 16. 10. and 16. 55. fouth, and between the longi¬
tudes of 150. 57. and 152. weft. They are eight in
number namely, Otaheite, Huaheine, Ulietea, Otaha,
Bolabola, Maurua, Toobouai, and Tabooyamanoo or
Saunders’s ifland. The foil, produdions, people, their
language, religion, cuftoms, and manners, are fo nearly
the fame as at Otaheite, that little need be added here
on that fubjedl. Nature has been equally bountiful in
uncultivated plenty, and the inhabitants are as luxurious
and as indolent. A plantain branch is the emblem of
peace, and exchanging names the greateft token of
friendfhip. Their dances are more elegant, their dra¬
matic entertainments have fomething of plot and con-
fiftency, and they exhibit temporary occurrences as the
objedls of praife or fatirej fo that the origin of ancient
-comedy may be already difcerned among them. I he
people of Huaheine are in general ftouter and fairer than
thofe of Otaheite, and this ifland is remarkable for its
populoufnefs and fertility. Thofe of Ulietea, on the
contrary, are fmaller and blacker, and much lefs orderly.
Captain Cook put on ffiore a Cape ewe at Bolabo a,
where a ram had been left by the Spaniards; and alio
an Englifh boar and fow, with two goats, at Ulietea.
If the valuable animals which have been tranfported
thither from Europe fhould be fuffered to multiply, no
part of the World will equal thefe iflands in variety and
abundance of refrefhments for future navigators.
SOCINIANS, in church hiftory, a fed of Chriltian
heretics, fo called from their founder Fauftus Socmus
(fee Socikus). They maintain^ “ That Jefus Chnlt
was a mere man, who had no exifteree beAre !ie was
conceived by the Virgin Mary } that the Holy GhofUs
:: nn'
•inns.
S 0 C _ [ 457 3
ns, no diftincl perfon., but that the Father is truly and pro- at Sienna,
perly God. They own, that the name of God is given
in the Holy Scriptures to Jefus Chrift j but contend,
that it is only a deputed title, which, however, invefts
him with an abfolute fovereignty over all created beings,
and renders him anobjeft of worfhip to men and angels.
They deny the doftrines of fatisfaftion and imputed
tighteoufnefs •, and fay that Chrill only preached the
truth to mankind, fet before them in himfelf an example
of heroic virtue, and fealed his doftrines with his blood.
Original fin and abfolute predeftination they efteem fcho-
laftic chimeras. They likewife maintain the deep of the
foul, which they fay becomes infenfible at death, and is
raifed again with the body at the refurredtion, when the
good fliall be eftabliihed in the pofleffion of eternal feli¬
city, while the wicked Iball be configned to a fire that
will not torment them eternally, but for a certain dura¬
tion in proportion to their demerits.”
This fe£t has long been indignant at being ftyled So-
cinians. They difclaim every human leader ; and pro-
fetfing to be guided folely by the word of God and the
deductions of reafon, they call themfelves Unitarians,
and a£Fe<t to confider all other Chriftians, even their
friends the Arians, as Polythei/is. Modern Unitaria-
nifm, as taught by Dr Prieftley, is, however, a very
different thing from Socinianifm, as we find it in the
Racovian catechifm and other ffandard works of the
left. This far-famed philofopher has difcovered, what
efcaped the fagacity of all the fratres poloni, that Jefus
Chritt was the fon of Jofeph as well as Mary ; that the
evangelifts miftook the meaning of Ifaiah’s prophecy,
that “ a virgin Ihould conceive and bear a fon that
the applying of this prophecy to the birth of our Savi¬
our, led them to conclude that his conception was mira¬
culous ; and that we are not to wonder at this miftake,
as the apoftles were not always infpired, and were in ge¬
neral inconclufive reafoners. The modefty of the wri¬
ter in claiming the merit of fuch difcoveries will appear
in its proper colours to all our readers : the truth of his
doftrine fliall be confidered in another place. See The¬
ology.
SOCINUS, L^lius, the firfl: author of the feft of
the Socinians, was born at Sienna in Tufcany in 1525.
Being defigned by his father for the law, he began very
early to fearch for the foundation of that fcience in the
w ord of God •, and by that ftudy dilcovered that the
Romifli religion taught many things contrary to revela¬
tion ; when, being defirous of penetrating farther into
the true fenfe of the Scriptures, he ftudied Greek, He¬
brew, and even Arabic. In 1547 he left Italy, to go
and converfe with the Proteflants •, and fpent four years
in travelling through France, England, the Netherlands,
Germany, and Poland, and at length fettled at Zurich.
He by this means became acquainted with the mofl:
learned men of his time, who teftified by their letters
the efteem they had for him : but as he difcovered to
them his doubts, he was greatly fufpefted of herefy. He,
however, condufted himfelf with fuch addrefs, that he
lived among the capital enemies of his opinions, without
receiving the leaft injury. He met with fome difciples,
who heard his inftruftions with refpeft ; thefe were Ita¬
lians who left their native country on account of religion,
and wandered about in Germany and Poland. He
communicated likewife his fentiments to his relations by
his writings, which he caufed to be conveyed to them
Vol. XIX. Part II.
s o c
He died at Zurich in 1562. Thofe who
were of fentiments oppofite to his, and W'ere perlon-
ally acquainted with him, confefs that his outward be¬
haviour was blamelefs. He wrote a Paraphrafe on the
firft chapter of St John ; and other works are afcribed
to him.
Socinus, Faujius, nephew of the preceding, and prin¬
cipal founder of the Socinian feft, was born at Sienna
in 1539. The letters which his uncle Laeiius wrote to
his relations, and which infufed into them many feeds
of herefy, made an impreflion upon him 5 fo that, know¬
ing himfelf not innocent, he fled as well as the reft when
the inquifition began to perfecute that family. He was
at Lyons when he heard of his uncle’s death, and de¬
parted immediately to take pofleftion of his writings.
He returned to Tufcany •, and made himfeli fo agree¬
able to the grand duke, that the charms which he found
in that court, and the honourable polls he filled there,
hindered him for twelve years from remembering that
he had been confidered as the perfon who was to put the
laft hand to the fyftemof famofatenian divinity, of which
his uncle Lselius had made a rough draught. At lait
he went into Germany in 1574, and paid no regard to
the grand duke’s advices to return. He ftaid three years
at Bafil, and ftudied divinity there, and having adopted
a fet of principles very different from the fyftem of
Ptoteftants, he refolved to maintain and propagate them j
for which purpofe he wrote a treatife Dc lefu Chrijlo
Servatore. In 1579 Socinus retired into Poland, and
defired to be admitted into the communion of the Uni¬
tarians ; but as he differed from them in fome points,
on which he refufed to be filent, he met with a repulfc.
However, he did not ceafe to write in defence of their
churches againft thofe who attacked them. At length
his book againft James Paleologus furnifhed his enemies
with a pretence to exafperate the king of Poland againll
him j but though the mere reading of it was fufficient
to refute his accufers, Socinus thought proper to leave
Cracow, after having refided there four years. He then
lived under the proteftion of feveral Polifh lords, and
married a lady of a good family ; but her death, which
happened in 1587, fo deeply afflifted him as to injure
his health $ and to complete his forrow, he was deprived
of his patrimony by the death of Francis de Medicis
great duke of Florence. The confolation be found in
feeing his fentiments at laft approved by feveral mini-
fters, was greatly interrupted in 1598 5 for he met with
a thoufand infults at Cracow, and w'as with great diffi¬
culty faved from the hands of the rabble. His houfe was
plundered, and he loft his goods 5 but this lofs was not
fo uneafy to him as that of fome manuicripts, which he
extremely regretted. To deliver himfelf from fuch
dangers, he retired to a village about nine miles diftant
from Cracow, where he fpent the remainder of his days
at the houfe of Abraham Blonlki, a Polilh gentleman,
and died there in 1604. All Fauftus Socinus’s works
are contained in the two firfl; volumes of the Bibliotheca
Fratrum Polonorum.
SOCMANS, Sokemans, or Socmen {Socmanni'), are
fuch tenants as hold their lands and tenements by focage
tenure. See SoCAGE.
• SOCOTORA, an ifland lying between Alia and
Arabia Felix ; about 50 miles in length, and 22 in
breadth. It is particularly noted for its fine aloes, known
by the name of Socotrine ALOES. The religion of the
3 M natives
Socinui
Socotora.
s o c
[ 453 ]
s o c
Socotora,
Socrates.
natives is a mixture of Mahometanifm and Paganifm j
but they are civil to ftrangers \vho call there in their
' paffage to the Eaft Indies. It abounds in fruit and
cattle •, and they have a king of their own, who is de¬
pendent on Arabia.
SOCRATES, the greateft of the ancient philofo-
phers, tvas born at Alopece, a village near Athens, in
the fourth year of the 77th olympiad. His parents
were of low rank *, his father Sophronifcus being a ita-
tuary, and his mother Pheenareta a midwife. Sophro¬
nifcus brought up his fon, Contrary to his inclination,
in his own manual employment } in which Socrates,
though his mind was continually afpiring after higher
objedls, was not unfuccefsful, lor whilft he was a young
man, he is laid to have formed ftatues of the habited
Graces, which were allowed a place in the citadel of
Athens. Upon the death of his father he was left in
fuch ftraitened circumftanees as laid him under the ne-
ceffity of exercifing that art to procure the means of fub-
filienee, though he devoted, at the fame time, all the ki-
fure which he could command to the ftudy of philofo-
phy His dill refs, however, was foon relieved by Crito,
a wealthy Athenian j who, remarking his tfrong pro-
penlity to finely, and admiring his ingenuous difpofition
and didmguiflred abilities, generoufly took him under
his patronage, and intruded him with the in ill ml ion of
his children. The opportunities which Socrates by this
means enjoyed of attending the public kclures of the
mod eminent philofophers, fo far increafed his third
after wifdom, that he determined to relinquifh his occu¬
pation, and every profpeil of emolument which that
raight’afford, in order to devote himfelf entirely to his
favourite purfuits. Under Anaxagoras and Archelaus
he prufecuted the dudy of nature in the ufual manner
of the philofophers of the age, and became well ac¬
quainted with their doarines. Prodxcus the fophid
was his preceptor in eloquence, Evenus in poetry, 1 he-
odorus in geometry, and Damo in mulic. Afpafia, a
woman no lefs celebrated for her intelkaual than her
per fon al accomplithments, whofe houfe was frequented
by the mod celebrated charaaers, had alfo lome lhare
in the education of Socrates. Under fuch preceptors
it cannot reafonably be doubted but that he. became
mailer of every kind of learning which the age in which
he lived could afford ; and being bleffed with very un¬
common talents by nature, be appeared in Athens, un¬
der the refpeaabk charaaers of a good citizen and a
true philofopher. Being called upon by his country to
take arms in the long and fevere druggie between
Athens and Sparta, be fignalized himfelf at the fiege.of
Potid-cea, both by Ids valour and by the ha'rdinefs with
which he endured fatigue. During the feyerity of a
Thracian winter, whild others were clad in furs, he
wore only his ufual clothing, and walked barefoot up¬
on the ice. In an engagement in which he faw AlXI-
BIADES falling down wounded, he advanced to defend
him, and faved both him and his arms : and though the
prize of valour was on this occafnm unquedionably due
to Socrates, he generoudy gave his vote that it might
be bedowed upon Aleibiades, to encourage nis riling
merit. Heferved in other campaigns with didinguiihed
bravery, and bad the happinefs on one occafion to fave
the life of Xenophon, by bearing him, when covered
with wounds, out of the reach of the enemy.
It was not till Socrates was upwards of 60 years oi
age that he undertook to ferve his country in any civil Socrates,,
office, when he was chofen to reprefent his own didridl,1 r-
in the fenate of five hundred. In this office, though lie
at fird expofed himfalf to fome degree of ridicule from
the want of experience in the forms ot bulinefs, he loon
convinced his colleagues that he was fuperior to them
all in wifdom and integrity. Whild they, intimidated
by the clamours of the populace, paffed an unjud ien-
tenee of condemnation upon the commanders, who,
after the engagement at the Arginufian iilands, had
been prevented by a dorm from paying funeral honour*
to the dead, Socrates dood forth fingly in their defence,
and to the lad refufed to give his fuffrage againd them,
declaring that no force thould compel him to a£l con¬
trary to judice and the laws. Under the fubiequent
tyranny he never ceafed to condemn the oppreilive and
cruel proceedings of the thirty tyrants j and when his
boldnefs provoked their refentment, fo that his life was
in hazard, fearing neither treachery nor violence, he
dill continued to liipport with undaunted firmnels the
rights of his fellow citizens.
Having given thefe proofs of public virtue both in a
military and civil capacity, he wilhed to do dill more
for his country. Obl'erving with regret how much the
opinions of the Athenian youth were nulled, and iljeir
principles and tade corrupted by philofophers who fpi nt
all their time in refined fpeculations upon nature and
the origin of things, and by fophids who taught in
their fehools the arts of falfe eloquence and deceitful
reafoning , Socrates formed the wife and generous de-
fign of inilituting a new and more ufeful method of in-
druftion. He jutlly conceived the true end of philo-
fophy to be, not to make an odentatious difplay oi Su¬
perior learning and ability in fuDtle deputations or in¬
genious conjeftures, but to free mankind from the do¬
minion of pernicious prejudices j to correU their vices j
to infpire them with the love of virtue j and thus con-
du£l them in the path of wifdom to true felicity. He
therefore affumed the character of a moral philofopher,;
and, looking upon the whole city of Athens as Ins
fchool, and all who were difpofod to lend him their
attention as his pupils, he feized every occafion of com¬
municating moral wifdom to his fellow citizens. He
palled the greater part of his time in public; and the me¬
thod of indrudlion of which he chiefly made ufe was, to
propofe a Series of quedions to the perfon with whom he
converfed, in order to lead him to fome unforefeen con-
clufion. He fird gained the confent of his. refpondent
to fome obvious truths, and then obliged him to admit
others from their relation or refemblance to thofe to
which he had already aflented. Without making ufe
of any direef argument or perfuafion, he chofe to lead
the perfon he meant to indraft, to deduce the truths of
which he wilhed to convince him, as a neceffary confe-
quence from his own coneeflions. He commonly con-
dufted thefe conferences with fuch addrefs, as to con¬
ceal his defign till the refpondent had advanced, too.far
to recede. On fome occafions he made ufe of ironical
language, that vain men might be caught in their own
replies* and be obliged to confefs their ignorance. He
never affumed the air of a morofe and rigid preceptor,
but communicated ufeful indruftion with all the eaie
and pleafantry of polite converfation. Though emi¬
nently furnilhed with every kind of learning, he prefer¬
red moral to Speculative wifdom. Convinced that phi-
s O C r 459 ] S O €
:rates. lofopliy is valuable, not as it furniflies queflions for tlie
"V ' fchools, but as it provides men with a law of life, he
cenfured his predeceffors for fpending all their time in
abilrufe refearches into nature, and taking no pains to
render theiofelves ufcftil to mankind. His favourite
maxim was, Whatever is above us doth not concern us-.
He eflimated the value of knowledge by its utility, and
recommended the ftudy of geometry, aftronomy, and
other fcienees, only fo far as they admit of a practical
application to the purpofes of human life. His great
object in all his conferences and difeourfes was, to lead
men into an acquaintance with themfelves ; to convince
them of their follies and vices *, to infpire them with the
love of virtue ; and to furnifh them with ufeful moral
inftruihions. Cicero might therefore very juilly fay of
Socrates, that he was the firlt who called down philo-
fophy from heaven to earth, and introduced her into the
public walks and domeftic retirements of men, that fire
might inftrufl them concerning life and manners.
Through his whole life this good man difeovered a
mind fuperior to the attraftions of wealth and power.
Contrary to the general praftice of the preceptors of
his time, he inftrufted his pupils without receiving from
them any gratuity. He frequently refufed rich pre¬
fects, which -were offered him by Alcibiades and others,
though importunately urged to accept them by his
wife. 'The chief men of Athens were his ftewards :
they fent him in prdvifions, as they apprehended he
wanted them *, he took what his prefect wants required,
and returned the reft. Obferving the numerous articles
of luxury which were expofed to fale in Athens, he ex¬
claimed, “ Howt many things are there which 1 do not
want 1” With Socrates, moderation fupplied the place
of wealth. In his clothing and food, he confulted only
the demands of nature. He commonly appeared in a
heat but plain cloak, with his feet uncovered. Though
his table was only fupplied with lira-pie fare, he did not
fcruple to invite men of fuperior rank to partake of his
meals ; and when his wife, upon fome fueh occafioh, ex-
prefled her diflatisfadfion on being no better provided,
he deflred her to give herfelf no concern •, for if his
guefts were wife men, they would be contented with
whatever they found at his table •, if otherwife, they
were unworthy of notice. Whilft others, fays he, live
to eat, wife men eat to live.
Though Socrates was exceedingly unfortunate in his
domeftic connexion, he converted this infelicity into an
oecafion of exerciling his virtues. Xantippe, concern¬
ing whofe ill humour ancient writers relate many amu-
iing tales, was certainly a woman of a high and unma¬
nageable fpirit. But Socrates while he endeavoured
to curb the violence of her temper, improved his own.
When Alcibiades expreffed his furprife that his friend
could bear to live in the fame houfe with fo perverfe
and quarrelfome a companion, Socrates replied, that be¬
ing daily inured to ill humour at home, he was the
better prepared to encounter perverfenefs and injury
abroad.
In the midft of domeftic vexations and public difor-
ders, Socrates retained fuch an unruffled ferenity, that
he was never feen either to leave his own houfe or to
return home with a difturbed countenance. In acqui¬
ring this entire dominion over his paflions and appetites,
he had the greater merit, as it was not effe&ed without
a violent ftruggle againft his natural propenfities. Zo-
pyrus, an eminent phyliognomift, declared, that he dif- Socrates,
covered in the features of the philofopher evident traces -rr v *J—J
of many vicious inclinations. The friends of Socrates
who were prefent ridiculed the ignorance of this pre¬
tender to extraordinary fagacity. But Socrates himfelf
ingenuouily acknowledged his penetration, and confefled
that he was in his natural difpofition prone to vice, but
that he had fubdued his inclinations by the power of
reafon and philofophy.
Through the whole of his life Socrates gave himfelf
up to the guidance of unbiafied reafon, which is fuppo-
fed by fome to be all that he meant by the genius or
deemon from which he profeffed to receive inftrudtion.
But this opinion is inconfiftent with the accounts given
by liis followers of that daemon, and even with the Ian-
guage in which he fpoke of it himfelf. Plato fome-
times calls it his guardian, and Apuleius his^or/; and as
Xenophon attefts that it was the belief of his mailer
that the gods occafionally communicate to men the
knowledge of future events, it is by no means improbable
that Socrates admitted, with the generality of his coun¬
trymen, the exiftence of thofe intermediate beings called
dcvmons, of one of which he might fancy himfelf the pe¬
culiar care.
It was one of the maxims of Socrates, “ That a wife
man will worftiip the gods according to the inftitutions
of the ftate to which he belongs.” Convinced of the
weaknefs of the human underftanding, and perceiving
that the pride of philofophy had led his predeceffors in¬
to futile {peculations on the nature and origin of things,
he judged it moft conftftent with true wifdom to fpeak
with caution and reverence concerning the divine na¬
ture.
The wifdom and the virtues of this great man, whilft
they procured him many followers, created him aifo
many enemies. J he Sophifts*, whofe knavery and ig-*See So*
nornnee he took every opportunity of expofing to pub-^i/7-
lie contempt, became inveterate in their enmity againft
fo bold a reformer, and deviled an expedient, by which
they hoped to check the current of his popularity. They
engaged Ariftophanes, the firft buffoon of the age, to
write a comedy, in which Socrates ftiould be the princi¬
pal character. Ariftophanes, pleafed with fo promifmg
an occafion of difplaying his low and malignant wit,
undertook the talk, and produced the comedy of The
Clouds, ftill extant in his works. In this piece, Socrates
is introduced hanging in a balket in the air, and thence
pouring, forth abfurdity and profanenefs. But the phi¬
lofopher, Ihowing in a crowded theatre that he was
wholly unmoved by this ribaldry, the fatire failed of its
effeft ; and xvhen Ariftophanes attempted the year fol¬
lowing to renew the piece with alterations and additions,
the reprefenlaiion was fo much difeouraged, that he was
obliged to difeontinue it.
From this time Socrates continued for many years to
purfue without interruption his laudable delign of in-
ftrudling and reforming his fellow citizens. At length,
however, when the inflexible integrity with which he
had. difeharged the duty of a fenator, and the firmnefs
with which he had oppofed every kind of political cor¬
ruption and oppreffion, had greatly increafed the num¬
ber of his enemies, clandeftine arts were employed to
raife a general prejudice againft him* The people wer#
induftrioufly reminded, that Critias, who had been one
of the moft cruel ofihe thirty tyrants, and Alcibiades,
$ NL 2 who
s o c
[
Socrates. w^0 inful ted religion, by defacing the public fta-
tues of Mercury, and performing a mock reprefentation
of the Eleufinian myfteries, had in their youth been dif-
ciples of Socrates 5 and the minds of the populace be-
ing thus prepared, a direft aceufation was preferred
againfl him before the fupreme court of judicature. His
accufers were Anytus a leather-dreffer, who had long
entertained a perfonal enmity againft Socrates, for re¬
prehending his avarice, in depriving his fons of the be¬
nefits of learning, that they might purfue the gains of
trade*, Melitus, a young rhetorician, who was capable
of undertaking any thing for the fake of gain; and Ly-
con, who was glad of any opportunity of difplaymg his
talents. The accufation, which was delivered to the fe-
nate under the name of Melitus, was this: “ Melitus,
{'on of Melitus, of the tribe of Pythos, accufeth Socrates,
fori of Sophronifcus, of the tribe of Alopece. Socrates
violates the laws, in not acknowledging the gods which
the Hate acknowledges, and by introducing new divini¬
ties. He alfo violates the laws by corrupting the youth.
Be his punilhment death.”
'fhis charge was delivered upon oath to the fenate ^
and Crito a friend of Socrates became furety for his ap¬
pearance on the day of trial. Anytus foon afterwards
font a private meffage to Socrates, alfuring him that if
he would defifl from cenfuring his condua, he would
withdraw his accufation. But Socrates refufed to com¬
ply with fo degrading a condition; and with his ufual
fpirit replied, “ Whilft I live I will never difguife the
truth, nor fpeak other wife than my duty requires.”
The interval between the accufation and the trial he
fpent in philofophical converfations with his friends,
choofing to difcourfe upon any other fubjea rather than
his own fituation.
When the day of trial arrived, his accufers appeared
in the fenate, and attempted to fupport their charge in
three dillinft fpeeches, which ftrongly marked their re-
fpeftive chara&ers. Plato, who was a young man, and
a zealous follower of Socrates, then rofe up to addrefs
the judges in defence of his mafter; but whilft he was
attempting to apologife for his youth, he was abruptly
commanded by the court to fit down. Socrates, how¬
ever, needed no advocate. Amending the chair with all
the ferenity of confeious innocence, and with all the
dignity of fuperior merit, he delivered, in a firm and
manly tone, an unpremeditated defence ofhimfelf, which
filenced his opponents, and ought to have convinced his
judges. After tracing the progrefs of the conlpiracy
which had been raifed againft him to its true fource,
the jealoufy and refenlment of men whofe ignorance he
had expofed, and whofe vices he had ridiculed and re¬
proved' he diftin&ly replied to the feveral charges
brought againft him by Melitus. To prove that he
had not been guilty of impiety towards the gods ot his
460 ] s o c
and the effefl which had aftually been produced by his Socrates
doflrine upon the manners of the young, ihen, dif-~T-»
daining to folicit the mercy of his judges, he called up¬
on them for that juftice which their office and their
oath obliged them toadminifter; and profefling his faith
and confidence in God, refigned himielf to their plea-
fure.
The judges, whofe prejudices would not fuffer them
to pay due attention to this apology, or to examine with
impartiality the merits of the caufe, immediately de¬
clared him guilty of the crimes of which he itood ac-
cufed. Socrates, in this ftage of the trial, had a right
to enter his plea againft the punifhment which the ac¬
cufers demanded, and inftead of the fentence of death,
to propofe feme pecuniary amercement. But he at firft
peremptorily refufed to make any propofal of this kind,
imagining that it might be conftrued into an acknow¬
ledgement of guilt; and afferted, that his conduct merit¬
ed from the ftate reward rather than puniftiment. At
length, however, he wTas prevailed upon by his friends
to offer upon their credit a fine of thirty minx. The
judges, notwithftanding, ftill regained inexorable : they
proceeded, without farther delay, to pronounce fentence
upon him : and he was condemned to be put to death
by the poifon of hemlock.
The fentence being paffed, he was fent to prifon:
which, fays Seneca, he entered with the fame refold-
tion and firmnefs with which he had oppofed the thirty
tyrants; and took away all ignominy from the place,-
which could not be a prifon while he was thert. He
lay in fetters 30 days; and was conflantly vifited by
Crito, Plato, and other friends, with whom he paffed
the time in difpute after his ufual manner. Anxious to
fave fo valuable a life, they urged him to attempt his
efcape, or at leaft to permit them to convey him away;
and Crito went fo far, as to affure him that, by his in-
tereft with the jailor, it might be eafily aceompliffed,
and to offer him a retreat in Theffaly; but Socrates rc-
je&ed the propofal, as a criminal violation of the laws;
and afked them, whether there was any -place out of
Attica which death could not reach.
At length the day arrived when the officers to whofe
care he was committed delivered to Socrates early in
the morning the final order for his execution, and im¬
mediately, according to the law, fet him at liberty iiom
his bonds. His friends, who came thus, early to the
prifon that they might have an opportunity of conver-
fing with their mafter through the day, found his wife
fitting by him with a child in her arms. Socrates, that
the tranquillity of his laft moments might not be dif-
turbed by her unavailing lamentations, requefted that
{he might be conduced home. Mith the moft frantic
expreflions of grief the left the prifon. An intereftmg
converfation then paffed between Socrates and his friends,
had not been guilty of impiety towar s ie go ^ o is chjefj turned upon the immortality of the foul.
Mend, that his chief fupport in hisprefe* lUnation was
them. To refute the charge of his having been a cor¬
rupter of youth, he urged the example which he had
uniformly exhibited of juftice, moderation,, and tempe¬
rance; the moral fpirit and tendency of his difeourfes:
ed that it will conduft me into the prelence of the gods,
who are the moft righteous governors, and into the io-
ciety of juft and good men: but I derive confidence
from the hope that fomething of man remains alter
3 O C [ 461 ] SOD
; at#?, death, and that the condition of good men will then be
much better than that of the bad.” Crito afterwards
alking him in what manner he widled to be buried ?
Socrates replied with a fmile, “ As you pleafe, pro¬
vided I do not efcape out of your hands.” Then, turn¬
ing to the reft of his friends, he faid, “ Is it not ftrange,
after all that I have faid to convince you that I am go¬
ing to the fociety of the happy, that Crito ftill thinks
that this body, which will toon be a lifelefs corpfe, is
Socrates ? Let him difpofe of my body as he pleafes,
but let him not at its interment mourn over it as if it
were Socrates.”
Towards the clofe of the day he retired into an ad¬
joining apartment to bathe ; his friends, in the mean
time, exprefling to one another their grief at the pro-
fpe£l of lofing fo excellent a father, and being left to
pafs the reft of their days in the folitary ftate of or¬
phans. After a fhort interval, during which he gave
fome neceffary inftrudtions to his domeftics, and took
his laft leave of his children, the attendant of the prifon
informed him that the time for drinking the poifon
was come. The executioner, though accuftomed to
fuch fcenes, ftied tears as he prefented the fatal cup.
Socrates received it without change of countenance or
the leaft appearance of perturbation : then offering up
a prayer to the gods that they would grant him a prof-
perous paffage into the invifible world, with perfect
compofure he fwallowed the poifonous draught. His
friends around him burft into tears. Socrates alone re¬
mained unmoved. He upbraided their pufillanimity,
and entreated them to exercife a manly conftancy wor¬
thy of the friends of virtue. He continued walking tiil
the chilling operation of the hemlock obliged him to lie
down upon his bed. After remaining for a ftiort time
filent, he requefted Crito (probably in order to refute a
calumny which might prove injurious to his friends af¬
ter his deceafe) not to negleft the offering of a cock
j which he had vowed to Efculapius. Then, covering
himfelf with his cloak, he expired. Such was the fate
of the virtuous Socrates! A ftory, fays Cicero, which I
never read without tears.
The friends and difciples of this illuftrious teacher
of wifdom were deeply afflicted by his death, and at¬
tended his funeral with every expreflion of grief. Ap-
prehenfive, however, for their own fafety, they foon af¬
terwards privately withdrew from the city, and took up
their refidence in diftant places. Several of them vifit-
ed the philofopher Euclid of Megara, by whom they
j were kindly received. No fooner was the unjuft con¬
demnation of Socrates known through Greece, than a
general indignation was kindled in the minds of good
men, who univerfally regretted that fo diftinguiftied an
advocate for virtue (hould have fallen a faerifice to jea-
loufy and envy. The Athenians themfelves, fo remark¬
able for their caprice, who never knew the value of
their great men till after their death, foon became fen-
hble of the folly as well as criminality of putting to
death the man who had been the chief ornament of
their city and of the age, and turned their indignation
againft his accufers. Melitus was condemned to death;
and Anytus, to efcape a (imilar fate, went into volun¬
tary exile. To give a farther proof of the fincerity of
their regret, the Athenians for a while interrupted pub¬
lic bufinefs; decreed a genera; m urning ; recalled the
Exiled friends of Socrates; and eredled a ftatue to his
memory in one of the moft frequented parts of the city. Socrates,
Elis death happened in the firft year of the 96th olym- St)C*a-
piad, and in the 70th year of his age. *
Socrates left behind him nothing in writing; but
his illuftrious pupils Xenophon and Plato have in fome
meafure fupplied this defect. The Memoirs of Socra¬
tes, written by Xenophon, afford, however, a much
more accurate idea of the opinions of Socrates, and of
his manner of teaching, than the Dialogues of Plato,
who everywhere mixes his own conceptions and diftion
with the ideas and language of his mafter. It is related,
that when Socrates heard Plato recite his Lyfis, he faid,
“ How much does this young man make me fay which
I never conceived !”
His diftinguithing character was that of a moral phi¬
lofopher ; and his doctrine concerning God and religion
was rather practical than fpeculative. But die did not
negledt to build the ftrudture of religious faith upon
the firm foundation of an appeal to natural appearances:
Ele taught that the Supreme Being, though invifible,
is clearly feen in his works: which at oncedemonftrate
his exiftence and his wife and benevolent providences
He admitted, befides the one Supreme Deity, the ex¬
iftence of beings who poffefs a middle ftation between
God and man, to whofe immediate agency he afcribed
the ordinary phenomena of nature, and whom he fup-
pofed to be particularly concerned in the management
of human affairs. Hence he declared it to1oe the duty
of every one, in the performance of religious rites, to
follow the cuftoms of his country. At the fame time,
he taught, that the merit of all religious offerings de¬
pends upon the chara&er of the worfliipper, and that the
gods take pleafure in the facrifices of none but the truly
pious.
Concerning the human foul, the opinion of Socrates;
according to Xenophon, was, that it is allied to the Di¬
vine Being, not by a participation of effence, but by a
fimilarity of nature; that man excels all other animals
in the faculty of reafon ; and that the exiftence of good
men will be continued after death in a ftate in which
they will receive the reward of their virtue. Although
it appears that on this latter topic he was not wholly
free from uncertainty, the confolation which he profef-
fed to derive from this fource in the immediate profpeft
of death, leaves little room to doubt that he entertained
a real expectation of immortality : and there is reafon
to believe that he was the only philofopher of ancient
Greece whofe principles admitted of fuch an expecta¬
tion (fee Metaphysics, Part III. Chap. iv.). Of his
moral fyftem, which was in a high degree pure, and
founded on the fureft bafis, the reader will find a ftiort
view in our article Moral Philosophy, N° 4.
Socrates was alfo the name of an ecclefiaftical hi-
ftorian of the 5th century, born at Conftantinople in the
beginning of the reign of Theodofius : he profeffed the
law and pleaded at the bar, whence he obtained the
name of ScholaJIicus. He wrote an ecclefiaftical hiftory
from the year 309, where Eufebius ended, down to
440; and wrote with great exaCtnefs and iudgment.
An edition of Eufebius and Socrates, in Greek and
Latin, with notes by Reading, was publiftied at London
in 1720.
SODA, the name given by the French chemifts to
the mineral alkali, which is found native in manv parts
of the world : it is obtained alfo from common fait, and
from
Sods,
II
Sodor.
SOD
from the allies of the huli, a Ipecies of falfola.
[ 462
  ^ See Che¬
mistry Index, for an account of its properties and com-
, binations: but long after that article was written, lb-
da and potafn were decompoled by means of galva-
nifm; and the alkalies, hitherto confidered as limple
fubltances, appear, from the experiments of Mr .Davy,
who firll made the difcovery, to be compounds of oxy¬
gen and a metallic bafe. Mr Davy’s conclufions have
•been controverted by feme of the French chemifts } and
as the fubjeft may perhaps in a few months receive feme
farther elucidation, we lhall delay our account of the
whole till we come to deferibe the apparatus by which
the experiments are conducted. See 1 ROUGH, Garoa-.
nic.
Soda is alfo a name for a heat in the Itomach, or
heart-burn, See Medicine, N° 275. _
SODOM, formerly a town of Palelline in Alia, fa¬
mous in Scripture for the wickednefs of its inhabitants,
and their deftruftion by fire from heaven on account of
that wickednefs. The place where it Hood is now co¬
vered by the waters of the Dead fea, or the lake Afphal-
tites. See Asphaltites.
SODOMY, an unnatural crime, fo called from the
city of Sodom, which was dellroyed by fire for the
fame. The Levitical law adjudged thofe guilty of this
execrable crime to death •, and the civil law affigns the
fame punilhment to it. 1 he law of Dngland makes it
felony. There is no llatute in Scotland again!! fodo-
my ; the libel of the crime is therefore founded on the
divine law, and practice makes its punilhment to be
burned alive.
SODOR, a name always conjoined with Man, in
‘mentioning the bilhop of Man’s diocefe. Concerning
the origin and application of this word, very difierent
opinions have been formed by the learned. Buchanan
(lib. i. cap. 34.) fays, that before his time the name of
Sodor was given to a town in the ille of Man. In
Gough’s edition of Camden’s Britanmu (vol. iii. p. 7OI0
-it is (aid, that after the ille of Man was annexed to the
crown of England, this appellation was given to a fmall
illand within mulket-fhot of Man, in which the cathe¬
dral Hands, called by the Norwegians the Holm, and
by the inhabitants the Peel. In fupport of this opinion,
a charter is quoted A. D. 1505, in which Thomas earl
of Derby and lord of Man confirms to Huan Heflceth
bilhop of Sodor all the lands, &c. anciently belonging
to the bifhops of Man. “ Ecclefiam cathedralem fan ft i
Germam in Holm Sodor vel Vele vocataro, ecclefiam
fanfti Patricii ibidem, et locum preefatum in quo eccle-
fue prajfata} litre funt.” The truth of either, or perhaps
of both, thefe accounts might be allowed ; but neither
of them is fuflfierent to account, for the conitant con-
junftion of Sodor and Man, in charters, regifters, and
hiftories. If Sodor was a fmall town or illand belong¬
ing to Man, it cannot be conceived why it is always
mentioned before it, or rather why it Ihould be men¬
tioned at all in fpeaking of a bilhop’s diocefe. Io
fpeak of the bilhopric of Sodor and Man in this cafe
would be as improper as it would be to call the bifiwp-
ric of Durham the bilhopric of Holy Ifland and Dur¬
ham, or the bilhopric of Darlington and Durham •, the
former being a fmall ifiand and the latter a town belong¬
ing to the county and diocefe of Durham. Neither of
thefe accounts, therefore, gives a fatisfaftory account of
the original conjunftion of Sodor and Man.
c
] S O F
The illand of Iona was the place where the bilhop of
the Hies refided, the cathedral church of which, it is
laid, was dedicated to our Saviour, in Greek Sotei',
hence Sotorcnfes, which might be corrupted into Sodo-
renfes, a name frequently given by Daniih writers to
the weftern illes of Scotland. That we may be the
more difpofed to accede to this Grecian etymology, the
advocates for this opinion tell us, that the name Icolum-
kill, which is often applied to this illand, is alio of Greek
extraction, being derived from Columba, “ a pigeon j”
a meaning that exaftly correfponds to the Celtic word
Colum and the Hebrew word Iona. Me mult confefs,
however, that we have very little faith in the conjec¬
tures of etymologiits, and think that upon no occalion
they alone can eltabiidi any faft, though when concur¬
ring with fafts they certainly tend to confirm and ex¬
plain them. It is only from hiftorical fafts that we can
know to what Sodor was applied.
It appears from the hillory of the Orkneys, compiled
by an old Icelandic writer, tranllated and enlarged by
Torfmus, that the Aibudm or Weltern Hies of Scotland
were divided into two clutters, Nordureys and Sudereys.
The Nordureys, which were leparated from the Sude¬
reys by the point of Ardnamurchan, a promontory in
Argylethire, eonfifted of Muck, Egg, Rum, Canna,
Skye, Rafay, Barra, South Uilt, North Uift, Benbe-
cula, and Lewis, including Harris, with a great num¬
ber of 1'mall illes. The Sudereys were, Man, Arran,
Bute, Cumra, Avon, Gid, 11a, Colonfay, Jura, Scarba,
Mull, Iona, Three, Coll, Ulva, and other Imall iftands.
All thefe, when joined together, and fubjeft to the lame
prince, made up the kingdom of Man and the Illes. In
the Norwegian language, Slider and Norder fignify
fouthern ami northern, and ey or ay an illand. When
the iEbudae were under one monarch, the feat of em¬
pire was fixed in the Sudereys, and the Nordureys were
governed by deputies j hence the former are much of-
tener mentioned in hiitory than the latter ; hence, too,
the Sudereys often comprehend the Nordureys, as in
our days Scotland is lometimes comprehended under
England. Sudereys, or Sudor, when anglicifed, be¬
came Sodor ; and all the Weftern ides of Scotland being
included in one diocefe under the Norwegian princes,
the bithop appointed to fuperintend them was called the
bilhop of Man and the Illes, or the billiop of Sodor and
Man. Since Man was conquered by Edward 111. it
has been leparated from the other illes, and its bilhops
have exercifed no juriidiftion over them. Should it now
be alked, why then is the biihop of Man Hill called the
bilhop of Sodor and Man ? we reply, that we have been
able to difeover no re a fanbut {up pole the appellation
to be continued in the fame way, as the title king of
France has been kept up by the kings of Great Britain,
for feveral centuries after the Engliih were entirely ex¬
pelled from‘France.
SOFA, in the eaft, a kind of alcove raifed half a
foot above the floor of a chamber or other apartment j
and uftd as the place of ftate, where vilitors of diftinc-
tion are received. Among the Turks the whole floor
of their Hate-rooms is covered with a kind of tape it ry,
and on the wmdow-fide is raifed a fofa orfopha, laid
with a kind of mattrefs, covered with a carpet much
richer than the other. Oft this carpet the i urks are
feated, both men and women, like the tailors in Eng¬
land, crofs-legged, leaning again!! the wall, which is
bolllered
$ O H C 463 ] SOI
bolftered with velvet, fatin, or other fluff fuitable to the
feafon. Here they eat their meals ; only laying a fkin
, over the carpet to ferve as a tablecloth, and a round
wooden board over all, covered with plates, 8cc.
SOFAL A, or Cefala, a kingdom of Africa, lying
on the coaft of Mofambique, near Zanguebar. It is
bounded on the north by Monomotapa ; on the eaft by
the Mofambique fea ; on the fouth by the kingdom of
Sabia •, and on the weft by that of Manica. It con¬
tains mines of gold and iron, and a great number of ele¬
phants. It is governed by a king, tributary to the Por-
tuguefe, who built a fort at the principal town, which
is of the fame name, and of great importance for their
trade to the Eaft Indies. It is feated in a fmall ifland.
near the mouth of a river. E. Long. 35. 4c. S. Lat.
20. 20.
SOFFI 1 A, or Soffit, in Architecture, any timber
ceiling formed of crofs beams of flying corniches, the
fquare compartiments or pannels of which are enriched
with fculpture, painting, or gilding; fuch are thofe in
the palaces of Italy, and in the apartments of Luxem¬
bourg at Paris.
Soffit A, or Coffit, is alfo ufed for the underGde or
face of an architrave; and more particularly for that of
the corona or larmier, which the ancients called lacunar,
the French plafond, and we ufually the drip. It is en¬
riched with compartiments of rofes ; and in the Doric
order lias 18 drops, difpofed in three ranks, fix in each,
placed to the right of the guttoe, at the bottom of the
triglyphs.
SC)FI, or Sopiii. See Sophi.
SOFTENING, in Painting, the mixing and dilut¬
ing of colours with the bruih or pencil.
SOHO, the name of a fet of works, or manufactory
of a variety of hardwares, belonging to the late Mr
Boulton, fituated on the borders of Staffordthire, within
two miles of Birmingham ; now fo juftly celebrated as
to deferve a (hurt hiftorieal detail.
About 30 years ago the premifes confifted of a fmall
mill and a few obfcure dwellings. Mr Boulton, in con-
junftion with Mr Fothergill, then his partner, at an ex¬
pence of 900DI. eredted a handfome and extenfive edi¬
fice, with a view of manufacturing metallic toys. The
firft productions confifted of buttons, buckles, watch-
chains, trinkets, and fueh other articles as were peculiar
to Birmingham. Novelty, tafte, and variety, were
however always confpicuous ; and plated wares, known
by the name of Sheffield plate, comprifing a great va¬
riety of ufeful and ornamental articles, became another
permanent fubjedt of manufacture.
To open channels for the confumotion of thefe com¬
modities, all the northern part of Europe was explored
by the mercantile partner Mr Fothergill. A wide and
extenfive correfpondence was thus eftabliflied, The un¬
dertaking became well known, and the manufadturer,
by becoming his own merchant, eventually enjoyed a
double profit.
Impelled by an ardent attachment to the arts, and by
the patriotic ambition of forming bis favourite Soho into
a fruitful feminary of artifts, the proprietor extended his
views ; and men of tafte and talents were now fought
for, and liberally patronifed. A fuccefsful imitation of
the French or moulife ornaments, confifting of vafes,
tripods, candelabra, &c. &c. extended the celebrity of
the works. Services of plate and other works in fiiver,
both mailive and airy, were added, and an affay office
was eltablifhed in Birmingham.
Mr Watt, the ingenious improver of the fteam-en-
gine, was afterwards taken into partnerfhip with PTr
Boulton ; and they carried on at Soho a manufadtory of
fleam-engines, not lefs beneficial to the public than lu¬
crative to themfelves. This valuable machine, the na¬
ture and excellencies of which are defcribed in another
place (fee STEAM-Engine), Mr Boulton propofed to ap~
ply to the operation of coining, and fuitable apparatus-
was eredted at a great expence, for the purpof’e of being
employed by government to make a new copper-coinage
for the kingdom. Artiits of merit were engaged, and
fpecimens of exquifite delicacy were exhibited ; the
works were alfo employed upon highly finifhed medals
and private coins. To enumerate all the produdtions of
this manufadtory would be tedious (a).
In a national view, Mr Boulton’s undertakings are
highly valuable and important. By eolledting around
him artifts of various defcriptions, rival talents have been,
called forth, and by fuceeflive competition have been
multiplied to an extent highly beneficial to the public.
The manual arts partook of the benefit, and became
proportionably improved.
A barren heath has been covered with plenty and po¬
pulation ; and Air Boulton’s works, which in their in¬
fancy were little known and attended to, now cover fe-
veral acres, give employment to more than 600 perfons,
and are faid to be the firit of their kind in Europe.
SOIL, the mould covering the furface of the earth,
in which vegetables grow. It ferves as a iupport for
vegetables, and as a refervoir for receiving and commu¬
nicating nouriilrment.
So:L are commonly double or triple compounds of the
feveral reputed primitive earths, except the barytic.
The magnefian likevvjfe fparingly occurs. The more
fertile foils afford alfo a fmall proportion of coally fub-
ftance arifing from putrefaction, and fume traces of ma¬
rine acid and gypfum. The vulgar divifion into clay,
chalk, land, and gravel, is well underflood. . Loam de¬
notes any foil moderately adhetive ; and, according to
the ingredient that predominates, it receives the epithets
of clayey, chalky, fandy, or gravelly. The intimate
mixture of clay with the oxydes of iron is called ff//,
and is of a hard confiftence. and a dark reddifh colour.
Soils are found by analyfis to.contain their eartbv ingre-
diontS'in very different proportions. According to M.
Giobert, fertile mould .in the vicinitv of Turin, where
the fall of rain amounts yearly , to 40 inches, affords for
each 100 parts, from 77 to 79 of iiiex, from 8 to 14 of
argill, and from 5 to 1 2 of lime ; hendes about one-half
of carbonic matter, and nearly an equal weight of gas,
partly carbonic and partly hydrocaibonkn The fame
experimenter reprefents the compofition of barren foils
in fimilar fituations to be from 42 to 88.per cent, of fi¬
le x,
(A) It was at this place, in the year 1772, that Mr Eginton invented an expeditious method of copyiftg pic-,
tures in oil j but we do not know how far this method has fucceeded.
S O L
[ 46+ 1
SOL
Soil
II
Solan-
goofe.
lex, from 20 to 30 of argill, and from 4 to 20 of lime.
The celebrated Bergman found rich foils in the valleys
of Sweden, where the annual quantity of rain is 24
inches, to contain, for each 100 parts, 56 of filiceous
fand, 14 of argill, and 30 of lime. In the climate of
Paris, where the average fall of rain is 20 inches, fertile
mixtures, according to M. Tillet, vary from 46 to 52
per cent, of filex, and from 11 to'17 of argill, with 37
of lime. Hence it appears that in dry countries rich
earths are of a clofer texture, and contain more of the
calcareous ingredient, with lefs of the filiceous. Ivlr
Arthur Young has difeovered, that the value of fertile
lands is nearly proportioned to the quantities of gas
which equal weights of their foil afford by diflillation.
See Agriculture Index.
SOISSONS, an ancient, large, and confiderable city
of France, in the department of Ailne and late province
of Soiffonnois. It was the capital of a kingdom of the
fame name, under the firft race of the French monarchs.
It contains about 12,000 inhabitants, and is a bifhop’s
fee. The environs are charming, but the ftreets are
narrow, and the houfes ill-built. Fhe fine cathedral has
one of the moft confiderable chapters in the kingdom j
and the bifhop, when the archbifliop of Rheims was ab-
fent, had a right to crown the king. The caftle, though
ancient, is not that in which the kings of the firft race
refided. Soiffons is feated in a very pleafant and fertile
valley, on the river Aifne, 30 miles weft by north of
Rheims, and 60 north-eaft of Paris. E. Long. 3. 24.
N. Lat. 49. 23.
SOKE, or SoK. See SOCAGE.
SOKEMANS. See Soc and Socage.
SOL, in Mujic, the fifth note of the gamut, ut, re,
la. See Gamut.
Sol, or Sou, a French coin made up of copper mixed
with a little filver, and is worth upwards of an Englifh
halfpenny, or the 23d part of an Englifti fhilling. I he
fol when firft ftruck -was equal in value to 1 2 deniers
Tournois, whence it was alfo called dou-zain, a name it
flill retains, though its ancient value be changed j the
fol having been fince augmented by three deniers, and
ftruck with a puncheon of a fleur-de-lis, to make it cur¬
rent for 15 deniers. Soon after the old fols were coined
over again, and both old and new were indifferently
made current for 15 deniers. In 1709, the value of
the fame fols was raifed to 18 deniers. 1 owards the
latter end of the reign of Louis XIV. the fol of 18 de¬
niers was again lowered to 15 ; and by the late king it
was reduced to the original value of 12. What it is at
prefent pofterity may perhaps difeover.
The Dutch have alio two kinds of fols : the one of
filver, called fols de gros, and like wife fchelling; the
other of copper, called alfo fuyver.
Sol, the Sun, in Astronomy, Astrology, &c. See
Astronomy, pafjim.
Sol, in Chemiftry, is gold j thus called from an opi¬
nion that this metal is in a particular manner under the
influence of the fun.
Sol, in Heraldry, denotes Or, the golden colour in
the arms of fovereign princes.
SOL ALUS, or Soleus, in Anatomy, one of the ex-
tenfor muffles of the foot, rifing from the upper and
hinder parts of the tibia and fibula.
. SOLAN-goose. See Pelicanus, Ornithology
Index.
SOLANDRA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clals of monadelphia, and to the order of polyandria •,
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 38th or¬
der, Tncoccece. See Botany Index.
SOLANUM, a genus of the monogynia order, be¬
longing to the pentandria clafs ol piants} and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 28th order, Lwidce.
See Botany Index.
SOLAR, fomething belonging to the Sun.
SOLAR-Spots. See Astronomy Index.
SOLDAN. See Sultan.
SOLDANELLA, a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of pentandria, and order ot monogynia j and
in the natural fyftem arranged under the 21ft order,
Precice. See Botany Index.
SOLDER, SoDDER, or Soder, a metallic or mineral
compufition ufed in foldering or joining together other
metals. .
Solders are made of gold, filver, copper, tin, biimuth,
and lead ; ufually obferving, that in the compofition
there be fome oi the metal that is to be foldered mixed
with fome higher and finer metals. Goldimiths ulually
make four kinds of folder, viz. folder ot eight, where
to feven parts of filver there is one of brafs or copper ;
folder of fix, where only a fixth part is copper folder
of four,' and folder of three. It is the mixture of cop¬
per in the folder that makes raiffd plate come always
cheaper than flat.
As mixtures of gold with a little copper aie found
to melt with lefs heat than pure gold itfelf, thefe mix¬
tures ferve as folders for gold : two pieces of fine gold
are foldered by gold that has a fmall admixture of cop¬
per ; and gold alloyed with copper is foldered by fuch
as is alloyed with more copper : the workmen add a
little filver as well as copper, and vary the proportions
of the two to one another, fo as to make the colour of
the folder correfpond as nearly as may be to that of the
piece. A mixture of gold and copper is alfo a folder
for fine copper as well as for fine gold. Gold being
particularly difpofed to unite with iron, proves an ex¬
cellent folder for the finer kinds of iron and fteel inftiu-
The folder ufed by plumbers is made of two pounds
of lead to one of block-tin. Its goodnefs is tried by
melting it, and pouring the bignefs of a crown-piece on
a table ; for, if good, there will arife little bright ftuning
ftars therein. The folder for copper is made like that
of the plumbers ; only with copper and tin ; and lor
very nice works, inftead of tin, they fometimes ule a
quantity of filver. Solder for tin is made of two-thirds
of tin and one of lead, or of equal parts of each -,_but
where the work is any thing delicate, as in organ-pipes,
where the junaure is fcarce difcernible, it is made ot
one part of bifmuth and three parts of pewter. Hie
pewterers ufe a kind of folder made with two parts ot
tin and one of bifmuth ; this compofition melts with the
leaft heat of any of the folders.
Silver folder is that which is made of two parts ot
filver and one of brafs, and ufed in foldering thole me¬
tals. Spelter folder is made of one part of brafs and
two of fpelter or zinc, and is ufed by the braziers and
copperfmiths for foldering brafs, copper, and iron. His
folder is improved by adding to each ounce of it one
pennyweight of filver 5 but as it does not meit wiftiout
a confiderable degree of heat, it cannot be ufed ivhen
..Icier'
II
Lcrfm
SOL
it is inconvenient to heat the work red hot,
cafe copper and brafs are foldered with filver.
^ Though fpelter folder be much cheaper than filver-
folder, yet workmen in many cafes prefer the latter.
And Mr Bayle informs us, that he has found it to run
with fo moderate a heat, as not much to endanger the
melting of the delicate parts of the work to be foldered j
and if well made, this filver folder will lie even upon the
ordinary kind itfelf; and fo fill up thofe little cavities
that may chance to be left in the firfl: operation, which
is not eafily done without a folder more eafily fufible
than the firlt made ufe of. As to iron, it is fufficient
that it be heated to a white heat, and the two extremities,
in this Hate, be hammered together 5 by which means
they become incorporated one with the other.
SOLDERING, the joining and faftening together of
two pieces of the lame metal, or of two different metals,
by the fufion and application of fome metallic compofi-
tion on the extremities of the metals to be joined.
To folder upon filver, brafs, or iron : Take filver, five
pennyweights; brals, four pennyweights : melt them to¬
gether for foft folder, which runs fooneft. Take filver,
five pennyweights ; copper, three pennyweights : melt
them together for hard folder. Beat the folder thin,
and lay it on the place to be foldered, which muft be
firft fitted and bound together with wire as occafion re¬
quires ; then take borax in powder, and temper it like
pap, and lay it upon the folder, letting it dry ; then
cover it with live coals, and blow, and it will run im¬
mediately j take it prefently out of the fire, and it is
done. It is to be obferved, that if any thing is to be
foldered in two places, which cannot well be done at one
time, you muft firft folder with the harder folder, and
then with the foft; for if it be firft done with the foft,
it will unfolder again before the other is faftened. Let
it be obferved, that if you would not have your folder
run about the piece that is to be foldered, you muft rub
fuch places over with chalk.—In the foldering either of
gold, filver, copper, or either of the metals above men¬
tioned, there is generally ufed borax in powder, and
fometimes rofin. As to iron, it is fufficient that it be
heated red hot, and the two extremities thus hammered
together, by which means they will become incorporated
with each other. For the finer kinds of iron and rteel
inftruments, however, gold proves an excellent folder.
This metal will diffolve twice or thrice its weight of
iron in a degree of heat very far lefs than that in which
iron itfelf melts ; hence if a fmall plate of gold is wTarp-
ped round the parts to be joined, and afterwards melted
by a blow-pipe, it ftrongly unites the pieces together
without any injury to the inftrument, howmver delicate.
SOLDIER, a military man lifted to ferve a prince
or ftate in confideration of a certain daily pay.
SoLDiER-Crab. See Cancer, Entomology Index.
Frejh-Water Soldier. See Stratiotes, Botany
Index.
SOLE, in the manege, fort of a horn under a horfe’s
foot, which is much more tender than the other horn that
encompaffes the foot, and by reafon of its hardnefs is
properly called the horn or hoof.
Sole. See Pleuronectes, Ichthyology Index.
SOLEA. See Sandal and Shoe.
. SOLECISM, in Grammar, a falfe manner of fpeak-
mg, contrary to tire rules of grammar, either in refpedl
of declenfion, conjugation, or fyntax.-—The word is
Vox. XIX. Part II.
r 4^5 i sol
, m which Greek, roXeixitrfto;, derived from the So/t\ a people of Solecifm
Attica, who being tranfplanted to Cilicia, loft the pu¬
rity of their ancient tongue, and became ridiculous Sowing.
to the Athenians for the improprieties into which they
fell.
SOLEMN, fomething performed with much pomp,
ceremony, and expence. Thus we fay, folemn feafts,
folemn funerals, folemn games, &c.—In law, folemn
fignifies fomething authentic, or what is clothed in all
its formalities.
SOLEN, Razor-sheath, or Knife-handle Shell; a
genus belonging to the clafs of vermes, and order of
tefacea See CONCHOLOGY Index.
SOLEURE, a canton of Swifferland, the nth in
rank in the Helvetic confederacy, into which it was ad¬
mitted in the year 1481. It ft retches partly through
the plain, and partly along the chains of the Jura, about
35 fquare, and containing 50,000 inhabitants.
The foil for the moft part is exceedingly fertile in corn ;
and the diftri&s within the Jura abound in excellent
paftures. The trade of the town and canton is of little
value, although they are commodioufly fituated for com¬
merce. It is divided into 11 bailiwicks, the inhabi¬
tants of which are all Roman Catholics except thofe of
the bailiwick of Buckegberg, who profefs the reformed
religion. The fovereign power refides in the great
council, which, comprifing the fenate or little council
of 36, confifts of 102 members, cholen by the fenate
in equal proportions from the 11 tribes or companies in¬
to which the ancient burghers are diftributed.
A melancholy cataftrophe took place in this canton
on the 13th July 1813. The river Birfe, fwelled by
the rains, overflowed its banks at Dornach, and under¬
mined a houfe, which was thrown down and buried a
number of perfons in its ruins. An ancient tower,
which was occupied as the prifon, experienced a fimilar
fate,, fell on the bridge, broke it in the centre, and
precipitated a great crowd of perfons colle&ed upon it
into the torrent. By this accident 150 of the inhabi¬
tants loft their lives,
Soleure, an ancient and extremely neat town of
Swifferland, capital of the canton of the fame name. It
contains about 4000 inhabitants, and is pleafantly feat-
ed on the Aar, which here expands into a noble river.
Among the moft remarkable objeds of curiofity in this
town is the new church of St Urs, which was begun
in 1762 and finiffied in 17727 a noble edifice of a
whitilh grey ftone or coarfe marble, which admits a
polifti. This building coft at leaft 8o,oool. a confider-
able fum for fuch a fmall republic, whofe revenue fcarce-
ly exceeds 12,oool. a-year. Soleure is furrounded by-
regular ftone fortifications, and is 20 miles north-north-
eaft of Bern, 27 fouth-fouth-weft of Bafle, and 45 weft
of Zurich. E. Long. 7. 20. N. Lat. 47. 15.
SOLFAING, in Mufc, the naming or pronouncing
the feveral notes of a fong by the fyllables ut, re, ml, fa,
fol, &c. in learning to fing it.
Of the feven notes in the French fcale ut, re, mi, fa,
fol, la,f, only four are ufed among us in fin gin o’, aI
vn, fa, fol, la: their office is principally, in finging
that by applying them to every note of the fcale, it may
not only be pronounced with more eafe, but chiefly
that by them the tones and femitones of the natural
fcale may be better marked out and diftinguiflied. This
defign is obtained by the four fyllables fa.foj, la, mi.
3 N Thui
SOL
[ 466 3
S O 'L
Salfalng, Thus from_/a to fol is a tone, alio from fol to la, and
Solfaterra. from t() without diftinguithing the greater or lets
^ tone j but from la to fa, alfo from mi to fa, is only a
femitone. If then thefe be applied in this order,/</,/&/,
la, fa, fol, la, mi, fa, &c. they exprefs the natural feries
from C j and if that be repeated to a fecund or third
o&ave, we fee by them how to exprefs all the different
orders of tones and femitones in the diatonic kale ; and
kill above mi will Hand fa, fol, la, and below it the fame
inverted la, fol, fa, and one mi is always dillant trom
another an oftave •, which cannot be faid of any of the
reft, becaufe after mi afcending come 'Aways fa, fol, la,
which are repeated invertedly defceuding.
To conceive the ufe of this, it is to oe remembered,
that the firft thing in learning to fing, is to make one
raife a kale of notes bv tones and femitones to an oc¬
tave, and defcend again by the fame •, and then to rile
and fall by greater intervals at a leap, as thirds and
fourths, &c. and to do all this by beginning at notes of
different pitch. Then thofe notes are reprefented by
lines and fpaces, to which thefe fyllables are applied,
and the learners taught to name each line and ipace
thereby, which makes what we call folfaing; the ufe
whereof is, that while they are learning to tune the de¬
grees and intervals of found expreffed by notes on a line
or fpace, or learning a fong to which no words are ap-
plied, they may not only do it the better by means of
articulate'founds, but chiefly that by knowing the
degrees and intervals expreffed by thofe fyllables, they
may more readily know the places of the femitones, and
the true diftance of the notes. See the article Sing¬
ing. . ...
SOLFATERRA, a mountain of Italy in the king¬
dom of Naples, and Terra dl Lavoro. This mountain
appears evidently to have been a volcano in ancient
times j and the foil is yet fo hot, that the workmen em¬
ployed there in making alum need nothing elfe befkes
the heat of the ground for evaporating their liquids.
Of this mountain we have the following account by Sir
■William Hamilton. “ Near Aftruni (another moun¬
tain, formerly a volcano likewife) rifes the Solfaterra,
which not only retains its cone and crater, but much
of its former heat. In the plain within the crater,
fmoke iffues from many parts, as alfo from its fides :
here, by means of ftones and tiles heaped over the cre¬
vices, through which the fmoke paffes. they colltft in
an awkward manner what they call fale armomaco ;
and from the fand of the plain they extraft fulphur and
alum. This fpot, well attended to, might certainly
produce a good revenue, whereas I doubt if they have
hitherto ever cleared 20cl. a-year by it. The hollow
found produced by throwing a heavy ftone on the plain
of the crater of the Solfaterra, feems to indicate that it
is fupported by a fort of arched natural vault ; and one
is induced to think that.there is a pool of water be¬
neath this vault (which boils by the heat of a fubter-
raneous fire (till deeper), by the very moift fleam that,
iffues from the cracks in the plain of the Soltaterra,
which, like that of boiling water, runs off a fword or Solfatet;
knife, prefented to it, in great drop.. On the outfide, II
and at the foot of the cone of the Solfaterra, towards, ^
the lake of Agnano, water rufhes out of the rocks io
hot as to raife the quickfilver in Fahrenheit’s thermo¬
meter to the degree of boiling water (a) a laft of
which I was mylelf an eye-wilnefs. I his place, well
worthy the oblervation oi the curious, has been taken
little notice of ; it is called the Pifciarelli. The com¬
mon people of Naples have great taith in the efficacy of
this water ; and make much uie of it in all cutaneous dii-
orders, as well as iyr another diforder that prevails here.
It feems to be impregnated chiefly with fulphur and
alum. When you approach your ear to the rocks of
the Pifciarelli, from whence this water ouzes, you hear
a horrid boiling noife, which teems to proceed from
the huge cauldron that may be fuppofed to be under
the plain ot the Solfaterra. On the other fide of the
Solfaterra, next the fea, there is a rock which has com¬
municated with the fea, till part of it was cut away to
make the road to Puzzole ; this was undoubtedly a con-
fiderable lava, that ran from the Solfaterra when it was
an adlive volcano. Under this rock ot lava, w hich, is
more than 70 feet high, there is a ftratum of pumice
and allies. 1 bis ancient lava is about a quarter of a
mile broad *, you meet with it abruptly before you come
in fight of Puzzole, and it finiffies as abruptly within
about 100 paces of the town. I he ancient name of
the Solfaterra was Forum Vulcani; a ftrong proof of its
origin from fubterraneous fire. The degree of heat
that the Solfaterra has preferved for fo many ages,
feems to have calcined the ftones upon its cone and in
its crater, as they are very white and crumble eaffiy in
the hotteft parts.
SOLICITOR, a perfon employed to take care of and
manage fuits depending in the courts of law or equity.
Solicitors are within the ftatute to be fworn, and ad¬
mitted by the judges, before they are allowed to prac-
tife in our courts, in like manner as attorneys.
There is alfo a great officer of the law, next, to the
attorney-general, who is ftyled the king’s folicitor-ge-
neral ; who holds his office by patent during the king’s
pleafure, has the care and concern of managing the
king’s affairs, and has fees for pleading, befides other
fees arifing by patents, &c. He attends on the privy-
council •, and the attorney-general and he were anciently
reckoned among the officers of the exchequer they
have their audience, and come within the bar in all
other courts.
SOLID, in Philofophy, a body whole parts are to
firmly conneded together, as not eafily to give way or
flip from each other 5 in which fenfe/o/ft/ Hands oppoied
to fuicl. , . , r
Geometricians define a folid to be the third fpecies
of magnitude, or that which has three dimenfions, viz.
length, breadth, and thicknefs or depth.
Solids are commonly divided into regular and irregu¬
lar. The regular folids are thofe terminated by regular
(A) “ I have remarked, that after a great fall of "f "> tb.e
which will account for what Padre Torre faya (in W book rnt.tled Someter,
■when he tried it in company with Monfieur de la Condamine, the uegree 0 . , _
•^as 68°.
SOL F 467 1 SOL
•Solid and equal planes, and are only five in number, viz. the
it tetrahedron, which confifts of four equal triangles; the
iman', cube or hexahedron, of fix equal fquares ; the odahe-
dron, of eight equal triangles ; the dodecahedron, of
twelve; and the icofahedron, of twenty equal triangles.
The irregular folids are almoft infinite, comprehend¬
ing all fuch as do not come under the definition of re¬
gular folids ; as the fphere, cylinder, cone, parallelo¬
gram, prifm, parallelepiped, &c.
Solids, in Anatomy, are the bones, ligaments, mem¬
branes, mufcles, nerves and veflels, &c.
The folid parts of the body, though equally compo-
fed of veffels, are different with regard to their confid¬
ence ; fome being hard and others foft. The hard, as
the bones and cartilages, give firmnefs and attitude to
the body, and fuftain the other parts: the foft parts,
either alone or together with the hard, ferve to execute
the animal funftions. See Anatomy.
SOLIDAGO, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of fyngenefia, and to the order of polygamia fu-
pertlua ; and in the natural fylfem ranging under the
49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index.
SOLIDITY, that property of matter, or body, by
which it excludes all other bodies from the place which
itfelf poflelfes ; and as it would be abfurd to fuppofe
that two bodies could poffefs one and the fame place at
the fame time, it follows, that the fofteft bodies are
equally folid with the hardeft. See Metaphysics,
N° 44, 173, &c.
Among geometricians, the folidity of a body denotes
the quantity or fpace contained in it, and is called alfo
its folid content.
The folidity of a cube, prifm, cylinder, or parallele¬
piped, is had by multiplying its bafis into its height.
The folidity of a pyramid or cone is had by mul¬
tiplying either the whole bafe into a third part of the
height, or the whole height into a third part of the
bafe.
SOLILOQUY, a reafoning or difcourfe which a
tnan holds with himfelf; or, more properly, according
to Papias, it is a difcourfe by way of anfwer to a quef-
tion that a man propofes to himfelf.
Soliloquies are become very common on the modern
fiage ; yet nothing can be more inartificial, or more un¬
natural, than an a&or’s making long fpeeches to him¬
felf, to convey his intentions to the audience. Where
fuch difcoveries are neceffary to be made, the poets
firould rather take care to give tire dramatic perfons
| inch confidants as may necelfarily {hare their in moil
thoughts; by which means they will be more naturally
conveyed to the audience ; yet even this is a drift which
an accurate poet would not have occafion for. The
following lines of the duke of Buckingham concerning
the ufe and abuie of foliloquies deferve attention :
Soliloquies had need be very few,
Extremely {hurt, and fpoke in paflion too.
Our lovers talking to themfelves, for want
Of others, make the pit their confidant :
Nor is the matter mended yet, if thus
They trull a friend, only to tell it us.
SOLIMAN II. emperor of the Turks, furnamed
■the Magnificent, was the only fon of Selim I. whom he
lucceeded in 1520. He was educated in a manner ve¬
ry different from the Ottoman princes in general; for
he was inftru&ed in the maxims of politics and the fie- Sofimah
crets of government. He began his reign by reftoring 1!
thofe perfons their poffedions whom his father had un- ° 1S'.
juftly plundered. He re-eftablifhed the authority of the
tribunals, which was almoft annihilated, and bellowed
the government of provinces upon none but perfons of
wealth and probity : “ I would have my viceroys (he
ufed to fay) refemble thofe rivers that fertilize the fields
through which they pafs, not thofe torrents which fweep
every thing before them.”
Alter concluding a truce with Ifmael Sophy of Per-
fia, and fubduing Gozeli Bey, who had raiftd a rebel¬
lion in Syria, he turned his arms againft Europe. Bel¬
grade was taken in 1521, and Rhodes fell into his
hands the year following, after an obftinate and enthu-
fiaftic defence. In 1526 he defeated and flew the king
of Hungary in the famous battle of Mohatz. Three
years after he conquered Buda, and immediately laid
liege to Vienna itfelf. But after continuing 20 days
before that city, and affaulting it 20 times, he was obli¬
ged to retreat with the lofsof 80,000 men. Some lime
after he was defeated by the Perfians, and difappointed
in his hopes of taking Malta. He fucceeded, however,
in difpofleflingthe Genoefeof Chio, an ifland which had
belonged to that republic for more than 200 years.
He died at the age of 76, while he was befieging Si-
geth, a town in Hungary, on the 30th Auguft 1366.
He was a prince of the ftri&eft probity, a lover of
juftice, and vigorous in the execution of it; but he tar-
mftied all his glory by the cruelty of his difppfitiom
After the battle of Mohatz he ordered 1500 prifoners,
moft of them gentlemen, to be ranged in a circle, and
beheaded in prefence of his whole army.
Soliman thought nothing impoflible which he com¬
manded : A general having received orders to throw a
bridge over the Drave, wrote him, that it was impof-
fible. d he fultan fent him a long band of linen ivitli
thofe words written on it : “ The emperor Soliman,
thy mafter, orders thee to build a biidge over the Drave
in fpite of the difficulties thou mayeft meet with. He
informs thee at the fame time, that if the bridge be not
finifhed upon his arrival, he will hang thee with the
very linen which informs thee of his will.”
SOLIPUG A, or Solifuga, in NaturalHijlory, the
name given by the Romans to a fmall venomous infeft
jof the fpider-kind, called by the Greeks hehocentros,*
both words fignifying an animal which flings moft in
the. country and feafons where the fun is°moft hot.
Solinus makes this creature peculiar to Sardinia ; but
this is contrary to all the accounts given us by the an¬
cients. It is common in Africa and fome parts of Eu¬
rope. Almoft all the hot countries produce this veno¬
mous little creature. It lies under the fand to feize
othei infebts as they go by ; and if it meet with anv
uncovered part of a man, produces a wound which
proves very painful ; it is faid that the bite is abfolutely
mortal, but probably this is not true1. Solinus writes
the.word fol’fuga, and fo do many others, erroneouily
deriving the name from the notion that this animal flics
from the fun’s rays, and buries itfelf in the fand.
SOLIS, Antonio de, an ingenious Spanifh writer,
of an ancient and illuftrious family, born at Piacenza
in Old Caftile, in 1610. Hev was intended for the
law ; but his inclination toward poetry prevailed, and
he cultivated it with great fuccefs. Philip IV. of Spain
3 NT 3 made
SOL [ 468 .] SOL
Solis made him one of his fecretaries j and after his death the
|l queen-regent appointed him hiftoriographer of the In-
 1 dies, a place of great profit and honour : his Hiftory
of the Conqueft of Mexico (hows that fhe could not
have named a fitter perfon. He is better known by this
hiilory at leaf! abroad, than by his poetry and dramatic
writings, though in thefe he was alfo dillinguifiied. He
turned prieft at 57 years of age, and died in 1686.
SOLITARY, that which is remote from the com¬
pany or commerce of others of the fame fpecies.
SOLITARIES, a denomination of nuns of St Peter
of Alcantara, inftituted in 1676, the defign of which
was to imitate the fevere penitent life ot that faint.
Thus they are to keep a continual filence, never to
open their mouths to a ftranger ; to employ their time
wholly in fpiritual exercifes, and leave their temporal
concerns to a number of maids, who have a particular
fuperior in a feparate part of the monaftery : they always
go bare-footed, without fandals} gird themfelves with a
thick cord, and wear no linen.
SOLO, in the Italian mufic, is frequently ufed in
pieces confifting of feveral parts, to mark thofe that are
to perform alone j asJiauto folo, violino folo. It is alfo
ufed for fonatas compofed for one violin, one German
flute, or other inftrument, and a bafs ) thus we fay,
Corelli'1 s folos, Getniniam'1 s folos, &c. When two or
three parts play or fing feparately from the grand chorus,
they are called a dot foh, a tre foil, &c. Solo is fomc-
times denoted by S.
SOLOMON, the fon of David king of Ifrael, re¬
nowned in Scripture for his wifdom, riches, and magni¬
ficent temple and other buildings. Towards the end
of his life he fullied all his former glory by his apoftafy
from God ; from which caufe vengeance was denoun¬
ced againft his houfe and nation. He died about 975
B. C.
Solomon’’S Seal, a fpecies of Convallaria, which
fee, Botany Index.
SOLON, one of the feven wife men of Greece, w-as
born at Salamis, of Athenian parents, who were de-
fcended from Codrus. His father leaving little patri¬
mony, he had recourfe to merchandife for his fubfift-
tnce. He had, however, a greater third after know¬
ledge and fame than after riches, and made his mercan¬
tile voyages fubfervient to the increafe of his intellec¬
tual treafures. He very early cultivated the art of poe¬
try, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of moral and civil
wifdom. When the Athenians, tired out with a long
and troubiefome war with the Megarenfians, for the re¬
covery of the ifle of Salamis, prohibited any one, under
pain of death, to propofe the renewal of their claim to
that ifland, Solon thinking the prohibition diftionourable
to the date, and finding many of the younger citizens de-
tirous to revive the war, feigned himfelf mad, and took
care to have the report of his infanity fpread through the
- city. In the mean time he compofed an elegy adapted
to the ftate of public affairs, which he committed to
memory. Every thing being thus prepared, he fallied
forth into the market-place with the kind of cap on his
head which was commonly worn by fick perfons, and,
afcending the herald’s dand, he delivered, to a nume¬
rous crowd, his lamentation for the defertion of Salamis.
The verfes were heard with general applaufe ; and Pi-
fidratus feconded his advice, and urged the people to
xenew the war. The decree was immediately repealed )
3
the claim to Salamis was refumed } and the conduct of Solon,,
the war was committed to Solon and Pifidratus, who, Solltice
by means of a dratagem, defeated the Megarenfians, ^
and recovered Salamis.
His popularity was extended through Greece in con-
fequence of a fuccefsful alliance which he formed among
the dates in defence of the temple at Delphos againft the
Cirrhaeans. When diifenfions had arifen at Athens be¬
tween the rich creditors and their poor debtors, Solon
was created archon, with the united powers of fupreme
legiflator and magiftrate. He foon reftored harmony
between the rich and poor : He cancelled the debts
which had proved the occafion of fo much oppreffion ;
and ordained that in future no creditor fhould be allow¬
ed to feize the body of the debtor for his fecurity : He
made a new diftribution of the people, inftituted new
courts of judicature, and framed a judicious code of
laws, which afterwards became the bafis of the laws of
the twelve tables in Rome. Among his criminal laws
are many wife and excellent regulations •, but the code
is neceflarily defective with relpedt to thofe principles
which mud be derived from the knowledge of the true
God, and of pure morality, as the certain foundations of
national happinefs. Two of them in particular were
very exceptionable ; the permidion of a voluntary exile
to perfons that had been guilty of premeditated mur¬
der, and the appointment of a lefs fevere punifhment
for a rape than for feduftion. Thofe who widi to fee
accurately dated the comparative excellence of the laws
of Mofes, of Lycurgus, and Solon, may confult Prize
Differtations relative to Natural and Revealed Religion
by Teyler’s Theological Society, vol. ix.
The interview which Solon is faid to have had with
Croefus king of Lydia j the folid remarks of the fage
after furveying the monarch’s wealth } the recollection of
thofe remarks by Crcefus when doomed to die, and the
noble conduCt of Cyrus on that occafion, are known to
every fchoolboy. Solon died in the ifiand of Cyprus,
about the 80th year of his age. Statues were ereCted
to his memory both at Athens and Salamis. His third
after knowledge continued to the lad : “ I grow old
(faid he) learning many things.” Among the apoph¬
thegms and precepts which have been aferibed to Solon,
are the following : Laws are like cobwebs, that en¬
tangle the weak, but are broken through by the drong.
He who has learned to obey, will know how to com¬
mand. In all things let reafon be your guide. Dili¬
gently contemplate excellent things. In every thing
that you do, confider the end.
SOLSTICE, in Afronomy, that time when the fun
is in one of the folditial points •, that is, when he is at
his greated didance from the equator 5 thus called be-
caufe he then appears to dand dill, and not to change
his didance from the equator for fome time 5 an appear¬
ance owing to the obliquity of our fphere, and which
thofe living under the equator are drangers to.
The foldices are two in each year j the seftival or
fummer foldice, and the hyemal or winter folftice. The
dimmer foldice is when the fun feems to deferibe the
tropic of cancer, which is on June 22. when he makes
the longed day : the winter foldice is when the fun en¬
ters the fird degree, or feems to deferibe the tropic of
capricorn, which is on December 22. when he makes
the ftiorted day. This is to be underdood as in our
northern hemifphere ; for in the fouthem, the fun’s en-
trancs.
SOM
| ftice trance into capricorn makes the fummer folftice, and
II that into cancer the winter folftice. The two points
T”ers' , of the ecliptic, wherein the fun’s greateft rafcent above
v the equator, and his defcent below it, are terminated,
are called the foljlitialpoints; and a circle, fuppofed to
pafs through the poles of the Avorld and thefe points, is
called the folJHtial colure. The fummer folftitial point
is in the beginning of the firft degree of cancer j and is
called the cejlival or fwnmer point ; and the winter fol¬
ftitial point is in the beginning of the firft degree of ca¬
pricorn, and is called the winter point. Thefe two points
are diametrically oppofite to each other.
SOLUTION, in Chemi/iry, denotes an intimate
union of folid with fluid bodies, fo as to form a tranfpa-
rent liquor. See Chemistry paffim.
SOLVENT, that which diitolves a folid body into a
tranfparent fluid.
SOLWAY moss. See Moving Moss.
SOMBRERO, the name of an uninhabited ifland in
the Weft Indies in the form of a hat, whence the name
is derived. It is alfo the name of one of the Nicobar
iflands in the Eaft Indies.
Wonderful Plant of SOMBRERO, is a ftrange kind of
fenfitive plant growing in the Eaft Indies, in fandy bays
and in fhalloiv water. It appears like a Render ftraight
ftick ; but when you attempt to touch it, immediately
withdraws itfelf into the fand. Mr Miller gives an ac-
PhSophi- count ^ defcription of Sumatra. He fays,
tahanf- the Malays call it lolan lout, that is, fea grafs. He ne-
tttt. ver could obferve any tentacula ; but, after many un-
voLmii. fuccefsful attempts, drew out a broken piece about a
p'1 ' foot long. It was perfectly ftraight and uniform, and
refembled a worm drawn over a knitting needle. When
dry it appears like a coral.
SOMERS, John, lord high chancellor of England,
was born at Worcefter in 1652. He was educated at
Oxford, and afterwards entered himfelf at the Middle-
Temple, where he ftudied the law with great vigour. In
1688 he was one of the counfel for the feven biihops at
their trial, and argued with great learning and eloquence
againft the difpenfing power. In the convention which
met by the prince of Orange’s fummons, January 22.
1689, he reprefented Worcefter j and was one of the
managers for the Houfe of Commons, at a conference
with the Houfe of Lords upon the word abdicated.
Soon after the acceflion of King William and Queen
Mary to the throne, he was appointed folicitor-general,
and received the honour of knighthood. In 1692 he
was made attorney general, and in 1693 advanced to
the poft of lord keeper of the great feal of England. In
1693 he propofed an expedient to prevent the practice
of clipping the coin. In 1697 he was created Lord
Somers, baron of Evelham, and made lord high chan¬
cellor of England. In the beginning of 1700 he was
removed from his poft of lord chancellor, and the year
after was impeached of high crimes and mifdemeanors
by the Houfe of Commons, of which he was acquitted
upon trial by the Houfe of Lords. He then retired
to a studious courfe of lile, and was chofen prefident of
the Royal Society. In 1706 he propofed a bill for the
regulation of the law' j and the fame year was one of
the principal managers for the union between England
and Scotland. In 1708 he was made lord prefident of
the council ; from which poft he was removed in 1710,
upon the change of the miniftry. In the latter end of
SOM
Queen Anne’s reign his lordlhip grew very infirm in Somers
his health 5 which is fuppofed to be the reafon that he II
held no other poft than a feat at the council-table, after , orn<'lto'‘J
the acceffion of King George I. He died of an apo¬
plectic fit in 1716. Mr Addifon has drawn his cha¬
racter very beautifully in the Freeholder.
SOMERSETSHIRE, a county of England, taking
its name from Somerton, once the capital, between 50°
and 510 27' north latitude, and between i° 25' and 2° 59'
weft longitude. It is bounded on the weft by Devon-
ftiire, on the fouth by Dorfetfhire, on the north by
Eriftol channel or the Severn fea, on the north-eaft by
a Imail part of Gloucefterlhire, and on the eaft by Wilt-
fhire. It is one of the largeft counties in England, ex¬
tending in length from eaft to weft about 68 miles ; in
breadth, where broadeft, from fouth to north, about
47 ; and 240 in circumference. It is divided into 42
hundreds, in which are 3 cities, 32 market-towns, 1700
villages,385 pariflies,ofAvhich 13 2 are vicarages, contain¬
ing more than 1,000,000 of acres, and about 273,750
fouls. It fends 18 members to parliament, viz. two for
the county, two for Briftol, two for Bath, two for Wells,
twm for Taunton, two for Bridgewater, two for Ilchefter,
two for Milbourn-port, and two for Minehead.
The air of this county is very mild and wholefome,
efpecially that of the hilly part. The foil in general is
exceeding rich, fo that Angle acres very commonly
produce forty or fifty buihels of wheat, and there have
been inftances of feme producing fixty of barley. As
there is very fine pafture both for Iheep and black cat¬
tle, it abounds in both, which are as large as thofe of
Lincolnfhire, and their flefh of a finer grain. In confe-
quence of this abundance of black cattle, great quanti¬
ties of cheefe are made in it, of which that of Cheddar
is thought equal to Parmefan. In the hilly parts are
found coal, lead, copper, and lapis calaminaris. Wood
thrives in it as well as in any county of the kingdom.
It abounds alfo in peafe, beans, beer, cyder, fruit, wild¬
fowl, and falmori 5 and its mineral waters are celebrated
all over the world.
The riches of this county, both natural and acqui¬
red, exceed thofe of any other in the kingdom, Middle-
fex and Yorkftiire excepted. The woollen manufac¬
ture in all its branches is carried on to a very great ex¬
tent ; and in feme parts of the county great quantities
of linen are made. If to thefe the produce of various
other commodities in which it abounds is added, the
amount of the whole muft undoubtedly be very great.
Its foreign trade muft alfo be allowed to be very exten-
five, when it. is confidered that it has a large trade for
fea-coal, and poiTeffes, befides other ports, that of Brif¬
tol, a town of the greateft trade in England, next to
London.
Befides fmall ftreams, it is well watered and fupplied
with fifh by the rivers Severn, Avon, Parrel, Froome
Ax, Torre, and Tone. Its greateft hills are Mendip’
Pouldon, and Quantock, of which the firft abounds in
coal, lead, &c. The rivers Severn and Parrel breed
very fine falmon. The chief town is Briftol.
SOMERTON, an ancient town in Somerfetftiire,
from whence the county derives its name. It is 123
miles from London ; it has five ftreets, containing 251
houfes, which are moftly built of the blue ftone from
the quarries in the neighbourhood. It is governed by
conftables, and has a hall for petty feflions. The mar¬
ket
[ 469 1
SON P 47<
Somerton tet for corn is confiderable, and it has feveral fairs for
II cattle. The church has, what is not very frequent, an
■ 0V1^'u!,•, oBcmgular tower with fix bells. N. Lat. 51. 4. VV. Long.
I. 53.
SOMNAMBULI, perfons who walk in their deep.
See Sleepwalkers.
SOMNER, William, an eminent Englifli antiqua¬
ry, was born at Canterbury in 1606. His firft treatife
was The Antiquities of Canterbury, which he dedicated
to Archbifhop Laud. He then applied himfelf to the
ftudy of the Saxon language •, and having made himielf
mafter of it, he perceived that the old gloffary prefixed
to Sir Roger Twifden’s edition of the laws of King
Henry I. printed in 1644, was faulty in many places ;
he therefore added to that edition notes and obferva-
tions valuable for their learning, with a very ufeiul
gloffary. His Treatife of Gavelkind was finidied a-
bout 1648, though not publifhed till 1660. Our
author was zealoufly attached to King Charles I. and
in 1648 he publithed a poem on his fufferings and
death. His flcill in the Saxon tongue led him to in¬
quire into moil; of the European languages ancient and
modern. He afllfted Dugdale and Dodfworth in com¬
piling the Monajlicon An^hcanum. His Saxon Dic¬
tionary was printed at Oxford in 1659. He died in
1669.
SON, an appellation given to a male child confidered
in the relation he bears to his parents. See Parent
and Filial Piety.
SONATA, in Mujic, a piece or eompofition, intend¬
ed to be performed by inftruments only ; in which fenfe
it Hands oppofed to cantata, or a piece defigned for the
voice. See Cantata.
The fonata then, is properly a grand, free, humorous
compofition, diverfified with a great variety of motions
and expreffions, extraordinary and bold ftrokes, figures,
&c.* And all this purely according to the fancy of the
oompofer \ who, without confining himfelf to any ge¬
neral rules of counterpoint, or to any fixed number or
meafure, gives a loofe to his genius, and runs from one
mode, meafure, &c. to another, as he thinks fit. This
fpecies of compofition had its rife about the middle of
the 17th century \ thofe who have moil excelled in it
were Baffani and Corelli. We have fonatas of 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, and even 8 parts, but ufually they are per¬
formed by a fingle violin, or with two violins, and a
thorough bafs for the harpfichord ; and frequently a
more figured bafs for the bafs viol, &c.
There are a thoufand different fpecies of fonatas*,
but the Italians ufually reduce them to two kinds. Su-
tmate tie chiefa, that is, fonatas proper for church mufic,
which ufually begin with a grave folemn motion, fuit-
able to the dignity and fanftity of the place and the
fervice, after which they ftrike into a brifker, gayer,
and richer manner. Thefe are what they more pecu¬
liarly call fonatas. Suonale de camera, or fonatas^ for
the chamber, are properly feriefes of feveral little
pieces, for dancing, only compofed to the fame tune.
They ufually begin with a prelude or little fonata,
ferving as an introduction to all the reft : afterwards
©ome the allemand, pavane, courant, and other ferious
dances ; then jigs, gavots, minuets, chacons, paffecailles,
and other gayer airs : the whole compofed in the fame
tune or mode.
SONCHUS, Sow-thistle, in Botany, a genus of
: ] SON
plants belonging to the clafs of fyngenejia, and to the or- SoticW
der of polygamia a-qualis ; and in the natural fyftem ran-1 SoBg'
ged under the 49th order, Compofitce. The receptacle " ^
is naked j the calyx is imbricated, bellying and conical j
the down of the feed is limple, feffile, and very foft;
the feed is oval and pointed. There are 13 Ipecies j
the maritimus, paluftris, fruticofus, arvenfis, oleraceus,
tenerrimus, plumieri, alpinus, fioridanus, fibiricus, tata-
ricus, tuberofus, and canadenfis. Four of thefe are na¬
tives of Britain.— I. Pa/ujlris, marth fow-thiftle. 'J he
Item is ered, from fix to ten feet high, branched and
hairy towards the top ; the leaves are firm, broad, half
pinnated, ferrated, and iharp-pointed ; the lower ones
fagittate at the bafe : the Bowers are of a deep yellow,
large, and difperled on the tops of the branches : the
calyx is rough. It is frequent in marfhes, and flowers-
in July or Auguft.—2. Arverjis, corn fow-thiftle. The
leaves are alternate, runcinate, and heart fliaped at the
bafe ; the root creeps under ground \ the ftem is three
or four feet high, and branched at the top. It grows
in corn-fields, and flowers in Auguft —3. O/eraceus,
common fow-thiftle. The ftalk is fucculent, piftular,
and a cubit high or more ; the leaves are broad, embra¬
cing the ftem, generally deeply finuated, fmooth, or
prickly at the edges ; the flowers are of a pale yellow,
numerous, in a kind of umbel, and terminal j the calyx1
is fmooth. It is frequent in wafte places and cultivated
grounds.— 4. Alpinus, blue-flowered fow-thiftle. The
ftem is ereCI, purplith, branched, or Ample, from three
to fix feet high : the leaves are large, fmooth, and finu¬
ated *, the extreme fegment large and triangular : the
flowers are blue, and grow on hairy vifeid pedicles, in
long fpikes : the calyx is brown. This fpecies is found
in Northumberland.
SONG, in Poetry, a little compofition, confifting of
cafy and natural verfes, fet to a tune in order to be fung.
See Poetry, N° 120.
Song, in Mujic, is applied in general to a fingle piece
of mufic, whether contrived for the voice or an inftru-
ment. See AlR.
Song of Birds, is defined by the honourable Daines
Barrington to be a fucceflion of three or more different
notes, which are continued without interruption, during
the fame interval, with a mufical bar of four crotchets
in an adagio movement, or whilft a pendulum Irvings
four feconds.
It is affirmed, that the notes of birds are no more in¬
nate than language in man, and that they depend upon
imitation, as far as their organs will enable them to imi¬
tate the founds which they have frequent opportunities of
hearing : and their adhering fo fteadily, even in a wild
Bate, to the fame fong, is owing to the nefilings attend¬
ing only to the inftruflion of the parent bird, whilft
they difregard the notes of all others that may perhaps
be finging round them.
Birds in a wild ftate do not commonly fing above 10
weeks in the year, whereas birds that have plenty of
food in a cage fing the greateft part of the year ; and
we may add, that the female of no fpecies of birds ever
fings. This is a wife provifion of nature, becaufe her
fong would difeover her neft. In the fame manner, we
may rationally account for her inferiority in plumage.
The faculty of finging is confined to the cock birds;
and accordingly Mr Hunter, in diffetf ing birds of fe¬
veral fpecies, found the mufcles of the larynx to be
1 ftronger
S O N
Sang. Wronger in the nightingale than in any other bird of
' the fame fize *, and in all thole initanees, where he dif-
fecled both eock and hen, the fame mufcles were llrong-
er in the cock. To the fame purpofe, it is an obferva-
tion as ancient as the time of Pliny, that a capon does
not crow.
Some have afcribed the linging of the cock-bird in
the fpring folely to the motive of pleafing his mate during
incubation ; others, who allow that it. is partly for this
end, believe it is partly owing alfo to another caufe, viz.
the great abundance of plants and infefls in the fpring,
which, as well as feeds, are the proper food of finging
birds at that time of the year.
Mr Barrington remarks, that there is no inftance of
any finging bird which exceeds our blackbird in fxze ;
and this, he fuppofes, may arife from the difficulty of
its concealing itfelf, if it called the attention of its ene¬
mies, not only by its bulk, but by the proportionable
loudnefs of its notes. This writer farther obferves, that
fonje palTages of the fong in a few kinds of birds corre-
fpond with the intervals of our mufical feale, of wffiich
the cuckoo is a ftriking and known inftance ; but
the greater part of their fong cannot be reduced to a
mufical fcale ; partly, becaufe the rapidity is often fo
great, and it is alfo fo uncertain when they may flop,
that we cannot reduce the paflages to form a muftcal
bar in any time whatfoever ; partly alfo, becaufe the
pitch of moft birds is confiderably higher than the
moft ftirill notes of thofe inftruments which have the
greateft compafs •, and principally, becaufe the inter¬
vals ufed by birds are commonly fo minute, that we
cannot judge of them from the more grofs intervals
into which wre divide our mufical oflave. This writer
apprehends, that all birds fing in the fame key *, and
in order to difeover this key, he informs us, that the
following notes have been obferved in different birds,
A, B flat, C, D, F, and G ; and therefore E only is
wanting to complete the fcale : now thefe intervals, he
fays, can only be found in the key of F with a Iharp
third, or that of G with a flat third 5 and he fuppofes
it to be the latter, becaufe admitting that the firft mu¬
fical notes were learned from birds, thofe of the cuckoo,
whi- h have been moft attended to, form a flat third,
and moft of our compofitions are in a flat third, where
mufic is Ample, and confifts merely of melody. As a
farther evidence that birds fing always in the fame key,
if. has been found by attending to a nightingale, as well
as a robin which was educated under him, that the notes
reducible to our intervals of the o£tave were always pre-
cifely the fame.
Moft people, who have not attended to the notes
of birds, fuppofe, that every fpecies fing exafHy the
fame notes and paffages : but this is by no means true ;
though it is admitted that there is a general refemulanee.
*1 bus the London bird-catchers pn. fer the fong of the
Kentifh goldfinches, and Effex chaffinches •, and feme of
the nightingale fanciers prefer a Surrey bird to thefe of
Middlefex.
Of all finging birds, the fong of the nightingale has
been moft univerfally admired: and its fhperioritv (de¬
duced from a cage-bird) confifts in the following parti¬
culars •, its tone is much more mellow than that of any
other bird, though at the fame time, by a proper exer¬
tion of its mufical powers, it can be very brilliant. Ano¬
ther point of fuperiority is its continuance of fong with-
4
f 471 1
s o o
out a paufe, which is fometimes no lefs than 20 feconds;
and when refpiration becomes neceffary, it takes it with
as much judgment as an opera-finger. The fky-lark in
this particular, as well as in compafs and variety, is only
fecond to the nightingale. The nightingale alio lings
(if the expreffion may be allowed) with fuperior judge¬
ment and tafte. Mr Barrington has obferved, that his
nightingale, which was a very capital bird, began foftly
like the ancient orators, referving its breath to fwell cer¬
tain notes, which by thefe means had a moft aftonilhing
effeiff. This writer adds, that the notes of birds, which
are annually imported from Afia, Africa, and America,
both fingly and in concert, are not to be compared to
thofe of European birds.
The following table, formed by Mr Barrington,
agreeably to the idea of M. de Piles in eftimating the
merits of painters, is defigned to exhibit the compara¬
tive merit of the Brilifh finging birds ; in which 20 is
fuppofed to be the point of abfolute perfeftion.
Song
Nightingale
Sky-lark
Wood-lark
Titlark
Linnet - -
Goldfinch
Chaffinch
Greenfinch
Hedge-fparrow
Aberdavine or fifkin
lied-poll
Thru fli -
Blackbird
Robin -
Wren
Reed-fparrow
Black cap, or Norfolk
mock nightingale
*9
4
18
12
'>2
4
4
4
6
2
o
4
4
6
o
o
J4
*9
4
12
16
*9
12
4
o
4
4
4
4
16
l9
4
n
12
12
4
4
4
6
o
o
4
o
12
o
o
12 12
!9
18
12
12
16
12
8
4
4
4
4
4
2
12
4
2
I4
l9
18
8
12
18
12
8
6
4
4
4
4
2
14
2
2
H
PhUofiphi-
cal Tranf-
actions,
vol. Ixrii..
SONNA, a book of Mahometan traditions, which
the orthodox muffulmans are required to believe.
SONNERATI A, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of icofandria, and to the order of jnonogynia. See
Botany Index.
SONNET, in Poetry, a compofition contained in 14
verfi-s, viz. two ftanzas or meafures of four verfes each,
and two of three, the firft eight verfes being all in three
rhimes.
SONNITES, among the Mahometans, an appella¬
tion given to the orthodox muffulmans or true believers ;
in oppofition to the feveral heretical fedts, particularly
the Shiites, or followers of Ali.
SOOJU, or Soy See DoLICHOS.
SOONTABURDAR, in the Eaft Indies •, an at¬
tendant, who carries a filver bludgeon in his hand about
two or three feet long, and runs before the palanquin.
He is inferior to the chubdar ; the propriety of an In¬
dian newaury requiring two foontaburdars for every
chubdar in the train. The chubdar proclaims the ap¬
proach of vifiturs, &c. He generally carries a large fil¬
ver-
iioot
II
Sopliii'ni.
SOP [
rer ftaff about five feet long in his hands; and among
the Nabobs he proclaims their praifes aloud as he runs
i before their palanquins.
SOOT, a volatile matter arifing from wood and other
fuel along with the fmoke } or rather, it is the fmoke
itfelf condenfed and gathered to the fides of the chim¬
ney. Though once volatile, however, foot cannot be
again refolved into vapour *, but, if diftilled b} a ftrong
lire, yields a volatile alkali and empyreumatic oil, a con-
fiderable quantity of fixed matter remaining at the bot¬
tom of the diftilling veffel. If burnt in an open fire, it
flames with a thick fmoke,. whence other foot is produ¬
ced. It is ufed as a material for making fal ammoniac,
and as a manure. See Ammonia, muriate of, Che¬
mistry Index.
SOOT-Black. See COLOUR-Making.
SOPHI, or Sofi, a title given to the emperor of
Perfia, importing as much as wife, fage, or philofo-
Xhe title is by fome faid to have taken its rife fiom
a young Ihepherd named Soplu, who attained to the
crown of Perfia in 1370 ; others derive it from the/o-
phoi or fages anciently called magi. Voffius gives a dif¬
ferent account of the word : fophi in Arabic, he ob-
ferves, fignifies wool; and he adds, that.it was applied
by the Turks out of derifion to the kings of Perfia
ever fince lihmael’s time; becaufe, acording to their
fcheme of religion, he is to wear no other covering on
his head but an ordinary red woollen Huff; whence the
Perfians are alfo called hexelbafchs, q. d. red-heads. But
Bochart allures us, that fophi in the original. Perfian
language, fignifies one that is pure in his religion and
who prefers the fervice of God. in all things : and de¬
rives it from an order of religious called by.the lame
name. The fophis value themfelves on their illuftrious
extraftion. They are defeended in a right line from
Houffein, fecond fon of Ali, Mahomet’s coufin, and Fa¬
tima, Mahomet’s daughter. .
Sophis, or Sofces, a kind of order of religious among
the Mahometans in Perfia, anfweringto what are other-
wife called dervifes, and among the Arabs and Indians
faquirs. Some will have them called fophis from a kind
of coarfe camblet which they wear, called/cw/, from the
city Soufin Syria, where it is principally manufadured.
The more eminent of thofe fophis are complimented
with the titlethat is, reverend, much as in Ro-
milh countries the religious are called reverend fathers.
Schiek Sophi, who laid the foundation of the gran¬
deur of the royal houfe of Perfia, was the founder, or
rather the reftorer of this order : Ilhmael, who conquer¬
ed Perfia, was himfelf a fophi, and greatly valued him-
felf on his being fo. He chofe all the guards of his
perfon from among the religious of this order ; and would
have all the great lords of his court fophis. I he king
of Perfia is ftill grandmafter of the order •, and tne lords
continue to enter into it, though it be now fallen under
fome contempt. . , .
SOPHISM, in Logic, a fpecious argument having
the appearance of truth, but leading to falfehood. So-
phifms are reduced by Ariftotle into eight claffes, an ar¬
rangement fo juft and comprehenfive, that it is equally
nroper in prefent as in former times. I. Ignoratio elenchi.
In which the fophift feems to determine the queftion,
while he does it only in appearance. Thus the queftion,
Whether the excefs of wipe be hurtful ?” feems to be
472 ] SOP
determined by proving, that wine revives the fpirits and
gives a man courage : but the principal point is here kept
out of fight} for ftill it may be hurtful to health, to for¬
tune, and reputation. 2. Petitio principii, a begging.of
the queftion, or taking for granted that which remains
to be proved, as if any one ftiould undertake to prove
that the foul is extended through all the parts of the
body, becaufe it refides in every member. This is af¬
firming the fame thing in different words. 3. Reafoning
in a circle ; as when the Roman Catholics prove the
Scriptures to be the word of God by the authority of
the church, and the authority of the church from the
Scriptures. 4. Non caufa pro caufa, or the affigning of
a falfe caufe to any effeft. Thus the fuppofed prin¬
ciple, that nature abhors a vacuum, was applied to ex¬
plain the riling of water in a pump before Galileo
difeovered that it was owing to the preffure of the
atmofphere. In this way the vulgar aferibe accidents
to divine vengeance, and the herefies and infidelity
of modern times are faid to be owing to learning.
5. Fallacia accidentis, in which the fophift reprefents
what is merely accidental as eflential to the natuie of
the fubjeft. This is nearly allied to the former, and is
committed by the Mahometans and Roman Catholics.
The Mahometans forbid wine, becaufe it is fometimes
the occafion of drunkennefs and quarrels } and tne Ro¬
man Catholics prohibit the reading of the Bible, be¬
caufe it has fometimes promoted herefies. 6. By.dedu¬
cing an univerfal affertion from what is true only in par¬
ticular circumftances, and the reverfe : thus fome men
argue, “ tranferibers have committed many errors in
copying the Scriptures, therefore they are not to be de¬
pended on.” 7. By afferting any thing in a compound
fenfe which is only true in a divided fenfe ; fo when the
Scriptures affure us, that the worft of finners may be
faved, it does not mean that they fliall be faved while
they remain finners, but that if they repent they may be
faved. 8. By an abufe of the ambiguity of. words.
Thus Mr Hume reafons in his Effay.on Miracles:
“ Experience is our only guide in reafoning concerning
matters of fa.a 5 now we know from experience, that
the laws of nature are fixed and invariable. On the
other hand, teftimony is variable and often falfe •, there¬
fore fince our evidence for the reality of miracles refts
folely on teftimony which is variable, and our evidence
for the uniformity of the laws of nature is invariable,
miracles are not to be believed.” The fophiftry of this
reafoning depends on the ambiguity of the word expe¬
rience, which in the firft propofition fignifi.es the ma-
xims which we form from our own obfervation and re¬
flexion •, in the fecond it is confounded with teftimo-
my } for it is by the teftimony of others, as well as our
own obfervation, that we learn whether the laws of na¬
ture are variable or invariable. The Effay on Miracles
may be recommended to thofe who wifti to fee more.ex¬
amples of fophiftry 5 as we believe moft of the eight
fpeeies of fophifms which we have mentioned are well
illuftrated by examples in that effay,
SOPHIST, an appellation affumed in the early pe¬
riods of Grecian hiftory by thofe who devoted their
time to the ftudy of fcience. This appellation appear¬
ing too arrogant to Pythagoras, he declined it, ana
wiftied to be czWedizphilofopher ; declaring that, though
he could not confider himfelf as a wife man, he was in¬
deed a lover of wifdom. True wifdom and modefty^re
Sopliifm;
Sophiil
SOP [ 473 ] SOP
phift generally united. The example of Pythagoras was fol-
H , lowed by every man of eminence-, while the name fo-
ii0cies'. phifl was retained only by thole who with a pomp of words
made a magnificent dilpiay ol wifdom upon a very flight
foundation of knowledge. Thole men taught an arti¬
ficial flru£lure of language, and a lalle method of rea-
foning, by which, in argument, the worfe might be made
to appear the better reafon (fee Sophism). In Athens
they were long held in high repute, and fupported, not
only by contributions from their pupils, but by a regular
falarv from the ftate. They were among the bitterefl:
enemies of the illuftrious Socrates, becaufe he embraced
every opportunity of expoling to contempt and ridicule
their vain pretenfions to fuperior knowledge, and the
pernicious influence of their dodlrines upon thetafte and
morals of the Athenian youth.
SOPHISTICATION, the mixing of any thing
with what is not genuine j a practice too common in
the making up of medicines for fale ; as alfo among
vintners, diftillers, and others, who are accufed of fo-
phiflicating their wines, fpirits, oils, &c. by mixing
with them cheaper and coarfer materials j and in many
cafes the cheat is carried on fo artfully as to deceive the
bell judges.
SOPHOCLES, the celebrated Greek tragic poet,
the fon of Sophilus an Athenian, was born at Co-
lonn, and educated with great attention. Superior vi¬
gour and addrefs in the exercifes of the paleltra, and
Ikill in mufic, were the great accomplilhments of young
men in the Hates of Gree«e. In thefe, Sophocles ex¬
celled 5 nor was he lefs diftinguifhed by the beauty of
his perfon. He was alfo inllrufted in the noblell of all
fciences, civil polity and religion: from the firll of
thefe he derived an unlhaken love of his country, which
he ferved in fame embaflies, and in high military com¬
mand with Pericles j from the latter he was impreffed
with a pious reverence for the gods, manifelled by the
inviolable integrity of his life. But his ftudies were
early devoted to the tragic mufe; the fpirit of Efchy-
lus lent a fire to his genius, and excited that noble emu¬
lation which led him to contend with, and fometimesto
bear away the prize from, his great mailer. He wrote
43 tragedies, of which 7 only have efcaped the ravages
of time: and having teftified his love of his country by
refuting to leave it, though invited by many kings 5
and having enjoyed the uninterrupted elleem and affec¬
tion of his fellow citizens, which neither the gallant ac¬
tions and fublime genius of Efchylus, nor the tender
fpirit and philofophic virtue of Euripides, could fecure
to them, he died in the 9111 year of his age, about 406
years before Chrill. The burial-place of his ancellors
was at Decelia, which the Lacedaemonians had at that
time feized and fortified-, but Lyfander, the Spartan
chief, permitted the Athenians to inter their deceafed
poet-, and they paid him all the honours due to his love
of his country, integrity of life, and high poetic excel¬
lence. Efchylus had at once feized the highell poll of
honour in the field of poetry, the true fublime; to that
eminence his claim could not be difputed. Sophocles
had a noble elevation of mind, but tempered with fo
fine a talle, and fo challened a judgment, that he ne¬
ver paffed the bounds of propriety. Under his conduft
the tragic mufe appeared with the challe dignity offome
noble matron at a religious folemnity 5 harmony is in
her voice, and grace in all her motions. From him the
Vol. XIX. Part II.
theatre received feme additional embellilhmeiTts; and -ophouey
the drama the introdudlion of a third fpeaker, which ^ jl
made it more active and intereiling: but his diltin- , ^)U“ .
guilhed excellence is in the judicious difpofition of the
fable, and fo nice a connexion and dependence of the
parts on each other, that they all agree to make the
event not only probable, but even neceffary. This is pe¬
culiarly admirable in his “ Oedipus King of Thebes 5”
and in this important point he is far fuperior to every
other dramatic writer.
The ingratitude of the children of Sophocles is well
known. They wiflied to become immediate mafters of
their father’s poffeflions; and therefore tired of his
long life, they accufed him before the Areopagus of
infanity. The only defence the poet made was to read
his tragedy of Oedipus at Colonos, which he had lately
finifhed \ and then he alked his judges, whether the au¬
thor of fuch a performance could be taxed with infani¬
ty ! The father upon this was acquitted, and the child¬
ren returned home covered with lhame and confufion.
The feven tragedies of Sophocles which Hill remain, to¬
gether with the Greek Scholia which accompany them,
have been tranflated into Latin by Johnfon, and into
Englifh by Dr Franklin and Mr Potter.
SOPHORA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs
of decandria, and to the order of monogynia ; and in
the natural fyftem arranged under the 3 2d order, Papi-
lionacece. See Botany Index.
SOPORIFIC, or Sop or 1 ferous, a medicine that
produces fleep. Such are opium, laudanum, the feed
of poppies, &c. The word is formed from the Latin
fopor, “ fleep.” The Greeks in place of it ufe the word
hypnotic.
SORBONNE, or Sorbon, the houfe or college of
the faculty of theology eftabliflied in the univerfity of
Paris. It was founded in j 252 by St Louis, or rather
by Robert de Sorbon his confeffor and almoner, firft ca¬
non of Cambray, and afterwards of the church of Paris;
who gave his own name to it, which he himfelf took
from the village of Sorbon or Serbon, near Sens, where
he was born. The foundation was laid in 1250-, Oueen
Blanche, in the abfence of her hufband, furnifhing him
with a houfe which had formerly been the palace of
Julian the apoftate, of which feme remains are Hill
feen. Aftertvards the king gave him all the houfes he
had in the fame place, in exchange for fome others.
The college has been fince magnificently rebuilt by the
cardinal de Richelieu. The defign of its inftitution was
for the ufe of poor ftudents in divinity. There are
lodgings in it for 36 dodlors, who are faid to be of the
fociety of the Sorbonne; thofe admitted into it without
being doctors, are faid to be of the hofpitality of the Sor¬
bonne. Six regent doflors formerly held leftures every
day for an hour and a half each j three in the morning,
and three in the afternoon.
Sorbonne, is alfo ufed in general for the whole fa-
cultv of theology at Paris; as the affemblies of the
whole body are held in the houfe of the Sorbonne;
and the bachelors of the other houfes of the faculty,
as the houfe of Navarre, &c. come hither to hold their
forbonnique, or a£l for being admitted dodlor in divinity.
SORBUS, Service-tree, agenus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of icofandria, and to the order of tri-
gvnia. See Botany Index.—The aucuparia, mountain-
afli, quicken-tree, quick-beam, or roan-tree, rifes with
3 O a
s; O R [ 474 3 ^ 0 R
Sorbus, a ftraigfit upright ft*etn and regular branching head,
Sorcery, twenty or thirty feet high or more, covered with a
',r"v fmooth grayifh brown bark •, pinnated leaves of eight or
ten pair of long, narrow, ferrated folioles, and an odd
one, fmooth on both fides j and large umbellate clufters-
of white flowers at the ftdes and ends of the branches,
fucceeded by clufters of fine red berries, ripe in autumn
and winter. There is a variety with yellow itnped
leaves. This fpecies grows wild in many parts of this
ifland, in mountainous places, woods, and hedge-rows,
often growing to the fize of timber ^ and is admitted in¬
to moft ornamental plantations, for the beauty of its.
growth, foliage, flowers, and fruit •, the latter, in parti¬
cular, being produced in numerous red large bunches all
over the tree, exhibit a fine appearance in autumn and
winter, till devoured by the birds, efpeeially the black¬
bird and thru'h, which are fo allured by this fruit as to
flock from all parts and feed on it voracioufly. In the
ifland of Jura the juice of the berries is employed as an
acid for punch. It is probable that this tree was in high
dteem with the Druids •, for it is more abundant, than
any other tree in the neighbourhood of thofe Druidical
circles of Hones, fo common in North Britain. It is ftill
believed by fome perfens, that a branch of this tree can
defend them from enchantment or witchcraft. Even
the cattle are fuppofed to be preferved by it from dan¬
ger. The dairy-maid drives them to the fummer paf-
tures with a rod of the roan-tree, and drives them home
again with the fame. In Strathfpey, we are told, a
hoop is made of the wood of this tree on the ift ol
May, and all the fheep and lambs are made to pafs
through it.
The domejlica, or cultivated fervice-tree, with .eat¬
able fruit, grows with an upright item, branching 30
or 40 feet high or more, having a brownifh bark, and
the young ihoots in fummer covered with a mealy down •,
pinnated leaves of eight or ten pair of broadifh deeply
ferrated lobes and an odd one, downy underneath 5 and
large umbellate clufters of white flowers at the fides and
ends of the branches, fucceeded by bunches of large,
flefhy, edible red fruit, of various ftiapes and fuzes.
This tree is a native of the fouthern warm parts of
Europe, where its fruit is ufed at table as a- defftrt, and
it is cultivated here in many of our gardens, both as a
fruit-tree and as an ornament to diverfify hardy planta-
SORCERY, or Magic ; the power which fome per-
Ibns were formerly fuppofed to poffefs of commanding
the devil and the infernal fpirits by fkill in charms and
invocations, and of Toothing them by fumigations. Sor¬
cery is therefore to be diflinguilhed from witchcraft}
an art which was fuppofed to be p’a^Iifed, not by com¬
manding evil fpirits, but by compatt with the devil.
As an inftance of the power of bad fmells over daemons
or evil fpirits, we may mention the flight of the evil
fpirit mentioned in Tobit into theremote parts of Egypt,
produced, it is faid, by the fmell of the burnt liver of a
fifli. Lilly informs us, that one Evans having raifed a
fpirit at the requeft of Lord Both well and Sir Kenelm
Digby, and forgetting a fumigation, the fpirit, vexed
at the difappointment, pulled him without the circle,
and carried him from his houfe in the Minories into a
field near Batterfea Cauf< way.
King James, in his Dcemonologia, has given a very
full account of the art of fbrcery. “ Two principal
2
things (fays he) cannot well in that errand be w anted : Sorter;,
holy water (whereby the devill mockes the papifts), and l—y-.
fome prefent of a living thing unto him. There are
like wife certaine daies and houres that they obferve in
this purpofe. Thefe things being all ready and pre¬
pared, circles are made, triangular, quadrangular, round,
double, or Angle, according to the forme of the appari¬
tion they crave. When the conjured fpirit appeares,
which will not be while after many eircumftances, long
prayers, and much muttering and murmurings of the
conjurors, like a papift prieft difpatching a hunting
mafle—how foone, I fay, he appeares, if they have
miffed one jote of all their rites •, or if any of their feete
once flyd over the circle, through terror of his fearfull
apparition, he paies himfelf at that time, in his owne
hand, of that due debt which they ought him, and other-
wife would have delaied longer to have paied him : I
mean, he carries them with him, body and foule.” How
the conjurors made triangular or quadrangular circles,,
his majefty has not informed us, nor does he feem to
imagine there was any difficulty in the'matter. We are
therefore led to fuppofe, that he learned his mathematics
from the fame fyftem as Dr Sacheverell, who, in one of
his fpeeches or fermons, made life of the following fimile:
“ They concur like parallel lines, meeting in one com¬
mon centre.”
Another mode of confulting fpirits -was by the beryl,
by means of a fpeeulator or feer ; who, to have a com¬
plete fight, ought to be a pure virgin, a youth who had
not known woman, or at leaf! a perfon of irreproach¬
able life and purity of manners. The method of fuch
confultation is this : The conjuror having repeated the
neceffary charms and adjurations, with the litany or in¬
vocation peculiar to the fpirits or angels he wiflies to
call (for every one has his particular form), the feer
looks into a cryftal or beryl, -wherein he will fee the
anfwer, reprefented either by types or figures y and
fometimes, though very rarely, will hear the.angels or
fpirits fpeak articulately. Their pronunciation is, as
Lilly fays, like the Iriih, much in the throat. Lilly
deferibes one of thefe beryls or cryftals. It was, he
fays, as large as an orange, fet in filver, with a. crofs at
the top, and round about engraved the names of the
angels Raphael, Gabriel, and Uriel. . A delineation of
another is engraved in the frontifpiece to Aubery’s
Mifcellanies.
Thefe foreerers or magicians do not always employ
their art to do mifehief •, but, on the contrary, frequent¬
ly exert it to cure difeafes. in Sifted by witches ; to dif-
cover thieves ; recover ftolen goods *, to foretel future
events, and the ftate of abfent friends. On this account
they are frequently called w/iite voitcJwj. See Magic,
Witchcraft, See.
Our forefathers were ftrong believers when they en-
afted, by ftatute 3.3 Hen. VIIL c. 8. all witchcraft and
forcery to be felony without benefit of clergy ; and
again, by ftatute r Jac. I. c. 12. that all perfons.invok¬
ing any evil fpirit, or confulting, covenanting with, en¬
tertaining, employing^ feeding, or rewarding any evil
fpirit ; or taking 'up dead bodies from their graves to
be ufed in any witchcraft, forcery, charm, or enchant¬
ment ; or killing or otherwife hurting any perfon by
fueh infernal arts ; fhoulft be guilty of felony without
benefit of clergy, and fuffer death. And if any perlon
fhould attempt by forcery to difeover hidden treasure,
S O R
eery or to reftore ftolen goods, or to provoke unlawful love,
II or to hurt any man or beaft, though the fame were not
rre*‘ effe&ed, he or file fhould fuffer imprifomnent and pil¬
lory for the tirft offence, and death for the fecond.
Thefe afts continued in force till lately, to the terror
of all ancient females in the kingdom ; and many poor
wretches were facrificed thereby to the prejudice of their
neighbours and their own illufions, not a few having
by fome means or other confeffed the fa cl at the gal¬
lows. But all executions for this dubious crime are now
at an end •, our legiflature having at length followed the
wife example of Louis XIV. in France, who thought
proper by an edift to reftrain the tribunals of juftice
from receiving informations of witchcraft. And accord¬
ingly it is with us enacted, by flatute 9 Geo. II. c. 5.
that no profecution fhall for the future be carried on
againft any perfon for conjuration, witchcraft, forcery,
or inchantment: But the miidemeanor of perfons pre¬
tending to ufe witchcraft, tell fortunes, or difeover ftolen
goods, by Ik ill in the occult feiences, is Hill defervedly
punifhed with a year’s imprifonment, and Handing four
times in the pillory.
SOREX, the Shrkw, a genus of animals belonging
to the clafs of mammalia, and order of ferce. See
Mammalia Index.
SORITES, in Logic, a fpecies of reafonxng in which
a great number of propofitions are fo linked together,
that the predicate of the one becomes continually the
fubjeil of the next following, till at laft a conelufion is
formed by bringing together the fubjeft of the firft pro-
pofition and the predicate of the laft. Such was that
merry argument of Themiftocles, to prove that his little
fon under ten years old governed the whole world.
Thus : My fon governs his mother ; his mother me ; I
the Athenians ; the Athenians the Greeks ; Greece com¬
mands Europe ; Europe the whole world: therefore my
fon commands the whole world. See Logic, N° 96, 97.
SORNING, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxxxvi.
3°*
SORREL, in Botany, a fpecies of the rumex, which
grows in paftures and meadows, and is well known. The
natives of Lapland boil large quantities of the leaves in
water, and mix the juice when cold with the milk of
the rein-deer, which they efteem an agreeable and
wholefome food. The Dutch are faid to cultivate this
plant for its ufefulnefs in the dyeing of woollen cloths
black and wte know that by means of the common
broad-leaved forrel an excellent black colour is, in many
places of Scotland, given to woollen Huffs without the
aid of copperas. As this mode of dyeing does not in
the fmalleft degree injure the texture of the cloth, which
continues to the laft foft and filky, without that hard-
nefs to the touch which it acquires when dyed black by
means of copperas, our readers will probably thank us
for the following receipt, with which we have been fa¬
voured by a learned phyfieian :
Let the fluff to be dyed be well wafhed with foap
and water, and afterwards completely dried. Then of
the common broad-leaved forrel boil as much as {hall
make an acid decoftion of fufficient quantity to let the
fluff to be dyed lie in it open and eafy to be ftirred. The
greater quantity of forrel that is ufed, the better will
the colour be ; and therefore if the pot or cauldron will
not hold enough at once, when part has been fufficiently
boiled, it muft be taken out and wrung, and a frefti
S 0 R
quantity be boiled in the fame juice or deeoflion. When Sorrel
the liquor is made fufficiently acid, ftrain it from the 1), ^
forrel through a lieve, put the cloth or yarn into it, and .' * ’
let it boil for two hours, ftirring it frequently. If {lock¬
ings be among the fluff to be dyed, it will be expe¬
dient, after they have been an hour in the boiling li¬
quor, to turn them in fide out, and at the end of the
fecond hour let the whole be poured into a tub or any
other veffel. The pot or cauldron muft then be wafhed,
and water put into it, with half a pound of logwood,
chips for every pound of dry yarn or cloth. The log¬
wood and water ffiould boil {lowly for four hours ; and
then the cloth or yarn being wrung from the four liquor,
and put into the logwood decoction, the whole muft be
fuffered to boil flowly for four hours, (lockings, if there
be any, being turned infide out at the end of two hours.
Of this laft decodlion there muft, as of the former, be
enough to let the cloth lie open and eafy to be ftirred
while boiling. At the end of the four hours the cloth
muft be taken out, and among the boiling liquor, firft
removed from the fire, muft be poured a Scotch pint or
half an Englifh gallon of Hale urine for every pound of
dry cloth or other fluff to be dyed. When this com¬
pound liquor has been If irred and become cold, the cloth
muft be put into it and fuffered to remain well covered
for 12 hours, and then dried in the (hade-, it is then
wafhed in cold water, and dried for ufe.
Wood-SORREL. See OxALIS, BOTANY Index.
SORREL-Colour, in the manege, is a reddifti colour,
generally thought to be a fign of a good borfe.
SORRENTO, a fea-port town of Naples j feated in
a peninfula, on the bay of Naples, at the foot of a moun¬
tain of the fame name, and 15 miles fouth-eaft of Naples.
Sorrentum was famous in ancient times for its beautiful
earthen veffels, particularly goblets and drinking cups j
and claims the honour of being the birth-place of Tor¬
quato Taflb. E. Long. 14. 24. N. Lat. 40. 40.
SORTILEGE, (^Sortilegiuni) a fpecies of divination
performed by means of fortes or lots.
The fortes Preneflinee, famous in antiquity, confifled
in putting a number of letters, or even whole words,
into an urn •, and then, after (baking them together,
they were thrown on the ground ; and whatever fen-
tences could be made out of them, conftituted the an-
fwer of the oracle. To this method of divination fuc-
ceeded that which has been called the fortes Homeriance
and fortes Virgiliaiue, a mode of inquiring into futurity,
which undoubtedly took its rife from a general cuftoAi
of the oracular priefts of delivering their anfwers in
verfe \ it fubfifted a long time among the Greeks and
Romans 5 and being from them adopted by the Chrif-
tians, it was not till after a long fucceffion of centuries
that it became exploded. Among the Romans it con¬
fided in opening fome celebrated poet at random, and
among the Chriftians the Scriptures, and drawing, from
the firft paffage which prefented itfelf to the eye, a
prognoftic of what would befal one’s felf or others, or
direftion for conduct when under any exigency. There
is good evidence that this was none of the vulgar errors j
the greateft perfons, philofophers of the bell repute,
adrtntted this fuperftition. Socrates, when in prifon,
hearing this line of Homer,
Within three days I Phthia’s fhore ffiall fee,
immediately faid, within three days I {hall be out of the
3 O 2 world;
C 475 1
S O R
[ 476 ]
SOU
Sortilege, world } gatliering it from the double meaning of the
  word Phthia, which in Greek is both the name of a
country and lignifies corruption or death. This predic¬
tion, addreffed to iEfchines, was Hot ealily forgotten, as
it was veri fied.
When this fuperftition palTed from Paganifm into
Chriftianity, the Chrittians had two methods of confult-
ing the divine will from the Scriptures 5 the one, cafual-
ly, to open the divine writings, and take their dire&ion,
as above mentioned ; the other, to go to church with a
purpofe of receiving, as a declaration of the will of hea¬
ven, the words of the Scripture, which were tinging at
the inftant of one’s entrance.
This unwarrantable practice of inquiring into futurity
prevailed very generally in England till the beginning
of the 18th century ”, and fometimes the books of
Scripture, and fometimes the poems of Virgil, were con-
i’ulted for oracular refponfes. One remarkable inttance
is that of King Charles I. who being at Oxford during
the civil wars, went one day to fee the public library,
where he was drown, among other books, a Virgil no¬
bly printed and exquifitely bound. The lord Falkland,
to divert the king, would have his majefty make a trial
of his fortune by the Sortes Virgihanez. Whereupon
the king opening the book, the paffage which happened
to come up was this :
At, hello audacis popitli vexatus et ttrmis,
Finihus extorris, complexu uvulfus lull,
Auxilium imploret; videatque in dig 11 a ftiorum
Funera : nec, cum fe fub leges pa as iniquie
Tradiderat, regno ant optuta luce fruatur ;
Sed cadat ante diem, mediaque inhumatus arena.
iEneid, lib. iv.
Yet let a race, untamed and haughty foes,
His peaceful entrance with dire arms oppofe •,
Opprefled with numbers in the unequal field,
His men difeouraged, and himfelf expelled,
Let him for fuccour fue from place to place,
Torn from his fubjecls, and his fon’s embrace :
Firft let him fee his friends in battle fiain,
And their untimely fate lament in vain ;
And when at length the cruel war dr all ceafe,
On hard conditions may he buy his peace.
Nor let him then enjoy fupreme command,
But fall untimely by feme hoftile hand,
And lie unburied on the barren fand.
Lord Falkland obferving that the king was concern¬
ed at this accident, would like wife try his own fortune
in the fame manner, hoping he might fall upon fome
paffage that would have no relation to his cafe, ?md
thereby divert the king’s thoughts from any impreffion
which the other might have upon him j but the place
he itumbled upon was as much fuited to his deftiny as
the other had been to the king’s ; being the lamenta¬
tion of Evander for the untimely death of his fon Pal¬
las * : for this lord’s elded: fon, a young man of an
amiable charadler, had been dain in the fird battle of
Newbury.
We have ourfelves known feveral whofe devotion has
not always been regulated by judgment purlue this me¬
thod of divination ; and have generally obferved, that
the confequence has been defpair or prefumption. rJ o
fuch we beg leave to recommend one paffage in Scrip-
1
* ^Eneid,
lib. xi.
ture which will never difappoint them : Thou Jhalt not Sortilege
tempt the Lord thy God. II
SOTERIA, in antiquity, facrifices offered to the Souffrier«!
gods for delivering a perfon from danger j as alfo poeti-
cal pieces compofed for the fame purpofe.
SOUBISE, a town of France, in the department of
Lower Charente, and late territory of Saintonge. It is
feated on the river Charente, 22 miles fouth of lloehelle,
in W. Long. 1. 2. N. Lat. 45. 57.
SOUDAN, a kingdom of Africa, fituated between
11° and 160 N. Lat. and 26° and 30° E. Long. See
Dar Fur.
SOUGH, among miners, denotes a paffage dug un¬
der around, to convey off waters from mines. See
Mine.
SOVEREIGN, in matters of government, is applied
to the fupreme magiftrate or magiftrates of an indepen¬
dent government or ftate 5 becaufe their authority is
only bounded by the laws of God and the laws of the
ftate : fuch are kings, princes, &c. See Preroga¬
tive, &c.
SOVEREIGN Power, or Sovereignty, is the power of
making laws j for wherever that power refides, all others
muft conform to it, and be diredted by it, whatever ap¬
pearance the outward form and adminiftration of the go- ,
vernment may put on. lor it is at any time in the op¬
tion of the legiflature to alter that form and adminiftra¬
tion by a new edift or rule, and to put the execution of
the laws into whatever hands it pleafes : and all the
other powers of the ftate muft obey the legillative power
in the execution of their feveral funftions, or elfe the
conftitution is at an end. In our conftitution the law
aferibes to the king the attribute of fovereignty : but
that is to be underftood in a qualified fenfe, i. e. as fu¬
preme magiftrate, not as foie legiflator •, as the legilla¬
tive power is veiled in the king, lords, and commons,
not in any of the three eftates alone.
SOU. See Sol.
SOUFFRIERE, a fmall town, fituated at the bot¬
tom of a bay, near the leeward extremity of the illand
of St Lucia. Of itfelf it is not entitled to much notice,
but the adjacent ground is very remarkable. The de¬
clivities of the furrounding hills are cultivated, and af¬
ford fugar-cane of a good quality.
The extremity of the fouth fide of Souffriere bay runs
into two fteep "hills of a conical lhape, and nearly per¬
pendicular, reckoned the higheft on the ifland, and
known by the appellation of the Sugar-Loaf Hills. It
is impofiible to afeend them for although it w’as once
attempted by two negroes, it is faid that they never re¬
turned. Paffing the hills to the windward of Souffriere,
a fine level country prefents itfelf, extending from 15
to 20 miles from the back of the Sugar-Loaf Hills along
the fea coaft, being wholly cultivated, and divided into
rich eftates. It is interfered by numerous rivers of very
clear water, which, by art, are made fubfervient to the
purpofe of fugar-making. The rains here are lefs fre¬
quent than on any other part of the illand, and the wind
blows from the fea, or nearly fo. _ _ .
There is a volcano in the vicinity of this town. Af¬
ter palling one or two fmall hills, the fmell of fulphur is
fenfibly felt before any veftige of the place is perceived.
The firft thing difeerned is a rivulet of black running
water, fending forth ftreams nearly in a ftate of ebulli¬
tion, from which the volcano foou comes into view, fi-
7 tuatea
SOU [ 477 ] SO U
<1 Yiere tuated in a holiow, and furrounded by liills on every
H fide. There are many pits in the hollow, of a black
S ancl thick boiling matter, which appears to work with
great force. Lava is ejedled by flow degrees, and there
is a large mafs of it in the centre of the hollow, forming
a fort of hill. The lava is faid to be a fulphur mixed
with calcareous earth and fome faline body. Small
quantities of alum have been found in a perfect ftate j
and there is a rivulet of good water in the opening, at
the north fide of the hollow. When the bottom of it is
flirred, the water is very hot, fo much fo as not to be
touched. The liquid running from the pits is ftrongly
impregnated with fulphur, and very much refembles
the preparation fold in the (hops, called aqua fulphu-
rata.
SOUL, the principle of perception, memory, intel¬
ligence, and volition, in man ; which, fince the earlieft
era of philofophy, has furniihed queitions of difficult in-
veftigation, and materials of keen and important con-
traverfy (fee Metaphysics, Part III. chap. ii. iii. iv.
v.; and Resurrection, N° 42—48.). In the 4th vo¬
lume of the memoirs of the Literary and Philofophical
Society of Manchefter, the reader will find a very va¬
luable paper by Dr Ferrier, proving by evidence ap¬
parently complete, that every part of the brain has been
injured without affcdfing the a£l of thought. An
abridgement of that memoir would weaken its reafon-
ing 5 which, built on matters of fa ft and experience,
appears to us to have ffiaken the modern theory of the
Materialifts from its very foundation.
Soul of Brutes. See Brutes.
SOUND, in P/iyjics, a term which exprefles a Am¬
ple idea it is that primary information which we ob¬
tain of external things by means of the fenfe of hearing.
See Acoustics.
Sound, in Geograp/iy, denotes in general any ftrait
or inlet of the fea between two headlands. It is given
by w'ay of eminence to the ftrait between Sweden and
Denmark, joining the German ocean to the Baltic, be¬
ing about three miles over. See Denmark, N° 32.
I and Elsinore.
SOUND-Board, the principal part of an organ, and
that which makes the whole machine play. It is a re-
iervoir into which the wind, drawn in by the bellows,
is condufted by a port-vent, and thence diflributed into
the pipes placed over the holes of its upper part. The
wind enters them by valves, wrhich open by preffing on
the keys, after the regifters are draivn, by which the
air is prevented from going into any of the other pipes,
befides thofe in which it is required.
SOUND Board alfo denotes a thin breadboard placed
over the head of a public fpeaker, to enlarge or extend
and ftrengthen his voice.
Sound-boards are found by experience to be of no ufe
in theatres, as their diftance from the fpeaker is too
! great to be impreffed with fufficient force. But found-
boards over a pulpit have frequently a good eflfeft, when
the cafe is conftrufted of a proper thicknefs, and accord¬
ing to particular principles.
SOUND-Pof, is a poll placed in the infide of a violin,
&c. as a prop between the back and belly of the inftru-
ment, and nearly under the bridge.
SOUNDING, the operation of trying the depth of
the fea, and the nature of the bottom, by means of a
plummet funk from a fliip to the bottom.
There are two plummets ufed for this purpofe in na- Sounding-,
vigation j one of which is called the hand-lead, weigh- v "
ing about 8 or 9 pounds ; and the other the deep Jea-
lead, which weighs from A5 to 30 pounds 5 and both
are thaped like the fruftum of a cone or pyramid. The
former is ufed in {hallow waters, and the latter at a
great diftance from the ftiore ; particularly on approach¬
ing the land after a lea voyage. Accordingly the lines
employed for this purpofe are called the deep-fea lead¬
line, and the hand lcad-line.
The hand lead-line, which is ufually 20 fathoms in
length, is marked at every two or three fathoms ; fo
that the depth of the water may be afeertained either in
the day or night. At the depth of two or three fa¬
thoms, there are marks of black leather at 5 fathoms,
there is a white rag', at 7, a red rag j at 10, black
leather-, at 13, black leather 5 at 15, a white rag 5 and
at 17, a red ditto.
Sounding with the hand lead, which is called heaving
the leadby feamen, is generally performed by a man who
Hands in the main-chains to windward. Having the
line quite ready to run out without interruption, he holds
it nearly at the diftance of a fathom from the plummet;
and having fwung the latt r backwards and forwards
three or four times, in order to acquire the greater ve¬
locity, he fwings it round his head, and thence as far
forward as is neceflary ; to that by the lead’s finking
whilft the ffiip advances, the line may be almoft perpen¬
dicular when it reaches the bottom. The perlon found¬
ing then proclaims the depth of the water in a kind of
fong refembling the cries of hawkers in a city. Thus
if the mark of five fathoms is clofe to the furface of the
water, he calls, ‘ By the mark five !’ and as there is no
mark at four, fix, eight, &c. he eftimates thofe numbers,
and calls, ‘ By the dip four,’ &c. If he judges it to be
a quarter or an half more than any particular number,
he calls, ‘ And a quarter five ! and a half four,’ &e. If
he conceives the depth to be three quarters more than a
particular number, he calls it a quarter lefs than the
next : thus, at four fathoms and three fourths he calls,
‘ A quarter lefs five !’ and fo on.
The deep fea-lead is marked with tivo knots at 20
fathoms, three at 30, four at 40, and fo on to the end.
It is alfo marked with a Angle knot in the middle of
each interval, as at 25, 3 5, 45 fathoms, &c. To ufe
this lead more effeftually at fea, or in deep water on the
fea-coaft, it is ufual pn vioufly to bring to the ffiip, in
order to retard her courfe : the lead is then throw-n as
far as poffible from the fliip on the line of her drift, fo
that, as it finks, the fliip drives more perpendicularly
over it. The pilot, feeling the lead ftrike the bottom,
readily difeovers the depth of the water by the mark on
the line neareft its furface. The bottom of the lead be¬
ing alfo well rubbed over with tallow, retains the di-
ftinguiffiing marks of the bottom, as ftiells, ooze, gravel,
&.c. which naturally, adhere to it.
The depth of the water, and the nature of the ground,
which is called the foundings, are carefully marked in
the log-book, as well to determine the diftance of
the place from the ffiore, as to correft the obfervations
of former pilots.
A machine for the fame purpofe has been invented
by Mr Malfey, of which the following defeription is
given :
“ The importance of obtaining true foundings at fea mull
be
Sounding, be admitted by every Teaman •, and it is ratber Angular,
v*“ " v that no other method than the common lead has hither¬
to been brought into ufe ; as its imperfections are very
generally acknowledged.
“ Many veffels have been loft, by depending upon the
foundings taken in the ufual way. The difficulty of ob¬
taining the true perpendicular, and the uncertainty as to
the exadt moment when the lead ftrikes the bottom, up¬
on which the accuracy of the relult depends, mult al¬
ways prevent the poffibility of obtaining the true depth,
while the ihip has any confiderable way upon her. In¬
deed, it has been acknowledged by experienced Teamen,
during fome experiments, made at various times, in the
river Merfey, that they could not depend upon the com¬
mon lead, when going five or fix knots in the hour, m
ten or twelve fathoms of water. When the depth is
confiderable, the veffel muff be hove to, which is an ope¬
ration attended with great lofs of time, and fometimes
confiderable injury to the fails-, and during a chafe, this
inconvenience muff be particularly felt.
“ True foundings may be taken with this machine in
thirty fathoms water, without the trouble of heaving the
veffel to, although Ihe may be going at the rate of fix
miles in the hour. True foundings may alfo thus be
obtained in very deep water, where it is not poflible to
take them by the common lead.
Plate “ Fig. i. reprefents the founding machine, a is the
cgccxcvii. founding weight, containing a regifter, i, 2, with tw-o
I* dials : the hand of the dial I makes one revolution when
the weight has defeended twenty fathoms, the other re¬
volves once when the defeent amounts to five hundred
fathoms. A rotator, b, fimilar to that attached to the
log, communicates with the wheel work of the dials
l, 2, by means of the rod c, on which there are three
univerfal joints, 3, 4, and 5. This rod is fupported du¬
ring the defeent of the weight, by the drop, d, at the
end of which is a fork, 6, and a friftion wheel, 7.
“ When the machine is to be ufed, a founding line is
fattened to the ring, e ; and one of the vanes of the ro¬
tator is flipped into the fpring 8 : the rotator will then
be in the pofition indicated by the dotted lines, x. I he
indices muff be fet at o, and the cover or lid, jT, be fhut.
The machine muff then be projected perpendicularly
into the fea, As foon as it reaches the furface, the re¬
finance of the water forces the dotted rotator, x, out of
the fpring 8, and it affumes its perpendicular dire&ion
as reprefented by the rotator b. As the machine de¬
scends, it is evident the rotator will revolve, and its mo¬
tion be communicated freely paft the fri£tion wheel 7,
and the univerfal joint 5, to the wheel work of the dials
I, 2, and thus indicate the fpace paffed through in fa¬
thoms. When the machine has arrived at the bottom,
the rotator, as it is no longer buoyed up by the reaflion
of the water, will fall to the bottom, quitting the fork
of the drop d, which will alfo fall from its horizontal
pofition, and in its defeent, by means of the locking rod
,9, prevent the rotator from revolving as the machine is
drawn up. When at the bottom, the rotator will be in
the pofition of the dotted lines y.
“ This machine, fimple in its conftruftion, and fcarcely
more liable to accident than the common lead, afccr-
tains, with tfie utmoft precifion, the perpendicular depth,
by the mere a6t of defeent through the water. No mif-
take can arife from that common fource of error, the
drift or lee-way of the Thip during the time of defeent y
nor does an operation of fuch importance depend upon Sound
the uncertain fenlation cauied by the lead linking the'""'“Ye
bottom, on which the accuracy of the common log al.
together depends, and which, it is well known, frequent¬
ly and materially mifteads the beft feaman : for though
a thoufand fathoms of line were laid out, in the fmalleft
depth of water, no inaccuracy could arife, as the perpen¬
dicular depth, at the point of heaving, would be regi-
ftered on the index. The only inconvenience experi¬
enced would be the additional labour neceffary for haul¬
ing in the excefs of line. The moft inexperienced per-
fon may ufe this machine, without rilk of error, in the
moft turbulent fea, and during the night.
“ The advantages already enumerated would render
the founding machine of great importance ; but there
are other properties of ftill more confequence.
“ To heave a Ihip to, in order to obtain foundings, on
a lee ftiore, in ftormy weather, is a very difagreeable
operation, attended with much trouble, and lofs of way;
alfo with confiderable danger to the Thip’s fails j indeed,
it would often, under fuch circumftances, be attended
with great hazard to the fafety of the fhip. To avoid
thefe unpleafant confequences, the mafter fometimes
adopts a meafure, which he conceives to be the lefs ex¬
ceptionable alternative, by running on without founding
at all.
“ To prove howr much inconvenience and danger are
avoided by Maffey’s lead, it is enough to ftate, that
foundings may be taken in depth from 60 to 80 fathoms,
while the (hip is under way, at the rate of three miles
an hour j and as the rate of failing may be ftill materi¬
ally reduced, without entirely flopping the veffel, or al¬
tering her courfe, fo may foundings be had, to any depth
required, while (he is under way.
“ In order more clearly to fhow the fuperiority of this
machine, and make it apparent, that the quantity of
ftray-line veered out does not at all affedl the truth of the
refult : fuppofe the common lead thrown from the mizen
chains of the Ihip, which may be reprefented by the
point a of the triangle a b c, (fig. 2.), and that the ftiipfig, 2,
has moved forwards through the fpace equal to the line
b c, while the lead has defeended through the line a c ;
it is evident, that it is impofiible, in this cafe, to afeer-
tain the exa£t depth, as a quantity of line, equal to a b,
would be paid out, whereas the true depth is equal only
to the line a c, which is much lefs. But the cafe is very
different when the patent founding machine is ufed, as
the operation ceafes when it has reached the bottom j
nor is the ftray-line, a b, whatever its length, at all taken
into the account.
“It has been extremely difficult, and fometimes im-
poffible, to obtain foundings in very deep water with the
common lead, whifch may perhaps be thus accounted for.
The common line Avhicli is ufed for founding, though, if
left to itfelf, it would fink in water, yet its defeent would
be much flower than that of the lead, feparately ; it
confequently follows, that the lead muft be fo much im¬
peded by carrying the line with it, that when it does
reach the bottom, there will be fcarcely any fenfible
check to enable the feaman to know the precife mo¬
ment. Indeed, if he can afeertain even this to a cer¬
tainty, he ftill cannot depend upon the truth of Ins
foundings ; for if there be the leaft drift or current, the
line itfelf will affume a curve, fimilar to that of the line
of a kite in the air. Thefe two oaufes will always ope¬
rate
sou
iding, rate agaiuft the perfection of the common mode of
:1P- founding.
   “ After fo fully defcribing the principle of the patent
founding machine, it is fcarcely neceflary to prove, that
is liable to neither of the foregoing objections and it
may be fufficient to fay, that, as it will certainly find its
way to the bottom, if a fufficient portion of ftray-line be
allowed to guard againft its being checked in its pro-
grefs, and the certainty of its having reached the bot¬
tom may be afcertained by the arming, there can be no
doubt of the practicability of its obtaining foundings, in
any depth, and no reafonable doubt of their correCtnefs
when obtained.
“ From the conftruCtion of this machine, it-might be
imagined, that the rotator would impede its motion
through the water, and that it could not defcend fo ra¬
pidly as the common lead ; but during repeated trials,
in thirteen fathoms water, in which the rotator was fre¬
quently detached, and the lead fuffered to defcend alone,
there was no difference perceptible in the time of their
defcent, though an excellent quarter-fecond Hop watch
was ufed during the experiment, to detect any change.
The following table ffiows how very uniformly the times
of defcent corresponded with the depths in fathoms, du¬
ring a feries of trials made on the river Merfey, with
the patent lead, weighing 14 pounds.
“ The manner of conduCHng thefe experiments was
fuch as is deferving of perfeCt reliance. Two pilots, of
well-known ability and experience, were employed :
one threw the lead, and the other, the moment he found,
by the fiackening of the rope, that the weight had ar¬
rived at the bottom, cried ‘ flop,’ to a third perfon who
held the watch.
[ 479 1
SOU
Time of tiefcent.
2 feconds
2-1 
3
5
5i
6
6
7
Fathoms.
2t
3
4
8^-
10
10
Time of defcent. Fathoms.
7^ feconds
7i  
7i
7i
7,i
8
6
114
u-s-
1 IT
I 2
I2|
*3
1 Si¬
lo
“ Taken when under fail, at upwards of five knots in
the hour.
“ Several captains and mailers in the navy have made
trial of the log and founding machine, and given very
favourable reports of their performance j and it has been
adopted by order of the Navy Board in the Britilh
navy
SOUP, a ftrong decoClion of fleffi or other fub-
llances.
Portable or dry foup is a kind of cake formed by
boiling the gelatinous parts of animal fubfiances till the
watery parts are evaporated. This fpecies of foup is
chiefly ufed at fea, and has been found of great advan¬
tage. The following receipt will ffiow how it is pre¬
pared.
Of calves foet take 4 ; leg of beef 17 lbs. ; knuckle
of veal 3 lbs ; and leg of mutton 10 lbs. Thefe are
to be boiled in a fufficient quantity of water, and the
foum taken off as ufual ; after which the foup is to be
Separated from the meat by ftraining and prdfure. The
meat is then to be boiled a fecond time in other water $
and the two decoctions, being added together, muff be
left to cool, in order that the fat may be exactly fepa-,
rated. The foup mult then be clarified with five or fix
whites of eggs, and a fufficient quantity of common fait
added. The liquor is then drained through flannel,
and evaporated on the water-bath to the confiflence of
a very thick palte ; after which it is fpread rather thin
upon a fmooth flone, then cut into cakes, and laftly
dried in a ftove until it becomes brittle 5 thefe cakes are
kept in well clofed bottles. The fame procefs may be
ufed to make a portable foup of the flelh of poultry ; and
aromatic herbs may be ufed as a feafoning, if thought
proper.
Thefe tablets or cakes may be kept four or five
years. When intended to be ufed, the quantity of half
an ounce is put into a large glafs of boiling water,
which is to be covered, and fet upon hot allies for a
quarter of an hour, or until the whole is entirely dif-
folved. It forms an excellent foup, and requires no ad>-
dition but a fmall quantity of fait.
SOUR-croute. See Croute.
SOUR-Gourd, or African Calabajh-tree. See Adan-
sonia, Botany Index.
SOUTH, Dr Robert, an eminent divine, was the
fon of Mr William South a merchant of London, and.
was born at Hackney near that city in 1633. He ftu-
died at Weftminfter fchool, and afterwards in Chrifl-
church college, Oxford. In 1654, he wrote a copy e£-
Latin verfes to congratulate Cromwell upon the peace
concluded with the Dutch ; and the next year a Latin
poem, entitled Mufca Incantans. In 1660 he was eletl-
ed public orator of the univerfity ; and the next year
became domeftic chaplain to Edward earl of Clarendon,
lord-high chancellor of England. In 1663 he was in-
flalled prebendary of Weftminfter, admitted to the de¬
gree of doftor of divinity, and had a finecure beftowed
on him in Wales by his patron the earl of Clarendon j
after whofe retirement into France in 1667 he became
chaplain to the duke of York. In 1670 he was inftal-
led canon of Chrift church in Oxford j and in 1676 at¬
tended as chaplain to Laurence Hyde, Efq. ambaffador
extraordinary to the king of Poland. In 1678 he was^
prefented to the retlory of Illip in Oxfordihire ; and
in 1680 rebuilt the chancel of that church, as he after¬
wards did the reftory-houfe belonging to it. After the
revolution he took the oath of allegiance to King Wil¬
liam and Queen Mary, though he excufed himfelf from
accepting a great dignity in the church, vacated by the-
perfonal refufal of that oath. His health began to de¬
cline feveral years before his death, which happened in
1716. He was interred in Weftminfter Abbey, where
a monument is eredted to his memory. He publifhed,
r. Animadverfions on Dr Sherlock’s Vindication of the
Holy and Ever Bleffed Trinity. 2. A Defence of his
Animadverfions. 3. Sermons, 8 vols 8vo. And after
his deeeafe were publifhed his Opera Poflhuma Latina^
and his pofthumous Engliffi works. Dr South was re¬
markable for his wit, which abounds in all his writings,
and particularly in his form on s 5 but at the fame time
they equally abound in ill-humour, fpleen, and fatire.
He was remarkable for being a time forver. During
the life of Cromwell he was a (launch Prefhyterian, and
then railed againft the Independents : at the Reitera¬
tion
Soap
II
South.
SOU r 480 1 SPA
tion lie exerted his pulpit-eloquence again!! the Pre?%-
terians •, and in the reign of Queen Anne, was a warm
advocate for Sacheverel.
South, one of the four cardinal points from which
the winds blow.
SOUTH Sea, or Pacific Ocean, is that vaft body of
Avater interpofed between Alia and America. It does
not, however, ftrietly I peaking, reach quite to the con¬
tinent of Aha, excepting to the northward of the pe-
ninfula of Malacca : for the water interpofed between
the eaftern coaft of Africa and the peninfula juft men¬
tioned has the name of the Indian ocean. The South
fea then is bounded on one fide by the weftern coaft of
America, through its whole extent, from the unknown
regions in the north to the ftraits of Magellan and
Terra del Fuego, where it communicates with the fou-
thern part of the Atlantic. On the other fide, it is
bounded by the coaft of Afia, from the northern pro¬
montory of Tfchukotfkoi Nofs, to the peninfula of Ma¬
lacca already mentioned. Thence it is bounded to the
fouthward by the northern coafts of Borneo, Celebes,
Macaflar, New Guinea, New Holland, and the other
iflands in that quarter, which divide it from the Indian
ocean. Then, waftiing the eatfern coaft of the great
ifiand of New Holland, it communicates with that vaft
body of water encompafling the whole fouthern part of
the globe, and which has the general name of the Sou¬
thern ocean all round. Thus does this vaft ocean occu¬
py almoft the femicircumference of the globe, extend¬
ing almoft from one pole to the other, and about the
equatorial parts extending almoft 180° in longitude, or
12,500 of our miles.
The northern parts of the Pacific ocean are entirely
deftitute of land •, not a fingle illand having yet been
difcovered in it from the latitude of 40° north and up¬
wards, excepting fuch as are very near the coaft either
of Afia or America ; but in the fouthern part there
are a great number.
Till very lately the South fea was in a great meafure
unknown. From the great extent of ice which covers
the fouthern part of the globe, it was imagined that
much more land exifted there than in the northern re¬
gions : but that this could not be juftly inferred mere¬
ly from that circumftance, is plain from what has been
advanced under the article America, N°3—24.*, and
the fouthern continent, long known by the name of
Terra Aufiralis, has eluded the fearch of the moft ex¬
pert navigators fent out from Britain and France by
royal authority. See Terra Australis.
South Sea Company. See Company;
SOUTHAMPTON, a fea-port town of Hampftrife
in England } is feated on an arm of the fea •, is a place
of good trade, and in 1801 contained nearly 8000 in¬
habitants. It is furrounded by walls and feveral watch-
towers, and had a ftrong caftle to defend the harbour,
now in ruins. It is a corporation and a county of itfelf,
with the title of an earldom, and fends two members to
parliament. W. Long. 1. 24. N. Lat. 50. 54.
SOUTHERN, Thomas, an eminent dramatic wri¬
ter, was born at Dublin in 1660, and received his
education in the univerfity there. He came young to
London to ftudy law •, but inftead of that devoted
himfelf to poetry and the writing of plays. His Per-
fian Prince, or Loyal Brother, was introduced in 1682,
when the Tory intereft was triumphant in England j
and the chara£ler of the Loyal Brother being intended SostfiJj
to compliment James duke of York, he rewarded the I! j
author when he came to the throne w ith a commiffion, Pi ,
in the army. On the Revolution taking place, he re- J
tired to his ftudies, and wrote feveral plays, from which ,
he is fuppofed to have derived a very handfome fuhfift-
ence, being the firil who railed the advantage of play-
writing to a fecond and third night. The moft finifiied
of all his plays is Oroonoko, or the Royal Slave, which
is built on a true ftory related in one of Mrs Behn’s no¬
vels. Mr Southern died in 1746, in the 86th year of
his age 5 the latter part of which he fpent in a peaceful
ferenity, having by his commiffion as a foldier, and the
profits'of his dramatic vrorks, acquired a handfome for¬
tune *, and being an exaft economift, he improved what
fortune he gained to the bell advantage. He enjoyed
the longeft life of all our poets-, and died the richeft of
them, a very few excepted. His plays are printed in
two volumes l2mo.
Southern Continent. See America, N° 3—24.
and Terra Aufiralis.
SOUTHERNWOOD. See Artemisia, Botany
Index.
SOUTHWARK, a town of Surrey, and a fuburb
of the city of London, being feparated from that me¬
tropolis only by the Thames. See LONDON, N° 96-
SOW. See Sus, Mammalia Index.
Sow, in the iron works, the name of the block or
lump of metal they wmrk at once in the iron furnace.
Sow-Thifile. See Sonchus, Botany Index.
SOWING, in Agriculture and Gardening, the depo-
fiting any kind of feed in the earth for a future crop.
See Agriculture.
Drill-Sotting. See DRiLL-Sowing.
SOY. See Dolichos.
SOZOMENUS, Hermias, an ecclefiaftical hifto-
rian of the 5th century, was born in Bethelia, a town
■ of Paleftine. He was educated for the law, and be¬
came a pleader at Conftantinople. He wrote an A-
bridgement of Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, in two books, from
the afcenfion of our Saviour to the year 323.. This
compendium is loft but a continuation of it in nine
books, written at greater length, down to the year
440, is ftill extant. He feems to have copied Socrates,
who wrote a hiftory of the fame period. The ftyle of
Sozomenus is perhaps more elegant} but in other re-
fpefts he falls far fhort of that writer, difplaying through¬
out his whole book an amazing credulity and a fuper-
ftitious attachment to monks and the monaftic life.
The beft edition of Sozomenus is that of Robert Stephen
in 1 ^44. He has been tranflated and publiftied by ya-
lefius, and republiffied with additional notes by Reading
at London, 1720, in 3 vols folio.
SPA, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weftpha-
lia and bifhopric of Liege, famous for its mineral wa¬
ter, lies in E. Long 5. ro. N. Lat. 50. 30. about 21
miles fouth-eaft from Liege, and 7 fouth-weft from
Lomburg. It is fituated at one end of a deep valley
on the banks of a fmall rivulet, and is furrounded on all
fides by high mountains. The fides of thefe mountains
next to Spa are rude and uncultivated, prefenting a
nigged appearance as if fliattered by the convulfions 0
earthquakes •, but as they are ftrewed with tall oaksanQ
abundance of ffirubs, the country around forms a wild,
romantic, and beautiful landfcape. I he accef? to t e
Spa.
SPA [ 481 ] SPA
town is very beautiful. The road winds over the
mountains till it defeends to their bottom, when it
runs along a fmooth valley for a mile or a mile and
a half.
The town confifts of four ftreets in form of a crofs,
and contains about 400 inhabitants. Spa has no wealth
to boaft of. It can fcarcely furnifh the necefiaries of
life to its own inhabitants during the winter, and almoft
all the luxuries which are requilite for the great con-
courfe of affluent vifitors during the fummer are carried
from Liege by women. Its only fource of wealth is its
mineral waters. No fooner does the warm feafon com¬
mence, than crowds of valetudinarians arrive, as well as
many other perfons who are attracted folely by the love
of amufement, and fome from lefs honourable motives.
The inhabitants, who fpend feven or eight months of
the year without feeing the face of a ftranger, wait for
the return of this period with impatience. The wel¬
come found of the carriages brings multitudes from the
town, either to gratify their curiolity, or to offer their
fervices in the hopes of fecuring your employment while
you remain at Spa. Immediately after your arrival, your
name and defignation is added to the printed lift of the
annual vifitors j for which you pay a ftated fum to the
bookfellers, who have a patent for this purpofe from the
prince bifflop of Liege. This lift not only enables one
to know at a glance whether any friends or acquaint¬
ances are refiding there, but alfo to diftinguilh perfons
of rank and fafhion from adventurers, who feldom have
the effrontery to infert their names.
There are twm different ways of accommodating the
vifitors at Spa with lodging and neceffaries. People
may either lodge at a hotel, where every thing is fur-
niihed them in a fplendid and expenfive ftyle ; or they
may take up their relidence in private lodgings, from
which they may fend for provifions to a cook’s fhop.
Among the people who vifit Spa, there are many
perfons of the firft rank and faftiion in Europe. Per¬
haps indeed there is no place in Europe to which fo
many kings and princes refort; but it is alfo vifited by
many felf-ereated nobility, who, under the titles of
counts, barons, marquifes, and knights, contrive by
their addrefs, and artifices, to prey upon the rich and
unexperienced.
The manners eftablifhed at Spa are conducive both
to health and amufement. Every body rifes early in
the morning, at fix o’clock or before it, when a great
many horfes ftand ready faddled for thofe who choofe
to drink, the Sauveniere or Geronftere waters at a little
diftance from Spa. After this healthy exercife a part
of the company generally breakfaft together at Vaux-
hall, a magnificent and fpacious building. At this
place a number of card-tables are opened every fore¬
noon, round which many perfons affemble and play for
ftakes to a very confiderable amount. A ball too is ge¬
nerally held once a week at Vauxhall, befides two balls
at the affembly rooms near the Pouhon in the middle of
the town.
The moft remarkable waters at Spa are, 1. The Pou¬
hon, fituated in the middle of the town j 2. The Sau¬
veniere, a mile and a half eaft from it; 3. Groifbeck,
near to the Sauveniere; 4. Tonnelet, fituated a little to
the left of the road which leads to the Sauveniere ;
5. Geronftere, two miles fouth from Spa ; 6. War-
troz, near to the Tonnelet; 7. Sarts or Nivefet, in the
diftrift of Sarts; 8. Chevron or Bru, in the principality
of Slavelot; 9. Couve ; 10. Beverfe ; 11. Sige ; 12.
Geremont. Thefe four laft are near Malmedy.
Dr Brownrigg was the firft perfon who difeovered
that fixed air, or, as it is now generally called, carbonic
acid gas, forms a principal ingredient in the compofition
of the Spa waters, and aiftually feparated a quantity of
this elaftic fluid, by expofing it to different degrees of
heat from no0 to 170° of Fahrenheit. From 20 oun¬
ces 7 drams and 14 grains apothecaries weight of the
Pouhon wTater, he obtained 8 ounces 2 drams and 50
grains. Since June 1765, when Dr Brownrigg read a
paper on this fubjefl before the Royal Society of Lon¬
don, the waters of Spa have been often analyfed, but
perhaps by none with more accuracy than by Dr Afli,
who publiftied a book on the chemical and medicinal
properties of thefe waters in 1788. We (hall prefent
the refult of his analyfis of the five principal fprings in
the following table.
Fountains.
Quantity
of Wa¬
ter.
Ounce
vnea fares
of Gas.
Solid
contents.
Aeratod
Lime,
Aerated
Magne-
fia.
Aerated
Mineral
Alkali.
Aerated
Iron.
Selenite.
Aerated
Vegetal).
Alkali.
Pouhon
Geronftere
Sauveniere
Groifheck
Tonnelet
Ounces.
33-
32-75
32.50
32.25
a2*
35-75
24-75
33*5°
35-50
4Q-75
Grains.
16.25
5.5°
3-75
5-25
2.00
2-75
2.50
1.50
1.50
^.25
9.50
2.25
i-75
°-75
1.
o-75
I-75
o-75
0.50
0.75
1.
0.50
The Pouhon fpring rifes from the hill to the north
Spa, which confifts of argillaceous fchiftus and fer-
rugineous flate. The other fountains rife from the fur-
Wmding hills to the fouth-eaft, fouth, weft, and north-
weft of the town ; and this ridge of mountains is form¬
ed of calcareous earths mixed with filiceous fubftances.
I he furface of the mountains is covered with woods,
mterfperfed with large boggy fwamps filled with mud
and water. The Pouhon is confidered as the principal
fpring at Spa, being impregnated with a greater quan¬
tity of iron than any of the reft, and containing more
Vol. XIX. Part II.
fixed air than any except the Tonnelet. It is from this
fpring that the Spa water for exportation is bottled ;
for which the demand is fo great, that, according to
the beft information that Mr Thickneffe could obtain, Tbickne/fe’S
the quantity exported amounts to 200,000 or 2 $0,000 Journey
bottles annually. This exported water is inferior in its through
virtue to that which is drunk on the fpot; for the vef-the Pais
fels into which it is collected are injudicioufly expofed to liaS'
the fun, rain, wind, and dull, for feveral hours before
they are corked, by which means a confiderable part of
its volatile ingredients rauft be evaporated; for it has
3 ? been
SPA t 4*2
been found by experiment, that by expofing it to a gen¬
tle heat, air-bubbles afeend in great numbers. It is m
its greateft perfeftion when collected in cold dry wea¬
ther •, it is then pellucid, colourlefs, and without fmell,
and almoft as light as diftilled water. It varies in its
heat from 52° or 530 to 67° of Fahrenheit’s thermome¬
ter.
The Geronftere is a much weaker chalybeate water
than the Pouhon 5 and as it is exceedingly naufeous,
and taftes and fmells like rotten eggs, it certainly con¬
tains fome hepatic gas. This is a circumftance which
Dr Afh Teems not to have attended to fufficiently. The
Sauveniere water alfo, when newly taken from the well,
fmells a little of fulphur. The Groifbeck contains more
alkali, and almoft as much gas as the Pouhon, and has
been celebrated for its good effects in the cafe of calcu¬
lous concretions. The Tonnelet contains more gas
than anv of the reft. So fmall is the quantity of any
foftil bodv held in fufpenfion by the aerial acid in it,
and To volatile is the gas, that it begins to pafs off very
rapidlv the moment it is taken out of the well, and in a
fhort time is entirely gone. Dr Afti informs us, that
in the neighbourhood of this well, the cellars, on any
approaching change of weather, are found to contain
much fixed' air •, and the beft prognoftic which they
have of rain is the averfion which cats (how to be car¬
ried into thefe cellars.
The Spa waters are diuretic, and fometimes purga¬
tive. They exhilarate the fpirits with an influence much
more benign than wine or fpirituous liquors *, and they
are more cooling, and allay third more effe&ually, than
common water. They are found beneficial in cafes
of weaknefs and relaxation, either partial or univerfal ;
in nervous diforders ; in obftruftions of the liver and
fpleen •, in cafes where the blood is too thin and pu-
trefeent ; in cafes of exceflive difeharges proceeding
from weaknefs ; in the gravel and ftone j and in moft
cafes where a ftrengthening remedy is wanted. But they
are hurtful in confirmed obftru&ions attended rvith fe¬
ver, where there is no free outlet to the matter, as in
ulcerations of the lungs. They are alfo injurious to bi¬
lious and plethoric conftitutions, when ufed before the
body is cooled by proper evacutions.
SPACE. See Metaphysics, Part II. Chap. iv.
Space, in Geometry, denotes the area of any figure,
or that, which fills the interval or diftance between the
lines that terminate it.
SPADIX, in Botany, anciently fignified the recep¬
tacle of the palms. It is now ufed to exprefs every
fiower-ftalk that is protruded out of a fpatha or fheath.
The fpadix of the palms is branched ; that of all
other plants Ample. This laft cafe admits of fome va¬
riety ; in cnlla, dracontium, and pothos, the florets co¬
yer it on all fides; in arum, they are difpofed on the
lower part only : and in zq/lera on one fide. See Bo¬
tany.
SPAGTRIC art, a name given by old authors to
that fpecies of chemiftry which works on metals, and is
emploved in the fenrch of the philofopher’s ftone.
SPAHIS, horfemen in the Ottoman army, chiefly
] SPA
raifed in Afia. The great ftrength of the grand feig- Spahi,.
nior’s army confifts in the janifaries, who are the foot; Spaim
and the fpahis, who are the horfe.
SPAIN. The kingdom of Spain, which occupies situatio7
by far the greater portion of the fouth-weftern peninfulaand bow.
of Europe, is bounded on the north by the bay of Bifcay dary.
and Pyrenean mountains, which feparate it from France j
on the eaft by the Mediterranean fea j on the fouth by
the ftraits of Gibraltar, which divide it from the Afri¬
can kingdom of Morocco ; and on the weft, partly by
the Atlantic ocean, but chiefly by the narrow kingdom
of Portugal. This laft is the only artificial boundary
of the Spanifti territory, and confifts of ideal lines, ex¬
cept in three parts, where the river Minho to the
north, and the Douro and the Chanca, till its jumftion
with the Guadiana to the eaft, form rather more natural
limits. ^
From Cape Ortegal in N. Lat. 430 44', to the rock Extent .
of Gibraltar, in N. Lat. 350 57/, the continent of
Spain extends through nearly 8° of latitude, while its
extent from wfeft to eaft, viz. from Cape Finifterre in
Long. 90 17' W. from Greenwich to Cape Creus, or
Croix, in Long. 30 30' E. from the fame meridian,
comprehends nearly 130 of longitude. In Britilh miles,
its length from north to fouth, viz. from Cape Penas to
Gibraltar, may be eftimated at 550 miles, while its me¬
dium breadth may be computed at 440. According to
De Laborde, its fuperfieial extent, exclufive of Portugal,
is 2^,137 fquare French leagues, or about 21,000
fquare Englilh leagues.
Befides the continental part of Spain, this monarchy
comprehends feveral iffands in the Mediterranean, efpe-
cially Majorca, Minorca, and Ivi^a ; the Canary iflands,
and feveral places on the north-w'eftern coaft of Africa-,
the Philippine and Ladrone iflands j together with an
immenfe territory both in North and South America,
comprehending Mexico or New Spain, New Mexico,
the iff and of Cuba, Porto Rico, &c. in North America,
and in the fouthern part of that continent, the greateft;
portion of Terra Firma, Peru, Chili, almoft the whole
of Paraguay, with an extenfive territory lying on the
banks of the river Plate. ^ i
The ufual divifion of the Spanilh continent is into jyvifioE
fourteen provinces, viz. thofe of CATALONIA, Aragon,
and Navarre, on the confines of France j Biscay,
Asturias, and Gallicia, on the (bores of the At¬
lantic •, Leon and Estremadura, on the fide of Por¬
tugal ; Andalusia chiefly on the ftraits of Gibraltar;
Granada, Murcia, and Valencia, on the fhores
of the Mediterranean; Old and New Castile in the
centre.
The lateft writer on the geography of Spain, De La¬
borde, reckons only 13 provinces, as he includes Gra¬
nada under Andalufia. In the following table we have
brought together the moft important eircumftances re-
fpefting each of thefe provinces, viz. the fubdivifions,
extent in fquare Britifli miles, population at the end of
the 18th century, and chief towns ; and we have
arranged the provinces in the order followed by La¬
borde.
SPA
[ 4*3 ]
SPA
Provinces.
Subdivi/ions.
Extent in
fquo re miles.
Population.
Chief Towns.
Province of Catalonia.
Kingdom of Valencia.
Province of Estremadura.
Province of Andalusia.
Kingdom of Murcia.
Kingdom of Aragon.
Kingdom of Navarre.
Province of Biscay.
Principality of the Asturias.
Kingdom of Gallicia.
Kingdom of Leon.
Kingdom of Old Castile.
Kingdom of New Castile.
Kingdom of Majorca.
Wand of Minorca.
County of Rouffillon 7
   CerdagneJ
Kingdom of Seville
■  Granada
Cordova
Jaen
Bifcay Proper
Alava
Guipuzcoa
Oviedo
Santillana
}
Leon
Palencia
Zamora
Salamanca
Burgos
Avila
Segovia
Toledo
}
}
Cuenca
Lamanca
Iflands of Majorca
  Cabrera
■ ■■ — — Ivi^a
10.400
7,800
16,000
12,600
1,080
2.400
8,812
16,500
2,287
4,000
3>375l
1,200j
11,500
10,750
10,800
22,000
1,440 7
100 j
360
814,412
93 V 5°
416,922
754,293
661,661
236,016
177,j36
337,686
623,308
287,382
116,042
74,000
12,076
350,000
1,350,000
665,432
1,190,180
1,146,809
136,000
27,000
10,308,505
Barcelona, Tarragon a, Urgel, Lerida, Ge-
rona, Salfona, Vich, Tortofa, Figueras, &c.
Valencia, Alicant, Elche, Orihuela, Caf-
tellan, Alzira, Carcaxente, Gandia, Xaci
va, Otiniente, Alcoy, Segorbe, &c.
Badajoz, Placencia, Coria, Merida, Trux-
illo, Xera de los Cavalleros, Llerina,
Almatona, Zafra, &c.
Seville, Xeres de la Frontera, Arcos, Ca¬
diz, Real Ejo, Ayamonte, Nivela, &c.
Granada, Malaga, Loxa, Santa Fe, Anti-
quera, Ronda, Guadix, Baza, &c.
Cordova, and Archiduna, &c.
Jaen, Ubeda, Baeza, Anduxar, &c.
Murcia, Carthagena, Lorca, Chinchilla,
Alba Cete, Villena, Almanza, &c.
Zaragoza, laca, Barbaftro, Huefca, Tara-
zona, Albarrazin, Teruel, &c.
Pampeluna, Tudela, &c.
Bilboa, Vermijo, &c.
Vittoria, Trevino, Onate, &c.
St Sebastian, Fuenaraba, Tolofa, Placen¬
tia, &c.
Oviedo, Aviles, Luarca, Gijon, &c.
Santillana, San Vincente, Riva de Sella,
&.C.
San Jago de Compostella, Bayona, Lu¬
go, Orenfe, Mondonedo, Corunna, Vigo,
&c.
Leon, Duero, Allorga, Salamanca, Zamora,
&c.
Burgos, Ofma, Siguenza, Avila, Vallado¬
lid, Segovia, Calahorra, Soria, &c.
Madrid, Toledo, Aranjuez, Talavera della
Reyna, &c.
Cuenca, Guete, Alacon, &c.
Ocana, Hucles, Laguardia, Tarrazona, &.c.
Palma, Alcudia, &c.
Ivi^a.
Mahon, Cittadella.
Some account of thefe provinces will be found under
the articles Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Bis¬
cay, Castile, Catalonia, Estremadura, Galli¬
cia, Granada, Leon, Murcia, Navarre, Valen¬
cia, Ivica, Majorca, and Minorca ; but, for the
Deft view of their prefent ftate, we muft refer our read¬
ers to De Laborde’s View of Spain, vols i. ii. and iii. or
to Playfair’s Geography, vol. i.
In its general appearance, Spain prefents a pleafing
variety of hill and dale, mountain and valley. It muft 4
be regarded as a mountainous country, its plains being Face °f the
few in number and of fmall extent. The moft remark- country*
able of thefe occupies the centre of the kingdom, efpeci-
ally New Caftile, which forms the moft elevated tratt
of level country to be found in Europe, having a mean
elevation of more than 300 fathoms above the level of
the fea. The country is well wooded, and abounds with
rivers j but thefe are often very deficient in water, and
3 P 2 Spain,
SPA [ 484 ] SPA
Spain. Spain, especially on its eaftern coaft, is remarkable for
' the drynels of its foil. Notwithftanding this aridity,
however, moll parts of the kingdom teem with fertility,
and native verdure and high cultivation render the fce-
nery delightful. Here and there, indeed, occurs a trafl
of defert utterly incapable of cultivation 5 but, in gene¬
ral, nature has done much more for the country than
, the labour of its inhabitants.
Soil. The foil is faid to be in general light, and eafily
wrought j but on many parts of the eaifern coaft it is
compofed chiefly of a dift loam or clay. 1 he moll fer¬
tile parts of the kingdom are in Valencia, on the coafl:
of Granada, in the kingdom of Old Caftile, and in fe-
veral parts of thofe of New Catlile and Leon. 1 he ioil
of Catalonia is very difeouraging, except in the valleys,
and the fame may be faid ot all the provinces bordering
on the Pyrennees; the foil of Eftremadura, though na¬
turally good, has been fo long abandoned to itfelt, that
it has almoft ceafed to produce, and that of Andaluna
has a very mixed character. 1 he foil of Murcia is un¬
commonly arid 5 that of the Aftunas cold } that of Gal-
licia extremely wet. In the neighbourhood of Cartha-
gena there is an extenfive traft, which is fo covered
with ftones as to form a defert as fterile and untameable
S as any on the fandy plains of Africa or Arabia.
Mountains. We have faid that Spain is a mountainous country.
The chain of the Pyrenees, common to it. and France,
is by no means the moft confiderable in point either of
elevation or extent ; though that chain may be regard¬
ed as»the common root or origin of all the reft. From
the weftern corner of the Pyrenees a vaft ridge branches
off through Navarre, Bifcay, Afturias, and Gallicia,
terminating only at Cape Finifterre, and Cape.Ortegal.
This ridge is the Cantabrian mountains, and is diftin-
guiihed into feveral fubordinate groups, denominated
from the principal towns fituated in their vicinity.. I hus
we have the mountains of Mondonedo in Gallicia. In
general, thefe groups are called Sierras, from the jag¬
ged or ferrated appearance of their tops •, as the Sierra
de la Aflurias. Sierra d'Avila, &c. The fubordinate
mountains that extend from the Sierra of the Afturias
in the north, to the Alpuxaras in the fouth, run in paral¬
lel lines; and the fame direction prevails in the moun¬
tains of Saint Andero, which join the Pyrenees.
From the mountains of Bifcay arifes a main, ridge,
which, after proceeding a little to the fouth, divides in¬
to three or four branches. Of thefe the moft northerly
chain feparates-the provinces of Old Caftile and New Ca¬
ftile, extending to the confines of Portugal, and called
the mountains of Guadarama. A fecond branch divides
the principal part of New Caftile from the province of
La Mancha, running from the north eaft to the fouth-
weft, as far as Badajos in Eftremadura. The moft re¬
markable part of this chain is the Sierra of Guadalupe.
South of thefe runs the Sierra Morena, or Sable moun¬
tains, rendered claflicai by the inimitable pen of Cer¬
vantes. This-is the laft chain till we reach the Alpux¬
aras, that’extend through the provinces of Granada and
Andalufia.*.
Of thefe mountains there are two points, which, in
elevation, exceed IVIont Perdu, tne higheft of the Py*
tenees, viz, the Pico de Venleta, in the Sierra Nevada,
or fnowy mountains of Granada, which is elevated more
than 1781 fathoms above the level of the ocean, and
\ke peak of Mulahafen, in the fame chain, raifed above
1824 fathoms, which is within 76 fathoms of the peak Spain.
ofTeneriffe.
The principal capes and promontories of the Spanifh Capes^andl
continent are, Cape Creus, Cape St Antoine, oppofite promonto>i
the ifiand of Ivi$a j Cape Palas, near Carthagena •, ries.
Cape de Gatte, near Almeria, and the promontory on
which Hands the town of Gibraltar, all on the coaft of
the Mediterranean ; and Cape Maehieaco, Cape Penas,
Cape Ortegal, the promontory of Ferrol, Cape Fini¬
fterre, and Cape Trafalgar, on the coafts of the Atlan¬
tic. . 8
The principal bays and gulfs on the coaft of Spain, Bays and
purfuing the fame courfe, are the following •, the bay gulfs,
of Valencia, the bay of Alicant, the gulf of Carthagena,
the bay of Almeria, the bay of Gibraltar, the harbour
of Cadiz, the bay of Corunna, commonly called the
Groyne, and the bay of Bifcay. ^
The rivers of Spain are intimately connefted with the Rivgfj,
mountains from which they derive their fource, and be¬
tween the chains of which they generally flow. The
moft important are, the Ebro, riling in the mountains
of Santillana in the Afturias, and running in a fouth-
eaftern dire61ion between the Caftiles and Valencia on
the one hand, and the provinces of Navarre, Aragon,
and Catalonia, on the other, till it reaches the Medi¬
terranean, at a fmall diftance from Tortofa \ the Xacar,
rifing in the Sierra of Cuenca in New Caftile, and flow¬
ing into the Mediterranean confiderably to the fouth-
Avard of Valencia ; the Segura, riling in a mountain of
the fame name, traverfing the province of Murcia, and
meeting the Mediterranean about midway between the
capital of that province and Alicant. Thefe flow into
the Mediterranean, and there are feveral other rivers of
lefs note, which pour their waters into the fame fea, and
which we can merely enumerate. Thefe are the Ter
at Gerona, the Lobregate at Barcelona, and the Mi-
jares, pafling by Segorbe. The rivers which flow into
the Atlantic are, the Guadalquiver, rifing at the foot of
Mount Segura, from the oppofite fide of which origi¬
nates the river of the fame name, flowing with a flug-
gilh courfe through the province of Andalufia, and meet¬
ing the Atlantic a little to the north-weft of Xeres ; the
Guadiana, rifing among fome lakes to the north-weft of
Alcaraz in New Caftile, and pafling between the Sierra
Morena and the Sierra de Guadalupe, till, near Bada¬
jos, it enters the kingdom of Portugal, and runs near¬
ly in a foutherly diredlion, till it meets the Atlantic at
Ayamonte ; the Tagus, rifing among the mountains of
Albara^in in New Caftile, and running wefterly till, at
Alcantara, it becomes a river of Portugal 5 the Douro,
rifing in Old Caftile near Soria, and pafling by Valla¬
dolid and Zamora, near which it forms a. part of the
boundary of Portugal ; the Minho, rifing in the moun¬
tains of Gallicia, and running to the fouth-weft, till it
meets the Atlantic to the north of Camina. The only
other river of any importance in this dire£lion is the
Lima, fuppofed to be the Lethe of the poets, which
rifes in Gallicia, and flows into the fea below Yi.ara.
If we except the feries of fmall lakes from which vyeLak&v
have faid the river Guadiana takes its rife, there are, in
Spain, few lakes that merit particular notice. The moft
remarkable of thefe is the lake of Abulfera, in the pr0'
vinee of Valencia. This lake begins near the village.of
Catarroija, about a league fouth of the city of Valencia,
and extends nearly four leagues as far as Cullera, When
lir.T
A
It
pore its*
12
Mimates
isd i'eai’ons.
SPA [ 485 ] SPA
it is full, it is about four leagues long, two in breadth,
and fix in circumference } but it is fo (hallow, that fmall
boats can fcarcely float in it. To fupply the deficiency
of water, an engine is employed, by which the neigh¬
bouring waters are drawn into the bed of the lake; and
any fuperabundant water occafioned by heavy rains, is
carried off into the fea by means of an artificial opening.
This lake contains a great many filh, and numerous
aquatic birds make it their haunt. On certain days in
the year the inhabitants of Valencia make excurfions
hither to (hoot the birds, and the furface of the lake is
at thefe times covered with boats.
Many parts ®f the kingdom of Spain abound in large
tracts of wood. Extenfiye forefts are found in Catalo¬
nia, the Afturias, Gallieia, and in the Sierra Morena.
It is in the mountainous chains that the forefts of Spain
are moft remarkable ; and there are few of thefe heights,
except in the fnowy regions of the Sierra Nevada, but
what are covered with wood almoft to their fummits.
The climate of Spain is as delightful as that of any
part of Europe j and though at certain feafons of the
year the eaftern coaft is fubje£t to exceffive heat and
drought, and the north-weftern to almoft perpetual
rains, the temperature is in general mild, and the air
felubrious.
The climate of Spain Jias been admirably depidled by
M. A. de Humboldt 5 and we ftiall here prefent to our
readers the fubftance of his remarks, as they are related
by De Laborde, in his view of Spain.
No country of Europe prefents a configuration fo fin-
gular as Spain. It is this extraordinary form which ac¬
counts for the drynefs of the foil in the interior of the
Caftiles, for the power of evaporation, the want of ri¬
vers, and that difference of temperature which is obfer-
vable between Madrid and Naples, two towns fituated
under the fame degree of latitude.
The interior of Spain is, as we have feen,an elevated
plane, which is higher than any of the fame kind in
Europe, occupying fo large an extent of country. The
mean height of the barometer at Madrid is 26 niches
2|- lines. It is therefore ^ lower than the mean'height
of the mercury at the level of the ocean. This is the
difference of the preffure of the atmofphere that is expe¬
rienced by all bodies expofed to the air at Madrid, and at
Cadiz and Bourdeaux. At Madrid the barometer falls
as low as 25 inches 6 lines, and fometimes even lower.
The following is a table of the variations in the height
of the barometer during the firft nine months of the
year 1793.
Months.
January,
February,
March,
April,
May,
June,
July,
Auguft,
September,
Maximum.
Inches.
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
Lines.
5-8
5-3
4-7
2.4
4.6
4-
4-3
3- 2
4- 3
Minimum.
Inches.
25
25
25
25
25
25
26
25
25
L;nes.
9.8
6.2
6.
6.9
10.5
11.8
0.7
n-5
11.
Mean Height
of the Mercury
Inches.
26
26
25
2 5
26
26
26
26
26
Lines,
2.6
1.6
11.6
11.6
0.8
1.6
2.4
1.4
i-7
From the mean height of the barometer at Madrid, Spam,
we find that capital to be elevated 3091% fathoms above "
the level of the ocean. Madrid, confequently, Hands
as high as the town of Infpruck, fituated on one of the
higheft defiles of the Tyrol, while its elevation is 15
times greater than that of Paris, and three times greater
than that of Geneva.
According to M. Thalacker, the mineralogift, who
has taken feveral heights with the barometer in the en¬
virons of Madrid, the elevation of the king’s palace at
San Ildefonfo is 593 fathoms, which is higher than the
edge of the crater of Mount Vefuvius, and is, ftriftly
fpeaking, in the regions of the clouds, which generally
float from 550 to 600 fathoms high.
The height of the plain of the Cafliles has an evident
effedt on its temperature. We are aftoniflied at not
finding oranges in the open air under the fame latitude
as that of Tarentum, part of Calabria, Theffaly, and
Afia Minor but the mean temperature of Madrid is
very little fuperior to that of Marfeilles, Paris, and Ber¬
lin, and is nearly the fame with that of Genoa and
Rome. The following table (hews the mean tempera¬
ture at Madrid and at Rome, during the firft nine
months of the years 1793 and 1807.
At Madrid.
At Rome.
Months.
Deg. of Fahrenheit.
Deg. of Fahrenheit.
January,
February,
March,
April,
May,
June,
July,
Auguft,
September,
39 3
43 24
47 54
52 *9 3°"
59 4 3°
72 32 15
77 x3 3°
81 34 30
65 45
4°
47
5°
54
65
72
79
79
72
11 x5
49 3°
*5 45
34 3°
56 15
3°
1S
*5
34 3°
Thus, the mean temperature at Madrid appears to >
be 590 of Fahrenheit, while that of the coafts of Spain,
from the 410 to the 36® of Lat. is between 63^° and
68° of Fahrenheit. In the former climate we find that .
orange trees will not flourifli in perfedion, while in the
latter we fee banana trees, he-liconias, and even fugar-
canes, growing in fituations that are flickered from the
cold winds:
Spain prefents few fpecies of animals that are notAnimafe
found in the other parts of fouthern Europe. Among
the quadrupeds, we may remark, as peculiar to Spain,
the genet, (viverra genetta.') The bear is found in fe¬
veral parts of the great Pyrenean chain, efpecialiy on
feme of the mountains of Aragon, as well as thofe of
Occar and Reynofa in Old Caftile. Wolves are met
with in all the higher and mountainous parts of the
country, and wild boars on the mountains of Navarre,
on the Pinar, and the Sierra de Carafcoy, in the king¬
dom of Valencia. The roebuck is found on fome of
the mountains of Navarre, and the lynx and the ibex
on thofe of Cuenca in New Caftile, in the valleys of
Aure and Giftau, as well as in the Pyrenees. The
glory of Spanifti zoology is the horfe, for which this
kingdom has been famous in all ages. The Spanifh
horfes ;
SPA [ 436 1 SPA
Spain, horfes have probably originated from the Barbs of the
u—0£ Africa, fuppofed to be the immediate oifspring
of the Arabian breed* The Spanifh mules are alio ex¬
cellent, and the afs is here no ignoble animal, though
not equal to thofe of Arabia. There is little remark¬
able in the breed of cattle} but the Merino iheep have
long been diltinguifhed, and are perhaps fuperior to any
in the world for the beauty of the fleece, if not for the
delicacy of the mutton. The flocks of Merino fheep
are fometimes extremely large, and Mr Townfend men¬
tions one nobleman who poffefled not fewer than 40,000.
The whole number in the kingdom may be eflimated
at about c,000,000. Thefe animals were, by a fpecial
code, called the Mejia, authorifed to travel from one
province to another, according as the feafon prefented
the bell palfurage in the mountains or the plains. The
fleece of the Merino (beep is efteemed double in value
to that of any other breed.
Of the birds more peculiarly found in Spain, the vul-
tur perenopterus, the cucuhis glandarius, cuculus tri-
daSIyla, motacil/a hifpanica, hirundo me Ilia, and hirun-
do rupejlris, are the moll remarkable.
Frelh-water filhes are very plentiful in the Spanilh
rivers ; but thofe in moft elteem are frorp the fmall
river Tormes in Old Callile, where have been taken
trout of 20 lbs. weight. The tench of the lakes near
Tobar in New Callile, are remarkably fine and deli¬
cate, and are taken in great abundance every year, dur¬
ing the months of May and June. The fiflr taken on
the coalls are much the fame as thofe of the other coun¬
tries bordering on the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.
The tunny wTas formerly taken on the eallern coall,
where it formed a particular branch of the filhery, but
is now, we believe, little regarded.
Among the Spanifh infebls, the moll remarkable are,
the cantharides, {meloe vcjicaiorius'), and the kermes in-
fecl {coccus ilicis'). The latter infect is much cultivated
as an article of dyeing, efpecially in the territory of
Bujalance, and of Fernan Nunes in the kingdom of
Cordova, as alfo in the vicinity of the town of De las
Aguas, four leagues from Alicant, and near the river
Ht nares, in New Callile. The evergreen oaks on
which thefe animals feed, prefent in the fpring, a molt
lingular appearance, from the red nidi of the kermes,
14 with which their leaves are covered.
Vegetables. No country of Europe of the fame extent, furnilhes
fuch an ample field for the refearches of the botanill, as
Spain j and indeed its botany conllitutes a very impor¬
tant part of its natural hiltory. The mountainous dif-
tridls are clothed with the evergreen oak, the common
oak, the chefnut, and in fome places various fpecies of
pine ; but their moll ufeful produftion is the cork tree.
The fmaller heights produce the wild olive, the almond,
the fliumac, the laurel, the bay, the cyprefs, Canary
and Portugal broom, the yellow jeffamine, and the
Provence rofe. The vine, the palm tree, the orange,
the lemon and the olive, are fo nearly naturalized as to
require but little cultivation ; and the fame may be faid
of the kali (falfo/afoda'), which is produced in large
quantities on the coalls, and furnilhes the bell kind of
kelp, commonly called barilla, ufed in the manufadlure
of foap and glafs. The plains and valleys are covered
with many of thofe plants which form fome of the
greateft ornaments of our flower gardens, as the tulip,
feveral fpecies of iris, the paeony, the pallion flower, the
5
orange and martagon lily, the jonquil, feveral fpecies of Spa®
narcilfus and hyacinth, and above all the rhododendron.
The mountains, however, exhibit the greatelt variety
of botanical riches. Thofe moll worthy of the vifits and
refearches of the enterprifing botanill, are, the Sierra de
Guadalupe in Ellremadura j the mountains of Moncayo
in Aragon *, of Pineda, Guadarama, and Cuenca, in
New Callile ; of Carofcoy, in the kingdom of Murcia ;
of Pena-Colofa, Mongi, Aytona, and Mariola, in the
kingdom of Valencia, and the Pyrenees.
The fugar-cane, was, before the difeovery of the Well
India illands, one of the moll important objedls of Spa¬
nifh cultivation, and numerous fugar mills were ella-
blilhed along the coall of the Mediterranean, efpecially
in the kingdom of Granada. At the conquell of that
Moorilh kingdom, not fewer than fourteen fugar plan¬
tations and two mills, were found within the province.
Some fugar canes are llill cultivated in the kingdom of
Valencia, but the manufacture of fugar is dilcontinued,
and the canes are ufed only for dillillation. There is,
we believe, Hill a manufactory for fugar from Spanilh
canes in Granada. ^
Spain has long been celebrated for the riches of its Mineral?
mineral kingdom, and it may llill be confidered as the
Mexico and Peru of Europe. There are few metals
which may not be found in this kingdom j and, till the
difeovery of America put the Spaniards in poffeflion of
mines which far furpafs their own in produce, the gold
and filver mines of Spain were thought to be nearly the
richelt in the world. At prefent, no gold mines are
wrought, but grains of that metal are found diflemina-
ted in ferruginous quartz, forming a vein that pafies
through a mountain near the village of San Ildefonfo in
Old Callile. Spangles of gold are found intermixed
with emery, in a mine near Alocer in Ellremadura,
and in the territory of Molena in Aragon *, and this
metal is occalionally found in the land of two rivers;
the Agneda, in the kingdom of Leon, which rifes from
the mountains of Xalamo, and the Tagus in New Caf-
tile, efpecially in the vicinity of Toledo.
Silver is much more abundant, but moll of its mines
have alfo been abandoned. We believe the only filver
mine now in work is that of the Sierra de Guadalupe,
near the village of Logrozen, where the filver is found
mixed with micaceous fchillus. The molt remarkable
filver mines formerly worked are thofe of Alrodoval del
Campo; of Zalamea on the road to Alocer in Ellrema¬
dura ; of Aimazaron near Carthagena; three in the
Sierra Morena, about a league from Guadalcanal, in
the kingdom of Seville, and another about two leagues
from Linarez, in the kingdom of Jaen. I his lall mine
was well known both to the Carthaginians and the
Romans ; while Spain was under the dominion of the
former it belonged to Himilca, the wife of Afdrubal.
After having been long abandoned, it was again wrought
in the 17th century, when a vein of ore five feet in dia¬
meter was difeovered •, at prefent, however, it is no lon¬
ger in a Hate of aftivity.
Mines of copper are found near Pampeluna in Na¬
varre, near Salva Tierra in Alava ; near Efcarray, and
at the foot of the mountains of Guadarama in Old Caf-
tile near Lorea in Murcia •, near the Chartreufe of the
Val de Chrillo in Valencia j in the Sierra de Guadalupe
in Ellremadura •, in the mountains near Cordova •, near
Riotinto, and at la Canada de los Conejos in Seville;
SPA [ 487 ] SPA
Spain, in the diflrift of Albuladui in Granada, and near Le-
narez in the kingdom of Jaen.
There are numerous lead mines, efpecially near Tor-
tofa in Catalonia j at Zoma, Benafques, and Plan in
Aragon ; near Logrofen and Alcofer in Eilremadura $
in the mountain Guadarrama in Old Caftile ; near I03
Alumbres and Lorca in Murcia 5 at Alcaniz and Con-
ftantina in Seville, and at the diflrift of Linarez in
Jaen.
, The mines of iron are abundant, and need not be
enumerated. Of antimony there are two mines, both
in the diftrift of La Mancha. One of thefe is at Alen-
dia, near Almodovar ; the other at the foot of the Sier¬
ra Morena. There is only one mine of cobalt, viz. in
the province of Aragon, found in the valley of Gefton.
There are two mines of cinnabar in Valencia •, one about
two leagues from Alicant in the limeftone mountains of
Alcoray 5 the other between Valencia and San Felipe j
and two others in the fame province, that produce native
mercury, but none of thefe are worked. The moft
abundant mine of mercury and cinnabar united is in the
diftrift of La Mancha, on the borders of Cordova. It
is fituated in a hill of fandftohe which refts on flate.
The whole length of the hill is traverfed by two princi¬
pal veins, both of which were wrought by the Romans.
The whole of this mine was lately wrought by the
agents of the king, and its produce was very abundant.
Plumbago is found in a thick vein intermixed with
feldfpar, about a league from the village of Real Mo-
nafterio, in the kingdom of Seville. Mines of fulphur
occur, both in Aragon and Murcia •, jet has been found
in the diftricR of Old Colmenar, in Old Caftile 5 and
there is good evidence of the prefence of coal at feveral
places in Catalonia, in the Afturias, New Caftile, and
Aragon ; but it is faid that no coal mines have as yet
been opened.
The marbles of Spain are very numerous and valuable.
A black marble, veined with white, is procured near
Barcelona ; many dendritic marbles occur nearTortofa.
Near the town of Molina, in Aragon, is found a gra¬
nular marble fpotted with red, yellow, and white. At
the village of Salinos, in the diftridt of Guipuzcoa, is a
beautiful blue pyritical marble, containing marine fhells.
From Monte Segarra, near Segorbia, in the province of
Valencia, are procured feveral fine marbles, which Avere
held in great eftimation even by the Romans. The pro¬
vince of Granada, however, contains more valuable va¬
rieties of this beautiful mineral than all the reft of Spain ;
of thefe fome of the principal are the following. A
pure white ftatuary marble, of which the whole moun¬
tain of Filabra, near Almeria, is compofed ; a flefti-co-
loured marble from a mountain near Antiquera •, an
exquifitely beautiful wax-coloured alabafter, from the
vicinity of the city of Granada j and a finely veined
f.j marble from the Sierra Nevada.
•al Of the Spaniih mineral waters the following are the
s. moft celebrated. The principal cold fprings are, a he¬
patic water in the totvn of Buron, in Valencia ; a car¬
bonated tvater at Gerona, in Catalonia ; a faline purga-
tive water at Vacia-Madrid, three leagues from the ca¬
pital, and another of a firnilar nature near Toledo.
The principal hot fprings are, the baths of Abu Zu-
lena, at Javal-Cohol, near Bteza } a hepatic fpring ufed
for bathing near Alhama de Granada ; another near
Almeria, in the province of Granada, to which are at¬
tached both bathing and vapour baths: all thefe Avere Spain,
difcovered, or at leaft brought into general ufe, by the
Moors. A very copious hot fpring near Merida, in
Eftremadura, made ule of by the Romans. The Calda
de Bonar, in the neighbourhood of Leon, a fpring of
tepid water frequented by the Romans, and ftill exhi¬
biting the ruins of baths and ancient infcriptions. A
very hot fpring near Orenfe, in Gallioia. A fpring at
Alhama, near Calatayud, in Aragon, formerly much
frequented, but now in a ftate of negledt. The Fuente
de Buzot, near Alicant, a faline fpring of the tempera¬
ture of 104° Fahrenheit. A very copious and hot
fpring at Archena, near Murcia, where ftill remain the
ruins of Roman and Mooriih baths. A hepatic fpring
near Arnedillo, in Old Caftile.
Among the natural curiofities of Spain, Ave may parti- Natural
cularize the mountain of Monlferrat in Catalonia (fee curiofities*
Montserrat) ; the infulated hill of rock fait near the
toAvn of Cardona, in Catalonia (fee Geology, N° 102) j
the fubterranean lake contained Avithin a cave, in the
neighbourhood of the Cava Perella, in the ifland of
Minorca 5 the ftaladfitic. cave called St Michael’s, on
the Avert fide of the rock of Gibraltar, and the river
Guadiana, Avhich appears and difappears feveral times
in the courfe of its progrefs to the fea. jj
The various groups of iflands that are fubjedl to Spain Spanith
have long been diftinguiftied by particular names. Thuslflands* "
Majorca, Minorca, Cabrera and Dragoneru, Avere called
by the ancients Infulcc Baleares, and are ftill named
the Balearic Ijles ; Avhile Iviqa and Feromentura form a
lefler group, denominated the Pityufe I/les. Of thefe
illands, the latter Avere taken poffeflion of by the Car¬
thaginians nearly 700 years before the Chriftian era j
and about 200 years after that enterprifing people made
themfelves mailers of the Balearic ifles. After the fall of
Carthage, all thefe iflands long maintained a ftate of pi¬
ratical independence, and only Majorca Avas ever com¬
pletely fubjedl to the Romans. In the time of Auguftus
we are told that the Balearic ifles Avere fo infefted Avith
rabbits, that the inhabitants fent deputies to Rome for
afliftance to deftroy thefe formidable invaders of their
plantations. In the year 426 of the Chriftian era, thefe
iflands came into the poffeflion of the Vandals, from
Avhom they Avere taken at the end of the 8th century
by the African Moors. At the beginning of the qth
century they Avere feized on by a fleet fent into the Me¬
diterranean by Charlemagne ; but they were foon after
reconquered by the Moors, who maintained the fove-
reignty in thefe iflands till, in 1228, they were finally
difpoffefied by Don James grandfon of Alphonfo II.
king of Aragon.
Though Spain appears to have been knoAvn to the Names of
Phoenicians nearly 1000 years before the birth of Chrift, Spain,
it feems to have been little regarded by the Greeks till
after the period when Plerodotus compofed his hiftory.
Some part of this country was probably the Tarftrdh of
Scripture, from which the Phoenicians imported gold,
filver, and other precious commodities into Judea!
When the Greeks had eftabliflied a colony at Marfeilles*
they muft have been well acquainted Avith at leaft the
northern part of this peninfula, to which they gave the
names of Iberia and Celtiberia, from two nations AA'ho
then inhabited the country, and of Hefperia, from its
extreme fituation in the Avert of the then knoAvn world,
ihe name Hifpania, from Avhich its modern appellation
is
SPA [ 488 ] s p A 1.1
Spain, is derived, was bellowed on it by the Romans; but the midable were the Numantmes, Cantabrians, and Aftu- Jp*
etymology of this name is uncertain.
20 The Aborigines of Spain were doubtlefs a Celtic tribe,
population, which probably paffed into this peninfula from the ad¬
joining continent of Gaul, though at a very early period
they appear to have been mixed with a colony of IVIau-
ritani, or Moors from the coall of Africa. ^ I he Celtic
inhabitants, or Cf?itiberi, feem to have pofleiled the nor th-
eaft of the peninfula, while the Mauritani occupied the
21 fouthern and fouth-weftern diltridls.^
Spain in- Nothing certain is known refpedling tne early Hate
Varied by Qf Spain, till the commencement of the nrft Punic war
theCartha- between the Homans and the Carthaginians, in the mid-
£An.n*-o. die of the third century before Chrift. Not long be-
B; C. fore this date, probably at the beginning of the century,
the latter people bad poffeflfed themfelves of Catalonia,
when their general Hamilcar Barcas is faid to have
founded the city of Barceno, the modern Barcelona.
The Carthaginian colony, however, feems to have been
rather a mercantile than a warlike fettlement, and the
Celtiberi were more the allies than the fubjeCiS of their
African neighbours. Of the contefts carried on be¬
tween the Carthaginians and the Romans, till the final
fubjugation of the former, and the confequent occupa¬
tion of all their territories by the Roman republic, we
have given an account under the articles Carthage
and Rome. We (hall here briefly confider the Hate of
Spain at the time of its occupation by the Romans, and
relate the events to which that occupation gave rife,
and 'which are lefs connedled with the more immediate
tranfadlions of the Punic wars.
State of At the time of the Roman conqueft, Spain, though
Spain at prodigious quantities of filver had been carried out of
the Roman R by the Carthaginians and Tyrians, was yet a very
conqueft. country> xn the moft ancient times, indeed, its
riches are faid to have exceeded what is related of the
mod; wealthy country in America. Ariftotle affures us,
that when tire Phenicians firfl: arrived in Spain, they
exchanged their naval commodities for fuch immenfe
quantities of filver, that their (hips could neither con¬
tain nor fuftain its load, though they ufed it for ballaft,
and made their anchors and other implements of filver.
When the Carthaginians firft came to Spain, they found
the quantity of filver nothing leflened, fince the inha¬
bitants at that time made all their utenfils, and even
mangers, of that precious metal. In the time of the
Romans this amazing plenty wras very much diminifh-
ed ; however, their gleanings were by no means defpi-
cable, fince in the fpace of nine years they carried off
111,542 pounds of filver, and 4095 of gold, befides an
immenfe quantity of coin and other things of value (a).
The Spaniards were always remarkable for their brave¬
ry, and fome of Hannibal’s bed troops were brought
from thence j but as the Romans penetrated farther
into the country than the Carthaginians had done, they
met with nations whofe love of liberty was equal to
their valour, and whom the whole ftrength of their em¬
pire was fcarcely able to fubdue. Of thefe the moil for-
nans.
In the time of the third Punic war, one Viriathus, a Succ^r
celebrated hunter, and afterwards the captain of a gang01 Vlr®
of banditti, took upon him the command of fome na- athus a.
tions who had been in alliance with Carthage, and ven-gainfttii
tured to oppofe the Roman power in that part of Spain Ionian-
called Lufitania, now Portugal. The praetor, named
VetiHus, who commanded in fhofe parts, marched againft
him with 10,000 men j but was defeated and killed,
with the lofs of 4000 of his troops. The Romans im¬
mediately difpatehed another praetor with 10,000 foot
and 1300 horfe : but Viriathus having firft cut off a de¬
tachment of 4000 of them, engaged the reft in a pitch¬
ed battle •, and having entirely defeated them, reduced
great part of the country. A-nother praetor, who was
fent with a new army, met with the lame fate} fo that,
after the deftrudion of Carthage, the Romans thought
proper to fend a conful named Quintus tabius^ who de¬
feated the Lufitanians in feverai battles, and regained
two important places which had long been in the hands
of the rebels. After the expiration of Fabius’s confu-
late, Viriathus continued the war with his ufual fuccefs,
till the fenate thought proper to fend againft him the
conful Q. Csecilius Metellus, an officer of great valour*
and experience. With him Viriathus did not choofe to
venture a pitched battle, but contented himfelf with
ading on the defenfive j in confequence of which the
Romans recovered a great many cities, and the whole
of Tarraconian Spain was obliged to fubmit to their
yoke. The other conful, named Servilianus, did not
meet with the fame fuccefs 5 his army was defeated in
the field, and his camp was nearly taken by Viriathus.
Notwithftanding the good fortune of Metellus, how¬
ever, he could not withftand the intrigues of his coun¬
trymen againft him, and he was not allowed to finrfh
the war he had begun with fo much fuccefs. In re-
fentment for this he took all imaginable pains to weak¬
en the army under his command : he dilbanded the
flower of his troops, exhaufted the magazines, let the
elephants die, broke in pieces the arrows which had
been provided for the Cretan archers, and threw them
into a river. Yet, after all, the army which he gave
up to his fucceffor Q. Pompeius, conlifting of 30,000
foot and 2000 horfe, was fuffieient to have cruffied vi¬
riathus if the general had known how to ufe it.. But,
inftead of oppofing Viriathus with fuccefs, the impru¬
dent conful procured much more formidable enemies.
The Termantians and Numantines, who had hitherto
kept themfelves independent, offered very advantageous
terms of peace and alliance with Rome *, but Pompeius
infilled on their delivering up their arms. Upon this
war was immediately commenced. The conlul with
great confidence invefted Numantia *, but being repulfed
with confiderable lofs, he fat down before Termantia,
where he was attended with ftill worfe fuccefs. 1®
very firft day, the Termantines killed 700 of ms le¬
gionaries } took a great convoy which was coming^o
(a) In this account we muft allow fomething for the exaggerations of fabulous hiftorians^ us nod
however, that Spain was at this time immenfely rich, and if we may believe Strabo, there was then
Carthage which yielded every day 25,000 drams of filver, or about 300,000!. per annum.
24
he llo-
.ans fur-
unded on
1 fides,
td forced
SPA
tKie Roman camp ; and having defeated
body of their horfe, pufhed them from poft to poft till
they came to the edge of a precipice, where they all
tumbled down, and were dallied to pieces. In the mean
time Servilius, who had been continued in his command
with the title of proconful, managed matters fo ill, that
Viriathus furrounded him on all iides, and obliged him
conclude t0 fue for peace. The terms offered to the Romans
lUViri- were very moderate ; being only that Viriathus Ihould
Ims. keep the country he at that time pofleffed, and the Ro¬
mans remain mailers of all the reft. This peace the
proconful was very glad to fign, and afterwards pro¬
cured its ratification by the fenate and people of Rome.
The next year Pompeius was continued in his
command againft the Numantines in Farther Spain,
while Q. Servilius Caspio, the new conful, had for his
province Hither Spain, where Viriathus had eftablifhed
his new ftate. Pompeius undertook to reduce Numan-
tia by turning afide the ftream of the Durius, now the
Douro, by which it was fupplied with w-ater ; but, in
attempting this, fuch numbers of his men were cut oft",
that, finding himfelf unable to contend with the enemy,
he was glad to make peace with them on much worfe
terms than they had offered of their own accord. The
peace, however, was ratified at Rome \ but in the mean
time Caspio, delirolls of ftiowing his ptowefs againft the
renowned Viriathus, prevailed oft the Romans to de¬
clare war againft him without any provocation. As
Caepio commanded an army greatly fuperior to the Lu-
fttanians, Viriathus thought proper to fue for peace j but
finding that Caepio would be fatisfied with nothing lefs
than a furrender at difcretion, he refolved to Hand his
ground. In the mean time, the latter having bribed
I ily mur- fome of the intimate companions of Viriathus to murder
1 sd* him in his lleep, he by that infamous method put an end
to a war which had lafted 14 years, very little to the
16 honour of the republic.
After the death of Viriathus, the Romans with like
ed by t^acbery ordered their new conful Popilius to break the
Nu- treaty with the Numantines. His infamous conduct
met with the reward it deferved ; the Numantines Tal¬
lying out, put the whole Roman army to flight with
fuch flaughter, that they were in no condition to aft
during the whole campaign. Mancinus, who fucceeded
Popilius, met with ftill worfe fuccefs 5 his great army,
confifting of 30,000 men, was Utterly defeated by 4000
Numantines, and 2o,odo of them killed in the purfuit.
The remaining io,Ooo, with their general, were pent
up by the Numantihes in fuch a manner that they could
neither advance nor retreat, and would certainly have
been all put to the fword or made prifoners, had not
the Numantines, with a generofity which their enemies
Tnever poffeffed, offered to let them depart upon condition
that a treaty fhould be concluded with them upon very
moderate terms. This the conful very willingly pro-
mifed, but found himfelf unable to perform. On the
contrary, the people not fatisfied with declaring his
treaty null and void, ordered him to be delivered up to
the Numantines. The latter refufed to accept him, tm-
lefs he had along with him the lo,oob men whom they
had relieved as before related. At laft, after the conful
had remained a whole day before the city, his fucceffor
Purius, thinking this a fufficient recompenfe to the Nu¬
mantines for breaking the treaty, ordered him to be re¬
vived again into the camp. However, Furius did not
V-ol. XIX. Part II.
Spaitf.
.*5
[ lathus
iche-
tines.
[ 4S9 ] S P A
a confiderable choofe to engage with fuch a defperate and refolute
enemy as the Numantines had fhowed themfelves j and
the war with them was difcontinucd till the year 133 ^
E. C. when Scipio Aimilianus, the deftroyer of Car-mthanus^'
thage, was fent againft them. Againft this renownedfent againft
commander the Numantines with all their valour were^6111-
not able to contend. Scipio, having with the utmoft care An. 133.
introduced ftrift difeipline among his troops, and re-
formed the abufes which his predeceffors had fuffered in
their armies, by degrees brought the Romans to face
their enemies, which fit his arrival they had abfolutely
refufed to do. Having then ravaged all the country
round the town, it Avas foon blocked up on all fides,
and the inhabitants began to feel the want of pro-
vifions. At laft they refolved to make one defperate
attempt for their liberty, and either to break through
their enemies, or perilh in the attempt. With this view
they marched out in good order by two gates, and fell
Upon the Avorks of the Romans Avith the utmoft fury.
The Romans, unable to ftand this defperate ftiock, Avere
on the point of yielding, Avben Scipio, haftening to the
places attacked, Avith no feAver than 20,000 men, the
unhappy Numantines Avere at laft driven into the city,
Avhere they fuftained for a little longer the miferies of
famine. Finding at laft, hoAvever, that it Avas altoge¬
ther impoffible to hold out, it Avas refolved by the ma¬
jority to fubmit to the pleafure of the Roman comman-
der. But this refolution Avas not Univerfally approved. Mifetable
Many flmt themfelves up in their houfes, and died ofen<d of the
hunger, while even thole who had agreed to furrender
repented their ofi'er, and fetting fire to their houfes,
perilhed in the flames with their Avives and children, fo
that not a Angle Numantine Avas left alive to grace the
triumph of the conqueror of Carthage.
After the deftruftion of Numantia, the Avhole of Spain
fubmitted to the Roman yoke , and nothing remarkable
happened till the times of the Cimbri, Avhtn a praetorian
army Avas cut off in Spain by the Lufitanians. From
this time nothing remarkable occurs in the hiftory of
Spain till the civil Avar between Marius' and Sylla. The
latter having crufhed the Marian faftion, as related un¬
der the article Rome, proferibed all thofe that had faded
againft him, Avhom he could not immediately deftroy.
Among thefe was Sertorius, a man of confummate va-Sertorfus
lour and experience in Avar. He had been appointed'upports the
praetor of Spain by Marius ; and upon the overthroAV Marian fac*
of Marius, retired to that province. Sylla no foonerl1011-m
heard of his arrival in that country, than he fent tin- P‘lln*
ther one Caius Annius with a poAverful army to drive
him out. As Sertorius had but few troops along with
him, he difpatched one Julius Salinator Avith a body
of 6000 men to guard the paffes of the Pyrenees, and
to prevent Annius from entering the country. But Sali¬
nator having been treacheroufly murdered by affaffins
hired by Annius for that purpofe, he no longer met ?0
with any obftacle j and Sertorius Avas obliged to em-Is (Irwer.
bark for the coaft of Africa with 3000 men, being alloirt> at!^
he had noAV remaining. With thefe he landed in Mau-unclergoeSj
ritania 5 but as his men were ftraggling carelefsly about, n^‘7 hard*
great numbers of them Avere cut off by the Barbarians. ' ^
This neAV misfortune obliged Sertorius to re^-embark for
Spain •, but finding the whole coaft lined Avith the
troops of Annius, he put to fea again, not knoAving
Avhat courfe to fteer. In this neAV voyage he met with
a fmall fleet of Cilickm pirates 5 «and haA'ino- preA'ailed
3 O * 1 with
SPA
t 49° ]
SPA
Spain.
31.
Lands in
with them to join him, he made a defcent on the coaft
of Ivi^a, overpowered the garrifon left there by An¬
nins, and gained a coniiderable booty. On the news
of this victory Annius fet iail for Ivi^a, with a confi-
derable fquadron, having ian<^ forces on board.
S-ertorius, not intimidated by the fuperiority of the
enemy, prepared to give them battle. But a violent
itorm arifing, molt of the (hips were driven on {bore
and dallied to pieces, Sertorius himfelf with great diffi¬
culty efcaping with the fmall remains of his fleet. For
fome time he continued in great danger, being prevent¬
ed from putting to fea by the fury of the waves, and
from landing, by the enemy ; at lalt, the ftorm abating,
he paired the ftraits of Gades, now Gibraltar, and land¬
ed near the mouth of the river Baetis. Here he met
with fome feamen newly arrived from the Atlantic or
Fortunate iilands; and was fo charmed with the account
which they gave him of thofe happy regions, that he
relolved to retire thither to fpend the relf of his life in
quiet and happinefs. But having communicated this
defign to the Cilician pirates, they immediately aban¬
doned him, and fet fail for Africa, with an intention to
affift one of the barbarous kings againft his fublefts who
had rebelled. Upon this Sertorius failed thither alfo,
Africa, and kut the oppolite fide; and having defeated the king
carries on a narnccl Afcaiis, obliged him to flmt himfelt up in the
warln that city of Tingis, now Tangier, which he clofely befieged.
country. But in the mean time Pacianus, who had been fent by
Syila to affift the king, advanced with a confiderable
army againft Sertorius. Upon this the latter, leaving
part of his forces before the city, marched with the reft
to meet Pacianus, whofe army, though greatly luperior
32 to his own in number, he entirely defeated ; killed the
Returns to general, and took all his forces prifoners.—I he fame of
Spain, ami yj£^ory {bon reached Spain ; and the Lufitanians,
defeats the tbreatened with a new war from Annins, invited
Sertorius to head their armie«. With this requeft he
very readily complied, and foon became very formidable
to the Romans. Titus Didius, governor of that part
of Spain called Batica, firft entered the lifts with him ;
but he being defeated, Syila next difpatched IMetellus,
reckoned one of the beft commanders in Rome, to ftop
the progrefs of this new enemy. But Metellus, not-
withftanding all his experience, knew not how to aft
againft Sertorius, who was continually changing his fta-
tion, putting his army into_ new forms, and contriving
new ftratagems. On his firft arrival he fent for L. Do-
mitius, then praetor of Hither Spain, to his affiftance ;
but Sertorius being informed of his march, detached
Hirtuleius, or Hereuleius, his quseftor, againft him, who
gave him a total overthrow. Metellus then difpatched
Lucius Lollius praetor of Narbonne Gaul againft Hir¬
tuleius ; but he met with no better fuccefs, being ut¬
terly defeated, and his lieutenant-general killed.
Tlie fame of thefe viftories brought to the camp of
Sertorius fuch a number of illuftrious Roman citizens
of the Marian faction, that he formed a defign of ereft-
ing Lufitania into a republic in oppofition to that of
Rome. Syila was continually fending frefh fupplies to
Metellus ; but Sertorius with a handful of men, ae-
euftomed to range about the mountains, to endure hun¬
ger and thirft, and live expofed to the inclemencies of
the weather, fo harafied the Roman army, that Me¬
tellus himfelf began to be quite difoouraged. At 1'aft,
Sertorius hearing that Metellus had fpoken difrefpeft-
Romans
there.
S3
Erefts Lu¬
fitania into
a republic.
fully of his courage, challenged his antagonift to end Spain,,
the war by fingle combat; but Metellus very pru-  v'-*
dently declined the combat, as being advanced in years;
yet this refufal brought upon him the contempt of the
unthinking multitude, upon which Metellus refolved to obliges
retrieve his reputation by fome fignal exploit ; and Meteltaij
therefore laid fiege to Lacobriga, a confiderable city iniaiie the
thofe parts. This he hoped to reduce in two days, as ^ °f
there was but one well in the place ; but Sertorius hav- *
ing previoufly removed all thofe who could be of no
fervice during the fiege, and conveyed 6coo ftdns full of
water into the city, Metellus continued a long time be¬
fore it without making any impreffion. At laft, his
provifions being almoft fpent, he fent out Aquinas at
the head of 6ooo men to procure a new fupply ; but
Sertorius falling unexpeftedly upon them, cut in pieces
or took the whole detachment; the commander himfelf
being the only man who efcaped to carry the news of
the difafter : upon which Metellus was obliged to raife
the fiege with dilgrace. _ 3-
And now Sertorius, having gained fome intervals of civilize
eafe in confequence of the many advantages he had ob-theLufi
tained over the Romans, began to civilize his new fub-tan,ans
jefts. Their favage and furious manner of fighting he
changed for the regular order and difcipline of a well-
formed army ; he beftowed liberally upon them gold and
filver to adorn their arms, and by converfing familiarly
with them, prevailed with them to lay afide their own
drefs for the Roman ioga. He fent for all the children
of the principal people, and placed them in the great
city of Ofca, now Huefca, in the kingdom of Ara¬
gon, where he appointed them mailers to inftruft them
in the Roman and Greek learning, that they might, as
he pretended, be capable of (haring with him the go¬
vernment of the republic. Thus he made them really
hoftages for the good behaviour of their parents 3 how¬
ever, the latter were greatly pleafed with the care he
took of their children, and all Lufitania were in the
higheft degree attached to their new fovereign. This
attachment he took care to heighten by the power of
fuperftition 3 for having procured a young hind of a
milk-white colour, he made it fo tame that it followed
him wherever he went 3 and Sertorius gave out to the
ignorant multitude, that this hind was infpired by Dia¬
na, and revealed to him the defigns of his enemies, of
which he always took care to be well informed by ths
great number of fpies whom he employed.
While Sertorius was thus employed in eftabliihing his
authority, the republic of Rome, alarmed at his fuccefs,
refolved to cruili him at all events. Sylla was now dead, ^
and all the eminent generals in Rome folicited this ho- pompe;j
nourable though dangerous employment. After much Great i|
debate a decree was paffed in favour of Pompey the^airit
Great, but without recalling Metellus. In the mean im'
time, the troops of one Perpsnna, or Perperna, had,
in fpite of all that their general could do, abandoned
him, and taken the oath of allegiance to Sertorius..
This was a moft fignal advantage to Sertorius 3 for Per-
penna commanded an army of 33,000 men, and had
come into Spain with a defign to fettle there as Serto¬
rius had done 3 but as he was defc^nded from one of
the firft families of Rome, he thought it below, his dig¬
nity to for ve under any general, however eminent he
might be. But the troops of Perperna were of a dif-
forent opinion 3 and therefore, declaring that they would
*■ ferve
SPA
[ 49* 1
S P A
I 37
fcrtorius
i.fieges
iuron.
3*
akes and
ms it in
e fight of
impey.
Soain. ferve none but a general who could defend himfelf, they
.—Y—^ to a man joined Sertwifts; upon which Perperna him¬
felf finding he could do no better, confented to ferve
alfo as a fubaltern.
On the arrival of Pompey in Spain, feveral of the
cities which had hitherto continued faithful to Serto-
rius began to waver : upon which the latter refolved,
by feme Itgnal exploit, to convince them that Pompey
could no more fcreen them from his refentment thaai Me-
tellus. With this view he laid liege to Lauron, now
Lirias, a place of confiderable ftrength. Pompey, not
doubting but he (bould be able to raiie the liege, march¬
ed quite up to the enemy’s lines, and found means to
inform the garrifon that thofe who beiieged them were
themfelves. beiieged, and would foon be obliged to re¬
tire with lofs and difgrace. On hearing this meffage,
“ I will teach Sylla’s difciple (faid Sertorius), that it is
the duty of a general to look behind as well as before
him.” Having thus fpoken, he fent orders to a detach¬
ment. of 6ooo men, who lay concealed among the moun¬
tains, to come down and fall upon his rear if he fhould
offer to force the lines. Pompey, furprifed at their hid¬
den appearance, durll not ftir out of his camp 5 and in
the mean time the beiieged, defpairing of relief, iur-
rendered at difcretion 5 upon which Sertorius granted
them their lives and liberty, but reduced their city to
allies.
While Sertorius was thus fuccefsfully contending
with Pompey, his queftor Hirtuleius was entirely de¬
feated by Metellus, with the lofs of 40,000 men j upon
which Sertorius advanced with the utmoll expedition to
the banks of the Sucro in Tarraconian Spain, with a
delign to attack Pompey before he could be joined by
Metellus. Pompey, on his part, did not decline the
combat •, but, fearing that Metellus might fhare the
glory of the vidlory, advanced with the greateft expe¬
dition. Sertorius put off the battle till towards the
evening; Pompey, though he knew that the night would
prove difadvantageous to him, whether vanquilhed or
victorious, becaufe his troops were unacquainted with
the country, refolved to venture an engagement, efpe-
cially as he feared that Metellus might arrive in the
mean time, and rob him of part of the glory of con¬
quering fo great a commander. Pompey, who com¬
manded his own right wing, foon obliged Perperna,
who commanded Sertorius’s left, to give way. Here¬
upon Sertorius himfelf, taking upon him the command
of that wing, brought back the fugitives to the charge,
and obliged Pompey to fly in his turn. In his flight he
was overtaken by a gigantic African, wfoo had al¬
ready lifted up his hand to difeharge a blow at him
with his broad fword ; but Pompey prevented him by
Cutting off his right hand at one blow. As he ftill
continued his flight, he was wounded and thrown from
his horfe ; fo that he would certainly have been taken
prifoner, had not the Africans who purfued him quar¬
relled about the rich furniture of his horfe. This gave
an opportunity to the general to make his efcape ; fo
that at length he reached his camp with much difficul¬
ty. But in the mean time Afranius, who commanded
the left wing of the Roman army, had entirely defeated
the wing W’hich Sertorius had left, and even purfued
them fo clofe that he entered the camp along with
them. Sertorius, returning fuddenly, found the Ro¬
mans bufy in plundering the tents; when taking advan-
39
,;feats
rnpey on
1 e banks
the
tage of their fituation, he drove them out with great sP?tn- t
daughter, and retook the camp. Next day he offered “V——'
battle a lecond time to Pompey : but Metellus then co¬
ming up with all his forces, he thought proper to de- 40
cline an engagement with both commanders. In a few p0mpey
days, however, Pompey and Meteilus agreed to attack defeated a
the camp of Sertorius. 1 he event was fimilar to that of
the former battle; Metellus defeated Perperna, and Ser¬
torius routed Pompey. Being then informed of Per-
perna’s misfortune, Ire haftened to his relief ; rallied the
fugitives, and repuiled Metellus in his turn, wounded
him with his lance, and would certainly have killed
him, had not the Romans, alhamed to leave their gene¬
ral in dill refs, haftened to his affiftance, and renewed the
fight with great fury. At lafl Sertorius was obliged to 4l
quit the field, and retire to the mountains. Pompey Pompeyand
and Metellus haftened to befiege him ; but while they Metellus
were forming their camp, Sertorius broke through their kn^rom
lines, and ef'eaped into Lufitania. Here he foon raifed Seitorim.
fuel) a powerful army, that the Roman generals, with
their united forces, did not think proper to venture an
engagement with him. They could not, however, refill:
the perpetual attacks of Sertorius, who now drove them
from place to place, till he obliged them to leparate ;
the one went into Gaul,- and the other to the foot of the
Pyrenees. 42
Thus did this celebrated commander triumph over all Sertorius
the power of the Romans; and there is little doubt but11®^0^^"
be Would have continued to make head againff all thejere(j>
other generals whom the republic could have fent, had Ari
he not been affaffinated at an entertainment by the infa- c.
mous treachery of Perperna, in 73 B. C. after he had
made head againft the Roman forces for almofi: 10
years. Pompey was no fooner informed of his death*
than, without waiting for any new fuccours, he marched
againft the traitor, whom he eafily defeated and took
prifoner ; and having caufed him to be executed, thus
put an end, with very little glory, to a moil dangerous
war.
Many of the Spanifh nations, however, ftill continued
to bear the Roman yoke with great impatience; and as
the civil wars which took place firlt between Julius Cae-
far and Pompey, and afterwards between Odlavianus
and Antony, diverted the attention of the republic from
Spain, by the time that Auguftus had become foie
mailer of the Roman empire, they were again in a con¬
dition to affert their liberty. The Cantabrians and
Asturians were the moft powerful and valiant nations
at that time in Spain ; but, after incredible efforts, they
were obliged to lay doAvn their arms, or rather were
almoft exterminated by Agrippa, as related under thefe
articles.
When the Romans firft became rnaftersof the weflern Sl)ail^n{jets
peninfula of Europe, to which, as we have faid, they the, Ro-
gave the name of Hifpania, it was divided into twro pro- mans,
vinces, called Citerior and Ulterior, which were go¬
verned, fometimes by praetors, and fometinaes by pro-
confuls. In the diftribution of the empire by Auguftus,
Hifpania, Citerior contained the modern provinces of
Gallicia, the Afturias, Bifcay, Navarre, Leon, the two
Caftiles, Aragon, Catalonia, Murcia, and Valencia; and
xvas denominated Provincia TarraconenJtj, from the city
of Tarragona in Catalonia, which was then the feat of
government. Hifpania Ultvripr vvas Subdivided into
Baetica, including the provinces noxv called Granada
3 Q. 2 and
SPA [ 492 j SPA
Spain. and An Jaluiia 5 and Lufitania, comprehending the great-
eft parf 0f Eftremadura, and the modern kingdom of
Portugal. The province called Tarraconenfis was then
inhabited by the following tribes, viz. the Aufetani,
occupying the fea coaft, at the north-eaft, between the
Ter and the Lobregat, and having for their capital
Germa ; the Ceretani, inhabiting the dittridt of Cerda-
na, at the foot of the Pyrenees, whofe capital was Juliay
the modern Llivia ■, the Va/etani, occupying the fea
coaft between the rivers Ter and Lobregat, in the im¬
mediate neighbourhood of the Aufetaniy and whofe ca¬
pital was Barcelona j the Cofetani to the left of the
mouth of the Ebro, with Tarragona for their capital j
the Locetani, on the left bank of the river Sicoris ; the
Jllergetes, extending from that river to the fmall ftream
Gallego, which joins the Ebro near Zaragoza, whofe
capital was Lerida j the Jacetani in the northern extre¬
mity of Aragon, having their feat of government at
Jaca *, the Vafcones in Navarre, and the Varduii in the
modern Guipuzcoa. Thefe nations occupied the fouth-
ern and eaftern parts of the province. The northern
was poffefled by the Carijfi, the OJlregones, both in Bif-
cav j the Cantabri, cantoned near the fource of the
Ebro, and along the bay of Bifcay ; the Afiures in Af-
turias and part of Leon j the Calhxci in Gallicia 5 the
Vacceni along the Douro *, the Arebact in Old Caftile *,
the Celtiberi, between the Ebro and the fource of the
Tagus, and many others of inferior note.
Lufitania was held by three principal tribes, the Lu-
Jitani, occupying the greater part of the province, and
having for their capital the modern Lifbon j the Vetto-
nes and the Ccltict.
Btetica was inhabited by the Turdetani, the Turduli,
the Baftitani, and the Bajluli.
All thefe did riels, with their principal towns, are
minutely treated of by Dr Playfair, in the firfl volume
44 of his geography.
State of When incorporated with the Roman empire, Spain
Soman partook of its tranquillity, and received in exchange
3jain. for iier liberty, at lead wife laws and a mild govern¬
ment. If die could not prevent herfelf from falling un¬
der the dominion of the maders of the world, die was at
lead the mod powerful, the riched, and the happied
province of their empire. Columella has left us an in-
tereding account of her agriculture under the fird empe¬
rors. The tradition of her ancient population is proba¬
bly exaggerated, but the ruins of feveral towns prove it
to have been confiderable. It was increafed by a great
many Roman families after the conqued \ feveral legions
were edablidied in Spain *, 25 colonies were didributed
in the mod fertile parts of the country, and intermarried
with the inhabitants. After a while the Spaniards, fee¬
ing in their maders only countrymen, were the fird to
folicit the rights of Roman citizens, by which they were
completely confolidated. Some municipal towns went
fo far as to defire permidion to take the title of colonies,
though in the change they lod their independence, near¬
ly in the fame manner as certain proprietors of lands un¬
der the feudal fydem converted their domains into fiefs,
in order to enjoy the honours attached to them. The
government was, in general, milder in Spain than in
the other Roman provinces. The adminidration was
carried on in the towns by magidrates named by them-
felves, and the different provinces were under the fuper-
intendance of praetors, proconfuls, and legates or depu- Spain,
ties, according to the different eras of the Roman em-
pire \ thofe in their refpeftive departments took care of
all the works of public utility, the aquedu&s, baths,
circufes, and highways, whofe magnificent ruins are
dill exiding 5 but they were principally employed in
colledling the revenues of the date, which were fingu-
larly analogous to thofe of the prefent times. They
principally arofe from dues, fines, or alienations of pro¬
perty, and the produce of the mines. Spain at that
time drew from her own mines the fame riches die now
draws from the new world, and they were didributed in
nearly the fame manner. One part belonged to the date,
and the other to the inhabitants of the country, who
paid a certain duty on the metals which they procured
from the mines. Their returns went on increafing, and
depended entirely on the number of hands which could
be devoted to work in the mines. An employment,
fo laborious, however, which required a numerous popu¬
lation, tended to diminidi that population By the excef-
five fatigues which it occafioned. Agriculture alfo dif¬
fered by the accumulation of edates in the hands of a
few wealthy landholders. By the little attention paid
to it by the proprietors, and by the defe£ls infeparable
from the fydem of cultivation by means of flaves, com¬
merce and indudry languidied ; and Spain, after having
diared in the fplendour of the Roman empire, was begin¬
ning to participate in its decline, when a new calamity,
by completing her ruin, prepared her regeneration.
This calamity was the irruption of the northern
hordes, which foon involved Spain in the general at¬
tack. This province was invaded fird by the Franks,
who in the third century had entered Gaul with, a for¬
midable force.
The Rhine, though dignified by the title of Safeguard Spain in-
of the Provinces, was an imperfect barrier againd the^^jU
daring fpirit of enterprife with which the Franks were
a6luated. Their rapid devadations dretched from theA-®,lS;
river to the foot of the Pyrenees *, nor were they dop-
ped by thofe mountains. Spain, which had never dread¬
ed, was unable to refid the inroads of the Germans.
During 12 years, the greated part of the reign of Gal-
lienus, that opulent country was the theatre of unequal
and dedruftive hodilities. Tarragona, the flouridling
capital of a peaceful province, was facked and almofl
dedroyed ; and fo late as the days of Orofius, who wrote
in the 5th century, wretched cottages, fcattered amidfl
the ruins of magnificent cities^dill recorded the rage of
the barbarians. When the exhauded country no longer
fupplied a variety of plunder, the Franks feized on feme
veffels, and retreated to Mauritania. 4$
The fituation of Spain, feparated, on all fides, from By the ^
the enemies of Rome, by the fea, by the mountains,
by intermediate provinces, had fecured the long tran- a ’
quillity of that remote and fequedered country ; and we An’ 4^
may obferve, as a fure fymptom of domedic happinefs,
that, in a period of 400 years, Spain furnidied very few
materials to the hidory of the Roman empire. The
footdeps of the Barbarians, who, in the reign of Gal-
lienus, had penetrated beyond the Pyrenees, were feon
obliterated by the return of peace ; and in the 4th cen¬
tury of the Chridian era, the cities of Emerita or Meri¬
da, of Corduba, Seville, Bracara, and Tarragona, were
numbered with the mod illudrious of the Roman world.
SPA
Spain.
The various plenty of the animal, the vegetable, and
-'-V—^ the mineral kingdoms, was improved and manufaftured
by the Ikill of an induftrious people j and the peculiar
advantages of naval {lores contributed to fupport an ex-
tenfive and profitable trade. The arts and fciences flou-
riflied under the prote&ion of the emperors j and if the
charafter of the Spaniards was enfeebled by peace and
fervitude, the hoftile approach of the Germans, who had
fpread terror and defolation from the Rhine to the Py¬
renees, feemed to rekindle fome fparks of military ar¬
dour. As long as the defence of the mountains was in¬
truded to the hardy and faithful militia of the country,
they fuccefsfully repelled the frequent attempts of the
Barbarians. But no fooner had the national troops been
compelled to refign their poll to the Honorian bands,
in the fervice of Conftantine, than the gates of Spain
were treacheroufly betrayed to the public enemy, about
ten months before the fack of Rome by the Goths. -The
confcioufnefs of guilt, and the third of rapine, prompted
the mercenary guards of the Pyrenees to defert their
ftation; to invite the arms of the Suevi, the Vandals,
and the Alani; and to fvvell the torrent which was
poured with irrefidible violence from the frontiers of
Gaul to the fea of Africa. The misfortunes of Spain
may be defcribed in the language of its mod eloquent
hidorian, who has concifely expreded the paflionate, and
perhaps exaggerated, declamations of contemporary
writers. “ The irruption of thefe nations was followed
by the mod dreadful calamities j as the Barbarians ex-
ercifed their indifcriminate cruelty on the fortunes of the
Romans and the Spaniards j and ravaged with equal fu¬
ry the cities and the open country. The progrefs of
famine reduced the miferable inhabitants to feed on the
flefii of their fellow creaturesj and even the wild beads,
who multiplied, without controul, in the defert, were
exafperated, by the tade of blood, and the impatience of
hunger, boldly to attack and devour their human prey.
Pedilence foon appeared, the infeparable companion of
famine j a large proportion of the people was fwept
away j and the groans of the dying excited only the
envy of their furviving friends. At length the Barba¬
rians fatiated with carnage and rapine, and affli&ed by
the contagious evil which they themfelves had introdu¬
ced, fixed their permanent feats in the depopulated coun¬
try. The ancient Gallicia, whofe limits included the
kingdom of Old Cadile, was divided between the Suevi
and the Vandals, the Alani were fcattered over the
provinces of Carthagena and Lufitania, and from the
Mediterranean to the Atlantic ocean j and the fruitful
territory of Baetica was allotted to the Silingi, another
branch of the Vandalic nation. After regulating this
partition, the conquerors contrafled with their new fub-
jefts fome reciprocal engagements of proteiftion and obe¬
dience : the lands were again cultivated; and the towns
and villages were again occupied by a captive people.
The greated part of the Spaniards was even difpofed to
prefer this new condition of poverty and barbarifm, to
the fevere oppreflions of the Roman government; yet
were many who {till aflerted their native freedom,
.•i.tfj/Cand who refufed, more efpecially in the mountains of
llx v‘ Gallicia, to fubmit to the barbarian yoke
414. The important prefent of the heads of Jovinus and
Sebadian, had approved the frienddiip of Adolphus,
and redored Gaul to the obedience of his brother Ho-
norius, Peace was incompatible with the fituation and
3
[ 493 i
SPA
temper of the king of the Goths. He readily accepted Spaitf.
the propofal of turning his vi&orious arms againd the11
barbarians of Spain; the troops of Condantiusintercept¬
ed his communication with the fea-ports of Gaul, and
gently preffed his march towards the Pyrenees. He
paded the mountains, and furprifed, in the name of the
emperor, the city of Barcelona. The fondnefs of Adol¬
phus for his Roman bride, Placidia, was not abated by time
or pofleffion; and the birth of a fon, furnamed, from his
illudrious graiidfire, Theodofius, appeared to fix him
for ever in the intered of the republic. The lofs of thaC
infant, whofe remains were depofited in a filver coffin
in one of the churches near Barcelona, afflidled his pa¬
rents; but the grief of the Gothic king was fufpended
by the labours of the field: and the courfe of his vi<do-
ries was foon interrupted by domedic treafon. He had
imprudently received into his fervice one of the follow¬
ers of Sarus; a barbarian of a daring fpirit, but of a
diminutive dature; whofe fecret defire of revenging the
death of his beloved patron, was continually irritated
by the farcafms of his infolent mader. Adolphus was An. 4i r
affaffinated in the palace of Barcelona; the laws of the
fucceffion were violated by a tumultuous faftion; and a
dranger to the royal race, Singeric, the brother of Sa¬
rus himfelf, was feated on the Gothic throne. The fird
a£l of his reign was the inhuman murder of the fix chil¬
dren of Adolphus,, the iffue of a former marriage, whom
he tore, without pity, from the feeble arms of a vene¬
rable bidiop. The unfortunate Placidia, indead of the
refpedful compaffion, which die might have excited in
the mod favage breads, was treated with cruel and
wanton infult. The daughter of the emperor Theodo¬
fius, confounded among a crowd of vulgar captives, was
compelled to march on foot above 12 miles, before the
horfe of a barbarian, the ailaffinofa hufband whom Pla¬
cidia loved and lamented.
But Placidia foon obtained the pleafure of revenge , n...
and the view of her ignominious fuderings might roufeby lhe
an indignant people againd the tyrant, who was affaffi- Goths'
nated on the feventh day of his ufurpation. After the
death of Singeric, the free choice of the nation bellowed
the Gothic feeptre on Wallia, whofe warlike and ambi¬
tious temper appeared, in the beginning of his reign, ex¬
tremely hodile to the republic. He marched, in arms,
from Barcelona to the ffiores of the Atlantic ocean|
which the ancients revered and dreaded as the boundary
of the world. But when he reached the fouthern pro¬
montory of Spain, and, from the rock now covered by
the fortrefs of Gibraltar, contemplated the neighbouring
and fertile coad of Africa, Wallia refumed the defigns of
conqued, which had been interrupted by the death of
Alarm. The winds and waves difappointed the en-
terprifes of the Goths; and the minds of a fuperdi-
tious people were deeply affeaed by the repeated difad-
ers of dorms and diipwrecks.. In this difpofition, the
fucceflbr of Adolphus no longer refufed to liden to a.
Roman ambaifador, whofe propofals were enforced by
the real, or fuppofed, approach of a numerous army,
under the condud of the brave Condantius. A folemrl.
treaty was dipulated and obferved: Placidia was ho¬
nourably redored to her brother; 600,000 meafures of
wheat were delivered to the hungry Goths; and Wallia.
engaged to draw his fword in the fervice of the empire.
A bloody war was indantly excited among the barbari¬
ans of Spain y and the contending princes are faid to.
have
47?
, Conquered
An. 415-
—418.
SPA [ 494 ] SPA
Spain, have addreffed thetf letter?j their ambafTadors, and their
hoftages, to the throne of the wefte'rn emperor, exhort¬
ing him to remain a tranquil fpedlator of their conteft j
the events of which muft be favourable to the Romans,
by the mutual {laughter of their common enemies. The
Spanilh war was obilinately fupported, during three
campaigns, with defperate -valour, and various fuccels ;
and the martial achievements of Wallra diffufed through
the empire the luperiorrenown of the Gothic hero. He
exterminated the Silingi, who had irretrievably ruined
the elegant plenty of the province of Bostick. He flew
in battle the king of the Alani; and the remains of
thofe Scythian wanderers, who efcaped from the field,
inftead of choofing a new leader, humbly fought a re¬
fuge under the ftandard of the Vandals, with whom
they were ever afterwards confounded. The Vandals
themfelves, and the Suevi, yielded to the efforts of the
invincible Goths. The promifeuous multitude of bar¬
barians, whofe retreat had been intercepted, Were driven
into the mountains of Gallicia, where they ftill conti¬
nued, in a narrow compafs, and on a barren foil, to ex-
ercife their domeftic and implacable hoftilities. In the
pride of viftory, Wallia was faithful to his engage¬
ments 5 he reffored his Spanrfh conquefis to the obedi¬
ence of Htmorius 5 and the tyranny of the imperial offi¬
cers foon reduced an opprefled people to regret the time
of their barbarian fervitude. While the event of the
war was ftill doubtful, the firft advantages obtained by
the arms of Wallia, had encouraged the Court of Ra¬
venna to decree the hoiTours of a triumph to their feeble
fovereign. He entered Rome like the ancient conquer¬
ors of nations 5 and if the monuments of fervile corrup¬
tion had not long lince met with the fate which they
deferved, we fliouid probably find that a crowd of poets,
and orators, of magiftrates and biffiops, applauded the
fortune, the wifdom, and the invincible courage, of the
emperor Honorius.
An. 428. After the retreat of the Goths, the authority of Ho¬
norius had obtained a precarious eftablifliment in Spain j
except only in the province of Gallicia, where the Suevi
and the Vandals had fortified their camps, in mutual
difeord, and hoftile independence. The Vandals pre¬
vailed j and their adverfaries were befieged in the Ner-
vafean hills, between Leon and Oviedo, till the ap¬
proach of Count Afterius compelled, or rather provoked,
the viftorious barbarians to remove the feene of the war
to the plains of Bsetica. The rapid prOgrefs of the
Vandals foon required a more effeiRual oppofition *, and
the mafter-general Coftinus marched againft them with
a numerous army of Romans and Goths. Vahquiffied
in battle by an inferior enemy, Coflinus fled with difho-
nour to Tarragona ; and this memorable defeat, which
has been reprefented as the puniffiment, was moft pro¬
bably the effeift, of his raffi prefumption. Seville and
Carthagena became the reward, or rather the prey, of
the ferocious conquerors *, and the veffels which they
found in the harbour of Carthagena, might eafily tranf-
port them to the ifles of Majorca and Minorca, where
the Spanifh fugitives, as in a fecure recefs, had vainly
concealed their families and their fortunes. The expe¬
rience of navigation, and perhaps the profpeft of Africa,
encouraged the Vandals to accept the invitation which
they received from Count Boniface 5 and the death of
Gonderic ferved only to forward and animate the bold
-enterprife. In the room of a prince, ftot confpicuous
2
for any fuperior powers of the mind or body, they ac- Spain,
quired his baflard brother, the terrible Genferic ; a ~ V'*'
name which, in the deftruftion of the Roman empire,
has deferved an equal rank with the names of Alaric
and Attila. Almoft in the moment of his departure he
was informed, that Hermanric, king of the Suevi, had
prefumed to ravage the Spaniflr territories, which he
was refolved to abandon. Impatient of the infolt, Gen¬
feric purfiied the hafty retreat of the Suevi as far as Me¬
rida ; precipitated the king and his army into the river
Anas, and calmly returned to the fea {here, to embark
his victorious troops. The veffels which tranfported the
Vandals over the modern ftraits of Gibraltar, a channel
only twelve miles in breadth, were furnifhed by the Spa¬
niards, who anxioufly wiflied their departure ; and by
the African general, who had implored their formidable
affiffance.
When Theodoric king of the Vifigoths encouraged An, ^
Avitus to affume the purple, he offered his perfon and
his forces, as a faithful foldier of the republic. The ex¬
ploits of Theodoric foon convinced the world, that he
had not degenerated from the warlike virtues of his an-
ceffors. After the eftabliffiment of the Goths in Aqui-
tain, and the paffage of the Vandals into Africa, the
Suevi who had fixed their kingdom in Gallicia, afpired
to the conqueft of Spain, and threatened to extinguifh
the feeble remains of the Roman dominion. The pro¬
vincials off Carthagena and Tarragona, affiifted by an
hoftile invafion, reprefented their injuries and their ap-
prehenfions. Count Fronto was difpatchcd, in the name
of the emperor Avitus, with advantageous offers of
peace and alliance ; and Theodoric interpofed his
weighty mediation, to declare that, unlefs his brother-
in-law, the king of the Suevi, immediately retired, he
fhould be obliged io arm in the caufe of juft iee and of
Rome. “ Tell him,’* replied the haughty Rechiarius,
“ that I defpife his friendffiip and his arms 5 but that 1
{hall foon try, whether he will dare to expeCt my arri¬
val under the walls of Tbouloufe.” Such a challenge
urged Theodoric to prevent the bold defigns of his ene¬
my : He paffed the Pyrenees at the head of the Vifi¬
goths ; the Franks and Burgundians ferved under his
ilandard ; and though he profeffed himfelf the dutiful
fervant of Avitus, he privately ftipulated, for himfelf
and his fucceffors, the abffilute poffeffion of his Spanilh
conquefts. The two armies, or rather the tw'o nations,
encountered each other on the banks of the river Urbi-
cus, about i 2 miles from Aftorga •, and the decifive vic¬
tory of the Goths appeared for a while to have extirpa¬
ted the name and kingdom of the Suevi. From the field
bf battle Theodoric advanced to Braga, their metropo¬
lis, which ftill retained the fplendid veftiges of its an¬
cient commerce and dignity. His entrance was not pol¬
luted Avith blood, and the Goths refpedfed the chaftity
bf their female captives, more efpecially of the confe-
crated virgins } but the greateft part of the clergy and
people Were made flaves, and even the churches and al¬
tars were confounded in the univerfal pillage. The un¬
fortunate king of the Suevi. had efcaped to one of the
ports of the ocean ; but the obftinacy of the winds op-
pofed his flight ; he was delivered to his implacable ri¬
val •, and Rcchiarius, who neither defired nor experied
mercy, received, with manly conftancy, the death winch
he would probably have inflidled. After this bloody
facrifice to poliev or refentment, Theodoric carried his
1 .. victorious
SPA [ 495 ] SPA
Spain, viclorious arms as far as Merida, the principal tnwn of
—\Tm~> Luiitania, without meeting any refiftance, except from
the miraculous powers of St Eulalia j but he was flop¬
ped in the full career of fuccefs, and recalled from
Spain, before he could provide for the fecurity of his
conquefts. In his retreat towards the Pyrenees, he re¬
venged his difappointment on the country through
which he palled j and in the fack of Pailentia and A-
florga, he fhewed himfelf a faithlels ally, as well as a
„ cruel enemy.
rtroduc- Recared was the firft Catholic king of Spain. He had
on of imbibed the faith of his unfortunate brother, and he fup-
hriftiani- p0rted it with more prudence and fuccefs. Infleadofre-
 volting againft his father, Recared patiently expelled
5^ the hour of his death. Inftead of condemning his me¬
mory, he pioufly fuppofed, that the dying monarch had
abjured the errors of Arianifm, and recommended to
his fon the converflon of the Gothic nation. To ac-
complilh that falutary end, Recared convened an afTem-
bly of the Arian clergy and nobles, declared himfelf a
Catholic, and exhorted them to imitate the example of
their prince. The laborious interpretation of doubtful
texts, or the curious purfuit of metaphyfleal arguments,
would have' excited endlefs controverfy ; and the mo¬
narch difcreetly propofed to his illiterate audience, two
iubflantial and vilible arguments, the teflimony of Earth
and of Heaven. The Earth had fubmitted to the Ni-
cene fynod : the Romans, the Barbarians, and the inha¬
bitants of Spain, unanimoully profelTed the fame ortho¬
dox creed ; and the Vifigoths reiifled, almoft alone, the
confent of the Chriftian world. A fuperflitious age
was prepared to reverence, as the teftimony of Heaven,
the preternatural cures which were performed by the
Ikill or virtue of the Catholic clergy ; the baptifmal
fonts of OflTet in Bretica, which uTere fpontaneoufly re-
plenilhed each year, on the vigil of Eafter 5 and the
miraculous fhrine of St Martin of Tours, which hiul al¬
ready converted the Suevic prince and people of Galli-
eia. The Catholic king encountered fome difficulties
on this important change of the national religion. A
confpiracy, fecretly fomented by the queen-dowager,
was formed again It his life ; and two counts excited a
dangerous revolt in the Narbonnefe Gaul. But Reea¬
red difarmed the eonfpirators, defeated the rebels, and
executed fevere juftice ; which the Arians, in their turn,
might brand with the reproach of perfecution. Eight
bifhops, whole names betray their Barbaric origin, ab¬
jured their errors ; and all the books of Arian theology
were reduced to a (lies, with the houfe in which they
had been purpofcly collected. The whole body of the
Viligoths and Suevi were allured or driven into the pale
of the Catholic communion ; the faith, at leaft, of the
rifing generation, was fervent and lincere j and the de¬
vout liberality of the Barbarians enriched the churches
and monafteries of Spain. Seventy biffiops aflembled in
the council of Toledo, received the fubmiflhm of tjheir
conquerors ; and the zeal of the Spaniards improved
the Nicene creed, by declaring the proceffion of the
Holy Ghoft from the Son, as well as from the Father ,',
a weighty point of do&rine, which produced, long af¬
terwards, the fchifm of the, Greek and Latin churches.
The royal profelyte immediately faluted and confulted
Pope Gregory, furnamed the Great, a learne'd and holy
prelate, whofe reign was diftinguiffied by the converfion
®£ heretics and infidels. The ambaffadors of Recared
refpeftfully offered on the threlhold of the Vatican his Spain,
rich prefent of gold and gems : they accepted, as a lu- ,
crative exchange, the hairs of St John the Baplift ; a
crofs, which inelofed a fmall piece of the true wood jvol. in.
and a key, that contained home particles of iron which p 549.
had been feraped from the chains of St Peter *.
After their cepverfion from idolatry or herefy, the Legiflative
Franks and the Vifigoths were difpofed to embrace, aFetT,Mies
wri;h equal fubmiflion, the inherent evils, and the jn
dental benefits of fuperftition. But the prelates ofSpa;n-
France, long before the extinction of the Merovingian
race, had degenerated into fighting and hunting barba¬
rians. They difdained the ufe of fynods, forgot the
laws of temperance and chaftity, and preferred the in¬
dulgence of private ambition and luxury, to the greateft
intereft of the facerdotal profeffion. The biffiops of
Spain refpefted themfelves, and were refpefted by the
public : their indiffoluble union difguifed their vices,
and confirmed their authority j and the regular difci-
pline of the church introduced peace, order, and liabi¬
lity into the government of the Rate. From the reign
of Recared, the firfl Catholic king, to that of Witiza,
the immediate predeceffor of the unfortunate Roderic,
fixteen national councils were fucceflively convened.
The fix metropolitans, Toledo, Seville, Merida, Braga,
Tarragona and Narbonne, prefided according to their
refpg&ive femority •, the afferably was compofed of their
fuffragan bifliops, who appeared in perfon, or by their
proxies 5 and a place was affigned to the molt holy, or
opulent, of the Spaniffi abbots. During the firft three
days of the convocation, as long as they agitated the
ecclefiaftieal quettions of doflrine and difeipline, the
profane laity was excluded from their debates j which
were conducted, however, with decent folemnity. But,
on the morning of the fourth day, the doors were thrown
open for the entrance of the great officers of the palace,
the dukes and counts of the provinces, the judges of the
cities, and the Gothic nobles; and the decrees of Hea¬
ven were ratified by the confent of the people. The
fame rules were obferved in the provincial affemblies,
the annual fynods, which were empowered to hear com¬
plaints, and to redrefs grievances j and a legal govern¬
ment was fup ported by the prevailing influence of the
Spanilh clergy. The biffiops who, in each revolution,
were prepared to flatter the victorious, and to infult the
proftrate, laboured, with diligence and fuecefs, to kindle
the flames of perfecution, and to exalt the mitre above
the crown. Yet the national councils of Toledo, in
which the free fyirit of the Barbarians was tempered,
and guided -by epifcopal policy, have eftablilhed fome
prudent laws for the benefit of the king and people.
The vacancy of the throne was fupplied by the choice
of the bifhops and palatines ; and after the failure of the
line of Alarie, the regal dignity was ftill limited to the
pure and noble blood of the Goths. The clergy, whq
anointed their lawful prince, always recommended, and
fonjetimes praftrfed, the duty of allegiance 5 and the
fpiritual cenfures were denounced on the heads of the
impious fubjefts, who ffiould refill his authority, con-
fpire againft his life, or violate, by an indecent union,
the chaftity even of his widow. But the monarch him¬
felf, when he attended the throne, was bound by a re¬
ciprocal oath to God and his people, that he would
fai-hfully execute his important truft. The real or
imaginary faults of his adxniniftration were fubjeeft to
the
SPA [ 496 3 s P
‘'Spain, tlae Controul of a powerful ariftocracy j and the bilhops mountainous parts of Aflunas,
—-y—w ancj palatines were guarded by a fundamental
So
Code of
the Vi.
figoths.
a tunaamemai privi¬
lege that they ftiould not be degraded, impriioned,
tortured, nor puniftied with death, exile, or confifca-
tion, unlefs by the free and public judgment of their
peers.
One of thefe legiflative councils of Toledo, examined
and ratified the code of laws which had been compiled
by a fucceffion of Gothic kings, from the fierce Eurice,
to the devout Egica. As long as the Vifigoths them-
felves were fatisfied with the rude cuftoms of their an-
ceftors, they indulged their fubjedls of Aquitaine and
Spain in the enjoyment of the Roman law. Their gra¬
dual improvement in arts, in policy, and at length in
religion, encouraged them to imitate, and to fuperfede,
thefe foreign infiitutions, and to compofe a code of civil
and criminal jurifprudenee, for the ufe of a great and
united people. The fame obligations, and the fame
privileges, were communicated to the nations of the
Spanifti monarchy j and the conquerors, infenfibly re*
frouncing the Teutonic idiom, fubmitted to the reftraints
of equity, and exalted the Romans to the participation
of freedom. The merit of this impartial policy was en¬
hanced by the fituation of Spain, Under the reign of the
Vifigoths. The provincials were long feparated from
their Arian mafters, by the irreconcileable difference of
religion. After the converfion of Recared had removed
the prejudices of the Catholics, the coaits, both of the
ocean and Mediterranean, were ftill poffeffed by the
Ealtern emperors, who fecretly excited a difcontented
people to rejeft the yoke of the barbarians, and to affert
the name and dignity of Roman citizens. The alle¬
giance of doubtful fubjefts is indeed mnft effeflually fe-
cured by their own perfuafion, that they hazard more in
a revolt, than they can hope to obtain by a revolution J
but it has appeared fo natural to opprefs thofe whom we
hate and fear, that the contrary fyftem -well deferves the
praife of wifdom and moderation.
The Gothic princes continued to reign over a confi-
-derable part of Spain till the beginning of the 8 th cen¬
tury, when their empire was overthrown by the Sara¬
cens. During this period, they had entirely expelled
the eaftern emperors from what they poffeffed in Spain,
The Gothic and even made confiderable conquefts in Rarbary j but
kingdom towards the end of the 7th century the Saracens over¬
ran all that part of the world with a rapidity which no¬
thing could refill *, and having foon poffeffed themfelves
of the Gothic dominions in Barbary, they made a de-
fcent upon Spain about the year 711 or 712. The
king of the Goths at that time was called Rodertc, and
by his bad condu£l had occafioned great difaffedlion
among his fubje&s. He therefore determined to put
all to the iffue of a battle, knowing that he could not
depend upon the fidelity of his own people if he allowr-
ed the enemy time to tamper with them. The two ar¬
mies met in a plain near Xeres in Andalufia. The
Goths began the attack with crreat fury 5 but though
they fought like men in defpalr, they were at laft de¬
feated with exceflive daughter, and their king himfelf
was fuppofed to have perilhed in the battle, being never
more heard of.
By this battle the Moors in a fhort time rendered
themfelves mailers of almoll all Spain. The poor re-
tnains of the Goths -were obliged to retire into the
overthrown
by the ia-
yacens.
An. 711.
S3
Burgos, and Bifcay : Spain,
the inhabitants of Aragon, Catalonia, and Navarre,
though they might have made a confiderable Hand a-
gainll the enemy, chofe for the moll part to retire into
France. In 718, however, the power of the Goths be-xhepowa
gan again to revive under Don Pelagio or Pelayo, a of the
prince of the royal blood, who headed thofe that had Goths re-
retired to the mountains after the fatal battle of Xeres. plv,eS^n<Nj
The place where he firlt laid the foundation of his go- e a^10'
vernment was in the Allurias, in the province of Lie-
bana, about nine leagues in length and four in breadth.
This is the moll inland part of the country, full of
mountains enormoudy high, and fo much fortified by
nature, that its inhabitants are capable of refilling al.
mod any number of invaders. Alakor the Saracen go¬
vernor was no fooner informed of this revival of the Goth¬
ic kingdom, than he fent a porverful army, under the
command of one Alchaman, to crulh Doft Pelagio be¬
fore he had time to eftablilh his power. The king, He gives
though his forces were fufficiently numerous (every oned1653™-
of his fubjefls arrived at man’s edate being a foldier),
did not think proper to venture a general engagement0^^*
in the open field 5 but taking poll with part of them
himfelf in a cavern in a very high mountain, he con¬
cealed the red among precipices, giving orders to them
to fall upon the enemy as foon as they Ihould perceive
him attacked by them. Thefe orders were punctually
executed, though indeed Don Pelagio himfelf had re-
pulfed his enemies, but not without a miracle, as the
Spanilh hidorians pretend. The daughter was dread¬
ful j for the troops -who lay in ambufcade joining the
red, and rolling down huge dones from the mountains
upon the Moors (the name by which the Saracens were
known in Spain), no fewer than 124,000 of thefe un-
happy people peridied in one day. The remainder ded
till they were dopped by a river, and beginning to coad
it, part of a mountain fuddenly fell down, dopped up the
channel of the river, and either crudied or drowned, by
the fudden ridng of the water, almod every one of that
vad army.
The Moors were not fo much didieartened by thisAnotll^t
difadter, but that they made a fecond attempt againdp™gSor
Dun Pelagio. Their fuccefs was as bad as ever, thetaken.
greated part of their army being cut in pieces or
taken •, in confequence of which, they lod all the
Adurias, and never dared to enter the lids with Pelagio
afterwards. Indeed, their bad fuccefs had in A great
meafure taken from them the defire of conquering a
country where little or nothing was to be gained ; and
therefore they rather direCled their force againd France,
where they hoped for more plunder. Into this coun¬
try they poured in prodigious multitudes; but were
utterly defeated, in 732, by Charles Martel, with the
lofs of 300,000 men, as the hidorians of thofe times
pretend.
The fubfequent hidory of Spain is rendered fo confu-
fed by the numerous kingdoms that were edablidied ei¬
ther by the Chridians or the Moors, that fome chrono¬
logical guide is neceffary to make it intelligible. Be¬
fore purfuing the thread of the narration, wTe diall lay
before our readers the following chronological table of
the cotemporary monarchs from Pelagio to Ferdinand
VIE
54
Chronological
SPA
C 497 1
SPA
r1
Spain.
Tear.
718
737
739
755
758
768
774
783
788
791
795
822
845
85i
853
862
880
886
888
905
910
912
9T3
923
924
926
927
950
956
961
967
976
978
982
994
999
1000
1014
1027
io35
I037
1054
1063
1067
I073
1076
I094
1104
1109
1112
Spaiti^
Chronological Table of the Kings of Spain*
AJlurias and Leon.
Cajlile.
Aragon.
Pelagius.
Favila.
Alphonfo I.
Froila I.
Aurelio.
Silo.
Mauregat.
Bermudo I.
Alphonfo II.
Ramiro I.
Ordogno I.
Alphonfo III.
Garcias,
Ordogno II.
Froila II.
Alphonfo IV.
Ramiro II.
Ordogno III.
Sancho.
Ramiro III.
Bermudo II.
Alphonfo V.
Bermudo III.
Sancho I.
Ferdinand
Caftile.
I. of}
Sancho II.
Alphonfo VI.
Urraca.
Alphonfo VII.
Tol. XIX. Part II.
Ferdinand I.
Sancho I.
Alphonfo I.
Alphonfo II.
Ramiro I.
Sancho,
Pedro I.
Alphonfo I.
Navarre.
Garcias Ximenes.
Fortunio I.
Saracens.
Abdoolrahman I.
Hiflfern.
Hachem.
Abdoulrahman II
Mahomet.
Alraundar.
Abdallah,
Sancho I.
Garcias II,
Sancho II,
Garcias HI,
Sancho III.
Garcias IV.
Sancho IV.
Sancho V.
Pedro I.
Alphonfo I.
Abdoulrahman III
Alhacan.
HilTem,
Cordova overthrown
3 h
11 IS
SPA
[ 498 ]
SPA
Spain.
Year.
1126
1134
"37
1150
"57
j 158
1164
1188
"94
1196
1213
1214
1217
1234
1236
1252
1253
1270
1273
1274
1276
1284
1285
1291
1295
1302
1310
1312
1315
'3l6
1322
A3 26
1327
1328
"■33
T33^
x349
J350
!I3H
1369
J374
4379
i387
139°
1392
1395
1396
AJlurias and Leon.
1404
1408
1412
1416
1423
*425
1427
MS2
I44I
I445
Alphonfo VIII.
Ferdinand II.
Alphonfo IX.
CajHle.
Alphonfo III.
Sancho II.
Alphonfo IV.
Aragon.
Henry.
Berenger. Ferd. I.
Alphonfo V.
T i
Sancho III.
Ferdinand II.
Alphonfo VI.
Pedro.
Henry II.
John.
Henry III.
John II.
Ramiro II.
Petronilla.
Alphonfo II.
Pedro II.
James I.
Pedro III.
Alphonfo III.
James II.
Alphonfo IV.
Pedro IV.
Martin.
Ferdinand I.
Alphonfo V.
Navarre.
Garcias V.
Sancho VI.
Sancho VII.
Saracens.
Thibaut I.
Thibaut II.
Henry.
Joanna.
Lewis.
Philip.
Charles.
Joanna II.
Charles II.
Charles III.
Mahomet.
Muley.
Mahomet II.
Nazer.
Ifmael.
Mahomet III.
Juzaf I.
Lago I.
Mahomet IV.
Mahomet V.
Juzaf II.
Baiba.
Blanche.
John.
Juzaf III.
Elaziri.
Zagair.
Juzat IV.
Ben Ofmin.
SPA
SPA
Spain.
r :ar. I {/funas ami Leon.
1450
53
1458
*459
M74
m?1;
1479
I4®3
i485
I5°4
1506
1516
155 •
15 i6
I57 2
1598
r 499 1
C" Rile.
Aragon.
Navarre.
Hunry IV.
Ifabella and Ferdi
nand V.
Joan.
Philip I.
Charles I.
Philip II.
Philip III.
John II.
Ferdinand II.
Eleonora.
Francis.
Catherine.
John.
Henry.
Joanna III.
Anthony.
Henry.
Saracens.
Ifinael.
Abilhuflan.
Abouabdalla.
Spain.
Kings of Spain.
Years.
Monarchs.
1516
1 cc6
1598
1621
1665
1700
!723
1724
1746
I759
1788
1808
House of Austria,
Charles I. (V.).
Philip II.
Philip III.
Philip IV.
Charles II.
House of Bourbon.
Philip V.
Louis I.
Philip V. again.
Ferdinand VI.
Charles III.
Charles IV.
Ferdinand VII.
1.737. Don Pelagio died in 737 j and foon after his death
fuch inteftine diviiions broke out among the Moors, as
greatly favoured the increafe of the Chriftian power.
In 745 Don Alonfo the Catholic, fon in law to Pela¬
gio, in conjunftion with his brother Froila, pafled the
mountains, and fell upon the northern part of Gallicia j
^ and meeting with little refiftance, he recovered almoft
f quefb the whole of that province in a fingle campaign. Next
«|ieChri-year he invaded the plains of Leon and Caftile 5 and
■ *' before the Moors could affemble any force to oppofe
him, he reduced Aftorgas, Leon, Saldagna, Montes de
Oca, Amaya, Alava, and all the country at the foot of
the mountains. The year following he pufhed his con¬
quers as far as the borders of Portugal, and the next
campaign ravaged the country as far as Caftile. Being
fenfible, however, that he was yet unable to defend the
flat country which he had conquered, he laid the whole
of it wafte, obliged the Chriftians to retire to the
mountains, and carried off all the Moors for Haves.
Thus fecured by a defert frontier, he met with no in¬
terruption for fome years j during which time, as his
kingdom advanced in ftrength, he allowed his fubjedls
gradually to occupy part of the flat country, and to re¬
build Leon and Aflorgas, which he had demoliftied.
He died in 758, and was fucceeded by his fon Don ^5
Froila. In his time Abdoulrahman, the khaliflf’s vice-The‘Sara-
roy in Spain, threw off the yoke, and rendered him-censm
felf independent, fixing the feat of his government atsP,amtlirow
Cordova. Thus the inteftine divifions among the Moors^f
were compoled j yet their fuccefs feems to have beenliffs.
little better than before ; for, foon after, Froila encoun- An. 75S.
tered the Moors with fuch fuccefs, that 54,000 of them
were killed on the fpot, and their general taken prifoner.
Soon after he built the city of Oviedo, which he made
3 R 2 the
SPA
[ 5®° ]
SPA
Spain.
57
■Hiftory of
The king¬
dom of
avarre.
Ah. Sco.
5S
Crtnquefls
of Charles
the Great.
An. 921
5?
Exploits of
Aimanzor
a Saracen
general.
An, 979.
die 'capital of his dominions, in order to be in a better
condition to defend the flat country, which he now de¬
termined to people.
In the year 850, the power of the Saracens received
smother blow by the rife, of the kingdom of Navarre.
This kingdom, we are told, took its origin from an ac¬
cidental meeting of gentlemen, to the number of 600,
at the tomb of an hermit named Jo/in, who had died
among the Pyrenees. At this place, where they had
met on account of the fuppofed fan&ity of the decea-
fed, they took occaflon to converfeon the cruelty of the
Moors, the miferies to which the country was expofed,
and the glory that would refult from throwing off their
yoke ; which, they fuppofed, might eafily be done, by
reafon of the ftrength of their country. On mature
deliberation, the project was approved ^ one Don Garcias
Ximenes was appointed king, as being of illuftrious
birth, and looked upon as a perfon of great abilities.
He recovered Ainfa, one of the principal towns of the
country, out of the hands of the infidels, and his fuc-
cefifor Don Garcias Inigas extended his territories as far
as Bifcay j however, the Moors ftill pofleffed Portugal,
Murcia, Andalufia, Valencia, Granada, Tortofa, with
the interior part of the country as far as the mountains
of Caftile and Zaragoza. Their internal dilfenfions,
which revived after the death of Abdoulrabman, con¬
tributed greatly to reduce the power of the infidels in
general. In 778, Charles the Great being invited by
fome difcontented Moorilh governors, entered Spain
with two great armies } one palling through Catalonia,
and the other through Navarre, where he pufhed his
conquefts as far as the Ebro. On his return he was
attacked and defeated by the Moors; though this did
not hinder him from keeping pofleflion of all thofe
places he had already reduced. At this time he feems
to have been mafier of Navarre: however, in 831 Count
Azner, revolting from Ptpin fon to the emperor Louis,
aflerted the independency of Navarre } but the fovereigns
did not affume the title of kings till the time of Don
Garcias, who began to reign in 857.
In the mean time, the kingdom founded by Don
Pelagio, now called the kingdom of Leon and Oviedo,
continued to increafe rapidly in ftrength, and many
advantages were gained over the Moors, who having-
two enemies to contend with, loft ground every day.
In 921, however, they gained a great vidlory over the
united forces of Navarre and Leon, by which the whole
force of the Chriftians in Spain muft have been entirely
broken, had not the viftors conducted their affairs fo
wretchedly, that they fuffered themfelves to be almoft
entirely cut in pieces by the remains of the Chriftian
army. In fhort, the Chriftians became at length fo ter¬
rible to the Moors, that it is probable they could not
long have kept their footing in Spain, had not a great
general, named Mohammed Eb?i Amir Almattzor, ap¬
peared, in 979, to fupport their finking caufe. This
man was vifir to the king of Cordova, and being ex¬
ceedingly provoked againft the Chriftians on account of
what his countrymen had fuffered from them, made war
with the molt implacable fury. He took the city of
Leon, murdered the inhabitants, and reduced the houfes
to allies. Barcelona fliared the fame fate ; Caftile was
reduced to a defert j Gallicia and Portugal ravaged;
and he is faid to have overcome the Chriftians in fifty
different engagements. At laft, having taken and
$
6a
Caftile.
An ic
demoliflied the city of Compuftella, and carried off in
triumph the gates of the church of St James, a flux
happened to break out among his troops, which the fu-
perftitious Chriftians fuppoied to be a divine judgment
on account of his laciilege. Taking it for granted,
therefore, that the Moors were now entirely deftitute of
all heavenly aid, they fell upon them with fuch fury in
the next engagement, that all the valour and conduft of He is d* I
Aimanzor could not prevent a defeat. Overcome withfeated, J
ftiame and defpair at this misfortune, he defired his fol- ftarveskil
lowers to ftiift for themfelves, while he himfelf retired^10
to Medina Coeli, and put an end to his life by abftinence
in the year 998. 61
During this period a new Chriftian principality ap- Rife of
peared in Spain, namely that of Caftile, which is now
divided into the Old and New Caftile. The Old*
Caftile was recovered long before that called the New.
It was feparated from the kingdom of Leon on one fide
by fome little rivers; on the other, it was bounded by
the Afturias, Bifcay, and the province of Rioja. On
the fijuth it had the mountains of Segovia and Avila;
thus lying in the middle between the Chriftian king¬
dom of Leon and Oviedo, and the Moorilh kingdom of
Cordova. Hence this diftrift foon became an objeft of
contention between the kings of Leon and thofe of
Cordova ; and as the former were generally victorious,
fome of the principal Caftilian nobility retained their
independence under the proteftion of the Chriftian
kings, even when the power oi the Moors was at its
greateft height. In 884, wre firft hear of Don Rodri¬
guez affuming the title of count of Cafile, though it
does not appear that either his territory or title were
given him by the king of Leon. Neverthelefs, this
monarch having taken upon him to punilh fome of the
Caftilian lords as rebels, the inhabitants made a formal
renunciation of their allegiance, and let up a new kind
of government. The fupreme power was now veiled
in two perfons of quality ftyled judges ; however, this
method did not long continue to give, latisfadflion, and
the fovereignty was once more veiled in a fingle perfon.
By degrees Caftile fell entirely under the power of the
kings of Leon and Oviedo; and, in 1037, Don San-
cho bellowed it on his eldeft fon Don Ferdinand, with
the title of king; and thus the territories of Caiiile
were firft firmly united to thofe of Leon and Oviedo,
and the fovereigns -were thenceforth ftyled kings of Leon
and Cafile.
Befides all thefe, another Chriftian kingdom was fetg;feof
up in Spain about the beginning of the nth century. Aragon,
This was the kingdom of .Aragon. The inhabitants Al1, If
were very brave, and lovers of liberty, fo that it is pro¬
bable they had in fome degree maintained their inde¬
pendence, even when the power of the Moors was
greateft. The hiflory of Aragon, however, during
its infancy, is much lefs known than that of any of 63
the others hitherto mentioned. We are only affured,State
that about the year 1035, Don Sancho, furnamed the
Great, king of Navarre, ere61ed Aragon into a king-ning 0| t
dom in favour of his fon Don Ramiro, and afterwards nth cm
it became very powerful. At this time, then, we maytury.
imagine the continent of Spain divided into two unequal
parts by a ftraight line drawn from call to weft, from
the coafts of Valencia to a little below the mouth of the
Douro. The country north of this belonged to the
Chriftians, who, as yet, had the fmalleft and leaft valu¬
able
62
54
;!edo and
idrid ta-
by the
iftians.
, 10S0.
65
j fignal
lory
ned over
; Moors.
. I2U.
1235.
SPA
able fliare, and all the reft to the Moors,
wealth and real power, both by land and Tea, the
Moors were much fuperior •, but their continual dif-
fenfions greatly weakened them, and every day facili¬
tated the progrefs of the Ghriitians. Indeed, had either
of the parties been united, the other mufl foon have
yielded j for though the Chriftians did not make war
upon each other conftantly as the Moors did, their mu¬
tual feuds were yet fufficient to have ruined them, had
their adverfaries made the proper ufe of the advantages
thus aftorded them. But among the Moors almoil eve¬
ry city was a kingdom *, and as thefe petty fovereign-
ties fupported one another very indifferently, they fell
a prey one after another to their enemies. In 1080,
the king of Toledo was engaged in a war with the king
of Seville, another Moorilh potentate j which being ob-
ferved by Alphonfo king of Caftile, he alfo invaded his
territories ; and in four years made himfelf mafter of
the city of Toledo, with all the places of importance in
its neighbourhood *, from thenceforth making Toledo
the capital of his dominions. In a ihort time the whole
province of New Caftile fubmitted 5 and Madrid, the
prefent capital of Spain, fell, into the hands of the
Chriftians, being at that time but a fmall place.
The Moors were fo much alarmed at thefe conquefts,
that they not only entered into a general confederacy
againft the Chriftians, but invited to their aftiftance
Mahomet Ben Jofeph the fovereign of Barbary. He
accordingly came, attended by an incredible multitude;
but was utterly defeated by the Chriftians in the defiles
of the Black Mountain, or Sierra Morerra, on the bor¬
ders of Andalufia. This victory happened on the 16th
of July x 21 2, and the anniverfary is flill celebrated at
Toledo. This victory was not improved ; the Chrif-
tian army Immediately difperfed themfelves, while the
Moors of Andalufia were ftrengthened by the remains
of the African army; yet, inftead of being taught, by
their paft misfortunes, to unite among themfelves, their
diffenfions became worfe than ever, and the conquefts of
the Chriftians became daily more rapid. In 1236, Don
Ferdinand of Caftile and Leon took the celebrated city
of Cordova, the reftdenee of the firft Mooriih kings; at,
the fame time that James I. of Aragon difpofftffed
them of the iftand of Majorca, and drove them out of
Valencia. Two years after, Ferdinand made himfelf
mafter of Murcia, and took the city of Seville; and in
1303 Ferdinand IV. reduced Gibraltar.
In the time of Edward III. vve find England, for the
firft time, interfering in the affairs of Spain, on the fol¬
lowing occafion. In the year 1 284 the kingdom of Na¬
varre had been united to that of France by the mar¬
riage of Donna Joanna queen of Navarre with Philip
the Fair of France.. In 1328, however, the kingdoms
were again feparated, though the fovereigns of Navarre
were ftill related to thofe of France. In 1350, Charles,
furnamed the Wicked, afeended the throne of Navarre,
and married the daughter of John king of France.
Notwithftanding this alliance, and that he himfelf was
related to the royal family of France, he fecretly enter¬
ed into a negoeiation with England againft the French
monarch, and even drew into his fchemes the dauphin
Charles, afterwards furnamed the Wife. The young
prince, however, was foon after made fully fenfible of
the danger and folly of the connexions into which he
had entered j and, by way of atonement, promifed to
Spain.
67
[ Soi ] SPA
In point of facrifice his affociates. Accordingly he invited the king
of Navarre, and fome of the principal nobility of the
fame party, to a feaft at Rouen, where he betrayed
them to his father. The moft obnoxious were execu-xhe king of
ted, and the king of Navarre was thrown into prifon. Navarre
In this extremity, the party of the king of Navarre hadmiprifoned •
recourfe to England. The prince of Wales, furnamed
the Black Prince, invaded France, defeated King John at France.
PoiXiers, and took him prifoner * ; which unfortunate * See
event produced the moft violent difturbanccs in that France,
kingdom. The dauphin, now about 19 years of age,^ 44-
naturally affumed the royal power during his father’s
captivity : but poffeffed neither experience nor autho¬
rity fufheient to remedy the prevailing evils. In older
to obtain fupplies, he affembled the ilates of the king¬
dom : but that affembly, inftead of fupporting his ad-
miniftration, laid hold of die prefent opportunity to de¬
mand limitations of the prince’s power, the puniihment
of paft malverfations, and the liberty of the king of Na¬
varre. Marcel, provoft of the merchants of Paris, and ,
firft magiftrate of that city, put himfelf at the head of
the unruly populace, and puihed them to commit the
moft criminal outrages againft the royal authority. 'They
detained the dauphin in a kind of captivity, murdered
in his prefence Robert de Clermont and John de Con-
flans, marefchals of France ; threatened all the other
minifters with the like tate ; and when Charles, who
had been obliged to temporize and diffemble, made his,
efcape from their hands, they levied war againft him,
and openly rebelled. The other cities of the kingdom,,
in imitation of the capital, fhook off the dauphin’s au¬
thority, took the government into their own hands, and
fpread the contagion into every province. <53
Amidft thefe diforders, the king of Navarre made his Efcapes,
efeape from prifon, and prefented a dangerous leader
to the furious malecontents. He revived his ptetenftons ,r,a]econ ‘ '
to the crown of France : but in all his operations h&tents.
aXed more like a leader of banditti than one who afpi-.
red to be the head of a regular government, and who-
was engaged by his ftation to endeavour the re-eftablifti-
meiit of order in the community. All the French,
therefore, who wiflied to reftore peace to their country,
turned their eyes towards the dauphin ; who, though
not remarkable for his military talents, daily gained by-
his prudence and vigilance the afeendant over his ene¬
mies. Marcel, the feditious provoft of Paris, was flain,
in attempting to deliver that city to the king of Na¬
varre. . The capital immediately returned to its duty it
the moft confiderable bodies of the mutinous peafants,
were difperfed or put to the fword ; Tome bands of mi¬
litary robbers underwent the fame fate; and France
began once more to aflume the appearance of civil go¬
vernment. 1
John, was fucceeded in the throne of France by his
fon Charles V. a prince educated in the fchool of adver-
fity, and well qualified, by his prudence and experience,
to repair the. Ioffes which the kingdom had fuftained
from the errors of his predeceffors. Contrary to the
praXice of all the great princes of thofe times, who held
nothing in eftimation but military courage, he feems to
have laid it down as a maxim, never to appear at the
head of his armies ; and he was the firft European mo¬
narch that {bowed the advantage of policy and forefight
over a rafti and precipitate valour.
Before Charles could think of counterbalancing fo
great
SPA
r 502 ]
SPA
Spain.
prefcribed
by harles
V. of
France.
-.70
Account of
panics or
compa¬
nions.
great ■a pcmyer as England, it was necelTary for him to
remedy the many diforch" s 10 which his owri kingdom
Is defeated vvas exPf)^ed* He accordingly turned his ^rms againft
nnd obliged' the king of Navarre, the great diiturbt r oi France du-
to fub'tntt t) ring that age \ and he defeated that prince, and redu-
the terms cecl him to terms, by the valour and conduct of Ber¬
trand du Guefclin, one of the moil accomplifhed cap¬
tains of thofe times, whom Charles had tin difeernment
to choofe as the inftrumt nt of his victories. He alfo
fettled the affairs of Britanny, by acknowledging the
title of Mountfort, and receiving homage for ins do¬
minions. But much was yet to be done. On the con-
clufion of the pt ee of Bretigni, the many military ad¬
venturers who had followed the fortunes of Edward,
being difperfed into the feveral provinces, and pofleffed
of Itrong holds, refufed to lay down their arms, or relin¬
quish a courfe of life to which they wrere now aecuftom-
ed, and by which alone they could earn a fubfiftence.
t hey afl’oeiated themfeives with the banditti, who were
the hr, ditti already inured to the habits of rapine and violence j and,
called com- unc{er the name of companies and companions, became a
terror to all the peaceable inhabitants. Some Englifh
and Gafcon gentlemen of chara61er wrere not afhamed
to take the command of thefe ruffians, whofe number
amounted to near 40,000, and who bore the appear¬
ance of regular armies rather than bands of robbers.
As Charles was not able by power to redrefs fo enor¬
mous a grievance, he was led by neceffity, as well as by
the turn of his chara&er, to correct it by policy •, to dif-
cover fome method of difeharging into foreign countries
this dangerous and inteftine evil; and an occafion now
offered.
Alphonfo XI. king of Caftile, who took the city of
Algezira from the Moors, after a famous liege of two
c™e*’kin£ years, during which artillery are faid firft to have been
0 a 1 e’ ufed by the belieged, had been fuceeeded by his fon
Pedro I. furnamed the Cruel; a prince equally perfidi¬
ous, debauched, and bloody. He began his reign with
the murder of his father’s rniftrefs, Leonora de Gufman :
his nobles fell every day the victims of his feverity : he
put to death his eoulin and one of his natural brothers,
from groundlefs jealoufy 5 and he caufed his queen
Blanche de Bourbon, of the blood of France, to be
thrown into prifon, and aftervrards poifoned, that he
might enjoy in quiet the embraces of Mary de Padella,
with wffiom he was violently enamoured.
Henry count of Traftamara, the king’s natural bro¬
ther, alarmed at the fate of his family, and dreading his
own, took arms againft the tyrant; but having failed
in the attempt, he fled to France, where he found the
minds of men much inflamed againft Pedro, on account
The Com- of the murder of the French princefs. He afked per-
pames em- miffion Qf Charles to enlifl the companies in his fervice,
hun anc^ ^eac^ t^iem ^n':o Caftile againft his brother. The
French king, charmed with the project, employed du
Guefclin in negociating with the leaders of thefe ban¬
ditti. The treaty svas foon concluded •, and du Guef¬
clin having completed his levies, led the army firft to
Avignon, where the pope then refided, and demanded,
fword in hand, abfolution for his ruffian foldiers, who
had been excommunicated, and the fum of 200,000
livres for their fubfiftence. The firft was readily pro-
mifed him, but fome difficulty being made with regard
to the fecond, du Guefclin replied, “ My fellows, I be-
71
Reign of
Pedro the
73
lieve, may make a fhift to do without your abfolution, Spah
73
but the money is absolutely necefiary.” His buhnefs
then extorted irom the inhabitants of the city and its
neighbourhood the fum of 100,000 livres, and offered it
to du Gueteiin. “ It is not my purpofe (cried that ge¬
nerous warrior) to opprels the innocent people.. The
pope and his cardinals can fpare me double the fum from
their own pocieets. 1 therefore infill, that this money
be reftored to the owners j and if I hear they are de¬
frauded of it, 1 will mylelf return from the other fide
of the Pyrenees, and oblige you to make them reftitu-
tion.” i'he pope found the neceffity of fubmitting, and
paid from his own treasury the fum demanded.
A body of experienced and hardy foldiers, condu6fed He Isd
by fo able a general, eafily prevailed over the king of out, brs 0
Caftile, whole fubjefts were ready to join the enemy by
againft their oppreflor. Pedro tied from his dominions,
took fhelter in Guitnne, and craved the protedfion of '
the prmee of Wales, whom his father had invefted with
the fovereignty of the ceded provinces, under the title
of the principality of Aquitaine. The prince promiled
his affiftance to the dethroned monarch *, and having ob¬
tained his father’s confent, he levied an army, and fet
out on his enterprife.
The firft lofs which Henry of Traftamara fuffered
from the interpolition of the prince of Wales, ’was the
recalling of the companies from his fervice j and fo
much reverence did they pay to the name of Edward,
that great numbers of them immediately withdrew from
Spain, and enlifted under his flandard. Henry, how¬
ever, beloved by his new fubjetts, and fupported by the
king of Aragon, was able to meet the enemy with an
army of 100,000 men, three times the number of thofe
commanded by the Black Prince : yet du Guefclin, and
all his experienced officers, advifed him to delay a deci-
five adlion y fo high was their opinion of the valour and
conduit of the Englifh hero ! But Henry, trufting to
his numbers, ventured to give Edward battle on the
banks of the Ebro, between Najara and Navarette j
where the French and Spaniards were defeated, with Spa.
the lofs of above 20,000 men, and du Guefclin and niards de
other officers of diitinitioh taken prifoners. All Caftile feated, ai
fubmitted to the viitor *, Pedro was reftored to the^®”e‘
throne, and Edward returned to Guienne with his ufual * 1
glory ; having not only overcome the greateft general
of his age, but reftrained the moft blood-thirfty tyrant
from executing vengeance on his prifoners.
This gallant warrior had foon reafon to repent of his
connexion with a man like Pedro, loft to all fenfe of
virtue and honour. The ungrateful monfter refufed the J
ftipulated pay to the Englifh forces. Edward abandon¬
ed him : he treated his fubjedls with the utmoft barba¬
rity •, their animofity was roufed againft him 5 and du
Guefclin having obtained his ranfom, returned to Caftile
with the count of Traftamara, and fome forces levied
anew in France. They were joined by the Spanifh
malecontents *, and having no longer the Black Prince
to encounter, they gained a complete viftory over Pedro js again
in the neighbourhood of Toledo. I'he tyrant now took
refuge in a caftle, where he was foon after befieged by k
the vigors, and taken prifoner in endeavouring to make deatbi
his efcape. He was conduced to his brother Henry j
againft whom he is faid to have rufhed m a tranfport of
rage, difarmed as he was. Henry flew him tvith his
own
SPA
own hand, in refentment of his cruelties; and, though
a baitard, was placed on the throne of Cattile, which he
tranfmitted to his pofterity.
There is little doubt that the charafter of Pedro has
been greatly mifreprefented, and that what is confidered
by moft hiltorians as tyranny and wanton cruelty, was
only an inflexible regard to juftice, neceflary perhaps, in
thofe days of anarchy and rebellion. Perhaps that un¬
fortunate monarch owes to the hatred of thofe he meant
to reduce to order, much of the obloquy which ha? been
fo plentifully beftowed upon him by biftorians, who
have painted him to us as a tyrant fo bloody, fo wicked,
as almoft to exceed the bounds of probability. In An-
dalufia, where he fixed his refidence and feemed moft to
delight, his memory is not held in the fame abhorrence.
Uhe Sevillian writers fpeak of him very differently ;
and inftead of his ufiial appellation of Pedro el cruel,
diftinguifh him by that of eljujliciero. It is certain that
his baftard-brother and murderer, Henry of Traftama-
ra, was guilty of crimes fully as atrocious as any of thofe
imputed to Pon Pedro; but as he deftroyed him,' his
family and adherents, the friends of the new fpurious
race of monarchs were left at full liberty to blacken the
chata&ers of the adverfe party, without the fear of being
called to an account for calumny, .or even contradicted.
Truth is now out of our reach ; and for want of proper
proofs to the contrary, we muft fit down contented with
what hiftory has left us and allow Don Pedro to have
been one of the moft inhuman butchers that ever dif-
graced a throne. ■ • .
After the death of Pedro the Cruel, nothing remark¬
able happened in Spain for almoft a whole century ; but
the debaucheries of Henry IV. of Caftile roufed the re¬
fentment of his nobles, and produced a moft lingular in-
furre&ion, which led to the aggrandizement of the Spa-
nilh monarchy.
This prince, furnamed the Impotent, though conti¬
nually furrounded with women, began his.unhappy reign
in 1450. He was totally enervated by his pleafures ;
and every thing in his court confpired to fet the Cafti-
lians an example of the moft abjeAflattery and moft
abandoned licentioufnefs. The queen, a daughter of
Portugal, lived as openly with her parafites and her gal¬
lants as the king did with his minions and his miftreffes.
Pleafure was the only objetft, and effeminacy the only
recommendation to favour : the affairs of the ftate went
every, day into diforder ; till the nobility, with the
archbiftiop of Toledo at their head, combining againft
the weak and flagitious adminiftration of Henry, arro¬
gated to themfelves, as one of the privileges of their or¬
der, the right.of trying and palling fentence on their
fovereign, which they executed in a manner unprece¬
dented in hiftory.
lie ^ .^ie rna^econtent nobility were fummoned to meet
e!j0' at Avila : a fpacious theatre was eretted in a plain
without the walls of the town : an image, reprefenting
the king, was feated on a throne, clad in royal robes,
with a crown on its head, a fceptre in its hand, and
the fword of juftice by its fide. The accufation againft
Henry was read, and the fentence of depofition pro¬
nounced, in prefence of a numerous affembly. At the
clofe of the firft article of the charge, the archbilhop of
Toledo advanced, and tore the crown from the head of
the image ; at the clofe of the fecond, the Conde de
lacentia fnatched the fword of juftice from its fide j at
[ 503 1
A
tof
if the
bnt.
1S°-
the clofe of the third, the Conde de Benavente 'Wrefted Spain,
the fceptre from his hand j and at the clofe of the laft, '"""’‘"v"" 1
Don Diego Lopez de Stuniga tumbled it headlong
from the throne. At the fame inftant, Don Alphon-
fo, Henry’s brother, a boy of about twelve years of age,
was proclaimed king of Caftile and Leon in his ftead.
This extraordinary proceeding -was followed by a ci¬
vil war, which did not ceale till fome time after the
death of the young prince, on whom the nobles had
beftowed the kingdom. The archbilhop and his party
then continued to carry on war in the name of Ifabella
the king’s filler, to whom they gave the title of Infan¬
ta; and Henry could not extricate bimfelf out of thefe
troubles, nor remain quiet upon his throne till lie had
figned one of the moft humiliating treaties ever extort- 78
ed from a fovereign; he acknowledged his filler Label-Is obliged
la the only lawful heirefs of his kingdom, in prejudice
to the rights of his reputed daughter Joan, whom thefiftfrjp^
malecontents affirmed to be the offspring of an adulter-bella to be
ous commerce between the queen and Don la Cueva.heirefs to
The grand object of the malecontent party now was the kinS'
marriage of the princefs Ifabella, upon which, it wasf °m‘
evident, the fecurity of the crown and the bappinefs of
the people muft in a great meafure depend. The al¬
liance w'as fought by feveral princes : the king of Por¬
tugal offered her his hand ; the king of France de¬
manded her for his brother, and the king of Aragon 79
for his fon Ferdinand. I he malecontents very wifely She is roar-
preferred the Aragonian prince, and Ifabella prudent-ried t(? Fcr-
ly made the fame choice : articles were dratvn up; andd'nail(1 cf
they tvere privately married by the archbiftiop of To-
ledo.
Henry was enraged at this alliance, which he fore-
fawr would utterly ruin his authority, by furnifhing his
rebellious fubje&s with the fupport of a powerful neigh-'
bouring prince. He difinherited his fifter, and efta-'
blidled the rights of his daughter. A furious civil war
defolated the kingdom. The names of Joan and Ifa¬
bella refounded from every quarter, and were every¬
where the fummons to arms. But peace was at length
brought about. Henry was reconciled to his fifter and
Ferdinand ; though it does not appear that lie ever re¬
newed Ifabella’s right to the fucceffion : for he affirmed
in his laft moments, that he believed Joan to be his own
daughter. The queen fwore to the fame effed ; and
Henry left a teftamentary deed, tranfmitting the crown
to this princefs, who was proclaimed queen of Caftile at s0
Placent ia. But the fuperior fortune and fuperior arms Union of
of Ferdinand and Ifabella prevailed : the king of Por-theking-
tugal was obliged to abandon his niece and intendeddoms of A"
bride, after many ineffeaual ftruggles, and feveral years sidh! wifh
of war. Joan retired into a convent ; and the death of Leon and '
Ferdinand’s father, which happened about this time, Caftile.
added the kingdoms of Aragon and Sicily to thofe of An. 1474.
Leon and Caftile.
8l
Ferdinand and Ifabella were per bong of great pru-Adnnm-
dence, and, as fovereigns, highly worthy of imitation :'Uano of
but they do not feem to have merited all the praifes Ferdinan<U
beftowed upon them by the Spanifti hiftorians. Theyff,1^*
did not live like man and wife, having" all things in S a’
common under the diretfion of the huffiand ; but like
two princes in clofe alliance ; they neither loved nor
hated each other ; were feldom in company together •
had each a feparate council ; and were frequently jea¬
lous of one another in the adminiftration. But they
SPA
[ 5°4 1
P A
82
' Inftitution
■ of the Holy
JJrother-
l.hood,
Spain, ■were infeparably united in their common interefts •, al-
ir" ^yays a6Ving upon the fame principles, and forwaiding
the fame ends. Their firif obje£t was the regulation
of their government, which the civil wars had thrown
into the greatelt difiirder. Rapine, outrage, and murder,
were become fo common, as not only to interrupt com¬
merce, but in a great meafure to lufpend all intercom fo
between one place and another. •Ihefe evils the joint
fovereigns fupprefied by their wife policy, at the fame
time that they‘extended the royal prerogative.
About the middle of the i-gth century, the cities in
the kingdom of Aragon, and after their example thofe
in Caftile, had formed themfelves into an affociation,
diftinguiflied by the name of the Holy brotherhood.
They exafted a certain contribution from each of the
affociated towns j they levied a confiderable body of
troops, in order to protect travellers and puifue crimi¬
nals', and they appointed judges, who opened courts
■in various parts of the kingdom. "Whoever was guilty
of murder, robbery, or any aft that violated the public
peace, and was feized by the troops of the Brother¬
hood, was carried before their judges j who, without
paying any regard to the exclufive jurifdittion which
the lord of the place might claim, who was generally
the author or abettor of the injuftice, tried, and con-
; demned the criminals. The nobles often murmured
again ft the falutary inftitution j they complained of it
as an encroachment on one of their moft valuable pri¬
vileges, and endeavoured to get it abolilhed. But her-
/dinand and Ifabella, fenftble of the beneficial effe£ls of
the Brotherhood, not only in regard to the police of
their kingdom, but in its tendency to abridge, and by
• degrees annihilate, the territorial junfdiiftion of the no¬
bility, countenanced the inftitution upon every occafton,
and fupnorted it with the whole force of royal ^autho¬
rity by which means the prompt and impartial admi-
niftration of juft-ice wras reftored, and wit.i it tianguillity
83' and order returned. _ . ,
tnd of the gut at the fame time that their Catholic majefties
Inquifition. ^or.fuch Was the title they now bore) were giving vi¬
gour to their civil government, and fecuring their fub-
iefts from violence and oppreffion, an intemperate zeal
led them to eftabliih an ecclefiaftieal tribunal, equally
contrary to the natural rights of humanity and the mild
fpirit of the gofpel. This was the court of inquifition 3
which decides upon the honour, fortune, and even the
life, of the unhappy wretch who happens to fall under
the fufpicion of herely, or a contempt of any thing pre-
feribed by the church, without his knowing, being con¬
fronted with his accufers, or permitted either defence or
appeal. Six thoufand perfons were burnt by order of
this fanguinary tribunal within four years after the ap¬
pointment of Torquemada, the firft inquifitor-general j
and upwards ©f 100,000 felt its fury. The fame furious
and blinded zeal which led to the depopulation of Spain,
g led alfo to ite aggrandizement. .
Conqueft The kingdom of Granada now alone remained of all
ofGranada. the Mahometan poffefiions in Spain. Princes equady
An. *492. ,zcaious and ambitious were naturally dilpofed to turn
their eyes to that fertile territory, and to think of in- Spa
creafing their hereditary dominions, by expelling the
enemies of Chriftianity, and extending its doctrines.
Every thing confpked to favour their project : the
Mooriih kingdom was a prey to civil wars; when Fer¬
dinand, having obtained the bull of Sixtus IV. autho¬
rizing a crufade, put himfelf at the head of his troops,
and entered Granada. He continued the war ivith ra¬
pid fuccefs : Ifabella attended him in feveral expedi¬
tions ; and they were both in great danger at the fiege
of Malaga ; an important city, which was defended
with great courage, and taken in 1487. Baza was re¬
duced in 1489, after the lofs of 20,000 men. Gaudix
anti Almeria were delivered up to them by the Mooriih
king Alzagtl, who had firft dethroned his brother A1-
boacen, and afterwards been chafed from his capital by
his nephew Abdali. That prince engaged in the fer-
vice of Ferdinand and Ifabella ; who, after reducing
every other place of eminence, undertook the fiege of
Granada. Abdali made a gallant defence •, but all com¬
munication with the country being cut off, and all hopes
of relief at an end, he capitulated, after a fiege of eight
months, on condition that he ihould enjoy the revenue,
of certain places in the fertile mountains of Alpuxarras;
that the inhabitants Ihould retain the undifturbed poi-
feffion of their houfes, goods, and inheritances ; the ufe
of their laws, and the free exercife of their religion (b).
Thus ended the empire of the Arabs in Spain, after it
had continued-about 800 years. I hey introduced the
arts and fciences into Europe at a time when it was loft
in darknefs; they pofft-ffed many of the luxuries of life,
when they were not even known among the neighbour¬
ing licit ions -, and they feeto to have given birth to that
romantic gallantry which fo eminently prevailed in the
ages of chivalry, and which, blending itfelfwith the ve¬
neration of the northern nations for the fofter fex, ftill
particularly dittinguifties ancient from modern manners.
But the Moors, notwithftanding thtie advantages, and
the eulogies beftowed upon them by fome writers, ap¬
pear always to have been deftitute of the effential qua¬
lities of a polithed people, humanity, generofity, and mu¬
tual fympathy.
The overthrow of the laft Moorifti kingdom was foon
followed by the expuliion of the Saracens from Spain.
This expulfion did not entirely take place till the 17th
century. Vaft numbers of the Moors, indeed, oppreffed
by their conquerors, abandoned a country where they
could not refide with comfort and with freedom. _ From
the reign of Ferdinand of Caftile, to that of Philip III.
of Spain, more than 3,000,000 of thofe people quitted
Spain, and -carried with them, not only a great part of
their acquired wealth, but that induftry and love of la¬
bour which are the foundation of national profperity. $$
The ftate of Spain has never been fo flourilhing atprol?*™
any period of its civilization, as during the period wheng J
it was chiefly poffeffed by the Moors. I he firft Sara-
cen invaders, and the twenty fucceflive lieutenants otMo(,riiii
the caliphs of Damafcus, were attended by a numerousTOinion.
train of civil and military followers, who preferred a
diftant
fn) The particulars of the conqucft of Granada are involved in much obfeurity. If we were to cred,t llie
cative of Giles Perez, as related by Mr Swinburne, the circumftanoes which led to that conqucil were of a melt
romantic nature. See Swinburne’s Travels, Letter xxi.
36
expel
leiom
Sin.
s p A [S®5 ]
dlftant fortune to narrow circumftances at home j the people.
J private and public intereft was promoted by the efta-
blithment of faithful colonies, and the cities of Spain
Were proud to commemorate the tribe or the country
of their eaftern progenitors. Ten years after the con-
queft, a map of the province was prefented to the ca¬
liph, Ihewing the feas, the rivers, and the harbours, the
inhabitants and cities, the climate, the foil, and the mi¬
neral productions of the earth. In the fpace ’of two
centuries the gifts of nature were improved by agri¬
culture, the manufactures, and the commerce of an in-
duftrious people 5 though the effeCts of their diligence
have been magnified by the idlenefs of their fancy. The
firft of the Oxnmiades who reigned in Spain folicited
the fupport of the Chriftians ; and in his ediCt of peace
and protection, he contents himfelf with a modeft im-
pofition of 10,000 ounces of gold, 10,COO pounds of fd-
Ver, 10,000 horfes, as many mules, 1000 cuiraffes, with
an equal number of helmets and lances. The moft
powerful of his fucceffors derived from the fame king¬
dom the annual tribute of 12,045,000 dinars or pieces
of gold, about 6,ooo,oooL of Iterling money 5 a fum
which, in the 10th century, moft probably furpalfed the
united revenues of the Chriftian monarchs. His royal
feat of Cordova contained 600 mofques, 900 baths, and
200,000 houfes; he gave laws to 80 cities of the firft,
to 300 of the fecond and third order ; and the fertile
banks of the Guadalquiver were adorned with 12,000
villages and hamlets. 1 he Arabs might exaggerate the
truth j but they created and they defcribe the moft
profperous era of the riches, the cultivation, and the
populoufnefs of Spain (c).
The conqueft of Granada was followed by the expul-
fion, or rather the pillage and banilhment, of the Jews,
who had engrolfed all the wTealth and commerce of Spain.
The inquifition exhaufted its rage againft thefe unhappy
SPA
many of whom pretended to embrace Chriftia- Spain,
nity, in order to preferve their property. About the '*—~v—"
fame time their Catholic majefties concluded an allianced;{-c^
with the emperor Maximilian, and a treaty of marriage 0f America
for their daughter Joan with his fon Philip, archduke of&c.
Auftria and fovercign of the Netherlands. About this
time alfo the contraCl was concluded with Chriftopher
^Columbus for the difcovery of new countries j and the
counties of Rouffillon and Cerdagne were agreed to be
reftored by Charles VIII. of France, before his expe¬
dition into Italy. The difcovery of America was foon
followed by extenfive conquefts in that quarter, as is re¬
lated under the articles Mexico, Peru, Chili, &c.
which tended to raife the Spanilh monarchy above any
other in Europe. gg
On the death of Ifabella, which happened in 1506, Accefflonof
Philip archduke of Auftria came to Caftile in order to • harle! v-
take pofleftion of that kingdom as heir to his mother- Ar'
in-law ; but he dying in a ftiort time after, his fon
Charles V. afterwards emperor of Germany, became
heir to the crown of Spain. His father at his death
left the king of France governor to the young prince,
and Ferdinand at his death left Cardinal Ximenes foie
regent of Caftile, till the arrival of his grandfon. This
man, whofe charafter is no lefs fingular than illuftrious,
who united the abilities of a great ftatefman with the
abjeft devotion of a fuperftitious monk, and the magni¬
ficence of a prime minifter with the feverity of a men¬
dicant, maintained order and tranquillity in Spain, not-
withftanding the difcontents of a turbulent and high-
fpirited nobility. When they difputed his right to the •
regency, he coolly (hewed them the teftament of Ferdi¬
nand, and the ratification of that deed by Charles j but
thefe not fatisfying them, and argument proving inef¬
fectual, he led them infenfibly towards a balcony, whence
they had a view of a large body of troops under arms,
and
arJ ? m?nar,c]l °.f CorcJm;a, farpaffed all his predeceffors in fplendour, riches, and expence 5
d his fubjeas vied with each other m profufion and magnificence. Some idea may be entertained of the opu-
nrefents"!?^ ^ 1Mo0rS. °f IOth C:entUr^’ b? PerufinS the Allowing enumeration of Ihe
p ents made to Abdouhahman by Abumelik his grand vizier, on his appointment to that office. We are told
that the minifter caufed to be brought before the throne, and laid at the feet of his mafter
400 lbs. of virgin gold.
Ingots offilver to the value of 420,000 fequins. -
400 lbs. of lignum aloes, one piece weighing 140 lbs.
500 oz. of ambergris.
300 oz. of camphor.
30 pieces of gold tilTue, fo rich that none but the caliph could wear it.
10 fuits of Khoraflan fables.
100 fuits of fur of a lefs valuable fort.
48 fets of gold and filk long trappings for horfes.
4000 lbs. of filk.
30 Perfian carpets.
800 iron coats-of-mail for war horfes,
1000 ffiields.
100,000 arrows.
15 led horfes of Arabia, as richly caparifoned as thofe on which the caliph was wont to ride
100 horfes of an inferior price.
20 mules with all their accoutrements.
40 young men, and 20 girls of exquifite beauty, and moft fumptuoufty apparelled Tide r • c
-c—d with a rnoft flattering pienr, compofed by the miniL in pSf ht fove^ P'ifn "tlT
W^fix far, T ” 3 I’Cnfl°n 0f I0,’00° pieCB °f S°ld’ ab0Ut -TO>OOCI'
Wi ar ‘ 3 s
SPA
Spain.
99
Bifgrace
and death
of Cardinal
J&inienes.
90
Maximilian
attempts to
get Charles
elected em-
IKrov.
an4 a formidable train of artillery. _
cardinal) the pow.ers which I have received from his
Catholic majefty : by thefe I govern Catlile •, and will
govern it, till the king, your mailer and mine, ihall
come to take pofleflion of his kingdom.” A declara¬
tion fo bold and determined filenced all oppofition •, and
Ximenes maintained his authority till the arrival of
Charles in 1517.
The young king was received with univerfal acclama¬
tions of joy JJ but Ximenes found little caufe to rejoice. .
He was lei zed with a violent diforder, fuppofed to be
the effefl of poifon ; and when he recovered, Charles,
prejudiced againft him by the Spanilh grandees and his
Fie mi ih courtiers, flighted his advice, and allowed him
every day to fink into negleft. The cardinal did not
bear this treatment with his ufual fortitude of fpirit.
He expe&ed a more grateful return from a prince to
■whom he delivered a kingdom more flourilhing than it
had been in any former age, and authority more exten-
five and better eftabliihed than the moll iliuftrious of his
anceftors had ever polfelfed. Conicious of his own in-
tegrity and merit, he could not therefore refrain from
giving vent, at times, to indignation and complaint.
He lamented the fate of his country, and foretold the
calamities to which it would be expofed from the info~
lence, the rapacioufnefs, and the ignorance of Hi angers.
But in the mean time he received a letter from the king,
difmifling him from his councils, under pretence of eafing
his age of that burden which he had fo long and fo ably
futlained. This letter proved fatal to the minilter 5 for
he expired in a few hours aftei reading it.
While Charles was taking polfeflion of the throne of
Spain, in confequence of the death of one grandfather,
another was endeavouring to obtain for him the impe¬
rial crown. With this view Maximilian affembled a
diet at Augfburg, where he cultivated the favour of the
eleflors by many a£ts of beneficence, in order to engage
them to choofe that young prince as his fucceffor. But
Maximilian himfelf never having been crowned by the
pope, a ceremony deemed effential in that age, as well
as in the preceding, he was confidered only as king of
the Romans, or emperor cleft •, and no example occur-
rin'y in hiftory of any perfon being cnofen fuccelTor to
a king of the Romans, the Germans, always tenacious of
their forms, obftinately refufed to confer upon Charles a
dignity for which their conftitution knew no name.
But though Maximilian could not prevail upon the
German eleflors to choofe his grandfon of Spain king
of the Romans, he had difpofed their minds in favour
of that prince ; and other circumfiances^ on the death
of the emperor, confpired to the exaltation of Cnarle.-.
The imperial crown had fo long continued in the Au-
ftrian line, that it began to be confidered as hereditary
in that family *, and Germany, torn by religious de¬
putes, flood in need of a powerful emperor, not only to
wreferve its own internal tranquillity, but alfo to protefl
it arrainfl the viftorieus arms of the Turks, who under
Selim I. threatened the liberties of Europe. This fierce
£ 506 ] . SPA
Behold (faid the great and warlike kingdom of Spain, together with that Spain.
of Naples and Sicily, all united to hold him up to the ''—v-w
firft dignity among Chriftian princes j and the new
world feemed only to be called into exiflence that its
treafures might enable him to defend Chriilendom
againit the infidels. Such was the language of his par-
tilans. . #
Francis I. however, no fooner received intelligence of Franscis r< j|
the death of Maximilian, than he declared himfelf a can- afpires to j
didate fur the empire ; and with no leis confidence of the fame 1
fuccefs than Charles. Pie truiled to his fuperior yearsdlSmty-
and experience j his great reputation in arms j and it
was farther urged in his favour, that the impetuofity of
the French cavalry, added to the firmnefs of the Ger¬
man infantry, would prove irrefiltxble, and not only be
fufficient, under a warlike emperor, to fet limits to the
ambition of Selim, but to break entirely the Ottoman
power, and prevent it from ever becoming dangerous
again to Germany.
Both claims were plaufible. Idle dominions of Fran¬
cis were lefs extenfive, but mure united than thofe of
Charles. His fubje&s were numerous, a£live, brave,
lovers of glory, and lovers of their king, i hele were
ftrong arguments in favour of his power, fo necefiary at
this jundture 1 but he had no natural interefl in the Gei-
manic body } and the eledlors, hearing fo much of mili¬
tary force on each fide, became more alarmed for their
own privileges than the common fafety. d hey deter¬
mined to rejedl both candidates, and offered the impe¬
rial crown to Frederic, furnamed the Wife, duke of
Saxony. But he, undazzled by the fplendour of an
objedl courted with fo much eagernefs, by two mighty
monarchs, rejedled it with a magnanimity no leis lingu¬
lar than great. _ _ 51 !
“ In times of tranquillity (faid Frederic), we wifh for Speech a?|
an emperor who has no power to invade our liberties *, rrederic
times of danger demand one who is able to fecure our^keofl
fafety. The Turkifh armies, led by a warlike and vic-favour;d
torious monarch, are now affembling : they are ready charlev 1
to pour in upon Germany with a violence unknown in
former ages. New conjundlures call for new expedients.
The imperial feeptre mull be committed to fome hand
more powerful than mine or that of any other Ge’rman
prince. We poffefs neither dominions, nor revenues,
nor authority, which enable us to encounter fuch a for¬
midable enemy. Recourfe mull be had, in this exigen¬
cy, to one of the rival monarchs. Each of them can
bring into the field forces fufficient for our deft nee. But
as the king of Spain is of German extraction, as he is-a
member and prince of the empire by the territories which
defeend to him from his grandfather, and as his domi¬
nions ftretch along that frontier which lies raoft expoied
to the enemy, his claim, in my opinion, is preferable to
that of a ftranger to our language, to our blood, and to
our country.” Charles was deeded in confequence ofHaisde<|
this fpeeeh in the year 1520. . . c,Uenceof
The two candidates had hitherto conducled tr’eir rl* thisl'pecch.
vallhip with emulation, but without enmity. They bad An. 15W*
power v.* —  -r, # ^
that of Selim. The extenfive dominions of the houfe
of Auftria, which gave him an intereft in the preferva-
iicn of Germany •, the rich fovereignty of the Nether¬
lands and Francfle Comptey the entire polTdlion of tli&_
were fairly and openly luitors 10 lhc
“ The moll affiduous and fortunate (added he) will wm
her 5 and the other muft reff contented.” But the pre^
ference was no foonex given to his rival, tbanArancu-
SPA
[ S°7 ]
S P A
mutual
.Ten
I iharles and
;ancis.
difcovered all the paffions natural to difappointed ambi¬
tion. He could not fupprefs his chagrin and indigna¬
tion at being baulked in his favourite purfuit, and re-
jefted, in the face of all Europe, for a youth yet un¬
known to fame. The fpirit of Charles refented fuch
tred takes contempt} and from this jealoufy, as much as from op-
ice be- pofition of interefts, arofe that emulation between thofe
two great monarchs which involved them in almoft
perpetual hoftilities, and kept their whole age in con-
ilant agitation.
Charles and Francis had many interfering claims in
Italy *, and the latter thought himfelf bound in honour
to reftore the king of Navarre to his dominions, unjuftly
feized by the crown of Spain. They immediately be¬
rth court gan to negociate ; and as Henry VIII. of England was
e ^ie prince of the age in power and in dignity, his
VHI of"friendlhip ^vas eagerly courted by each of the rivals,
.’.gland. He was the natural guardian of the liberties of Europe.
Senfible of the confequence which his fituation gave
him, and proud of his pre-eminence, Henry knew it to
be his intereft to keep the balance even between the
contending powers, and to reftrain both, by not joining
entirely with either j but he was feldom able to reduce
his ideas to practice. Vanity and refentment were the
rreat fprings of all his undertakings', and his neighbours
by touching thefe, found an eafy way to draw him into
their meafures, and force him upon many rafh and in-
confiderate enterprifes.
All the impolitic Heps in Henry’s government muft
not, however, be imputed to himfelf; many of them
were occafioned by the ambition and avarice of bis
prime minxfter and favourite Cardinal Wolfey. This
man, who, by his talents and accomplifhments, had rifen
from one of the lowed; conditions in life to the higheft
employments both in church and Hate, enjoyed a greater
degree of power and dignity than any Englifh fubjeft
ever poffelfed, and governed the haughty, prefumptu-
ous, and untraftable fpirit of Henry, with abfolute au¬
thority. Francis was equally well acquainted with the
eharafter of Henry and of his minifter. He had fuc-
cefsfully flattered Wolfey’s pride, by honouring him with
particular marks of his confidence, and bellowing upon
him the appellations of Father, Tutor, and Governor;
and he had obtained the reflitution of Tournay, by
adding a penfion to thofe refpedlful titles. He now
folicited an interview with the king of England near
Calais •, in hopes of being able, by familiar converfation,
to attach him to his friendfhip and intereft, while he
gratified the cardinal’s vanity, by affording him an op-
ancis and Portunity of difplaying his magnificence in the prefence
wy. of two courts, and of difeovering to the two nations his
influence over their monarchs. Charles dreaded the
effefls of this projected interview between two gallant
princes, whofe hearts were no lefs fufceptible of friend-
fln’p than their manners were of infpiring it. Finding
it jmpoflible, however, to prevent a vifit, in which the
vanity of all parties was fo much concerned, he endea¬
voured to defeat its purpofe, and to pre-tjccupy the fa¬
vour of the Englifh monarch, and of his minifter, by
yj an a<?i of complaifance ftill more flattering and more
arlesvi. uncommon. Relying wholly upon Henry’s generofity
; Henry for J^s fafety, he landed at Dover, in his way from
ngland. Spain to the Low Countries. The king of England,
who was on his way to France, charmed with fuch an
inftance of confidence, haftened to receive his royal
56
) inter-
;w pro¬
ved be-
gueft; and Charles, during his fliort ftay, had the addrefs Spain.
not only to give Henry favourable impreflions of his ^
chara&er and intentions, but to detach Wolfey entirely
from the intereft of Francis. The tiara had attra&ea
the eye of that ambitious prelate *, and as the emperor
knew that the papacy was the foie point of elevation,
beyond his prefent greatnefs, at which he could afpire,
he made him an offer of his intereft; on the firft va¬
cancy. p8
The day of Charles’s departure, Henry went over to Henry yid'fc
Calais with his whole court, in order to meet Francis. m
Their interview was in an open plain between Guiines
and Ardres} where the two kings and their attendants
difplayed their magnificence with fuch emulation and
profufe expence, as procured it the name of the Field of
the Cloth of Gold. Here Henry eredted a fpacious
houfe of wood and canvas, framed in London, on
which, under the figure of an Englifti archer, was the
following motto, “ Fie prevails whom I favour j” al¬
luding to his own political fituation, as holding in his
hands the balance of power among the potentates of
Europe. Feats of chivalry, however, parties of gallantry,
and fuch exercifes as were in that age reckoned manly
or elegant, rather than ferious bufinefs, occupied the two
courts during the time that they continued together,
which was 18 days.
After taking leave of this feene of diflipation, the
king of England paid a vifit to the emperor and Margaret
of Savoy at Gravelines, and engaged them to go along
with him to Calais ; where the artful and politic Charles
completed the impreflion which he had begun to make
on Henry and his favourite, and effaced all the friend¬
fhip to which the frank and generous nature of Francis
had given birth. He renewed his affurances of aftifting
Wolfey in obtaining the papacy; and he put him in
prefent pofleflion of the revenues belonging to the fees of
Badajoz and Palencia in Spain. He flattered Henry’s
pride, by convincing him of his own importance, and
of the juftnefs of the motto which he had chofen ; offer¬
ing to fubmit to his foie arbitration any difference that
might arife between bim and Francis. 99
This important point being fecured, Charles repaired Giarles in¬
to Aix-la-Chapelle, where he was folemnly invefted^^ Wlt”
with the crown and feeptre of Charlemagne, in prefence , *j ’c™0^
of a more fplendid and numerous affembly than had at Aix-la-
appeared on any former inauguration. About the fame Giapelk.
time Solyman the Magnificent, one of the moft accom-
plifhed, enterprifing, and vifloriou's of the Tul'kifti
princes, and a conftant and formidable rival to the
emperor, afeended the Ottoman throne.
The firft aft of Charles’s adminiflration was to ap¬
point a diet of the empire, to be held at Worms, in or¬
der to concert with the princes proper meafures for
checking the pfogrels of “ thofe new and dangerous
opinions which threatened to difturb the peace of Ger¬
many, and to overturn the religion of their anceftors.”
The opinions’ propagated by1 Luther and his followers
were here meant. But all his efforts for that purpofe
were infufficient, as is related under the articles Luthkr
and Reformation. lca
In 1521, the Spaniards^ diffatisfied with the depar-War be¬
rime of their fovereigtt, whole eleft ion to the empire tween
they forefaw Nvould interfere with the adminiftratton of Franc‘s an^
his own kingdom, and iricenfed at the avarice of the^^*'
Flemings, to whom the direftion of public affairs had n’ 5
3 s 2
SPA [ 508 ] SPA
roi
Hapid con-
quefts of
Vaarles.
been committed fince the death of Cardinal Ximenes, fe-
veral grandees, in order to (hake off this oppreflion, en¬
tered into an affbciation, to which they gave the name
of the Sancia Junci a; and the fword was appealed to
as the means of redrefs. This leemed to Francis a fa¬
vourable junfture for reinflating the family of John
d’Albert in the kingdom of Navarre. Charles was at
a diftance from that part of his dominions, and the
troops ufually Rationed there had been called away to
quell the commotions in Spain. A French army, under
Andrew de Foix, fpeedily conquered Navarre ; but that
young and inexperienced nobleman, puflied on by mili¬
tary ardour, ventured to enter Caftile. The Spaniards,
though divided among themfelves, united againll a fo¬
reign enemy, routed his forces, took him prifoner, and
recovered Navarre in a fhorter time than he had fpent
in fubduing it.
Hoftilities thus begun in one quarter, between the ri¬
val monarchs, foon fpread to another. The king of
France encouraged the duke of Bouillon to make war
againft the emperor, and to invade Luxembourg. Charles,
after humbling the duke, attempted to enter France 5
but was repelled and worded before Mezieres by the fa¬
mous Chevalier Bayard, didinguidied among his cotem¬
poraries by the appellation of The Knight without fear
and without reproach ; and who united the talents of a
great general to the punctilious honour and romantic
gallantry of the heroes of chivalry. Francis broke into
the Low Countries, where, by an excefs of caution, an
error not natural to him, he lod an opportunity of cut¬
ting off the whole imperial arrays and, what was of dill
more confequenee, he difguded the condable Bourbon,
by giving the command of the van to the duke of Alen-
£on.
During thefe operations in the field, an unfuccefsful
congrefs was held at Calais, under the mediation of
Henry VIII. It ferved only to exafperate the parties
which it Avas intended to reconcile. A league was
foon after concluded, by the intrigues of Wolfey, be¬
tween the pope, Henry, and Charles, againd France.
Leo had already entered into a feparate league with the
emperor, and the French were fad lofing ground in
Italy.
The infolence and exaftions of Maredral de Lautrec,
governor of Milan, had totally alienated the affeClions
of the Milanefe from France. They refolved to expel
the troops of that nation, and put themfelves under the
government of Francis Sforza, brother to Maximilian
their late duke. In this refolution, they were encoura¬
ged by the pope, who excommunicated Lautrec, and
took into his pay a confiderable body of Swifs. The
papal army, commanded by Profper Colonna, an expe¬
rienced general, was joined by fupplies from Germany
and Naples j while Lautrec, neglected by his court, and
deferted by the Swifs in its pay, was unable to make
head againd the enemy. The city of Milan was be¬
trayed by the inhabitants to the confederates ; Parma
and Placentia were united to the ecclefiadical date; and
of their conqueds in Lombardy, only the town of Cre¬
mona, the cadle of Milan, and a few inconfiderable
forts, remained in the hands of the French.
Leo X. received the accounts of this rapid fuccefs
with fuch tranfports of joy, as are faid t© have brought
on a fever, which occafioned his death. The fpirit of
the confederacy was broken, and its operations fufpend-
ed by this accident. The Swifs were recalled j fome Spain,
other mercenaries dilbanded for want of pay j and only v-«.;
the Spaniards, and a few Germans in the emperor’s fer-
vice, remained to defend the duchy of Milan. But
Lautrec, who with the remnant of his army had taken
dielter in the Venetian territories, deditute both of men
and money, was unable to improve this favourable op¬
portunity as he widied. All his efforts were rendered
ineffeftual by the vigilance and ability of Colonna and
his affociates.
Meantime much difeord prevailed in the conclave.
Wolfey’s name, notwithdanding all the emperor’s mag¬
nificent promifes, was fcarcely mentioned there. Julio
de Medici, Leo’s nephew, thought himfelf fure of the
eleflion ; when, by an unexpected turn of fortune,
Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht, Charles’s preceptor, who
at that time governed Spain in the emperor’s name,
was unanimoudy raifed to the papacy, to the adonidi-
ment of all Europe and the great difgud of the Ita-
lians. IQt
Francis, roufed by the rifing confequence of his rival, Francis in-
refolved to exert himfelf with fredr vigour, in order to vades ItabJ
wred from him his late conqueds in Lombardy. Lau¬
trec received a fupply of money, and a reinforcement of
10,000 Swifs. With this reinforcement he was enabled
once more to a£t offenfively, and even to advance within
a few miles of the city of Milan j when money again
failing him, and the Swifs growing mutinous, he was
obliged to attack the imperialids in their camp at Bi-
cocca, where he was repulfed with great daughter, hav¬
ing lod his braved officers and bed troops. Such of
the Swifs as furvived fet out immediately for their own
country j and Lautrec, defpairing of being able to keep
the field, retired into France. Genoa, which dill re¬
mained (ubjeft to Francis, and made it eafy to execute
any fcheme for the recovery of Milan, was foon after
taken by Colonna : the authority of the emperor and
his fa£ticn was everywhere edabliffied in Italy. The
citadel of Cremona was the foie fortrefs which remained
in the hands of the French.
The affliction of Francis for fuch a fucceffion of mif-
fortunes was augmented by the unexpected arrival of an
Englidi herald, who in the name of his fovereign de¬
clared Avar againd France. The courage of this excel¬
lent prince, however, did not forfake him ; though his
treafury Avas exhauded by expenfive pleafures, no lefs
than by hodile enterprifes, he afferobled a confiderable
army, and put his kingdom in a podure of defence for
redding this neAV enemy, Avithout abandoning any of
the fchemes Avhich he was forming againd the empe¬
ror. He Avas furprifed, but not alarmed, at fuch a de¬
nunciation.
MeanAvhile Charles, Avilling to draw as much advan-vg
tage as poffible from fo powerful an ally, paid a fecond fits England
vifit to the court of England in his way to Spain, a fecond
Avhere his prefence Avas become neceffary. His fuccefs tlIne•
exceeded his mod fanguine expectations. He not only
gained the entire friendfflip of Henry, Avho publicly ra¬
tified the treaty of Bruges 5 but difarmed the refentment
of Wolfey, by affuring him of the papacy on Adrian’s
death j an event feemingly not didant, by reafon of his
age and infirmities. In confequence of thefe negocia-
tions an Englidi army invaded France, under the com¬
mand of the earl of Surrey j who, at the end of the
campaign, Avas obliged to retire, with his forces greatly
reducedj
SPA
reduced, without being able to make himfelf matter of
•V—’ one place within the French frontier. Charles was more
fortunate in Spain : he toon quelled the tumults which
had there arifen in his abfence.
While the Chriftian princes were thus watting each
other’s ftrength, Solyman the Magnificent entered Hun¬
gary, and made himfelf matter of Belgrade, reckoned
the chief barrier of that kingdom againtt the Turkith
power. Encouraged by this fuccefs, he turned his
victorious arms againtt the ifland of Rhodes, at that
time the feat of the knights of St John of Jerufalem ;
and though every prince in that age acknowledged
liiesta- Rhodes to be the great bulwark of Chrittendom in the
!it 17So* eajt, fo violent was their animofity againtt each other,
[ 5<=9 1
SPA
Spain.
104
that they futFered Solyman without ditturbance to carry
on his operations againtt that city and ifland. Lifle
Adam, the grandmatter, made a gallant defence ; but,
after incredible efforts of courage, patience, and military
conduCt, during a tiege of fix months, he was obliged to
furrender the place, having obtained an honourable ca¬
pitulation from the fultan, who admired and refpeCted
his heroic qualities (fee Rhodes and Malta). Charles
and Francis were equally athamed of having occa-
fioned fuch a lofs to Chriftendom by their contefts 5 and
the emperor, by way of reparation, granted to the
knights of St John the fmall ifland of Malta, where
they fixed their refidence, and continued long to retain
their ancient fpirit, though much diminifhed in power
and fplendour.
Adrian VI. though the creature of the emperor, and
devoted to his intereft, endeavoured to aflume the im¬
partiality which became the common father of Chriften¬
dom, and laboured to reconcile the contending princes,
that they might unite in a league againft Solyman,
whofe conqueft of Rhodes rendered him more formida¬
ble than ever to Europe. The Italian ftates were no
lefs defirous of peace than the pope : and fo much re¬
gard was paid by the hoftile powers to the exhortations
of his holinefs, and to a bull which he ifiued, requiring
all Chriftian princes to confent to a truce for three
years, that the imperial, the French, and the Englifh
ambafladors at Rome, were empowered to treat of that
matter 5 but while they wafted their time in fruitlefs
negociations, their matters were continuing their prepa¬
rations for war 5 and other negociations foon took place.
The confederacy againft France became more formida¬
ble than ever,
j>rful The Venetians, who had hitherto adhered to the
. acy French intereft, formed engagements with the emperor
1 for fecuring Francis Sforza in the pofleflion of the
duchy of Milan ; and the pope, from a perfuafion that
the ambition of the French monarch was the only ob-
ftacle to peace, acceded to the fame alliance. The
Florentines, the dukes of Ferrara and Mantua, and all
the Italian powers, followed this example. Francis was
left without a Angle ally, to refill the efforts of a mul¬
titude of enemies, whofe armies everywhere threatened,
and whofe territories encompaffed his dominions. The
emperor in perfon menaced France with an invafion on
the fide of Guienne j the forces of England and the Ne¬
therlands hovered over Picardy, and a numerous body
of Germans was preparing to ravage Burgundy.
The dread of fo many and fuch powerful adverfaries,
it was thought, would have obliged Francis to keep
wholly on the defenlive, or at leaft have prevented him
3
from entertaining any thoughts of marching into Italy.
But before his enemies were able to ftrike a blow,
Francis had affembled a great army, with which he ho¬
ped to difconcert all the emperor’s fchemes, by march- Io6
ing it in perfon into Italy : and this bold meafure, the Francis
more formidable becaufe unexpefted, could fcarcely have marches to-
failed of the defired effedl, had it been immediately car- wards Italy.
ried into execution. But the difcovery of a domefticbuVs ob!l'
confpiracy, which threatened the deftruftion of hisfum^yT
kingdom, obliged Francis to flop Ihort at Lyons. domeftic
Charles duke of Bourbon, lord high conftable ofconfpiracy«
France, was a prince of the molt Ihining merit : his
great talents equally fitted him for the council or the
field, while his eminent fervices to the crown entitled
him to its firft favour. But unhappily Louifa duchefs-
of Angouleme, the king’s mother, had contracted a
violent averfion againft the houfe of Bourbon, and had
taught her fon, over whom Ihe had acquired an abfolute
afcendant, to view all the conftable’s aCtions with a jea¬
lous eye. After repeated affronts he retired from court*,
and began to liften to the advances of the emperor’s
minifters. Meantime the duchefs of Bourbon died ; and
as the conftable was no lefs amiable than accomplilhed,
the duchefs of Angouleme, Hill fufceptible of the tender
paflions, formed the fcheme of marrying him. But
Bourbon, who might have expedled every thing to
which an ambitious mind can afpire, from the floating
fondnefs of a woman who governed her fon and the
kingdom, incapable of imitating Louifa in her fudden
tranfition from hate to love, or of meanly counterfeit¬
ing a paflion for one who had fo long purfued him with
unprovoked malice, rcjefted the match withdifdain, and
turned the propofal into ridicule. At once defpifed and
iniulted by the man whom love only could have made
her ceafe to perfecute, Louifa was filled with all the
rage of difappointed woman ; ftie refolved to ruin, fince
ihe could not marry Bourbon. For this purpofe ihe
commenced an iniquitous fuit againft him 5 and by the
chicanery of Chancellor du Prat, the conftable was drip¬
ped of his whole family-eftate. Driven to defpair by
fo many injuries, he entered into a fecret correfpond-
ence with the emperor and the king of England ; and
he propofed, as foon as Francis ihould have croffed the
Alps, to raife an infurrefiion among his numerous vaf-
fals, and introduce foreign enemies into the heart of
France.
Happily Francis got intimation of this confpiracy
before he left the kingdom ; but not being fufficiently
convinced of the conftable’s guilt, he fuffered fo danger¬
ous a foe to efcape ; and Bourbon entering into the em¬
peror’s fervice, employed all the force of his enterpri-
fing genius, and his great talents for war, to the preju¬
dice of his prince and his native country.
In confequence of the difcovery of this plot, and the
efcape of the powerful confpirator, Francis relinquithed
his intention of leading his army in perfon into Italy.
He Avas ignorant how far the infeftion had fpread among
his fubjedts, and afraid that his abfence might encourage
them to make fome defperate attempt in favour of a man
fo much beloved. He did not, how'ever, abandon his a French
defign on the Milanefe, but fent forward an army of army enters
30,000 men, under the command of Admiral Bonnivet. I,taly*
Colonna, who was entrufted with the defence of that
duchy, w^as in no condition to refift fuch a force ; and
the city of Milan, on which the whole territory de¬
pends,.
SPA
Spain. pends, muft have fallen into the hands of the French,
' "”"v 111 ■' had not Bonnivet, who poffefTed none of the talents of
a general, wafted his time in frivolous enterprifes,^ till
the inhabitants recovered from their confternalion. The
imperial army was reinforced. Colonna died} and
Lannoy, viceroy of Naples, fucceeded him in the com¬
mand ; but the chief dire&ion of military operations
was committed to Bourbon and the marquis de Pefeara,
the greateft generals of their age. Bonnivet, deftitute
of troops to oppofe this new army, and ftill more of the
talents which could render him a match for its leaders,
after various movements and encounters, was reduced
108 to the neceftitv of attempting a retreat into France.
Defeated at was followed by the imperial generals, and routed
Biagraua. ^ Biagvaffa, where the famous Chevalier Bayard was
killed."
T he emperor and his allies were lefs fucceftful in
their attempts upon France. They were baffled in
every quarter: and Francis, though ftripped of his
Italian dominions, might ftill have enjoyed in fafety
the glory of having defended his native kingdom againft
one half of Europe, and have bid defiance to all his ene¬
mies; but underftanding that the king of England, dif-
couraged by his former fruitlefs enterprifes, and difguft-
Franos de- ed with the emperor, was making no preparations for
termines any attempt on Picardy, his ancient ardour feized him
to enter for the conqueft of Milan, and he determined, notwith-
Italy in per- qanqfory the advanced feafon, to march into Italy.
fon' The French army no fooner appeared in Piedmont,
than the whole Milanefe was thrown into confternation.
The capital opened Its gates. The forces of the empe¬
ror and Sforza retired to Lodi: and had Francis been
fo fortunate as to nurfue them, they muft have abandon¬
ed that poft, and been totally difperfed ; but bis evil
genius led him to befiege Pavia, a town of confider-
'l0 able ftrength, well garrifoned, and defended by An-
amUaken toni° Leyva, one of the braveft officers in the Sna-
prifoner at nidi fervice ; before which place he was defeated and
Pavia. taken prifoner on t’ne twenty-fourth day of February
An. 1524. j 524.
The captiviiv of Francis filled all Europe with alarm.
Atmoft the whole French army was cutoff; Milan was
immediately abandoned ; and in a few weeks not a
Frenchman was left in Italy. The power of the em¬
peror, and ftill more his ambition, became an objefl of
univerfal terror ; and refolutions were everywhere taken
to fet bounds to it. Meanwhile Francis, deeply im-
pfeffed with a fenfe of his misfortune, wrote to his mo¬
ther Louifa, whom he had left regent of the kingdom,
the following fliort but expreflive letter: “ All, Madam,
in is loft but honour.” The fame courier that carried this
cal cowlucil letter, carried alfo difpatches to Charles ; who received
ot Charles, the news of the fignal and unexpe&ed fuccefs which had
crowned his arms with the moft hypocritical moderation.
He would not fuffer any public rejoicings to be made on
account of it ; and faid, he only valued it, as it would
prove the occafion of reftoring peace to Chriftendom.
Louifa, however, did not truft to thofe appearances ; if
foe could not preferve what was yet left, ftie determined
at leaft tlujt nothing ftiould be loft through her negli¬
gence or weaknefs. Inftead of giving herfelf up to
fuch lamentations as were natural to a woman fo re¬
markable for maternal tendernefs, fhe difeovered all
the forefight, and exerted all the aftivity, of a confum-
mate politician. She took every poffible meafure for
SPA
putting the kingdom in a pofture of defence, while fhe SpaifJ
employed all her addrefs to appeafe the refentment
and to gain the friendftiip of England ; and a ray of
comfort from that quarter foon broke in upon the French
affairs.
Though Henry VIII. had not entered into the Avar
againft France from any concerted political vieAvs, he
had always retained fome imperfeft idea of that balance
of power which it was neceffary to maintain between
Charles and Francis ; and the prefervation of which he
boafted to be his peculiar office. By his alliance with
the emperor, he hoped to recover fome part of thofe
territories on the continent which had belonged to his
anceftors; and therefore Avillingly contributed to give j
him the afcendency above his rival ; but having never
dreamt of any event fo decifive and fatal as the victory
at PaA'ia, which feemed not only to have broken, but to
have annihilated the power of Francis, he now became
feniible of his own danger, as well as that of all Europe,
from the lofs of a proper counterpoife to the power of ^
Charles. Inftead of taking advantage of the diftreffed prance
condition of France, Henry therefore determined tofiftedbJ
affift her in her prefent calamities. Some difgufts alfo HenryT,
had taken place between him and Charles, and ftill more
between Charles and Woli’ey. The elevation of the
cardinal of Medici to St Peter’s chair, on the death of
Adrian, under the name of Clement VII. had made the
Englifti minifter fenfible of the infincerity of the empe¬
ror’s promifes, while it extinguiftied all his hopes of the
papacy ; and he refolved on revenge. Charles, too,
had fo ill fupported the appearance of moderation Avhich
he affumed, when firft informed of his good fortune,
that he had already changed his ufual ftyle to Henry ;
and inftead of writing to him with his own hand, and
fubferibing himfelf “ your affe&ionate fon and coufin,”
he diflated his fotters to a fecretary, and fimply fub-
feribed himfelf “ Charles.” Influenced by all thefe
motives, together with the glory of railing a fallen ene¬
my, Henry liftened to the flattering fubtniflions of Loui¬
fa ; entered into a defenfive alliance with her as regent
of France, and engaged to ufe his beft offices in order
to procure the deliverance of her fon from a ftate of
captivity. jJ
Meamvhile Francis was rigoroufly confined ; and fe-Francisi]
vere conditions being propofed to him as the price ofverely fj
his liberty, he drew his dagger, and, pointing it at histy tisf
breaft, cried, “’Twere better that a king ffiould dietluercrT:
thus!” His hand was withheld : and flattering him¬
felf, when he grew cool, that fuch propofitions could
not come dire£Uy from Charles, he defired that he
might be removed to Spain, Avhere the emperor then
refided. His requeft Avas complied Avitb ; but he ian-
guiftied long before he obtained a fight of his conquer¬
or. At laft he Avas favoured with a vifit; and the em¬
peror dreading a general combination againft him, dr
that Francis, as he threatened, might, in the obftinacy
of his heart, refign his crdAvn to the dauphin, agreed to
abate fomeAvhat of his former demands. A treaty Avas
accordingly concluded at Madrid ; in confequence. of
which Francis obtained his liberty. The chief article
in this treaty Avas, that Burgundy ftiould be reftored to
Charles as the rightful inheritance of his anceftors, an^jsat[aj
that Francis’s tAvo eldeft fons ffiould be immediately de'releafui |
livered up as hoftages for the performance of the con¬
ditions ftipulated. The exchange of the captive mo¬
narch
[ 5i° 1
J lS re-
1 *•
S P A [ S
nareh for his cliildren was made on the.borders between
Fiance and Spain. The moment that Francis entered
his own dominions, he mounted a Turkiih horfe, and
patting it to its fpeed, waved his hand, and cried aloud
feveral times, “ I am yet a king ! I am yet a king !”
Francis never meant to execute the treaty of Ma~
‘ utethedrid : he had even left a protelt in the hands of nota-
itions rjes before he figned it, that his confent fliould be con-
fidered as an involuntary deed, and be deemed null and
void. Accordingly, as foon as he arrived in France,
he aflembled the Hates of Burgundy, who protefted
againft the article relative to their province ; and Fran¬
cis coldly replied to the imperial ambatTadors, who urged
the immediate execution of the treaty, that he would
religioufly perform the articles relative to himfelf, but in
thole affecting the French monarchy, he muft be direct¬
ed by the fenfe of the nation. He made the highefl ac¬
knowledgments to the king of England for his friendly
interpofition, and offered to be entirely guided by his
counfels. Charles and his minitters faw that they were
over-reached in thofe very arts of negociation in which
they fo much excelled, while the Italian Hates obferved
with pleafure, that Francis was refolved not to execute
a treaty which they confidered as dangerous to the li¬
berties of Europe. Clement abfolved him from the oath
which he had taken at Madrid •, and the kings of France
and England, the pope, the Swift, the Venetians, the
Florentines, and the duke of Milan, entered into an al¬
liance, to which they gave the name of the Ho/y League,
becaufe his Holinefs was at the head of it, in order to
oblige the emperor to deliver up Francis’s two fons on
the payment of a reafonable ranfom, and to re-eHablifli
Sforza in the quiet pofleflion of the Milanefe.
In confequenee of this league, the confederate army
took the field, and Italy once more became the fcene
of war. But Francis, who it was thought would have
infufed fpirit and vigour into the whole body, had gone
through fuch a feene of diilreft, that he was become
diffident of himfelf, diftruHful of his fortune, and de-
firous of tranquillity. He flattered himfelf, that the
dread alone of fuch a confederacy would induce Charles
to liflen to what was equitable, and therefore negleCled
to fend due reinforcements to his allies in Italv. Mean¬
time the duke of Bourbon, who commanded the Impe-
rialifls, had made himfelf mafler of the whole Milanefe,
of which the emperor had promifed him the inveftiture ;
and his troops beginning to mutiny for want of pay,
>y the he led them to Rome, and promifed to enrich them
wtialifb, with the fpoils of that city. He was a4 good as his
word •, for though he himfelf was flain in planting a
fcaling ladder againfl the walls, his foldiers, rather en¬
raged than difcouraged by his death, mounted to the
alftault with the utmoH ardour, animated-by the great-
nefs ot the prize, and, entering the city iword in hand,
plundered it for feveral days.
Never did Rome in any age fuffer fo many calami¬
ties, not even from the Barbarians, by whom fhe was
often fubdued, the Huns, Vandals, or Cloths, as now
from the fubjedfs of a ChriHian and Catholic monarch.
Whatever was refpeftable in modefty, or facred in reli¬
gion, feemed only the more to provoke the rage of the
foldiery. Virgins fuffered violation in the arms of their
parents, and upon thofe altars to which they had fled
for fafety. Venerable prelates, after enduring every in¬
dignity and every torture, were thrown into dungeons.
Sloft
tn y
gherel,
ii ] SPA
and menaced with the moH cruel death, in order to Spain,
make them reveal their fecret treafures. Clement him- —y’—>J
fell', who had neglected to make his efcape in time, was
taken prifoner, and found that the facrednefs of his cha-
radler could neither procure him liberty nor refpedt. -
He was confined till he ihould pay an enormous ranlbm xhe pope
impofed by the vidtorious army, and iurrender to the confined,
emperor all the places of flrength belonging to the
church. Itp
Charles received the news of this extraordinary event Shameful
with equal furprife and pleafure ; but in order to con- hypo nt'y oS
ceal his joy from his Spanilh fubjedts, who were filled <“^ar^cs'
with horror at the infult offered to the fovereign pon¬
tiff, and to leffen the indignation of the reft of Europe*
he expreffed the moft profound lorrow for the fuccefs
of his arms. He put himfelf and his court into mourn¬
ing ; flopped the rejoicings for the birth of his fon Phi¬
lip, and ordered prayers to be put up in ail the churches
of Spain for the recovery of the pope’s liberty, which
he could immediately have procured by a letter to his
generals.
The concern expreffed by Henry and Francis for the
calamity of their ally was more fineere. Alarmed at
the progrefs of the imperial arms, they had, even before
the taking of Rome, entered into a clofer alliance, and
agreed to invade the Low Countries with a powerful
army j but no fooner did they hear of the pope’s cap¬
tivity, than they changed, by a new treaty, the fcene of
the projected war from the Netherlands to Italy, and
refolved to take the mofi: vigorous meafures for reitoring
him to liberty. Henry, however, contributed only mo¬
ney. A French army entered Italy, under the com- ^ French-
mand of Marfhal Lautrec ; Clement obtained his free- arrny enters
dom ; and war was for a time carried on by the confe-Italy, but is
derates with fuccefs; but the death of Lautrec, and theu«erly
revolt of Andrew Deria, a Genoefe admiral in the fer-ruinetJ‘
vice of F ranee, entirely changed the face of affairs.
The French army was utterly ruined ; and Francis, dif¬
couraged and almoft exhaufted by fo many unfucceftful
enterprifes, began to think of peace, and of obtaining
the releafe of his fons by conceflions, not by the terror
of his arms.
At the fame time Charles, notwithflanding the ad¬
vantages he had gained, had many reafons to wifti for
an accommodation. Sultan Solyman having overrun
Hungary, was ready to break in upon the Aultrian ter¬
ritories with the whole force of the Eaff ; and the pro¬
grefs of the Reformation in Germany threatened the
tranquillity or the empire. In coniequence of this li-
tuation of affairs, though pride made both parties con¬
ceal or diffemble their real fentiments, two ladies were
permitted to reflore peace to Europe. Margaret ofPe,1(Ie2*on
Aullria, Charles’s aunt, and Louifa, Francis’s mother,eluded at"
met in 1529 at Cambray, and fettled the terms of ac-Cambray,
commodation between the French king and the empe¬
ror. Francis agreed to pay two millions of crowns as
the ranfom of his two fons, to refign the fovereignty of
Flanders and Artois, and to forego all his Italian claims ;
and Charles ceafed to demand the reftitution of Bur¬
gundy.
All the fleps of tins negociation had been communi¬
cated to the king of England ; and Henry was, on that
occafion, fo generous to his friend and ally Francis that
he fent him an acquittal of near fix hundred thoufand
crowns, in order. to. enable him to fulfil his agreement
with
Spam.
Van--—^ 1
"7 0 7.
Charles
goes into
Crermany.
123
He under¬
takes an
expedition
ngainft the
ftate of
Barbary.
An. 1541.
SPA [ 5
tvitli Charles. But Francis’s Italian confederates were
lefs fatisfied with the treaty of Carabray. They were
-almoft wholly abandoned to the wTill of the emperor ;
and feemed to have no other means of fecurity left but
his equity and moderation. Of thefe, from his pad: con-
du6I, they had not formed the mod advantageous idea.
But Charles’s prefent circumflances, more efpecially in
regard to the Turks, obliged him to behave with a ge¬
nerality inconliflent with his chara&er. The Floren¬
tines alone, whom he reduced under the dominion of
the family of Medici, had reafon to complain of his fe-
verity. Sforza obtained the inveftiture of Milan and
his pardon : and every other power experienced the le¬
nity of the conqueror.
After having received the imperial crown from the
hands of the pope at Bologna, Charles proceeded on
his journey to Germany, where his prefence was become
highly neceflary } for although the conduct and valour
of his brother Ferdinand, on whom he had conferred
the hereditary dominions of the houfe of Auftria, and
who had been elefted king of Hungary, had obliged
Solyman to retire with infamy and lofs, his return was
to be feared, and the diforders of religion were daily
increaling j an account of which, and of the emperor’s
tranfaeHons with the Proteftants, is given under the ar¬
ticle Reformation.
Charles having exerted himfelf as much as he could
againft the reformers, undertook his frit expedition
againft the piratical dates of Africa. Barbary, or that
part of the African continent lying along the coaft of
the Mediterranean fea, was then nearly in the fame con¬
dition which it is at prefent. Morocco, Algiers, and
Tunis, were its principal dates; and the tsvo lad wrere
neds of pirates. Barbarofia, a famous corfair, had fuc-
ceeded his brother in the kingdom of A Igiers, which
he had formerly afiided him to ufurp. He regulated
with much prudence the interior police of his kingdom,
carried on his piracies with great vigour, and extended
his conqueds on the continent of Africa •, but perceiv¬
ing that the natives fubmitted to his government with
impatience, and fearing that his continual depredations
would one day draw upon him a general combination of
the Chridian powers, he put his dominions under the
prote&ion of the grand feignior. Solyman, Hattered by
fuch an aft of fubmidion, and charmed with the bold-
nefs of the man, offered him the command of the Turk-
ifh deet. Proud of this didinftion, Barbaroffa repaired
to Condantinople, and made ufe of his induence with
the fultan to extend his own dominion. Partly by
force, partly by treachery, he ufurped the kingdom of
Tunis ; and being now poffeffed of greater power, he
carried on his depredations againd the Chridian dates
with more dedruftive violence than ever.
Daily complaints of the piracies and ravages com¬
mitted by the galleys of Barbaroffa were brought to
the emperor by his fubjefts, both in Spain and Italy 4
and all Chridendom feemed to look up to him, as its
greated and mod fortunate prince, for relief from this
new and odious fpecies of oppreffxon. At the fame
time Muley Hafcen, the exiled king of Tunis, finding
none of the African princes able or willing to fupport
him in recovering his throne, applied to Charles for af-
fidance againd the ufurper. Equally dedrous of deli¬
vering his dominions from the dangerous neighbourhood
-«f Barbaroffa, of appearing as the proteftor of an un-
2 ] SPA
fortunate prince, and of acquiring the glory annexed in Spain, j
that age to every expedition againd the Mahometans,
the emperor readily concluded a treaty with Muley Haf¬
cen, and fet fail for Tunis with a formidable armament.
The Goletta, a fea-port town, fortified with 300 pieces
of cannon, was taken, together with all Barbaroffa’s
fleet: he was defeated in a pitched battle, and 10,000
Chridian Haves, having knocked off their fetters, and Tunisia.'
made themfelves maders of the citadel, Tunis was pre-keVn;. |
paring to furrender. But while Charles was deliberating ‘
on the conditions, his troops fearing that they wouldiy raaffa>’!
be deprived of the booty which they had expefted, cred.
'broke luddenly into the town, and pillaged and maf-
facred without didinftion. Thirty thouland perfons
peridied by the fword, and 10,000 were made pri-
foners. The fceptre was redored to Muley Hafcen, on
condition that he fhould acknowledge himfelf a vaffal of
the crown of Spain, put into the emperor’s hands all
the fortified fea-ports in the kingdom of Tunis, and
pay annually 12,000 crowns for the fubfidence of the
Spanifli garrifon in the Goletta. Thefe points being
fettled, and 20,000 Chridian daves freed from bondage
either by arms or by treaty, Charles- returned to Eu¬
rope, where his prefence was become neceffary ; while
Barbaroffa, who had retired to Bona, recovered new
drength, and again became the tyrant of the ocean. n.
The king of France took advantage of the emperor’s Francis a;
abfence to revive his pretenfions in Italy. The treaty tempts in ; I
of Cambray had repreffed but not extinguidied the^^H |
dames of difcord. Francis in particular, who waitedv
only for a favourable opportunity of recovering the ter-to Italy. 1
ritories and reputation which he had lod, continued to
negociate againd his rival with different courts. But
all his negociations were difconcerted by unforefeen ac¬
cidents. The death of Clement VII. (whom he had
gained by marrying his fon the duke of Orleans, after¬
wards Henry II. to Catharine of Medici, the niece of
that pontiff), deprived him of all the fupport which he ;
hoped to receive from the court of Rome. The king
of England, occupied with domedic cares and projefts,
declined engaging in the affairs of the continent; and
the Protedant princes, affociated by the league of Smal-
kalde, to whom Francis had alfo applied, and who
feemed difpofed at fird to liden to him, filled with in¬
dignation and refentment at the cruelty with which
fome of their reformed brethren had been treated in
France, refufed to have any conneftion with the enemy
of their religion.
Francis was neither cruel nor bigotted : he was too ||1
indolent to concern himfelf about religious difputes;
but his principles becoming fufpefted, at a time when
the emperor was gaining immortal glory by his expedi¬
tion againd the infidels, he found it neceffary to vindi¬
cate himfelf by fome extraordinary demondration of re-
verence for the edablidied faith. The indifcreet zeal of His barba-
fome Protedant converts furnilhed him with the occa-j
fion. They had affixed to the gates of the Louvre and r
other public places papers containing indecent reflec¬
tions on the rites of the Romilh church. Six of the
perfons concerned in this raffi aftion were feized; and
the king, pretending to be druck with horror at their
blafphemies, appointed a folemn proceffion, in order to
avert the wrath of heaven. The holy facrament was
carried through the city of Paris in great pomp : Fran¬
cis walked uncovered before it? bearing a torch in Ins
hand j
Ti?
< les an
I "
irch to-
:2S
ClBva
SPA [s
liand j tlie princes of the blood fupported the canopy-
over it *, the nobles walked behind. In prefence of this
numerous aflembly, the king declared, that if one of his
hands were infedted with hcrefy, he would cut it off
with the other ; “ and I would facrifice (added he)
«ven my own children, if found guilty of that crime.”
As an awful proof of his fincerity, the fix unhappy per¬
forms who had been feized were publicly burnt, before
the proceffion was finiihed, and in the molt cruel man¬
ner. They were fixed upon a machine which defcend-
ed into the flames, and retired alternately, until they
expired.—No wonder that the Proteftant princes were
incenfed at inch barbarity !
Francis, though unfupported by any ally, command¬
ed his army to advance towards the frontiers of Italy,
* Mtal un^er Pretence chaltiiing the duke of Milan for a
' breach of the law of nations, in putting to death his
ambaflador. The operations of war, however, foon took
a new direction. Inllead of marching diredtly to the
Milanefe, Francis commenced hoftilities againft the
duke of Savoy, with whom he had caufe to be diffatif-
fied, and on whom he had fome claims; and before the
end of the campaign, this feeble prince faw himfelf
dripped of all his dominions, except the province of
Piedmont. To complete his misfortunes, the city of
tlfws °fF^ Geneva, the fovereignty of which he claimed, and where
Mkkeof the reformed opinions had already got footing, threw off
gily, his yoke; and its revolt drew along with it the lofs of
the adjacent territory. Geneva was then an imperial
city, and till lately remained entirely free *. -
In this extremity the duke of Savoy faw no refource
but in the emperor’s proteflion ; and as his misfortunes
were chiefly occafioned by his attachment to the impe¬
rial interelt, he had a title to immediate afliitance. But
Charles, who was juft returned from his African expe¬
dition, was not able to lend him the necelfary fupport.
His treafury was entirely drained, and he was obliged
to dithand his army till he could raife new fupplies.
Mean time the death of Sforza duke of Milan entirely
changed the nature of the war, and afforded the empe¬
ror full leifure to prepare for action. The French mo-
. narch’s pretext for taking up arms was at once cut off;
but as the duke died without iffue, all Francis’s rights
to the duchy of Milan, which he had yielded only to
Sforza and his dcfcendants, returned to him in full force.
He inftantly renewed his claim to it; and if he had or¬
dered his army immediately to advance, he might have
made himfelf mafter of it. But he unfortunately wafted
his time in fruitlefs negociations, while his more politic
rival took poffeflion of the duchy as a vacant fief of the
empire ; and though Charles feemed ftill to admit the
equity of Francis’s claim, he delayed granting the in-
veftiture under various pretences, and as fecretly taking
every poftible meafure to prevent him from regaining
footing in Italy.
During the time gained in this manner, Charles had
recruited his finances, and of courfe his armies ; and
finding himfelf in a condition for war, he at laft threw
oft the mafk under which he had fo long concealed his
defigns from the court of France. Entering Rome with
great pomp, he pronounced before the pope and car¬
dinals, affembled in full confiftory, a violent inveflive
againft Francis, by way of reply to his propofitions con¬
cerning the inveftiture of Milan. Yet Francis, by an
unaccountable fatality, continued to negotiate, as if it
Vgl. XIX. Part II. ■
tak |)oi’-
fcfl of?
Mi.
13 ] SPA
had been ftill poflible to terminate their differences in Spain,
an amicable manner ; and Charles, finding him fo eager ^ " J
to run into the fnare, favoured the deception, and, by
feeming to liften to his propofals, gained yet more time
for the execution of his ambitious projects. T vr
If misfortunes had rendered Francis too diffident, fuc- Charles at-'
cefs had made Charles too fanguine. He prefumed on tciri:)ts to
nothing lefs than the fubverfion of the French monar-118
chy ; nay, he confidered it as a certain event. Having monarchy,
chafed the forces of his rival out of Piedmont and Savoy,
he pufhed forward at the head of 50,000 men, contrary
to the advice of his moft experienced minifters and gene¬
rals, to invade the fouthern provinces of France ; while
two other armies were ordered to enter it, the one on
the fide of Picardy, the other on the fide of Champagne.
He thought it impoftible that Francis could refill fo
many unexpefted attacks on fuch different quarters; but
he found himfelf miftaken.
The French monarch fixed on the moft effectual but is dif-
pain for defeating the invafion of a powerful enemy ; aProin:et
and he prudently perfevered in following it, though j-j'J1*4 ^
contrary to his own natural temper and to the genius 0 ’
of his people. He determined to remain altogether
upon the defenfive, and to deprive the enemy of fubfift-'
ence by laying wafte the country before them. The
execution of this plan was committed to the marefcbal
Montmorency its author, a man happily fitted for fuck
a truft by the inflexible feverity of his difpofition. He
made choice of a ftrong camp, under the walls of Avig¬
non, at the confluence of the Rhone and Durance, where
he aflcmbled a confiderable army ; while the king, with
another body of troops, encamped at Valence, higher
up the Rhone. Marfeilles and Arles wmre the only
towns he thought it neceflary to defend ; and each of
thefe he furnifhed with a numerous garrifon of his belt
troops. The inhabitants of ihe other towns were com¬
pelled to abandon their habitations : the fortifications
of fuch places as might have afforded fhelter to the ene¬
my were thrown down ; corn, forage, and provifions of
every kind, were carried off or deftroyed ; the mills and
ovens svere ruined, and the wells' filled up or rendered
ufelefs.
This devaftation extended from the Alps to Mar¬
feilles, and from the lea to the confines of Dauphiny ;
fo that the emperor, when he arrived with the van of
his army on the confines of Provence, inftead of that
rich and populous country which he expelled to enter,
beheld nothing but one vaft and defert folitude. He
did not, however, defpair of fuccefs, though he faw
that he would have many difficulties to encounter and
as an encouragement to his officers, he made them libe¬
ral promifes of lands and honours in France. But all
the land which any of them obtained was a grave, and
their mafter loft much honour by this rafh and pre-
fumptuous enterprife. After unfuccefsfully invefting
Marfeilles and Arles, after attempting in vain to draw
Montmorency from his camp at Avignon, and not
daring to attack it, Gharles having fpent two inglorious
months in Provence, and loft one half of his troops by
difeafe or by famine, was under the neceffity of ordering
a retreat; and though he was fome time in motion be¬
fore the enemy fufpefled his intention, it was conduc¬
ed with fo much precipitation and diforder, as to de-
ferve the name of a flight, fince the light troops of
France turned it into a perfeft rout. The invafion of
3 ^ Picardy
Spain.
Violent
animofity
between
him and
Francis.
134
Charles
fnmmoned
to appear
at Paris.
SPA [ 5M ] SPA
Picardy was not more fuccefsful : the imperial forces
were obliged to retire without effe£ling any conqueft of
importance.
Charles had no fooner conduced the {battered re¬
mains of his army to the frontiers of Milan, than he fet
out for Genoa ; and unwilling to expofe himfelf to the
fcorn of the Italians after fuch a reverfe of fortune, he
embarked direclly for Spain.
Meanwhile Francis gave himfelf up to that vain re-
fentment which had formerly difgraced the profperity of
his rival. They had frequently, in the courfe of their
quarrels, given each other the lie, and mutual challen¬
ges had been fent ; which, though productive of no fe-
rious conftquences between the parties, had a powerful
tendency to encourage the pernicious practice of duel¬
ling. Charles, in hh invective pronounced at Rome,
had publicly accufed Francis of perfidy and breach of
faith , Francis now exceeded Charles in the indecency
of his accufations. The dauphin dying tuddenly, his
death was imputed to poifon : Montecuculi his cup¬
bearer was put to the rack ; and that unhappy noble¬
man, in the agonies of torture, accufed the emperor’s
generals Gonzaga and de Leyva, of mitigating him to
the deteftable act. The emperor himfelf was fufpe&ed;
nay, this extorted eonfeffion, and fome obfcure hints,
were confidered as inconteftable proofs of his guilt ;
though it was evident to all mankind, that neither
Charles nor his generals could have any inducement to
perpetrate fuch a crime, as Francis was ftill in the vigour
of life himfelf, and had two fons befides the dauphin,
grown up to a good age.
But the incenfed monarch’s refentment did not flop
here. Francis was not fatisfied with endeavouring to
blacken the character of his rival by an ambiguous tef-
timony which led to the moft injurious fufpicions, and
upon which the mod cruel conllruftions had been put ;
he was willing to add rebellion to murder. For this
purpofe he went to the parliament of Paris 5 where be¬
ing feated with the ufual folemnities, the advocate-ge¬
neral appeared, and accufed Charles of Auftria (fo he
affefled to call the emperor) of having violated the trea¬
ty of Cambray, by which he was freed from the ho¬
mage due to the crown of France for the counties of
Artois and Flanders ^ adding, that this treaty being
now void, he was dill to be conddered as a vaffal of
France, and confequently had been guilty of rebellion
in taking arms againd his fovereign. I he charge was
fudained, and Charles was fummoned to appear before
the parliament of Paris at a day fixed. The term ex¬
pired •, and no perfon appearing in the emperor’s name,
the parliament gave judgment, that Charles of Audria
had forfeited, by rebellion and contumacy, the counties
of Flanders and Artois, and declared thefe fiefs reunited
to the crown of France.
Francis, foon after this vain difplay of his animofity,
marched into the Low Countries, as if he had intended
to execute the fentence pronounced by his parliament;
but a fufpenfion of arms took place, through the inter-
pofition of the queeits of France and Hungary, before
any thing of coniequence was effefted : and this ceffa-
tion of bodilities was followed by a truce concluded at
Nice, through the mediation of the reigning pontiff
Paul III. of the family of Farnefe, a man of a venerable
charafter and pacific difpofition.
Each of thefe rival princes had drong reafons to in¬
cline them to peace. The finances of both were exhaud- Spain. |
ed •, and the emperor, the more powerful of the two,
was deeply impreffed with the dread of the Turkidi
arms, which Francis had drawn upon him by a league Francis I
with Solyman. In confequenee ot this league, Barba-ieagUes !
roffa with a great deet appeared on the coad of Naples ; with the I
filled that kingdom with confternation j landed without rurks. |
refidance near Taranto 5 obliged Cadro, a place of
fome drength, to furrender •, plundered the adjacent
country ; and was taking meafures for fecuring and ex¬
tending his conqueds, when the unexpefted arrival of
Doria,1 the famous Genoefe admiral, together with the
pope’s galleys and a fquadron of the Venetian deet,
made it prudent for him to retire. The fultan’s forces
alfo invaded Hungary, where Mahmet the lurkidi ge¬
neral, after gaining feveral inferior advantages, defeated
the Germans in a great battle at Effek on the Hrave.
Happily for Charles and Europe it was not in Francis’s
power at this jumffure either to join the lurks or al-
ftmble an army drong enough to penetrate into the
Milanefe. The emperor, however, was fenfible that he
could not long refift the efforts of two fuch powerful
confederates, nor expeft that the fame fortunate cir-
cumdances would concur a fecond time in his favour ;
he therefore thought it neceffary, both for his fafety ^
and reputation, to give his content to a truce : and \ truce
Francis chofe rather to run the rilk of difobliging hisconcludei
new ally the fultan, than to draw on his head the indig¬
nation, and perhaps the arms of all Chriftendom, by
obdinately obftrufting the re-edablidiment of tranquil¬
lity, and contributing to the aggrandizement of the In¬
fidels.
Thefe confiderations inclined the contending monarebs
to liden to the arguments of the holy father *, but he
found it impodible to bring about a final accommoaation
between them, each indexibly perfifted in afferting his
own claims. Nor could he prevail on them to {ee one
another, though both came to the place of rendezvous:
fo great was the remains of difirud and rancour, or fuch
the difficulty of adjuding the ceremonial! Yet, impro-interviev
bable as it may feem, a few days after dgning the truee,between
the emperor, in his paffage to Barcelona, being driven
on the coad of Provence, Francis invited him to come
affiore j frankly vidted him on board his galley, and
Avas received and entertained with the at armed demon-
dr ations of edeem and affe&ion. Charles, with an equal
degree of confidence, paid the king next day a vifit at
Aigues-mortes} ay here thefe trvo hodile rivals and vin-
diRive enemies, who had accufed each other of every
kind of bafenefs, converfing together with all the cor¬
diality of brothers, feemed to vie with each other in ex-
preffions of refpeR and friendffiip. 13S
Befides the glory of having redored tranquillity to Advanta?
Europe, the pope gained a point of much confequencegarie J
to his family. Fie obtained for his grandfon, Margaret ^
of Audria, the emperor’s natural daughter, formerly paCjfiCa-
Avife of Alexander de Medici, whom Charles had raffed tion.
to the fupreme poAver in Florence. Laurencin de Medici,
the kinfman and intimate companion of Alexander, bad
affaffinated him by one of the blacked treafons recorded
in hidory. Under pretence of having fecured him an
affignation Avith a lady of the highed rank a,id great
beauty, he drew him into a fecret apartment of his houie,
and there dabbed him as he lay carelefsly on a couch,
expeRing the embrace of the lovely fair, whom he hari
139
|(lies
J teffed.
4°
7; Spa-
11 .Is re-
f: to affift
h. tvith
» ey.
41
dtants
'lent
re .
... . s. p A. r s
Spain, often folicited in vain. Laurencin, however, did not
"i ’ reap the fruits of his crime; for though fome of his
countrymen extolled him as a third Brutus, and endea¬
voured to leize this occafion for recovering their liberties,
the government of Florence palled into the hands of
Cofmo II, another kin Imam of Alexander. Cofmo was
defirous of marrying the widow of his predeceffor ; but
the emperor chofe rather to oblige the pope, by bellow¬
ing his daughter upon Odlavio Farnefe, fon of the duke
of Parma.
Charles had foon farther caufe to be fenlible of his
obligations to the holy father for bringing about the
treaty of Nice. His troops everywhere mutinied for
want of pay, and the ability of his generals only could
have prevented a total revolt. He had depended, as his
chief refource for difeharging the arrears due to his fol-
diers, upon the fubfidies which he expended from his
Callilian fubjedts. For this purpofe he afl'embled the
Cortes of Caitile at Toledo ; and having reprefented to
them the great expence of his military operations, he
propofed to levy fuch fupplies as the prelent exigency
of affairs demanded, by a general excile on commodities ;
but the Spaniards, who already felt themfelves oppreffed
by a load of taxes unknown to their anceflors, and who
had olten complained that their country was drained of
its wealth and inhabitants, in order to profecute quarrels
in which they had no intereft, determined not to add
voluntarily to their own burdens. The nobles, in par¬
ticular, inveighed with great vehemence againft the
impolition propofed, as an encroachment on the valuable
and diftinguilhing privilege of their order, that of being
exempted from the payment of any tax. After em¬
ploying arguments and promifes in vain, Charles dif-
mifled the aflembly with indignation ; and from that pe¬
riod neither the nobles nor the prelates have been called
to the Cortes, on pretence that fuch as pay no part of
the public taxes Ihould not claim a vo^e in laying them
on. Thefe affemblies have lince confifted merely of the
procurators or reprefentatives of 18 cities, two from each ;
in all 36 members, who are abfolutely at the devotion
of the crown.
The citizens of Ghent, {till more bold, broke out not
long after into open rebellion againft the emperor’s go¬
vernment, on account of a tax which they judged con¬
trary to their ancient privileges, and a decifion of the
council of Mechlin in favour of the imperial authority.
Enraged at an unjuft impofition, and rendered defperate
on feeing their rights betrayed by that very court which
W'as bound to proteS them, they flew to arms, feized
feveral of the emperor’s officers, and drove fuch of the
nobility as refided among them out of the city. Sen-
fible, however, of their inability to fupport what their
zeal had prompted them to undertake, and defirous of
fecuring a proteftor againft the formidable forces with
which they might expeft foon to be attacked, they of¬
fered to acknowledge the king of France as their fove-
reign, to put him into immediate pofleflion of their city,
and to aflift him in recovering thofe provinces in the
Netherlands which had anciently belonged to his crown.
Irue policy direded Francis to comply with this propo-
fal. ] he counties of Flanders and Artois were more
valuable than the duchy of Milan, for which he had fo
long contended ; and their fltuation in regard to France
made it more eafy to conquer or to defend them. But
Francis over-rated the Milanefe. He had Jived in friend-
,5 ] S P A
ftiip with the emperor ever fince their interview at Ai- Spain,
gues-mbrtes, and Charles had promifed him the invefti- v
ture of that duchy. Forgetting, therefore, all his paft
injuries, and the deceitful promifes by which he had been credulity
fo often duped, the credulous, generous Francis, not only of Francis,
rejected the propofitions of the citizens of Ghent, but
communicated to the emperor Iris whole negociation with
the malecontents.
Judging of Charles’s heart by his own, Francis hoped
by this feemingly difinterefted proceeding to obtain at
once the inveftiture of Milan ; and the emperor, well
acquainted with the weaknefs of his rival, flattered him 143
in this apprehenfion, for his own felfifh purpofes. His He allows
prefence being neceflary in the Netherlands, he demand- Charles
ed a paiTage through France. It was immediately grant- iqs
ed him ; and Charles, to whom every moment was pre- dominions,
cious, let out, notwithftanding the remonftrances of his
council and the fears of his Spanifh fubjefts, with a
fmall but fplendid train of 100 perfons. He was met
on the frontiers of Fiance by the dauphin and the duke
of Orleans, who offered to go into Spain, and remain
there as hoftages, till he Ihould reach his own domi¬
nions ; but Charles replied, that the king’s honour was
fufficient for his fafety, and profecuted his journey with¬
out any other fecurity. The king entertained him with
the utmoft magnificence at Paris, and the two young
princes did not take leave of him till he entered the
Low Countries ; yet he ftill found means to evade his
promife, and Francis continued to believe him fincere. ^
The citizens of Ghent, alarmed at the approach of Severity of
the emperor, who was joined by three armies, fent am- Charles to
baffadors to implore his mercy, and offered to throw ot
open their gates. Charles only condefcended to reply, ien *
“ That he would appear among them as a fovereign
and a judge, with the feeptre and the fword.” He ac¬
cordingly entered the place of his nativity on the anni-
verfary of his birth ; and inftead of that lenity which
might have been expe&ed, exhibited an awful example
of his feverity. Twenty-fix of the principal citizens
were put to death : a greater number was baniftred :
the city was declared to have forfeited its privileges ; a
new fyftem of laws and political adminiftration waspre-
feribed ; and a large fine was impofed on the inhabitants,
in order to defray the expence of erebling a citadel, to¬
gether with an annual tax for the fupport of a garrifon.
They were not only defpoiled of their ancient immuni¬
ties, but made to pay, like conquered people, for the
means of perpetuating their own flavery.
Having thus re-eftabliftied his authority in the Low His^ai'e
Countries, and being now under no neceflity of conti- treatment
nuing that feene of falfehood and diflimulation withot Franeis*
which he had amufed the French monarch, Charles be¬
gan gradually to throw afide the veil under which he
had concealed his intentions with refpect to the Mila¬
nefe, and at laft peremptorily refufed to give up a terri¬
tory of fuch value, or voluntarily to make fuch a liberal
addition to the ftrength of an enemy by diminiftiing his
own power. He even denied that he had ever made
any promife which could bind him to an aftion fo fool-
ifti, and fo contrary to his own intereft.
This tranfaelion expofed the king of France to as
much fcorn as it did the emperor to cenfure. The cre¬
dulous fimplicity of Francis feemed to merit no other
return, after experiencing fo often the duplicity and ar¬
tifices of his rival. He remonftrated, however, and ex-
3 T 2 claimed
S p A [ 51
Spain, claimed as if this had been the fird circumfiance in
t_ v — tj)e enlperor had deceived him. The infult offer¬
ed to his vmderllanding affefted him even more fenfibly
tlian tlie injury done to his intereft ; and he difcovered
fuch refentment as made it obvious that he would 1'eize
on the firit opportunity of revenge, and that a new war
146 would foon defolate the European continent.
He isobli- Meanwhile Charles was obliged to turn his attention
nrtkeeon- towards the affairs of Germany. The Proteftants ha-
ceffions ving in vain demanded a general council, preffed him
to the Pro- earneltly to appoint a conference between afeleft num-
teftants. ^er 0f divines of each party, in order to examine the
points in difpute. For this purpofe a diet was aflem-
bled at Ratilbon : and fuch a conference, notwithstand¬
ing the oppofition of the pope, was held with great fo-
lemnxty in the prefence of the emperor. But the di¬
vines chofen to manage the controverfy, though men of
learning and moderation, were only able to fettle a few
fpeculative opinions, all points relative to worfhip and
jurifdiftion ferving to inflame the minds of the difpu-
tants. Charles, therefore, finding his endeavours to
bring about an accommodation ineffectual, and being
impatient to clofe the diet, prevailed on a majority of
the members to approve of the following edict: of recefs;
viz. that the articles concerning which the divines had
agreed, fliould be held as points decided ; that thofe
about which they had differed, fhould be referred to the
determination of a general council, or if that could not
be obtained, to a national fynod : and fhould it prove
impracticable alfo to affemble a fynod of Germany, that
a general diet of the empire fliould be called within 18
months, in order to give final judgment on the w hole
controverfy ; that, in the mean time, no innovations
fhould be attempted, nor any endeavours employed to
gain profelytes.
This diet gave great offence to the pope. The bare
mention of allowing a diet, compofed chiefly of laymen,
to pafs judgment in regard to articles of faith, appeared
to him no lefs criminal and profane than the worft of
thofe herefies which the emperor feemed fo zealous to
fiipprefs. The Proteftants alfo were diffatisfied with it,
as it confiderably abridged the liberty which they at
that time enjoyed. They murmured loudly againft it j
and Charles, unwilling to leave any feeds of difeontent
in the empire, granted them a private declaration, ex¬
empting them from whatever they thought injurious or
oppreflive in the recefs, and afeertaining to them the full
poffeflion of all their former privileges.
The fituation of the emperor’s affairs at this juncture
made thefe extraordinary conceflions neceffary. He
forefawr a rupture with France to be unavoidable, and
he w as alarmed at the rapid progrefs of the Turks in
Hungary. A great revolution had happened in that
kingdom. John Zapol Scaepus, by the afliftance of
Solyman, had wrefted from the king of the Romans a
confiderable part of the country. John died, and left
an infant fon. Ferdinand attempted to take advantage
of the minority, in order to repoffefs himfclf of the
whole kingdom *, but bis ambition wras difappointed by
the aefivity and addrefs of George Martinuzzi, bifhop
of Waradin, who fhared the regency with the queen.
Senfible that he was unable to oppofe the king of the
Romans in the field, Martinuzzi fatisfied himfelf with
holding out the fortified towns, all of which he provided
with every thing neceffary for defence j and at the faate
Spain,,
6 ] SPA
time he fent ambaffadorsto Solyman, befeeching him to
extend towards the fon that imperial protection which
had fo generoufly maintained the father on his throne.
Ferdinand ufed his utmoft endeavours to thwart this
negociation, and even meanly offered to hold the Hun¬
garian crown on the fame ignominious condition by
which John had held it, that of paying tribute to the
Porte. But the fultan fa\v fuch advantages from ef-
poufing the intereft of the young king, that he inftant-
ly marched into Hungary •, and the Germans, having
formed the fxege of Buda, rvere defeated rvith great
flaughter before that city. Solyman, however, inftead
of becoming the protestor of the infant fovereign Avhom
he had relieved, made ufe of this fuccefs to extend his
own dominions : he fent the queen and her fon into
Tranfilvania, Avhich province he allotted them, and add¬
ed Hungary to the Ottoman empire.
Happily for the Proteftants, Charles received intelli¬
gence of this revolution foon after the diet at Ratifbon ;
and by the conceflions Avhich he made them, he obtain¬
ed fuch liberal fupplies, both of men and money, as left
him under little anxiety about the fecurity of Germany.
He therefore haftened to join his fleet'and army in Ita-
ly, in order to carry into execution a great and favourite an unfu(
enterprife Avhich he had concerted againft Algiers: cefsfulex
though it Avould certainly have been more confirtent Potion
Avith his dignity to have conduced the Avhole force ofa?amftA
the empire againft Solyman, the common enemy ofb‘tn‘
Chriftendom, Avho Avas ready to enter his Auftrian do¬
minions. But many reafons induced Charles to prefer
the African expedition : he wanted ftrength, or atleaft
money, to combat the Turks in fo diftant a country as
Hungary •, and the glory Avhieh he had formerly ac¬
quired in Barbary led him to hope for the like fuccefs,
while the cries of his Spaniftr fubje&s roufed him to
take vengeance on their ravagers. But the unfortunate
event of this expedition has already been related under
the article Algiers, N° 14—20. < i g
The lofs which the emperor fuffered in this calami-Warj)C>
tons expedition encouraged the king of France to begin tvveen
hoftilities, on which he had been for fome time refolved; Frandxai
and an action dithonourable to civil fociety furnilhed {-h:irles
him with too good a pretext for taking arms. The
marquis del Guafto, governor of the Milanefe, having
got intelligence of the motions and deftination of txvo
ambaffadors, Rincon and Fergofo, whom Francis had
difpatched, the one to the Ottoman Porte, the other to
the republic of Venice ; knowing how much his mafter
Aviflied to difeover the intentions of the French mo¬
narch, and of Avhat confequence it Avas to retard the ex¬
ecution of his meafures, he employed fome foldiers be¬
longing to the garrifon of Pavia to lie in wait for thefe
ambaffadors as they failed doAvn the Po, who murdered
them and moft of their attendants, and feized their pa¬
pers. Francis immediately demanded reparation for
this barbarous outrage 5 and as Charles endeav’oured to
put him off Avith an evafive anfwer, he appealed to all
the courts of Europe, fetting forth the heinoufnefs. of
the injury, the iniquity of the emperor in difregarding
his juft requeft, and the neceflity of vengeance. But
Charles, who was a more profound negociator, defeated
in a great meafure the effects of thefe reprefentations:
he fecured the fidelity of the Proteftant princes in Ger¬
many, by granting them new conceflions; and he en¬
gaged the king of England to efpoufe his caufe, under
S PA [ 5
{Spain, pretence of defending Europe againft the Infidels;
I'T—while Francis was only able to form an alliance with
the kings of Denmark and Sweden (who for the fird
time interefted themfelves in the quarrels of the more
potent monarchs of the fouth), and to renew his treaty
with Solyman, which drew on him the indignation of
Chriftendom.
But the activity of Francis fupplied all the defects of
his negociation. Five armies were foon ready to take
the field, under different generals, and with different
deitinations. Nor was Charles wanting in his prepara¬
tions. He and Henry a fecond time made an ideal di-
vifion of the kingdom of France. But as the holtilities
which followed terminated in nothing decilive, and were
diftinguifhed by no remarkable event, except the battle
of Cerifoles (gained by Count d’Enguien over the im-
perialifts, and in which 10,000 of the emperor’s belt
troops fell) at laft Francis and Charles, mutually tired
149 of harafiing each other, concluded at Crefpy a treaty
bee ecn- 0f peace, in which the king of England was not men-
h%at ^one^ ’ an<^ from being implacable enemies, became
once more, to appearance, cordial friends, and even al¬
lies by the ties of blood.
The chief articles of this treaty were, that all the
conquefts which either party had made fince the truce of
Nice fliould be reftored 5 that the emperor fliould give
in marriage to the duke of Orleans, either his own eld-
eft daughter, with the Low Countries, or the fecond
daughter of his brother Ferdinand, with the invefti-
ture of the Milanefe ; that Francis ftiould renounce all
pretenfions to the kingdom of Naples, as Avell as to the
fovereignty of Flanders and Artois, and Charles give
up his claim to the duchy of Burgundy •, and that both
Ihould unite in making war againft the Turks.
The emperor was chiefly induced to grant condi¬
tions fo advantageous to France, by a deiire of hum¬
bling the Proteftant princes in Germany. With the
papal jurifdiffon, he forefaw they would endeavour to
throw off the imperial authority •, and he determined
to make his zeal for the former a pretence for enfor¬
cing and extending the latter. However, the death of
the duke of Orleans before the confummation of his
marriage, difentangled the emperor from the moft trou-
blefome ftipulation in the treaty of Crefpy ; and the
French monarch, being ftill engaged in hoftilities with
England, was unable to obtain any reparation for the
lofs which he fuffered by this unforefeen event. Thefe
hoftilities, like thofe between Charles and Francis, ter¬
minated in nothing decifive. Equally tired of a ftruggle
attended with no glory or advantage to either, the con¬
tending princes concluded, at Campe, near Ardies, a
treaty of peace ; in which it was ftipulated, that France
fliould pay the arrears due by former treaties to Eng¬
land. But thefe arrears did not exceed one-third of the
fums expended by Henry on his military operations’, and
Francis being in no condition to difeharge them, Bou
logne ( a chargeable pledge) was left in the hands of
the Englifh as a fecunty for the debt.
^ In confequence of the emperor’s refolution to humble
co udet0 ^>rote^ant princes, he concluded a diftionourable
jvanta- Peace whh the Porte, ftipulating that his brother Fer-
£<hpeace dinand ftiould pay tribute for that part of Hungary
*rthe which he ftill poffeffed4 while the fultan enjoyed the
and  ;-1 1 \* n 1 1 nr n- r . i n » .
ip a in.
5°
Cfll,
I51
j$ftants imperial and undifturbed poffeflion of all the reft.
At
the fame time he entered into a league with Pope
17] SPA
Paul III. for the extirpation of herefy j but in reality
with a view to opprefs the liberties of Germany. Here,
however, his ambition met with a fevere check j for
though he was fuccefsful at firft, he was obliged in
1552 to conclude a peace with the Proteftants on their
own terms; as has been related under the article Re¬
formation, N° 26—32.
By the peace concluded on this oceafion the emperor Attempts
loft Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which had formed the’i0 recoy®f
barrier of the empire on that quarter j and thereforelome 0 lS
foon after put himfelf at the head of an army, in order1
to recover thefe three biftioprics. In order to conceal
the deftination of his army, he gave out, that he in¬
tended to lead it into Hungary, to fecond Maurice in
his operations againft the Infidels ; and as that pretext
failed him, when he began to advance towards the
Rhine, he propagated a report that he was marching
firft to chaftife Albert of Brandenburg, who had re-
fufed to be included in the treaty of Paffau, and whofe
cruel exaftions in that part of Germany called loudly
for redrefs. ll.1
The French, however, were not deceived by thefe arts. Is obliged
Henry immediately gueffed the true object of Charles’s10 rail‘‘_the
armament, and refolved to defend his conqueft with vi-
gour. The defence of Bfetz, againft which it was fore- *
leen the whole weight of the war would be turned, was
committed to Francis of Lorraine, duke of Guife, who
poffeffed in an eminent degree all the qualities that ren¬
der men great in military command. He repaired with
joy to the dangerous ftation •, and many of the French
nobility, and even princes of the blood, eager to diftin-
guifti themfelves under fuch a leader, entered Metz as
volunteers. The city was of great extent, ill fortified,
and the fuburbs large. For all thefe defeats the duke
endeavoured to provide a remedy. He repaired the old
fortifications with all poffible expedition, labouring with
his own hands ; the officers imitated his example j and
the foldiers, thus encouraged, cheerfully fubmitted to
the moft fevere toils; he eredfted new works, and he le¬
velled the fuburbs with the ground. At the fame time
he filled the magazines with provifions and military
ftores, compelled all uftlefs perfons to Rave the place,
and laid wafte the neighbouring country j yet fuch were
his popular talents, as well as his arts of acquiring an
afeendant over the minds of men, that the citizens not
only refrained from murmuring, but feconded him with
no lefs ardour than the foldiers in all his operations—
in the ruin of their eftates, and in the havoc of their
public and private buildings.
Meanwhile the emperor continued his march towards
Lorraine, at the head of 60,000 men. On his approach,
Albert of Brandenburg, whofe army did not exceed
20,000, withdrew into that principality as if he in¬
tended to join the French king ; and Charles, notwith-
ftanding the advanced feafon, it being towards to the end
of Offober, laid fiege to Metz, contrary to the advice'
of his moft experienced officers.
The attention of both the befiegers and the befieged
was turned for feme time towards the motions of Al¬
bert, who ftill hovered in the neighbourhood, undeter¬
mined which fide to take, though refolved to fell his
fervice. Charles at laft came up to his price, and he
joined the imperial army. The emperor now flattered
himfelf that nothing could refift his force ; but he found
himfelf deceived. After a fiege of almoft 60 days, du¬
ring
Spain.
. 1S3
Mile! able
. 154
His lurther
misfor¬
tunes.
SPA [51
ring which he had attempted all that w?as thought pof-
fible for art or valour to effecl, and had loft upwards of
30,000 men by the inclemency of the weather, difeafes,
or the fvvord of the enemy, he was obliged to abandon
the enterprife.
When the French fallied out to attack the enemy',s
condition of rear, the imperial camp was filled with the fick and
his army, mounded, with the dead and the dying. All the roads
by which the army retired were lire wed with the fame
miferable objects ; who, having made an effort beyond
their ftrength to efcape, and not being able to proceed,
were left to periftr without afliftance. Happily that,
and all the kind offices which their friends had not the
power to perform, they received from their enemies.
The duke of Guile ordered them all to be taken care
of, and fupplied with every neceffary ; he appointed
phyficians to attend, and diredl what treatment Avas
proper for the fick and wounded, and what refrelhments
for the feeble •, and fuch as recovered he fent home,
under an efcort of foldiers, and with money to bear then-
charges. By thefe afts of humanity, lefs common in
that age, the duke of Guife completed that heroic
character which he had juflly acquired by his brave and
fuccefsful defence of Metz.
The emperor’s misfortunes Avere not confined to
Germany. During his refidence at Villach, he had
been obliged to borrow 200,000 crowns of Cofmo
de Medici 5 and fo Ioav Avas his credit, that he Avas
obliged to put Cofmo in poffeflion of the principality
of Piombino as a fecurity for that inconfiderable fum
by which means he loft the footing he had hitherto
maintained in Tufcany. Much about the fame time
he loft Sienna. The citizens, Avho had long enjoyed
a republican government, rofe againft the Spanilh gar-
rifon, Avhich they had admitted as a check upon the
tyranny of the nobility, but which they found Avas
meant to enflave them 5 forgetting their domeftic ani-
mofities, they recalled the exiled nobles; they demo-
liihed the citadel, and put themfelves under the protec¬
tion of France.
To thefe unfortunate events one ftill more fatal had
almoft fucceeded. The fevere adminiftration of the
viceroy of Naples had filled that kingdom with mur¬
muring and diflatisfaftion. The prince of Salerno, the
head of the malecontents, fled to the court of France.
The French monarch, after the example of his father,
applied to the grand fignior ; and Solyman, at that
time highly incenfed againft the houfe of Auftria on
account of the proceedings in Hungary, fent a power¬
ful fleet into the Mediterranean, under the command
of the corfair Dragut, an officer trained up under
Barbaroffa, and fcarcely inferior to his mafter in cou¬
rage, talents, or in good fortune. Dragut appeared
on the coaft of Calabria at the time appointed ; but
not being joined by the French fleet according to con¬
cert, he returned to Conftantinople, after plundering
and burning feveral places, and filling Naples, witn con-
fternation.
Highly mortified by fo many difafters, Charles re¬
tired into the Loav Countries, breathing vengeance
againft France : and here the Avar Avas carried on with
confiderable vigour. Impatient to efface the {lain which
his military reputation had received before Metz, Charles
laid fiege to Terouane •, and the fortifications being in
difrepair, that important place was carried by afiault.
iSS
Is fuccefs¬
ful in the
Low Coun¬
tries.
8 ] SPA
Hefdin alfo Avas invefted, 'and carried in the fame man- Spain,
The king of France Avas too late in affembling
his forces to afford relief to either of thele places and
the emperor afterwards cautioufly avoided an engage¬
ment.
The imperial arms were lefs fuccefsful in Italy. 'Ihe But not
viceroy of Naples failed in an attempt to recover Sienna^ in other
and the French not only eftabliftied themfelves morePkces-
firmly in Tufcany, but conquered part of the ifiand of
Corfica. Nor did the affairs of the houle of Auftria
go on better in Hungary during the courfe of this year.
Ifabella and her fon appeared once more in Tranfylva-
at a time wdien the people Avere ready for revolt.
rS7
in order to revenge the death of Martinuzzi, Avhofelofs
they had feverely felt. Some noblemen of eminence
declared in favour of the young king} and the bafhaAV
of Belgrade, by Solyman’s order, efpoufing his caufe,
in oppofition to Ferdinand, Caftaldo, the Auftrian ge¬
neral, was obliged to abandon Tranfylvania to Ifabella
and the Turks.
In order to counterbalance thofe and other Ioffes, the Marriage
emperor, in 1554, concerted a marriage between hisl,el'yeeb
fon Philip and Mary of England, in hopes of a4dinggp!j|1Ij)a0iJc
that kingdom to his other dominions, Meamvlrilejviary0f"
the Avar betAveen Henry and Charles was carried on England,
Avith various fuccefs in the Low Countries, and in Italy A®-1554
much to the difadvantage of France. The French,
under the command of Strozzi, were defeated in the
battle of Merciano Sienna was reduced by Medicino,
the Florentine general, after a fiege of ten months; and
the gallant Siennefe were fubjeftedto the Spaniihyoke.
Much about the fame time a plot Avas formed by the
Francifcans, but happily difcovered before it could be
carried into execution, to betray Metz to the Imperia-
lifts. The father guardian, and twenty other monks,
received fentence of death on account of this confpiracy j
but the guardian, before the time appointed for his ex¬
ecution, was murdered by his incenfed accomplices,
whom he had feduced; and fix of the youngefl: Avere
pardoned.
While Avar thus raged in Italy and the Loav Coun¬
tries, Germany enjoyed fuch profound tranquillity, as
afforded the diet full leifure to confirm and perfeft the
plan of religious pacification agreed upon at Paffau,
and referred to the confideration of the next meeting of
the Germanic body. During the negociation of this
treaty, an event happened which aftoniffied all Europe,
and confounded the reafonings of the Avifeft: politicians. |
The emperor Charles V. though no more than 56, an Carles rei]
age Avhen objefts of ambition operate Avith full force on flgns his
the mind, and are generally purfued with the greateft dominions i
ardour, had for fome time formed the refolution of re-1A1S fon ;
figning his hereditary dominions to his fon Philip. He ^ ^J
noAV determined to put it in execution. Various have |
been the opinions of hiftorians concerning a refolution
fo lingular and unexpeiled ; but the moft probable feem
to be, the difappointments which Chailes had met Avith
in his ambitious hopes, and the daily decline of his
health. He had early in life been attacked Avitli the
gout; and the fits were now become fo frequent and
fevere, that not only the vigour of his conftitution was
broken, but the faculties of his mind were fenfibly im¬
paired. Fie therefore judged it more decent to con¬
ceal his infirmities in fome folitude, than to expofe them
any longer to the public eye ; and as he was unAvilling
to
i
SPA [ 519 ] SPA
to forfeit the fame, or lofe the acquifitions of his better
years, by attempting to guide the reins of government
when he was no longer able to hold them with ftea-
dinefs, he determined to feek in the tranquillity of
retirement, that happinefs which he had in vain pur-
fued amidft the tumults of war and the intrigues of
ftate.
In confequence of this refolution, Charles, who had
already ceded to his fon Philip the kingdom of Naples
and the duchy of Milan, affembled the Hates of the
Low Countries at Bruffels •, and feating himfelf for the
laft time in the chair of (late, he explained to his fub-
je£ts the reafons of his refignation, and folemnly de¬
volved his authority upon Philip. He recounted with
dignity, but without oftentation, all the great things
which he had undertaken and performed fince the com¬
mencement of his adminiitration. “ I have dedicated
(obferved he) from the 17th year of my age, all my
thoughts and attention to public objects, referving no
portion of my time for the indulgence of eafe, and very
little for the enjoyment of private pleafure. Either in
a pacific or hoftile manner, I have vifited Germany nine
times, Spain fix times, France four times, Italy feven
times, the Low Countries ten times, England twice,
Africa as often •, and while my health permitted me to
difcharge the duty of a fovereign, and the vigour of my
eonftitution was equal in any degree to the arduous of¬
fice of governing fuch extenfive dominions, I never fhun-
ned labour, nor repined under fatigue 5 but now, when
my health is broken, and my vigour exhaufted by the
rage of an incurable diftemper, my growing infirmities
admonifh me to retire ; nor am I fo fond of reigning,
as to retain the fceptre in an impotent hand, which is
no longer able to proteft my fubjefts. Inftead of a
fovereign worn out with difeafes (continued he), and
fcarce half alive, I give you one in the prime of life,
already accuftomed to govern, and who adds to the vi¬
gour of youth all the attention and fagacity of maturer
years.” Then turning towards Philip, who fell on his
knees, and kifie-d his father’s hand, “ It is in your
power (faid Charles), by a wife and virtuous admini-
flration, to juftify the extraordinary proof which I give
this day of my paternal affeftion, and to demonilrate
that you are worthy of the extraordinary confidence
which I repofe in you. Preferve (added he) an in¬
violable regard for religion •, maintain the Catholic faith
in its purity ; let the laws of your country be facred in
your eyes •, encroach not on the rights of your people •,
and if the time fiiould ever come when you {hall wifh
to enjoy the tranquillity of private life, may you have
a fon to whom you can refign your fceptre with as
much fatisfadlion as I give up mine to you.” A few
weeks after, he refigned to Philip the fovereignty of
Spain and America ; referving' nothing to himfelf out
of all thefe vaft pofleffions but an annual penfion of
100,000 crowns.
Charles was now’ impatient to embark for Spain, where
he had fixed on a place of retreat; but by the advice of
his phyficians, he put off his voyage for fome months, on
account of the feverity of the feafon ; and, by yielding
to their judgment, he had the fatisfaOlion before he left
the Low Countries of taking a confiderable (lep towards
a peace with France. This he ardently longed for •,
not only on his fon’s account, whofe adminiftration he
v'iftied to commence in quietnefs, but that he might have Spain,
the glory, when quitting the world, of reftoring to Eu- v
rope that tranquillity which his ambition had banifhed
out of it almoft from the time that he affumed the reins
of government.
The great bar to fuch a pacification, on the part of
France, was the treaty which Henry had concluded
with the Pope 5 and the emperor’s claims were too
numerous to hope for adjulling them fuddenly. A 159
truce of five years was therefore propofed by Charles ; ^ truce of
during which term, without difeuffing their refpedfive
pretenfions, each fhould retain what was in his poffef-w;th
fion ; and Henry, through the perfuafion of the con-France,
liable Montmorency, wTho reprefented the imprudence
of facrifieing the true interells of his kingdom to the
rafh engagements that he had come under wfith Paul,
authorifed his ambafladors to fign at Vaucelles a treaty,
which would infure to him for fo confiderable a period
the important conqueft which he had made on the Ger¬
man frontier, together with the greater part of the duke
of Savoy’s dominions.
1 he Pope, when informed of this tranfaflion, was no
lefs filled with terror and aftonilhment than rage and in¬
dignation. But he took equal care to conceal his fear
and his anger. He affe<ffed to approve highly of the
truce ; and he offered his mediation, as the common fa¬
ther of Chrillendom, in order to bring about a defini¬
tive peace. Under this pretext, he appointed Cardinal
Rebibo his nuncio to the court of Bruffels, and his ne¬
phew Cardinal Caraffa to that of Paris. The public in-
ilru6!ions of both were the fame ; but Caraffa, befides
thefe, received a private commiffion, to fpare neither in¬
treaties, promifes, nor bribes, in order to induce the
French monarch to renounce the truce and renew' his
engagements with the holy fee. He flattered Henry
with the conqueff of Naples ; he gained by his addrefs
the Guifes, the queen, and even the famous Diana of
Poicliers, duehefs of Valentinois, the king’s millrefs ;
and they eafily fwayed the king himfelf, who already
leaned to that fide towards which they withed to incline
him. All Montmorency’s prudent remonftrances were
difregarded ; the nuncio (by powers from Rome) abfol-
ved Henry from his oath of truce ; and that weak prince
figned a new treaty with the Pope ; which rekindled
with frefli violence the flames of war, both in Italy and
the Low Countries.
No fooner was Paul made acquainted with the fuc-Quarrel be-
cefs of this negociation than he proceeded to the mofl twixt the
indecent extremities againl) Philip. He ordered theP°Peand.
Spanifh ambaffador to be imprifoned ; he excommuni-Iiir!g Phl“
cated the Colonnas, becaufe of their attachment to the P
imperial houfe ; and he confidered Philip as guiltv of
high treafon, and to have forfeited his right to the
kingdom of Naples, which he was fuppofed to hold of
the holy fee, for afterward affording them a retreat in
his dominions.
Alarmed at a quarrel with the Pope, whom he had
been taught to regard with the moft fuperftitious vene¬
ration, os the vicegerent of Chrift and the common fa¬
ther of Chriftendom, Philip tried every gentle method
before he made ufe of force. He even confulted fome
Spanifh divines on the law'fulnefs of taking arms agamft
a perfon fo facred. They decided in his favour f and
Paul continuing inexorable, the duke of Alva, to whom
the
S PA [ 520 ] SPA
•*iapS tlie ne^ociations as well as the war had been committed,
" v ' 1 entered the e<x;lefiaftical Hate at the head of 10,000 ve¬
terans, and carried terror to the gates of Rome.
The haughty pontiff, though itill inflexible and un¬
daunted hirnfelt, was forced to give way to the fears
of the cardinals, and a truce was concluded for 40 days.
Mean time the duke of Guife arriving with a fuppl> of
20,000 French troops, Paul became more arrogant than
ever, and banifhed all thoughts from his mind butthoie
of war and revenge. The duke of Guiie, however, who
had precipitated his country into this war, chiefly from
a deiirc of gaining a field where he might diiplay his
own talents, was able to perform nothing in Italy wor¬
thy of his former fame. He was obliged to abandon
the fiege of Civetella *, he could not bring the duke of
Alva to a general engagement } his army periihed by
dileafes } and the Pope negletted to furniih the necef-
fary reinforcements. He begged to be recalled j and
France flood in need of his abilities.
Philip, though willing to have avoided a rupture,
was no fooner informed that Flenry had violated the
truce of Vaucelles, than he determined to a6t with fuch
vigour, as fliould convince Europe that his father had
not erred in refigning to him the reins of government.
He immediately affembled in the Low Countries a body
of 50,000 men, and obtained a fupply of io,coo from
England, which he had engaged in his quarrel •, and as
he was not ambitious of military fame, he gave the com¬
mand of his army to Emanuel Philibert duke of Savoy,
one of the greateft generals of that warlike age.
The duke of Savoy kept the enemy for fome time in
fufpenfe with regard to his deilination 5 at lail he feem-
rd to threaten Champagne •, towards which the French
drew all their troops,j then turning fuddenly to the
idr right, he advanced by rapid marches into Picardy, and
The French f]ege to St Quintin. It was deemed in thofe times
entirely de- a town60f confiderable (Length 5 but the fortifications
sTSuintin. had been much neglected, and the garrifon did not
Arc 1557.' amount to a fifth part of the number requifite for its
defence : it mufl therefore have furrendered in a few
days, if the admiral de Coligny had not taken the gal¬
lant refolution of throwing himfelf into it with fueh a
body of men as could be colle&ed on a fudden. 1 his
he effeaed in fpite of the enemy, breaking through
their main body. The place, however, was clofely in-
vefted •, and the conftable Montmorency, anxious to
extricate his nephew out of that perilous fituation, in
which his zeal for the public had engaged him, as well
as to fave a town of fuch importance, rafhly advanced
to its relief with forces one half inferior to thofe of the
enemy. His army was cut in pieces, and he himfelf
made prifoner.
The cautious temper of Philip on this occafion faved
France from devaflation, if not ruin. The duke of Sa¬
voy propofed to overlook all inferior obje61s, and march
fpecdily to Paris, which, in its prefent conflernation, he
could not have failed to make himfelf mafler of; but
Philip, afraid of the confequences of fueh a bold enter-
prife, defired him to continue the fiege of St Quintin,
in order to fecure a fafe retreat in cafe of any difaftrous
event. The town, long and gallantly defended by Co¬
ligny, was at laft taken by ftorm 5 but not till France
was in a ft ate of defence .
Philip was now fenfible that he had loft an opportu¬
nity which could never be recalled, of .diftrefling his
enemy, and contented himfelf with reducing Horn and Spais.j
Catelet ; which petty towns, together with St J^nuintin, ‘t-
were the foie fruits of one of the mod decifive victories
gained in .the 16th century. The Catholic king, how¬
ever, continued in high exultation on account of his
fuccefs } and as all his pafhons were tinged with fnper-
ftition, he vowed to build a church, a monaftery, and a
palace, in honour of St Lawrence, on the day facred to
whofe memory the battle of St Quintin had been fought.
He accordingly laid the foundation of an edifice, in
which all theft were included, and which he continued
to forward at a vail expence, for 22 years. The fame
principle which dictated the vow diredled the building.
It was fo formed as to refemblt a gridiron—on which
culinary inftrument, according to the legendary tale,
St Lawrence had fuffered martyrdom. Such is the ori¬
gin of the famous Efcurial near Madrid, the royal refi-
dence of the kings of Spain.
The firft account of that fatal blow which France
had received at St Quintin, was carried to Rome by
the courier whom Henry had fent to rtcal the duke of
Guife. Paul remonftrated warmly againfl the depar¬
ture of the French army ; but Guife’s orders were per¬
emptory. The arrogant pontiff therefore found it ne-
ceffary to accommodate his conduct to the exigency of
his affairs, and to employ the mediation of the Vene¬
tians, and of Cofmo de Medici, in order to obtain peace.
The firft overtures of this nature were eagerly liftened
to by the Catholic king, who (till doubted the juftice
of his caufe, and confidered it as his greatefl misfortune
to be obliged to contend with the Pope. Paul agreed peate c0!
to renounce his league with France ; and Philip flipu-duded.
lated on his part, that the duke of Alva fliould repair
in perfon to Rome, and after afking pardon of the holy
father in his own name and in that of his matter, for
having invaded the patrimony of the church, fhould re¬
ceive abfolution from that crime. 1 bus Paul, through
the fuperftitious.timidity of Philip, finiffied an unpro-
pitious war not only without any detriment to the apofto-
lic fee, but faw his conqueror humbled at his feet: and
fo exceflive was the veneration of the Spaniards in that
age for the papal charadler, that the duke of Alva, the
proudeft man perhaps of his time, and accuftomed from
his infancy to converfe with princes, acknowledged,
that when he approached Paul, he was fo much over¬
awed, that his voice failed, and his prefence of mind
forfook him. iSg
But though this war, which at its commencement Confeque
threatened mighty revolutions, was terminated without ce^oGhe
occaffoning any alteration in thofe ttates which were,
its immediate objedl, it produced effeffs of confiderable
conftquence in other parts of Italy. In order to de¬
tach Odtavio Farnefe, duke of Parma from the French
intereff, Philip reftored to him the city of Placentia
and its territory, which had been feized by Charles V.
and he granted to Cofmo de Medici the invefliture of
Sienna, as an equivalent for the fums due to him. By
thefe treaties, the balance of power among the Italian
dates was poifed with more equality, and rendered lefs
variable than it had been fince it received the firtt vio¬
lent (hock from the invafion of Charles VIII. and Italy
henceforth ceafed to be the theatre on which the mo-
narchs of Spain, France, and Germany, contended for
fame and dominion. Their hoftilities, excited by new
objefts, ftained other regions of Europe with blood,
164
French
j'ucceisful
the Low
(untries
Spain-
SPA t 52
and made other ftates feel, in their turn, the miferies of
Spaift.
i(?5
ce con-
<1 led be-
1 enHen
ri Phi-
166
£ t'h of
rks Y.
1 he duke of Guife, who left Rome the fame day that
his adverfary the duke of Alva made his humiliating
fubmiffion to the Pope, was received in France as the
guardian angel of the kingdom. He was appointed
lieutenant-general in chief, with a jurifdi&ion almoft
unlimited ; and, eager to juflity the extraordinary con¬
fidence which the king had repofed in him, as well as
to perform fomething fuitable to the high expectations
of his countrymen, he undertook in winter the fiege of
Calais. Having taken that place, he next invefted Thi-
onville in the duchy of Luxembourg, one of the ftrong-
eft towns on the frontiers of the Netherlands ; and for¬
ced it to capitulate after a fiege of three weeks. But
the advantages on this quarter were more than balanced
by an event which happened in another part of the Low
Countries. 1 he marefchal de Termes governor of Ca¬
lais, who had penetrated into Flanders and taken Dun¬
kirk, was totally routed near Gravelines, and taken pri-
foner by Count Egmont. This difafter obliged the duke
of Guife to relinquifh all his other fchemes, and haften
towards the frontiers of Picardy, that he might there
oppofe the progrefs of the enemy.
1 he eves ot all France were now turned towards the
duke of Guife, as the only general on whofe arms vic¬
tory ahvays attended, and in whofe conduft as well as
good fortune they could confide in every dano-er. His
flrength was nearly equal to the duke of Savoy’s, each
commanding about 40,000 men. They encamped at
the diftance of a few leagues from one another ; and the
French and Spanifh monarchs having joined their re-
fpective armies, it was expetted that, after the viciffitudes
of war, a decifive battle would at lad determine which
or the rivals fhould take the afcendency for the future in
the affairs of Europe. But both monarchs, as if by
agreement, flood on the defenfive •, neither of them dif-
covering any inclination, though each had it in his
power, to reft the decifion of a point of fuch importance
on the ilfue of a fingle battle.
During this flate of inaction, peace began to be men¬
tioned in each camp, and both Henry and Philip dif-
covered an equal difpofition to liften to anv overture
that tended to re-eftabhfti it. 1 he private inclinations
of both kings concurred with their political interefts
and the wifhes of their people. Philip languifhed to
return to Spain, the place of his nativity, and peace
only could enable him, either with decency or fafetv, to
quit the Low Countries. Henry was now defirous of
being freed from the avocations of war, that he might
have ieifure to turn the whole force of his government
towards fuppreffing the opinions of the reformers, which
were fpreading with fuch rapidity in Paris and the other
great towns, that they began to grow formidable to the
eftablifhed church. Court intrigues confpircd with thefe
public and avowed motives to batten the negociation,
and the abbey of Cercamp was fixed on as the place of
congrefs.
\vhile Philip and Henry were making thefe advan¬
ces towards a treaty which reftored tranquillity to Eu¬
rope, Charles V. whofe ambition had fo long difturbed
k, but who had been for forae time dead to the world,
ended his days in the monaftery of St Juftus in Eftrema-
dura, which he had chofen as the place of his retreat, as
is particularly related under the article Charles V.
Vet. XIX. Part II.
i ] SPA
After the death of Charles, the kingdom of Spain
foon loft great part of its confequence. Though Charles
had ufed all his intereft to get his fon Philip eledted
emperor of Germany, he had been totally difappointed
and thus the grandeur of Philip II. never equalled that
of his father. His dominions were alfo confiderably
abridged by his tyrannical behaviour in the Netherlands.
In confequence of this, the United Provinces revolted j
and after a long and bloody war obtained their liberty Revoc of
In this quarrel Elizabeth of England took part againft die United
Philip, which brought on a war with Spain. The great
Ioffes he fuftained in thefe wars exhaufted the kingdom prg_
both of men and money, notwithftanding the great fums vincts.
imported from America. Indeed the difeovery of that
country has much impoverithed, inftead of enriching
Spain ; for thus the inhabitants have been rendered lazy
and averfe to every kind of manufadlure or traffic, which
only can be a durable fouree of riches and ftrength to Il?g
any nation. The ruin of the kingdom in this refpedt, Expullkni
however, was completed by Philip III. who, at the in-of the
ftigation of the inquifition, and by the advice of his.Nloors’ aT1tJ
prime minifter the duke of Lerma, expelled from the
kingdom all the Morefcoos or Moors, defeendants nf>„
1 . . j t lequence
kingdom all the Morefcoes or Moors, defeendants of to Spain.
the ancient conquerors of Spain. Thirty days only were
allowed them to prepare for their departure, and it was
death to remain beyond that time. The reafon for this
barbarous decree was, that thefe people were ftill Ma¬
hometans in their hearts, though they conformed exter¬
nally to the rite of Chriftianity, and thus might corrupt
the true faith. 'The Morefcoes, however, chofe them-
Lives a king, and attempted to oppofe the royal man¬
date ; but, being almoft entirely unprovided with arms,
they were foon obliged to fubmit, and were all baniihed
the kingdom. By this violent and impolitic meafure,
Spain loft almoft a million of induftrious inhabitants ;
and as the kingdom was already depopulated by bloody
wars, by repeated emigrations to America, and ener¬
vated by luxury, it now Tank into a ftate of languor
from which it has never recovered.
Hie reign of Philip IV. the fucceffor of Philip III. Philip IV.
commenced in 1621. He had not been long feated on An. 1621.
the throne before the expiration of the 12 years truce
which Philip III. had concluded with the United Pro¬
vinces, again involved Spain in t he calamities of war.
The renewed conteft was carried on with vigour by both
the contending powers, till in the year 1648 the Spaniffi
monarch was compelled to fign the treaty of Munfter, I7b
by which the United Provinces were declared free and Final lofs
independent. From this period the power of the Spa- of the
niffi monarchy began to decline, as it had already been Umteci
feverely ftiaken by the lofs of Portugal. ^ Province?.
This event took place in 1640, when the Poftuguefe Revokof
finally tiirew off the Spanilh yoke, and that country re- Pvitugal.
mained an independent kingdom, till the power of Bo- An’ i640,
naparte compelled its lawful monarch to abandon his Eu¬
ropean territories. ^ Philip IV. alfo profecuted an unfuc-
cefsful war with France. This war was terminated in
1659, and Philip died about fix years after. ,7i
I he new monarch, Lnarles 11, was only four years 1 harlej II.
old when he fucceeded to the throne. He was of a An. 1665.
feeble conftitution, and a weak capacity. The war
which had. been oecafioned by the revolt of Portugal
continued till the year 1668, when a peace was (Ton-
eluded, and the independence of that kingdom was ac¬
knowledged. Hoftilities had been reneweefwith Fram e
3 bd
Spain.
173
Acceffion
of the
Houfe of
Bourbon.
An. 1700,
174 ,
Ferdinand
VI.
An. 1746.
175
Charles III
An. J 759-
SPA f 52
but greatly to the disadvantage of the Spaniards, who
’ loft Some of the richeft and belt fortified towns which
they (till poffeffed in Flanders. The peace of Nime-
guen between France and Spain was figned in the year
1678. Charles II. died in 1700, and with him ended
the male line of the houfe of Auftria j a dynafty to
which Spain owes lefs than to any other race of its mo-
narchs.
Hiftorians have been fond of reprefenting the domi¬
nion of the Auftrian princes in Spain as productive of
the greateft glory and advantage to that kingdom. 1 he
reign of Charles V. may indeed be faid to have been a
glorious reign 5 but little of its glory belonged to Spain,
and the emperor certainly neglected her interefts in ad¬
vancing thofe of his more favoured territories. "1 he pic¬
ture given by the Spanifh hiftorians of the ftate of Spain
at the acceffion and during the reign of Philip II. fully
evinces how little that kingdom had profiled by the
change in the line of its fuccelbon. Agriculture was
negle&ed ; commerce was fettered by enormous duties,
and the people were held in the chains of ignorance and
fuperftition.
Charles II. was fucceeded by Philip V. duke of An¬
jou, and grandfon to Louis XIV. of France, who had
been nominated heir to the Spanifh throne by the late
monarch. The tranfa&ions of the war which was foon
declared againft France and Spain, by England, Hol¬
land, and the empire, affifted by Savoy, Portugal, and
Pruflia, have been already related under the article Bri¬
tain, from N° 345 to N° 371. The treaty of Utrecht,
which terminated the differences between the principal
contending powers, was figned in 17I3’ an^ a
permanent peace rvas concluded between Spain and Por¬
tugal. Hoftilities, however, ftill continued with Savoy
and Sardinia, and in I7I5 ifiancl °f Sardinia was
taken by a Spanifh fleet, and the year following another
fleet belonging to the fame nation invaded Sicily, but
was defeated by the Britilh admiral Byng. By a new
treaty in 1720, Sardinia was given to the duke of
Savoy, and Sicily to the emperor •, and by the treaty of
Seville, concluded in 1729, the duchies of Fufcany,
Parma, and Placentia, were ceded to Spain. In I731’
the Spanifli king invaded Naples, took poffeflion of that
kingdom, and conferred it on his fon Don Carlos, in
confequence of which war was declared between Spain
and the empire in 1733* en^ that year the
palace of Madrid was confirmed by fire, and all the ar¬
chives relating to the Indies perifhed in the flames.
In 1739? hoftilities were renewed between Spain and
Britain, (fee Britain, N° 403) j but the only fuccef-
fes acquired by the latter power were the capture of
Porto Bello by Admiral Vernon, and that of the Ma¬
nilla galeon by Commodore Anfon. After a long and
turbulent reign, Philip V. died in 1746.
Ferdinand VI. a mild, prudent, and beneficent prince,
reformed abufes in the adminiftration of juftice, and ma¬
nagement of the finances. He revived commerce, eftab-
lifhed manufactures, and promoted the profperity of his
kingdom. In April A. D. 1755, Quito in South A-
merica was deftroyed by an earthquake.
Charles III. fiicceeded Ferdinand in 1759* The fa¬
mous family corapaCI was concluded at Verfailles, A. D.
1761, among the four kings of the houfe of Bourbon. I he
Englilh, alarmed by the naval preparations of Spain, de¬
clared war in 1762 (fee Britain, N° 450), and took
2 ] SPA
Havannah in the ifland of Cuba, and Manilla in the Spam,
Eaft Indies. Notwithftanding tins fuccefs, peace was'"'“V-''
haftily concluded at Fountainbleau, in November, by
which the Havannah was reftored. in 1767 the Jefuits
Were expelled from Spain. An unfucceisful expedition
was concerted againft Algiers, A. D. 1775, the parti¬
culars of which are related in M. Swinburne’s Travels,
letter v. In the war between Great Britain and her
American colonies, Spain, by the intrigues of the French
court, was prevailed on to take up arms in fupport of
the latter. At the conelufion of that calamitous war,
Great Britain, in a treaty with Spain, ceded to this
power, Eaft and Weft Florida, and the iiland of Mi¬
norca. Charles died in 1788, and was fucceeded by his
fecond fon Charles Anthony prince of Afturias, the
el deft having been declared incapable of inheriting the
crown. ,176
Charles IV. had not been long feated on the throne Charles:
before the portentous revolution in France involved Eu- An. 17!;.
rope in a general feene ot political and military conteft.
The king of Spain joined the general confederacy againft:
the new republic, and in conlequence was numbered
among the objedts of its refentment, by a declaration of
war in 1793- The military operations of Spain, how-Engages
ever, were extremely languid 5 and after two campaigns, the confe-
in which (he might be faid to carry on rather a defen-
five than offeniive war, againft the republican armies p°ance
(fee France, N° 41 i), Ihe was compelled to conclude An. 179
a treaty of peace, which was figned at Bafil on the
22d July 1795. By this treaty the French republic
reftored to the king of Spain all the conquefts which ftie
had made from him fince the commencement of hoftili¬
ties, and received in exchange all right and property in
the Spanifli part of St Domingo. _
This treaty rvas foon followed by a rupture with War be-
Great Britain. On 5th Odtober 1796, the court oftwecnSp
Spain publiflied a manifefto againft this country,
which the court of London made a fpirited reply •, and ‘ 1
about the fame time was publifhed a treaty of uftenfive
and defenfive alliance, which had been concluded about
two months before, between the king of Spain and the
French republic. In the war which followed between
Spain and Great Britain, his Catholic majefty could
boaft of but little honour or fuccefs ; and the French re¬
public gained little from its new ally, but the contribu¬
tions of money, which ftie from time to time compelled
him to advance. On the 14th of February 1797. a An. 17s
Spanifli fleet of 27 fail of the line was defeated by Sir
John Jervis off Cape St Vincent (fee France, N° 4^2) i
and four of the Spanifti line of battle fliips were left in
the hands of the vigors. From this time till the tem¬
porary termination of hoftilities by the peace ot Amiens
in 1802, there is nothing remarkable in the tranfaflions
of Spain. # „ I
On the renewal of the war in 1803, Spain was again An.
compelled, by the overbearing power of France, to take
an aftive part againft Great Britain, and fitted out a
formidable fleet, which was united to a confiderable
naval force of the new-made emperor of the French.
The Spanifli declaration of war againft Britain is dated
at Madrid on the 12th of December 1804; and on the
2ift of Oflober 1805, the combined fleets of France An. 1S05
and Spain were nearly annihilated by Lord Nelfon’s de-
cifive victory off Cape Trafalgar.
After this terrible blow to the naval power of Spain,
nothing.
SPA
[ S
nothing of importance took place till 1808, when the
defigns of Bonaparte againft the independence of Spain,
which had been long fufpedted, were openly avowed, in
favour ofconkquence °f a domeftic difpute, probably fomented
e prince by the emLTaries of France, which took place between
Afturias. Charles IV. and the prince of Ailurias. During the
h. 1808. winter of 1807-8 the public .mind in Spain had been
greatly agitated. Some accufed the prince of the Peace,
Don Manuel Godoy, (who had long held the helm of
date, and was the richeft and mod porverful fubjedt in
the kingdom), of having concerted with the queen to
deflroy the prince of Afturias. Others accufed the prince
of Afturias of being at the head of a party to dethrone
his father. Solemn councils and long proceedings, fol¬
lowed up by exiles and violent adls, far from calming
opinions, ferved to agitate them ftill more.
In March 1808, feveral difturbanees happened at
Aranjuez. Thefe difturbances were excited by a report
that the royal family were about to quit Spain and emi¬
grate to America. In confequence of this report, the
populace of the neighbouring villages repaired in crowds
to Aranjuez, where they found the attendants of the
court packing up the baggage of the royal houfehold ;
and underftood that relays of horfes were ftationed on
the road to Seville, and that every thing was prepared
for the departure of the royal fugitives, who were to
take (hipping at that port. It was fufpedfed that Don
Manuel Godoy, or, as he has commonly been called,
the prince of the Peace, was the chief inftigator of
this unpopular meafure; and the fury of the people was
directed chiefly againft that nobleman, whofe palace they
attacked on the 18th of March. He, however, found
means to efcape for the prefent, but was afterwards ar-
refted in a garret of his own houfe. In the mean time
the king iiTued two decrees wdth a view to allay the po¬
pular ferment; but as this ftill continued, he on the
19th took the extraordinary refolution of abdicating the
throne in favour of the prince of Afturias. This refo¬
lution was made known by a royal decree, in which
Charles declared that, as his natural infirmities no long¬
er permitted him to fupport the weight of government,
and the re-eftablifhment of his health required a change
of climate, he had after the moft mature deliberation
refolved to abdicate his crown in favour of his heir the
prince of Afturias; and this refolution he declared to be
the refult of his own free will.
The new fovereign was accordingly proclaimed by
the title of Ferdinand Vll/and iflued an edidl confifca-
ting the effefts of Don Manuel Godoy, and announcing
the appointment of the duke of Infantado, a nobleman
defervedly popular for his talents and virtues, to the
prefidency of Caftile and the command of the royal
guards.
Thefe difturbances have commonly been attributed to
the machinations of the French emperor, who had gain¬
ed a complete afcendency over the weak Charles ; and
had rendered the prince of the Peace entirely fubfer-
vient to the views which he had formed on the inde¬
pendence and the liberties of Spain. How far this fup-
pofition is corredf, it is impoftible for us at this time to
determine ; but it is rendered probable by the acftive
meafures taken'about this time by Napoleon to awe by
a French force the Spanifh nation. Murat the grand
duke of Berg was at this time on his march towards the
capital with a body of French troops j and his march
180
tdinand
I.
23 ] SPA
was haftened by the information which he had received Spann-
of the tumults at Aranjuez. This general caufed it to -“"V—““
be intimated to Ferdinand, that the emperor of the
French was on his journey to Spain, and advifed him to
meet his mafter on the road. In the mean time he was
tampering with the felf-depofed monarch, whom lie af-
fured of the afliftance of Bonaparte in reinftating him on
the throne. Charles accordingly addrefled a letter to
Bonaparte, in which he contradidls the aflertion of his
decree of the 19th ; and declares that his abdication
was a meafure of compulfion ; and throws himfelf on the
protection of that great monarch, his friend and ally,
from whom alone he and his fubjeCts can hope to derive
tranquillity and happinefs. Igt
It appears to have been the defign of Murat to draw Defigns of
out of Spain the whole of the royal family, and in this Bonaparte
defign he completely fucceeded. Ferdinand fet out to ^ lentlence
meet Bonaparte, accompanied by the French general Sa- 0f Spain,
vary, and had advanced as far as Vittoria, where he was
left by Savary, and where he found himfelf lurrounded
by French troops. He was compelled to remain at Vit¬
toria, until Savary, who had proceeded to Bayonne,
where Bonaparte then was, ftiould return and intimate
to him the pleafure of his mafter. When the general
returned, he brought with him a letter from Napoleon
to Ferdinand. In this letter, which is addrefled to Fer-«
dinand as prince of Afturias, and not as king of Spain,
Bonaparte affured the prince, that the foie object of his
journey into Spain was to make fuch reforms in that
kingdom as would be agreeable to the public feelings.
Without pretending to judge refpeCting the late revo¬
lution, he cautions Ferdinand againft the danger to be
apprehended from fovereigns permitting their fubjefU
to take jultice into their own hands. After infinuating
his own power over the royal family of Spain, and ad¬
verting to the tumults that had taken place, in which
feme of his troops had fallen, he makes ufe of the fol¬
lowing expreflion, “ a few of my foldiers may be mur¬
dered ; but the fubjugation of Spain (hall be the confe¬
quence of it.”
Ferdinand confounded at the condufl of the French
emperor, and alarmed for his own perfonal fafety, was
compelled to proceed on his journey. When he arrived
at Bayonne he was received by the prince of Neufchatel
and Duroc, and was conduced to a place by no means
fuited to his rank or his charatfter as ally of Bonaparte.
He however dined with the emperor •, but after he had
retired, General Savary brought a meflage from his maf¬
ter, intimating his determination that the prefent royal
family of Spain (hould give up to him all right and ti¬
tle to the crown of that kingdom, and that they fliould
be fucceeded by a branch of his own family. Aftonifti-
ed at this intimation, Ferdinand fent his prime-minifter
Cevallos, to canvafs the matter with M. Champagny,
the confidential fecretary of Napoleon. The conference
was held in an apartment adjoining the cabinet of the
emperorj and, as it appeared, within his hearing : for
Yvdien Cevallos was arguing with great warmth and
ftrength of reafoning on the injuftice and even impolicy
of the propofed meafures, both he and Champagny were
ordered into the emperor’s prefence ; and the former was
reviled in the grofleft terms, branded with the appella¬
tion of a traitor, accufed of having maintained that the
recognition of Bonaparte was not neceffary to the vali¬
dity of his mafter’s title to the throne of Spain, and of
3 U 2 having
SPA [ 52+ 3 SPA
Saaia. having affirmed that if the French dared to attack the in-
dependence of the Spanifti monarchy, three hundred thou-
fand men would rife to defend it and repel the invaders.
After Napoleon had thus indulged the violence of his
temper, he entered in a harfli and arrogant ftyle on a
difcuffion of the points in difpute between his fecretary
and Cevallos j and finding that he could neither convince
nor filence the Spanifh minifter, he abruptly concluded
with the following peremptory declaration : “ I have a
fyflem of policy of my own •, you ought to adopt more
liberal ideas, to be lefs fufceptible on the point of hon¬
our, and not facrifice the profperity of Spain to the in-
tereft of the Houfe of Bourbon.” From this time the
deftiny of the Spanifti royal family was fixed. Ferdi¬
nand the monarch of the people’s choice w'as already a
captive, and,not many days elapfed before the reft of the
roval family was in the fame lituation. On the firft of
May, Ferdinand had made a conditional renunciation of
his crown in favour of his father, and on the fifth of the
fame month Bonaparte had a long converfation with
Charles the Fourth and his queen. Ferdinand was cal¬
led in by his father, to hear, in the prefence of him and
the queen, the difgufting and humiliating expreffions
which were uttered by the French emperor, expreffions
of fuch a nature, that Cevallos fays he dares not record
them. All the parties were feated except Ferdinand 5 he
was ordered by his father to make an abfolute renuncia¬
tion of the crown, on pain of being treated as an ufurper
and a confpirator againft the right of his parents. With
this requifition Ferdinand complied, and thus completed
the abdication of his family ; for it appeared that on the
preceding day Charles had executed the deed of refig-
nation, which transferred to the emperor of the French
his title to the crown of Spain, on confideration of receiv¬
ing during his life an annuity of eighty millions of reals,
of a dowry to his queen of two millions of reaF, and to
the infantes of Spain the annual fum of four hundred
thoufand livres.
Thus had Bonaparte effefled the transference of the
Spanifti nation from the Bourbon dynafty to his own fa¬
mily, fo far at leaft as that transference could be effec¬
ted by the formal renunciation in his favour of the royal
family, anfi by a ftrong but fufpicious recommendation
from them to the Spanifti nation to receive their new
fovereign, whoever he (hould be, with fubmiffion and
obedience. Filled as the annals of mankind are with
examples of treachery, perfidy, and violence, it would
be difficult to point out a deed which in every part of
its performance, in its own nature, or in the charafter of
the means by which it was effefted, bears fuch ftrong
marks of unjuft and lawlefs tyranny.
It was fdon underftood that Napoleon defigned the
croivn of Spain for his brother Jofeph, who had fume
time before been placed on the throne of Naples. In an
addrefs to the Spanifti nation, which Bonaparte publifti-
cd immediately after the abdication of Charles and Fer¬
dinand, he informed them that he did not mean to reign
over them in perfon, but that he would give them a fo¬
vereign every way refembling himfelf. In the begin¬
ning of June Jofeph Bonaparte arrived in the neighbour¬
hood of Bayonne, where he was received by a deputa¬
tion of the grandees of Spain and from the council of
Caftile, and prefen ted with a congratulatory addrefs,
written in the mod fulfome flyle of adulation, on his
acceffion to the Spanifti throne.
But though the nomination of Jofeph Bonaparte was Spain,
eafily effefted, it was not fo eafy to place him on the —<
throne in oppolition to the almoft unanimous will of the, 181
Spanifti nation. Ferdinand the Seventh was the darling a
of the people •, and his acceffion to the crown had beenimurreft;
hailed by them, both as placing them under the dominion the Sp;
of a beloved monarch, and as releafing them from theniar^s-
tyranny of Godoy, who was an objedt ot ahnoll univer-
fal deteftation. They had hitherto fubmitted with pa¬
tience to the influence and power of France, hopelefs of
refeuing themfelves while Charles poffeffed the throne,
and while the prince of the Peace diredled his councils-,
but the acceffion of Ferdinand, and the confequent dif-
grace of the favourite, had led them to hope that they
ftiould now find a fovereign willing to diredl and affift
their efforts to regain their independence. Under thefe
expedlations, a great part of the nation had come for¬
ward to offer their affillance in fupporting the claims of
the new monarch. The province of Catalonia, the moft
induftrious and the moft warlike of the Spanifti nation,
particularly diltinguiftied itlell by the promptitude and
extent of its offers. Soon alter Ferdinand had afeended
the throne, the captain-general of Catalonia, relying on
the well-known refources and difpofitions of the inhabi¬
tants, had come for ward with an offer ot a military force
of above a hundred thoufand men } and other provinces
Avould have followed this example, but Ferdinand had
difeouraged thefe military preparations, and appeared
willing to fubmit quietly to French bondage.
The fpirit which had animated the Spaniards thus
boldly to fupport their favourite fovereign, was not of a
nature to be chilled and repreffed by his timidity or
example. The hatred which they had conceived agair.ft
the French daily found frefli fources of nourifhment.
They faw Ferdinand, who had rejedfed their proffered
fervices left: he ftiould expofe himfelf to the lulpicion or
difpleafure of Bonaparte, enticed by deceit, or compelled
by violence, to relinquilh his kingdom and commit him¬
felf to the power of his enemy. They anticipated the
confequences, and prepared to refill them with vigour
and unanimity. The renunciation of the royal family
in favour of Bonaparte was no fooner known in Spain,
than the northern provinces burft into open infurredtion.
Afiurias and Gallicia fet the glorious example ; and it
was foon followed by almoft every part of Spain, not
immediately occupied or overawed by the armies of
France.
One of the firft: fteps taken by the leaders of the in-
furredlion was, to affemble the juntas or general affem-
blies of the provinces. When thefe were organized,
they iffued proclamations, calling on the Spaniards to
rife in defence of their fovereign, and in the affertion of
their own independence. Betides thefe proclamations
from the provincial juntas, addreffes were publiftied in
almoft very province by the leaders of the popular
caufe ; in particular, the province of Aragon was ad-
drefled by Palafox, a name celebrated in the annals of
the Spanifti revolution, in a bold and fpirited manifefto.
The junta of Seville, which affembled on the 27th of
May, formed itfetf into a fupreme junta of government,
caufed Ferdinand to be proclaimed king of Spain, took
poffeffion of the military ftores, and ifiued an order for
all males from 16 to 45, who had not children, to en¬
roll themfelves in the national armies.
It was natural that, when entering on fo determined
an:.
Spam.
184
itement
the
S P A
an oppofitlon to the meafures of Bonaparte
niards thould turn their eyes towards that nation, by
whom alone the ambitious views of that potentate had
been fuccefsfully combated. A peace and alliance with
Britain was evidently not only a meafure of policy, but
would afford them the moft effectual affiflahce in the
formidable druggie in which they were about to engage.
Accordingly, deputies were diipatched to Great Britain
from feveral of the provinces, to folicit the aid and
friendlhip of that country, and to concert meafures with
the Britifh miniftry for executing the plans which had
been contrived for freeing the kingdom from the French
yoke. The junta of Seville iffued a declaration of war
with France, and declared the Spani'h nation on terms
of peace and amity with Britain. The Spanith de¬
puties were empowered to folicit fupplies of arms, am¬
munition, clothing and money; but it wras thought that
a fupply of Britilli troops would be unneceffary, the
Spaniih patriots confidering themfelves as fully equal to
the defence of their country. The caufe of the Spanidi
patriots was eagerly embraced by the court of London,
and by the Britifli nation at large, and the moft adlive
meafures were quic kly taken to fend them effedlual aid.
While thefe preparations were making on the part of
the Spaniards, the French forces were collecting in
ench andgrea{- numbers, both on the frontiers, and in the neigh-
milb or‘bourhood of the capital. Above 25,000 men, under
the command of Beftieres and Laffoles, threatened the
provinces of Afturias and Bifcay, or occupied the plains
of Caftile. Ten thoufand men were fhut up in the
citadel of Barcelona ; and, to relieve them, a ftrong
body of French* troops had marched from the fron¬
tiers, and laid fiege to Zaragoza. A confiderable body
under General Moncey attacked the city of Valencia ;
while the grand duke of Berg, after having detached
General Dupont at the head of 20,000 men, to quiet
the infurreftion of the fouthern provinces, held Madrid
with about 15,000 troops. Junot, with about 25,000
men, had entered Portugal, and taken poffeffioh of the
capital. The whole French force at this time in Spain
cannot be computed at lefs than 100,000 men. Thefe
were oppofed by a very numerous, but undifcipliried
force, commanded by generals of acknowledged bra¬
very, but differing widely from each other in experience
and military prudence. General Palafox commanded
in Aragon ; General Caftanos in the fouthern provin-
181; ces ; and General Blake in the north.
I'ceffes The ftrft exertions of the Spanifh patriots were emi-
i nently fuccefsful, though they have been greatly exag¬
gerated in the newfpapers publifhed under authority of
the juntas. The harbour of Cadiz, which contained a
numerous and well-appointed fleet, was under the com¬
mand of the marquis de Solano, a man notorioufty at¬
tached to the French intereff ; and here lay a French
fleet, confifting of five (hips of the line and a frigate.
One of the firft: efforts of the patriots was, to obtain
poffeflion both of Cadiz and the French fleet, and in this
they completely fucceeded. Solano was arrefted and
put to death, and Don Morla was appointed in his
room. In the beginning of June the French fleet was
fummoned to furrender, and on the admiral’s refufal,
was furioufly attacked bv the batteries on fhore, and
obliged to capitulate. The force detached by Murat,
under Dupont, was attacked near Baylen on the
22d July by Major-general Reding, fecond in com-
sjjand under Caffanos, and after having been defeat-
4 •
pa.
its.
[ 52 S' 1 SPA 
the Spa- ed, was compelled to furrender at diferetion. The Spain^
French force befieging Zaragoza, was repeatedly attack- '~~'i *
ed by General Palafox, and buffered coniiderable Ioffes,
while that city held out with the moft heroic bravery.
Perhaps there are few inftancesin the annals of modern
warfare, in which fuch perfevering and iuccefsful cou¬
rage has been difplayed, as by the defenders of Zara¬
goza. All the means of attack which were in poffeffion
of the French, directed by the {kill with which their
long experience and iuccefs had fupplied them, were
made ufe of. The inhabitants were obliged continually
to be upon their guard, and to be prepared to refill the
moft unexpefted and feeret, as well as the moft open
and violent aflaults. The city was frequently bombard¬
ed in the middle of the night, at the fame time that the
gates were attempted to be forced, under cover of the
{hells. More than once the French got into fome
parts of the town; but they were received with fo much
coolnefs and bravery, that they were never able to pre-
ferve what they had with fo much difficulty and lofs
acquired. The women vif'd with their hufbands, funs,
and brothers, in the difplay of patriutifm and contempt
of danger: regardlefs of the hre of the enemy, they
ruftied into the very middle of the battle, adminifter-
ing fupport and refreftiment to the exhaufted and wound¬
ed, and animating, by their exhortations and example,
all ranks to fuch a difplay of firmnefs and bravery as
long fecured this important city. When it is recol-
ledled, that the attacks of the French were numerous
and varied, that they were conftantly repeated with
frefh, and generally with increafing forces, and that the
foie defence of the city retted with its fpirited inhabi¬
tants and the army of Palafox; fome idea may be formed
of the difficulties they muff have undergone and fur-
mounted, and of the glory to which they are fo juftly
entitled. The patriots had gained poffeflion of moft of
"the tea ports in the bay of Bifcay, and headed by the
biffiop of St Anderp, repulled the French in feveral at¬
tacks. The French force under General Moncey was
alfo repulfed before Valencia, and the patriots vvere
equally fuccefsful in feveral other quarters ; fo that by
the end of July there did not remain above 40,000
French forces within the Spanifti territory. iStf
In the meantime preparations were making at Madrid Arrival and
for the reception of the new fove reign Jofeph ; and Murat,
under pretence of ill health, quitted the capital, to give
way to the brother of his mailer. Jofeph Bonaparte
arrived at Madrid in the latter end of July, with a
guard of 10,000 men ; but foon after his arrival the
news of the defeat and capitulation of Dupont reached
Madrid, and threw the new court into the utmoft con-
fternation. They underftood that the victorious army
of Caftanos was on its march towards the capital; and if
he did not fpeediiy retire from fo dangerous a poiition,
King Jofeph dreaded either falling into the hands of the
conqueror of Dupont, or of being intercepted in his re¬
treat by the army of General Blake. In this fituation
lie.found himfelf under the neceflity of quitting the ca¬
pital which he had fo lately entered, and before the end
of the month he had reached Burgos m his precipitate
flight towards the frontiers. Thus, within the fpace
of two months, did the people of Spain behold their
country almoft entirely freed from the prefence of the
French ; and this glorious and happy iffue had been
brought about bv their own intrepidity. At a time
when their fituation was the moll difpiriting and for¬
lorn :
 s. PA Is
, ^Pa^n- lorn 3 wlten their king had been compelled to forfoke
4 them, and to make over his right to the throne to a
foreign potentate \ when they beheld fcarcely any
troops furrounding them on all fides, but thofe of that
potentate, they rofe in arms, and oppofed themfelves,
unfkilled as they were in war, and totally unprepared
for it, to a man before whom the mightieft empires in
Europe had fallen.
5everfes. The fucceffes of the Spanifli arms, though brilliant
and important, were but tranlient. The leaders of the
infurreftion appear to have been but ill calculated to
oppofe the fyftem of tallies which had been fo often
praftifed with fuccefs by the conqueror of Marengo, of
Jena, and of Aufteriitz. Though the conquefts of Au-
ftria and Pruflia had been effected by the fame fyftem
which the French were now purfuing in Spain, the mi¬
litary men of this kingdom were incapable of analyzing
them, or of adopting effectual meafures of oppofition or
defence. In a feries of about 30 bulletins, publilhed
from the French army of Spain, comprehending from
the beginning of November 1808 to the middle of
January 1809, we read of nothing but the rapid move¬
ments and fucceffes of the French, and the defeat and
annihilation of the beft appointed armies of the infur-
gents. In Gallicia, General Blake, after having with-
ffood the duke of Dantzick (Marihal Ney), in feveral
encounters, was at length defeated, and his army difper-
fed. A divifion of the army of Eftremadura, under
Count Belvider, which had marched from Madrid to
fupport the city of Burgos, was attacked and defeated
by a divifion of the French army under the dukes of
Iftria and Dalmatia ; while the army of Genei-al Caftanos
was in a great meafure difperfed, after a fevere conflidl:
'On the heights of Tudela. According to the French
account, the army of Caftanos confifted of 45,000 men.
It was oppofed by the duke of Montebello, and entirely
defeated, with the lofs of nearly 4000 killed, and 5000
taken prifoners.
In the meantime Bonaparte had entered Spain, and
taken the command of the French army. He advanced
by rapid marches towards Madrid, and at the end of
November his advanced guard reached the important
pafs of Somofierra. This pahs was defended by a body
of 13,000 Spaniards, with fixteen pieces of cannon.
They were attacked by the French under the duke of
Belluno, and after making a confiderable ftand, were
entirely defeated. On the 2d of December Bonaparte
arrived in the neighbourhood of Madrid, and on the
tSS 5th he was mafter of that capital.
ex- While the Spanifli patriots were thus purfuing their
peditions in plan of oppofition to French tyranny with various fuc-
fui'port of cef^ Britifh cabinet were fitting out formidable ex-
Batriots"1 ' petitions to the coafts of Spain and Portugal. The re-
fult of the expedition under Sir Harry Burrard and Sir
Arthur Wellefley, the battle of Vimiera, the convention
of Cintra, and the confequent evacuation of Portugal
by the French, in the month o^ Auguft 1808, have
been already noticed under Portugal, N° 49 and 50.
After thefe tranfaflions, the greater part of the Britifti
army under the command of Lieutenant-general Sir
John Moore, proceeded on their march to the frontiers
of Spain. The progrefs and operations of this army
will be detailed afterwards. About the middle of the
fame month, a body of 13,000 Britifti troops, under
the command of Sir David Baird, arrived at Corunna,
5
6 ] SPA
and proceeded through the interior of the country, in- Spain,,
tending to join Sir John Moor in the neighbourhood of'■““V'*
Madrid. A brigade of 10,000 men under General
Hope, reached that capital, and eftabliftied themfelves
at the Eieurial ; but on the approach of Bonaparte,
were under the neceftity of retiring. |
Experience has ftiown that in their military cam-Match oil
paigns on the "continent, Britifti forces ha^e to contend sir John 1
with numerous difficulties, furmountable only by the ut-^00ret:cI
molt prudence and vigilance on the part of the com-ua‘
manding officers, and by a confiderable degree of fldll
and forefight on that of the projectors of fuch under¬
takings. Never perhaps were thefe difficulties more fe-
verely felt than in the march of Sir John Moore from
Portugal to the centre of the Spanifti territory. It was
found that in whatever direction he might profeeute his
march, he would encounter either bad roads er fcan-
ty fupplies of provllions. In particular, the difficulty
of tranfporting the artillery over the Portuguefe moun¬
tains was extreme 5 and the Portuguefe at Lifbon were
either egregioufly ignorant of the ftate of the roads
which led through their own country to the Spanifli
frontiers, or were unwilling to communicate the infor¬
mation which they really poffeffed. Under thefe cir-
cumftances it was found neceffary to divide the Britifti
army ; and it was determined to fend forward one divi¬
fion confiding of 600O men under the command of
Lieutenant-General Hope, which u'as directed to march
by Elvas, to enter Spain by B.idajos, and to proceed
along the Madrid road by way of Efpinar. Another
divifion, confifting of tvTo brigades under General Paget,
was detached by way of Elvas and Alcantara, where it
ivas to pafs the Tagus. Two brigades under General
Beresford moved through Portugal by way of Coimbra
and Almeyda towards Salamanca, while three brigades
under General Frafer marched towards the frontiers of
Spain by Abrantes and Alroeyda.
Burgos had been recommended by the Spanifti govern¬
ment as the point of union for the Britifti troops, and Ma¬
drid and Valladolid were appointed for magazines. The
Britifti had been led to expert that they ivould find be-
tiveen 60,000 and 70,000 Spaniards affembled under Ge¬
neral Blake and the marquis de la Romana in the provin¬
ces of Afturias and Gallicia, and that a much greater
number ivas ready to co-operate with them under the
command of Caftanos on the front and left of the prin¬
cipal French pofition. The Spaniards had been repre-
fented as unanimous in their etithufiafm for the caufe of
liberty, and as ready to treat the Britifti troops as the
faviours of their country. How far this information
was correft, will be feen prefently.
In marching through the Portuguefe territory, the
troops firft encountered difficulties which they were not
prepared to expert. The contractor at Liibon, who
had agreed to fupply the divifions with rations on the
march, failed in his contract, and exceflive inconve¬
nience vras experienced from the want of money. The
divifions under Generals Frafer and Beresford were obli¬
ged to halt, and it was fome time before they could
again fet forward. The proceedings of the central jun-
ta, on which all the movements both of the Britifti and
Spanifli armies chiefly depended, were languid, tardy,
and irrefolute ; and before the Britifti troops could af-
femble in any force in Spain, the principal armies of
the patriots had been defeated and difperfed in almoft
every
s F A [ 527 ] ST P A
pain, every quarter. On the 8th of November Sir John
p 'Moore reached Almeyda. The weather was at this
time extremely unfavourable, and the troops were ex-
pofed to almoft inceffant rain. They entered Spain on
the nth of November, and on the 13th Sir John ar¬
rived with his advanced guard at Salamanca, where he
halted, intending to aflemble there all the troops which
were on their march through Portugal. While he re^
mained at Salamanca, he was informed that a confider-
able French force had affembled and taken poffeffion of
Valladolid, at the diftanee of only twenty leagues, by
which one of the places that had been intended for ma¬
gazines was loft. At this time Sir John had with him
only three brigades of infantry without artillery, and it
would be at leaft ten days before the whole of the divi-
fions could come up. He was thus expofed to almoft
an immediate attack by the French without any effec¬
tual fupport from the boafted patriotifm of the Spa¬
niards.
The fituation of affairs in Spain had now become ex¬
tremely critical^ and every account fent to Sir John
Moore by men of found judgment, was filled with con¬
vincing proofs that the Spanilh government had con¬
cealed from their ally the very defperate ftate of their
affairs. General Hope, by a long and tirefome march,
had reached the neighbourhood of Madrid, whence he
wrote a letter to Sir John, ftating that every branch
■was afteifted by the disjointed and inefficient con 11 ruc¬
tion of the government. On the 28th of November
Sir John was advertifed of the late defeat and difperfion
or Caftanos, and of the little probability there was of
his being able to march forward, fo as to effect any thing
of advantage. He therefore determined to fall back,
though this determination was evidently in oppofition to
the withes and advice of his officers. Frefti difpatches,
however, from the feat of government, diminilhing the
Ioffes which had been fuftained by the patriots, and ex-
aggerating the ardour with which the people were ac-
I tuated, induced him to delay his retreat, efpecially as
I he had now a complete, though-fmall corp-,, with caval¬
ry and artillery, and could, by a movement to the left,
eafily effedf a junction with Sir David Baird, while the
divifion under General Hope had, by rapid marches, ar¬
rived in the neighbourhood of Salamanca.
In addition to the mifreprefentations by which the
commanders of the Britifh forces, and the Britiffi envoy
at Aranjuez, had been deceived, they had now to con¬
tend with two defigning men, who, it foon appeared,
| were in the French intereft. Thefe were Don Mori a, the,
late governor of Cadiz, and a M. Charmilly. By the
machinations of thefe men, Mr Frere was led to advife,
and Sir John Moore ftrongly incited to undertake, bring¬
ing the whole of the Britifh force to the neighbourhood
of Madrid, where they would foon have been complete¬
ly within the power of the enemv. Though by thefe
arts Sir John was effedfually miffed, he did not fuffer
himfelf to be drawn into fo dangerous a fnare. He, how¬
ever, advanced beyond Salamanca, and fent forward the
referve and General Beresford’s brigade towards Toro
on the Douro, where they rvere to unite with the cavalry
under Lord Paget, who had advanced thither from Af-
torga. On December 12th, Lord Paget, with the
principal part of the cavalry, marched from Toro to
Fordefillas, while the brigade under General Stewart
moved from Arivolo. In the vicinity of Tordefillas,
near the village of Rtieda, the Britifh forces were firft Spai*.
oppofed by the French, a fmall party of whom were at- v*”
tacked and defeated.
While Sir John Moore was at Toro, he received in¬
telligence that the duke of Dalmatia was at Saldana
with a confiderable body of French troops, that Junot,
duke of Abrantes, was marching with another towards
Burgos, and that a third under the duke of Trevifo was
deltined for Zaragoza. He was very defirous that the
firft of thefe generals ffiould advance to meet him, and
with this view he had come forward to Toro, which he
reached on the 16th of December. He had hoped for
efte&ual affiltance from the corps commanded by the
marquis de la Romana, but he foon found that this ge¬
neral could render him no fupport. He had now re-
folved to threaten the communication between France
and Madrid5 and, if a favourable opportunity offered,-
to attack the duke of Dalmatia’s corps, or any of the
covering divifions that fhould prefent themfelves. Fie
forefaw that this would neeeffarily draw upon him a
large French force, and of courfe would prove an im¬
portant diverfion in favour of the Spaniards-, who would
by this means have the opportunity of collecting in the
fouth, and reftoring their affairs. The army was now
near the French pofition. The cavalry under Lord
Paget were puffied fo forward, that their patrols reached
as far as Valladolid, and had frequent fuccefsful Ikir-
mjffies with the enemy. Colonel Otway met a detach¬
ment of French cavalry, charged them, and made the
whole prifoners.
On the 18th of December, Sir John’s head-quarters--
were at Caitro Nuevo, and Sir David Baird’s at Bene-
vente, on the road to join. him. On the 2Cth Sir John
reached Majorga, where he was joined by Sir David
Baird. The united Britiffi army now amounted to ra¬
ther fewer than 26,000 men, of whom about 2000 were
cavalry. The weather was extremely cold, and the
ground covered with deep fnow. Still the exertions of
the troops were indefatigable, and the cavalry in parti¬
cular attacked and defeated a confiderabie body of
French horfe. On the 21ft the army reached Sahagun,
where Sir John eftabliffied his head-quarters, and deter¬
mined to halt for fome time, to refreffi Ins troops, after-
th& fatigues which they had undergone.
Sir John had now arrived within a very fliort difiance
from Saldana, where the duke of Dalmatia was polled,,
with the flower of the French army; and preparations
w ere made for an attack, which was waited for with all
the ardour and impatience which diftinguilh Britiffi
troops* In the mean time, however, repeated couriers
arrived at head quarters, the bearers of unpleafant in¬
telligence. Certain information w’as received, that a
ftrong French reinforcement had arrived at Carrion, a
little to the right of Sahagun, that the French corps,
which was marching to the fouth, had halted at Tala-
vera, and that the enemy were advancing from Madrid
in confiderable force. Sir John now fan' that his mo¬
tions had been watched by Bonaparte, and that all the
arts of this experienced general had been preparing to
entrap him. To advance was madnefs; to retreat, al¬
moft in the face of an enemy, was a meafure of the ut-
moft danger, but it was the only alternative.
On the 24th of December Sir John began filently His retreat,
and fecretly to prepare for his retreat, and to provide,
as far as poffible^ for the defence of thofe parts of the
country
SPA f 52
Spain. country winch were ftill held by the patriots. With
this latter view, he directed Sir David Baird to take
the route towards Valencia dc Dun Juan, while the reft
of the army was to proceed by Caftro Gonzalo. By
this divifion the magazines and ftores which had been
depoiited at Benevente and Zamora, were alfo effec¬
tually fecured,
According to the arrangement made, General Fra-
fer, followed by General Hope, marched with their di-
vifions on The 24th December to Valderos and Ma-
jorga, and Sir David Baird proceeded with his to Va¬
lencia. To conceal this movement, Lord Paget was
ordered to puth on ftrong patrols of cavalry clofe to
the advanced polls of the enemy. The referve, with
two light corps, did not retire from Sahagun till the
morning of the 25th, following General Hope. Lord
Paget was ordered to remain with the cavalry until
evening, and then follow the referve. Thefe laft were
accompanied by Sir John. The retreat commenced in
this deliberate manner. On the 26th of December, Sir
David Baird reached the Ellar, and paffed the ferry
with lefs difficulty than was expected. He took poll,
according to his orders, at Valencia, and wrote to the
marquis of Romana, urging him to blow up the bridge
of Manfilla. The other divifions of infantry proceeded
unmolefted to Callro Gonzalo. On the 24th the ad¬
vanced guard of Bonaparte’s army marched from Tor-
defillas, 120 miles from Madrid, and ftrong detach¬
ments of cavalry had been pufhed forward to Villalpan-
do and Majorga. On the 26th, Lord Paget fell in
with one of thofe detachments at the latter place. His
lordlhip immediately ordered Colonel Leigh, with two
fquadrons of the loth huffars, to attack this corps,
which had halted on the fummit of a fteep hill. One
of Colonel Leigh’s fquadrons was kept in referve ; the
other rode brilkly up the hill $ on approaching the top,
where the ground was rugged, the colonel judicioufiy
reined-in to refrelh the horfes, though expofed to a fe-
vere fire from the enemy. When he had nearly gained
the fummit, and the horfes had recovered their breath,
he charged boldly and overthrew the enemy 5 many of
whom were killed and wounded, and above 100 fur-
rendered prifoners. Nothing could exceed the coolnefs
and gallantry difplayed by the Britilffi cavalry on this
occafion. The 18th dragoons had fignalized them-
felves in feveral former fkirmilhes 5 they were fuccefs-
ful in fix different attacks. Captain Jones, when at
Palencia, had even ventured to charge 100 French dra¬
goons with only 30 Britiih •, 14 of the enemy were kill¬
ed, and fix taken prifoners. The cavalry, the horfe-ar-
tillery, and a light corps, remained on the night of the
26th, at Caftro Gonzalo •, and the divifions under Ge¬
nerals Hope and Frafer marched to Benevente. On
the 27th, the rear guard croffed the Ellar, and follow¬
ed the fame route, after completely blowing up the
bridge.
We fhall not attempt anv farther detail of this dan¬
gerous and calamitous retreat, in which our army fuf-
fered extremely, from the fatigues of conftant marching,
from the badnefi of the weather, and even from the bru¬
tal; ty of the Spaniards, in whofe-caufe they had em¬
barked. Before they reached Aftorgu, it was found
neccffary to divide the army. A body of 3000 men,
under Brigadier general Crawford, was detached on
the road to Oxenfe towards Vigo, while the main
s ] Spa
body^ under the Command of Sir John Moore, marched SpaLr
by Aftorga and Lugo, on the road to Corunna. i hey
left Aftorga on the 30th of December, and on the 1 ith An. i!c:
of January came in light of Corunna. The army had
now reached the fea port from which they were to em¬
bark, but adverfe winds had detained the tranfports, or
the whole of the troops would have been Ipeedily and
fafely on board. Only a few (hips lay in the harbour,
and in thefe feme lick men and a few itragglers, under
pretence of fieknefs, had immediately embarked.
During the whole march from Sahagun to Corunna, Clofdy;
the Britiih army was clofely followed by the French, lowed h.
under Bonaparte and the duke of Dalmatia *, and the Be:
two armies were often fo near each other, that the
French patrols fell in, during the night, with the ca¬
valry piquets of the Britiih. The duke of Dalmatia
had joined Bonaparte at Aftorga, and had increafed his
force to nearly 70,000 men, while the whole force of
the Britifh did not exceed 26,000. When Sir John’s
army reached Lugo, it was found that three divifions of
the French were arranged in front, and it was thought
advifable, on the 8th of January, to offer the enemy
battle. This offer, however, the French thought pro¬
per to decline, and the duke of Dalmatia ftirred not
from bis poft. When the army reached Corunna, the
French were far in the rear, and it was hoped that the
tranfports might arrive before the enemy could come up.
The retreat of the Britiih, confidering the circum-
ftances under which it was effefted, was a brilliant and
fuccefsful achievement. Two hundred and fifty miles
of country had been traverfed in 11 days, during the
worft feafon of the year, through bad roads, over moun¬
tains, defiles, and rivers, and in almoft daily contaft
with an enemy nearly three times their numbers.
Though often engaged, the rear guard of the Britiih
had never been beaten, nor even thrown into confufion.
Many Ioffes had indeed been fuftained, in baggage, ar¬
tillery, and horfes, and many ftragglers had fallen into
the hands of the enemy ; but neither Napoleon nor the
duke of Dalmatia couldboaft of a fingle military trophy
taken from the retreating army. The greateft danger
was ilill to be incurred ; the pofition of Corunna was
found to be extremely unfavourable 5 the tranfports had
not arrived, and the enemy began to appear upon the
heights. The fituation of the army was by moft of the
officers thought fo defperate, that they advifed the ge¬
neral to propofe terms to the duke of Dalmatia, that
they might be fuffered to embark unmolefted 5 but this
advice Sir John, without hefitation, rejefted.
On the 1 2th of January, the French were feen mov¬
ing in confiderable force on the oppofite fide of the river
Mero. They took up a pofition near the village of
Perillo, on the left flank of the Eritiffi, and occupied
the houfes along the river. In the mean time Sir John
was inceff&ntly occupied in preparing for the defence of
his poft, and in making every arrangement for the em¬
barkation of the troops. ^
On the 13th, Sir David Baird marched out of Co-p0litiono
runna with his divifion, and took poft on a rifing Jie ajmyj
ground, where he determined to remain all night. A
divifion under General Hope was fent to occupy a hill
on the left, which commanded the road to Betanzos,
forming a femicircle with Sir David Baird’s divifion on
the right. General Frafer’s divifion was drawn up near
the road to Vigo, about half a mile from Corunna, and.
communicated
SPA
Spain, communicated with that under Sir David Baird, by
r-Y  means of the rifle corps attached to the latter, which
formed a chain acrofs the valley. The referve under
Major-general Paget occupied a village on the Betanzos
; road, about half a mile from the rear of General Hope.
The higher grounds on the rear and flanks of the Britifli
were pofleffed by the French, a fituation which gave the
latter a coniiderable advantage.
In the evening the tranfports from Vigo hove in
fight; but the enemy was now fo near, and had, during
this day, fliown fo much difpofition to molefl: the Britilh,
that a general aftion was become inevitable. On the
15th, the enemy had advanced to a height where, the
day before, a magazine, containing nearly 4000 barrels
of gunpowder, had been blown up, and which Avas
immediately oppofite to the pofition of the Britilh. On
I93 this day fome Ikirmilhes took place,
ttleof On the 16th, every thing Avas prepared for a general
nmna. a<5Hon. Mod of the artillery had been embarked, as it
Avas found that, from the nature of the ground, much
artillery could not be employed with advantage. During
the 13th and 14th, the lick, the difmounted cavalry and
horfes, were alfo nearly all embarked. On the morning
of the 16th, the French on the hills Avere apparently
quiet, and it Avas hoped that the embarkation might be
effefted in the courfe of that night; but about noon the
enemy, who had in the morning received reinforce¬
ments, and had placed fome guns in front of the right
and left of his line, Avas obferved to be getting under
arms, to be moving troops towards his left flank, and
forming various columns of attack at that extremity of
the ftrong and commanding pofition which he had taken
on the 15th, in front of the Britifh line. This indica¬
tion of his intention Avas immediately fucceeded by a
rapid and determined attack on the divifion under Sir
David Baird, Avhich formed the right Aving, and was
the Aveakeft part of the line. The firft effort of the
enemy was met by Sir John Moore and Sir David Baird
at the head of the 42d regiment, and the brigade under
Lord William Bentinck. The village on the right be¬
came an objeft of obftinate conteft. While leading on
his divifion to fupport this pofition, Sir David had his
arm fliattered with a grape fliot.
Not long after, Avhile Sir John Moore Avas riding
from poll to poft, everywhere encouraging his troops,
and pointing out the molt advantageous opportunities
for attack or defence, his confpicuous fituation had ex-
pofed him to the fire of the enemy. A cannon-ball
ftruck his left fhoulder, and beat him to the ground.
He raifed himfelf, and fat up with an unaltered coun¬
tenance, looking intently at the Highlanders, Avho Avere
warmly engaged. Captain Hardinge threw himfelf
from his horfe, and took him by the hand •, then, ob-
ferving his anxiety, he told him the 42d were advan-
cing, upon which his countenance immediately bright¬
ened. His friend Colonel Graham noAV difmounted to
aflift him ; and, from the compofure of his features, en¬
tertained hopes that he was not even wounded : but ob-
ferving the horrid laceration and effufion of blood, he
rode off for furgeons. The general Avas carried from
the field on a blanket, by a fergeant of the 4 2d, and
fome foldiers. On the way he ordered Captain Har¬
dinge to report his Avound to General Hope, Avho af-
fumed the command. Many of the foldiers kneAV that
their tAvo chiefs were carried off: yet they conti-
Vol. XIX. Part II.
SPA
nued to fight with undiminilhed courage ; and, by the
moil determined bravery, not only repelled every at¬
tempt of the enemy to gain ground, but actually forced
him to retire, though he had brought up frefli troops in
fupport of thofe originally engaged.
The enemy finding himfelf foiled in every attempt to
force the right of the pofition, endeavoured by numbers
to turn it. A judicious and Avell-timed movement,
Avhich Avas made by Major-general Paget, Avith the re¬
ferve, Avhieh corps had moved out of its cantonments
to fupport the right of the army, by a vigorous attack,
defeated this intention. The major-general having
pufhed fonvard the 95th (rifle corps} and iff battalion
5 2d regiment, drove the enemy before him ; and, in
his rapid and judicious advance, threatened the left
of the enemy’s pofition. This circumftance, Avith the
pofition of Lieutenant-general Frafer’s divifion (calcu¬
lated to give ftill farther fecurity to the right of the
line) induced the enemy to relax his efforts in that
quarter. They were, hoAvever, more forcibly direfted
towards the centre, Avhere they Avere again fuccefsfully
refilled by the brigade under Major-general Manning-
ham, forming the left of Sir David Baird’s divifion, and
a part of that under Major-general Leith, forming the
right of the divifion under General Hope. Upon the
left the enemy at firfl: contented himfelf with an attack
upon our picquets, which, however, in general, main¬
tained their ground. Finding, however, his efforts un¬
availing on the right and centre, he teemed determined
to render the attack on the left more ferious, and had
fucceeded in obtaining poffeflion of the village through
Avhich the great road to Madrid paffes, and Avhich Avas
fituated in front of that part of the line. From this
point, hoAvever, he Avas foon expelled Avith confiderable
lofs, by a gallant attack of fome companies of the 2d
battalion of the 14th regiment, under Lieutenant colonel
Nicholls. Before five in the evening, the Britifh had
not. only fuccefsfully repelled every attack made upon the
pofition, but had gained ground in almoff all points, and
occupied a more forward line than at the commencement
of the action, wbilft the enemy confined his operations to
a cannonade, and the fire of his light troops, Avith a vJcav
to draw off his other corps. At fix the firing ceafed.
The different brigades Avere reaffembled on the ground
which they occupied in the morning, and the picquets
and advanced polls refumed their original flat ions.
Notwithftanding the decided and marked fuperiority
Avhich at this moment the gallantry of the troops had
given them over an enemy, Avho, from his numbers and
the commanding advantages of his pofition, no doubt
expected an eafy victory, General Hope did not, on re¬
viewing all circumftanees, conceive that he fliould be
Avarranted in departing from Avhat he knevv Avas the pre¬
vious and fixed determination of the late commander of
the forces, to withdraAV the army on the evening of the
16th, for the purpofe of embarkation, the previous ar¬
rangements for which had already been made by his or¬
der, and were in fa6! far advanced at the commence¬
ment of the action. The troops quitted their pofition
about JO at night, Avith a degree of order that did them
credit. The artillery that remained unembarked, hav¬
ing been withdraAvn, the troops followed in the order
preferibed, and marched to their refpe&ive points of
embarkation in the town and neighbourhood of Co¬
runna. The picquets remained at their polls till five in
3 X the
[ 529 1
"Spain.
i—v_
SPA. [ 530 ] SPA
17th, when they were alfo with- daunted valour of BrititU troops was never move eon-
fpicuou?.
At daybieak on the 18th, the Englilh convoy was
under fail, and on the 19th it had entirely left the Sgaf-
the morning of the
drawn with fimilar order, and without the movement
having been dilcovered by the enemy.
Bv the miremitted exertion of the captains of the
royal navy, who had been entrufted with the lex vice of
embarking the army, and in confequence of the arrange¬
ments made by the agents fur tranlports, the whole of
the forces were embarked with an expedition which has
been feldom equalled. The brigades under Major-ge¬
nerals Hill and Beresford were deftined to remain till
daylight, in order to watch the movements of the ene¬
my. The brigade under General Beresford, which rvas
alternately to form the rear-guard, occupied the land
in front of Corunna, while that under General Hill was
ftationed on the promontory in the rear of the town by
way of referve.
The enemy pufhed his light troops towards the town,
foon after eight o’clock in the morning of the 17th, and
fhortly after occupied the heights of St Lucia, which
commanded the harbour. But notwithllanding t his cir-
cumftance, and the manifold defeats of the place, there
being no apprehenfion that the rear-guard could be for¬
ced, and the difpolition of the Spaniards appearing to
be good, the embarkation of Major-general Hill’s bri¬
gade was commenced and completed by three in the af¬
ternoon. After having fully explained, to the fatisfac-
tion of the Spanilh governor, the nature of the move¬
ment, and having made every previous arrangement,
General Beresford withdrew his corps from the land in
front of the town foon after dark, and was, with all the
wounded that had not previoully been removed, fafely
embarked before one o’clock of the morning of the
-18th.
In this a£Hon the Britilh troops had come off with
glory, and there can be no doubt, from the repulfe of
the French forces, and their fubfequent inaflivity, that
the honour of the viftory belonged to the Britilh. The
victory had indeed coll them dear. They had loll one
of their bell generals ; and probably nearly 1000 men
had been killed.or wounded during the aflion. It had
been achieved at the termination of a long and haraffing
ferviee. The fuperior numbers, and advantageous po¬
sition of the enemy, not lefs than the adlual fituation of
the Britilh army, did not admit of any advantage being
reaped from fuceefs. The lullre of the Britilh arms
had, however, been maintained under the mod difad-
vantageous circumdances. The army which had enter¬
ed Spain amidtl the faired profpedds, had no fooner
completed its junclion, than owing to the multiplied dif-
afters that difperfed the native armies around it, it was
left to its own refources. The advance of the Britilh
troops from the Douro afforded the bed hope, that the
fouth of Spain might be relieved •, but this generous
effort to fave an unfortunate people, alio afforded the
enemy the opportunity of direfling every effort of his
numerous troops, and concentrating all his principal re¬
fources for the dellruflion of the only regular force in
the north of Spain. T'hefe circumdances had produced
the neceffity of rapid and haraffing marches, which had
diminidred the numbers, exhaudtd the drengtb, and im¬
paired the equipment of the army. Notwithdanding
all thefe difad vantages, and thofe more immediately at¬
tached to a defenlive polition, which the imperious ne¬
ceffity of covering the harbour of Corunna, for a time,
liad rendered indifpenlable to affume, the native and un~
nilh coatls.
Notwithllanding the ill fuccefs which had thus att- SecontU-*.
tended the expedition under Sir John Moore, the Ipiritpedition
of patriotifm which appeared dill to a&uate the fouthernunder Sir
provides of Spain, and the hope that the commen caufe^™^*
might there be fupported to greater advantage, induced 1
the Britidr minidry to fend another military, farce to tho
wedern peninfula of Europe, to co-operate with the pa¬
triots who dill continued in arms. Accordingly a bo¬
dy of about 15,000 forces,, under the command of Sir.
Arthur Weiledey, wbofe bravery and good conduct in
the battle of Vimiera, had recommended him, in a par¬
ticular manner, both to the miniilry and the naiiorfy
was difpatched towards the coall of Portugal, where
Marlhal Beresford dill maintained a Britith force
while General Hill, with about 5000 infantry, and 400
cavalry, failed from Ireland with the fame dedinalion.
General Hill arrived at Lifbon on the 4th of April, and
foon after Sir Arthur landed with the main body. Onf
the 7th of April the army moved forward towards the.
Douro, and eroded that river during the night of the-
1 ith, a little above Oporto. Here they fell in with a>
French detachment from the army of the duke of Dal¬
matia, which they routed and put to flight, after &
fliort but well-conteded adlion.
After this adlion the duke of Dalmatia found it ne--
ceffary to retreat. He paffed through the defiles of Sa-
lamonde, and thus gained confiderably on the Britiflr;
army, though he was obliged to leave behind him part
of his artillery. On the 19th of May he was at Alla-'
ritz, and on the 2oth he continued his retreat aerofs.
the Minho, which he paffed at Orenfe, thus leaving
Portugal once more in poffeflion of the Britilh forces.
Sir Arthur Wellefley, after having remained for
fome time in the Portuguefe territory, to refrelh his'
men after the fatigues which they had undergone, ad¬
vanced into Spain, and effe&eda junction with General
Cuella, who then commanded a confiderable part o£
the remains of the patriotic army. In the latter end of
July, the allied army had advanced to Talavera de la
Reyna, in the neighbourhood of which they were en--
countered by a formidable French lorce, confiding ol a
corps commanded by Marlhal Victor, another under
General Sebaltiani, the guards of Jofeph Bonaparte,
amounting to 8000 men, and the garrifon of Madrid,
This large force was commanded by Jofeph Bonaparte
in perfon, affilted by Marlhals Jourdan and Viftor, and
General Sebaltiani. tp'
On the 27th of July, an attack was made by the French'Battie of
army on that of the allies, who had taken up their po-1 alavera.
lition at Talavera. The attack was vigorous, but was-'
repelled with great fpirit and fuecefs, though not with--
out confiderable lofs on the part of the Britiffn
The defeat of this attempt-Avas followed about noon
of the 28th by a general attack of the enemy’s Avhole
force, on the whole of that part of the pofition which-
Avas occupied by the Britilh army. I he general attack
began by the march of feveral columns of infantry into
the valley, Avith a vieAV to attack the height occupied
by Major general Hill. T hefe columns Avere immedi¬
ately charged by the ill German light dragoons, and
s p A [53
23d dragoons, under the command of General Anfon,
and fupported by General Fane’s brigade of heavy ar¬
tillery j and although the 23d dragoons fuffered confi-
derable lofj, the charge had the effeft of preventing
the execution of that part of the enemy’s plan. At the
fame time an attack was directed upon Erigadier-general
Alexander Campbell’s pofition in the centre of the com¬
bined armies, and on the right of the Britith. This at¬
tack was molt fuccefsfully repulfed by Brigadier-general
Campbell, fupported by the king’s regiment of Spanith
cavalry, and two battalions of Spanifh infantry j and
the allies were left in pofleffion of the enemy’s cannon.
An attack was alfo made at the fame time on Lieute¬
nant-general Sherbrooke’s divifion, which was on the
left and centre of the firft line of the Britifh army.
This attack was moft gallantly repulfed by a charge
with bayonets, by the whole divifion j but the brigade
of guards which were on the right, having advanced too
far, were expofed on their left flank to the fire of the
enemy’s battery, and of their retiring columns ; and the
divifion was obliged to retire towards the original pofi¬
tion, under cover of the fecond line of General Cotton’s
brigade of cavalry, which had moved from the centre,
and the ill battalion 48th regiment. This regiment
was removed from its original pofition on the heights,
as foon as the advance of the guards was perceived, and
formed in the plain ; it advanced upon the enemy, and
coveredtheformationof Lieutenant-general Sherbrooke’s
divifion. Shortly after the repulfe of this general attack,
in which apparently all the enemy’s troops were em¬
ployed, he commenced his retreat acrofs the Alberche,
which was conduced in the moft regular manner, and
effefled during the night, leaving in the hands of the
Britilh 20 pieces of cannon, ammunition, tumbrils, and
fome prifoners.
Though the French were defeated in this engage¬
ment, and, according to Sir Arthur Wellefley’s account,
muft have loft at leaf! 10,000 men, the lofs of the Bri¬
tifh was very great. By the official returns it is ftated
to exceed 5000, namely, in killed, 34 officers, 28 fer-
geants, 2 drummers, and 735 rank and file 5 in wound-
ed 195 officers, 165 fergeants, 16 drummers, and 3537
rank and file ; and in miffing 9 officers, 15 fergeants, 9
drummers, and 620 rank and file. The aiftion, though
brilliant, does not appear to have been attended with
much advantage to the allies, as, from the reinforce¬
ments which the French army was daily receiving, Sir
Arthur Wellefley (nowT Lord Wellington) was foon
compelled to fall back towards the frontiers of Portu¬
gal, leaving behind him much of his baggage, and the
whole of his lick and wounded. It muft be recorded to
the honour of the French commander, into whofe hands
thefe unfortunate men had fallen, that, in confequence
of a reprefentation in their favour bv Lord Wellington,
he treated them with the utmoft humanity, and afford¬
ed them every accommodation which the nature of their
fituation admitted.
Since the battle of Talavera, nothing of importance
has tranfpired refpe&ing the ftate of affairs in Spain. It
appears that the patriots ftill continue to make a ftand
Spam.
i5>6T
i ] SPA
againft their invaders ; but it cannot be expected that
their oppofition fhall be ultimately attended with fuc-
cefs. The refources of the French are fo numerous and
extenfive, and the force which he is able to draw to¬
wards the Spanifh peninfula, has been fo much increafed
in confequence of the peace lately concluded between
France and Auftria, that the liberties of Spain muft,
we fear, fall a facrifice, and that kingdom muft contri¬
bute to fwell the already exorbitant power of the houfe
of Bonaparte (a).
We fhall conclude the hiftorical part of this article*^ummary
with a fummary recapitulation of the principal revolu-slew-^f
tions which have taken place in Spain. hiitoiy!
From the year 240 B. C. to the year 206 B. C.
Spain was in fome degree under the dominion of the
Carthaginians. From the year 206 B. C. to the com¬
mencement of the fifth century of the Chriftian era,
it continued almoft entirely in poffeffion of the Romans.
The Goths reigned in Spain from the year 411 to 711 ;
the Moors from the year 711 till 716, in part of the
Afturias •, till 820 in Catalonia j till 750 in Sobrarba ;
till 923 in Leon ; till 1073 in different parts of the two
Caftiles; till 1118 in Aragon; till 1236 in Cordova
and Jaen ; till 1248 in Seville ; till 1264 in the king¬
dom of Valencia ; till r 265 in that of Murcia ; and even
fo late as 1492 in Granada. During the wars againft
the Mours, the Goths reigned in the Afturias, Gallicia,
and, finally, in the kingdom of Leon till 1038.
The houfe of Navarre, defcended from the French
houfe of Bigorre, which had previoufly reigned in Ca-
ftile for 10 years, united with it the crown of Leon till
the year 1126. This was fueceeded by the family of
Bourbon, defcended from the royal family of France,
which reigned over thefe countries till 1555. The
houfe of Charlemagne, a French family defcended from
that prince, ruled over Catalonia from the year 802 till
1132. The French family of Bigorre firft reigned in
Sobrarba, and afterwards in Aragon from the year
750 to 1162; at that period the French family of Bar¬
celona fucceeded to the government, and united to the
crown of Aragon that of Catalonia, and afterwards the
kingdom of Valencia, over which it reigned till the
year 1430. Thefe parts of Spain then came into the
poffeffion of the princes of the French branch of Na¬
varre, which reigned in CaftiLe, and continued in their
defeendants to 151 5 ; at which time the different ftates
of the Spanifli monarchy were united under the govern¬
ment of Joanna the Foolifli, who reigned over them till
her death, which happened in 1555. The Auftrian fa¬
mily then poffeffed the throne till 1700, fince which
time it has been occupied by a branch of the houfe of
Bourbon, till the late revolution, by placing the Spanifh
monarchs in the power of the French, has given, rife to a
new dynafty of princes in the perfon of Jofepb Bonaparte.
The earlieft Spanifh antiquities which can be with Antiaufties
certainty afeertained, belong to the Roman period ; and
of thefe the examples are extremely numerous. They
abound in tne provinces of Catalonia, Valencia, and
thofe which border on the Pyrenees. We cannot here
enumerate, much lefs deferibe, all the remains of Roman
3 2 antiquity
l ir ^ ^ PTedlTftl°’1 « n°t yet verified. The French, exceptinga fmall army in Catalonia, have been totally exnel
led from Spam. Lord \\ ellmgton lias entered France, and forced the French lines on their own foil (Oclcber i 813.)
SPA
[ 532 ]
SPA
Spain, antiquity mentioned by Swinburne, Townfend, De La-
' horde, and other travellers in Spain. The moft remark¬
able are, the aqueduct at Stjgovia, in Old Caftile,
confilting of 159 arches, extending about 740 yards,
and being at lealt 94 feet high, where it croffes the
valley ; the amphitheatre of the ancient Saguntum, near
the modern Morviedro in Valencia, which was hewn
out of the folid rock, and appears to have been capable
of containing 10,000 fpeftators ; a fuperb Roman arch,
fupported by Corinthian pillars, and having a very lofty
gateway, not far from Tarragona ; a monument near
the fame place, fuppofed to be the tomb of the father
and uncle of Scipio Africanus ; and a confiderable am¬
phitheatre on an eminence near Seville. It is fuppofed
that the ancient city of Italica, built by Scipio Africa¬
nus for the reception of his wounded foldiers, flood near
this fpot 5 but we are affured by Mr Swinburne, that
no traces of it now remain.
Of the Gothic edifices, no certain remains are to be
found •, but the Moorifh antiquities are numerous and
fplendid. Of thefe, the moft remarkable are the palace
of the Alhambra in the city of Granada, and the mofque
of Cordova. Of the former wre have already given an
account under Alhambra. The mofque, now the cathe¬
dral of Cordova, was begun by Abdroulrahman I. caliph
of Cordova, and is computed to contain not fewer than
800 columns. The architecture of its doors, windows,
and arches, efpecially thofe of the chapel of the Koran,
at leaft equals that of the Alhambra in grandeur of de-
fign, and beauty of execution, and exceeds that palace
in variety of decoration. This fuperb edifice has been
minutely defcribed by Mr Swinburne, in his Travels into
Spain, Letter 35. Not far from Cordova flood the
magnificent city of Zehra, built by Abdoulrahman III.
and which is faid to have employed 25 years in building,
and to have coft more than 2,500,000!. of our prefent
fterling money. In this city was a palace containing
1173 columns, of African, Spanifli, Italian, and Afia-
tic marbles. This fplendid palace, and tire city in which
it flood, were entirely deftroyed during the wars by
i93 which Spain was defolated in the middle ages.
Population It has been computed, that under the dominion of
of Spain. tbg Romans, Spain contained a population of nearly
yo,000,000 of people ; but this calculation is, by De
Laborde, diminifhed to 20,000,000.
At the clofe of the 14th century, the population is
ftated by moft Spanifh writers as follows :
In the ftates of Caftile, 11,000,000
States of Aragon, 7,700,000
Kingdom of Granada, 3,000,000
21,700,000
On what De Laborde deems better authority, he re¬
duces this number to x6,000,000.
In the reign of Ferdinand and Ifabella, at the end of
the I 5th century, the total population of Spain has ge¬
nerally been eftimated at 20,000,000, but this too is
reduced by Laborde to 14,000,000 or 15,000,000.
The population was reduced
in 1688 to - - 10,000,000
in 1700 - . . 8,000,000 Spain.
1715 - - - 6,600,000'“ v—
In 1768 it had rifen to - - 9,307,800
1788 - - - 10,143.975
According to the table of the provinces, collected
chiefly from De Laborde, it amounted, at the end of
the 18th century, to 10,308,505; by the laft cenfus,
taken in the years 1797 and 1798, the ftatements of
which have not been publifhed, but were lately locked!
up in the office belonging to the minifter of finance, it
appears that the population, at the end of the 18th cen^
tury, exceeded 12,000,000.
From thefe ftatements we obferve, that the population
of Spain had gradually diminifhed from its conqueft by
the Romans, to the reign of Philip V. In the beginning
of the 18th century ; but that during the laft hundred
years it has rapidly increafed.
Various caufes have been affigned for the remarkable
depopulation that had taken place in the Spanifh domi¬
nions. Perhaps the following by Dr Playfair are fuf-
ficiently plaufible. “ The peftilential fevers and epide¬
mical difeafes, which carried off one-third of the inhabi¬
tants in the year 1347, and have produced great morta¬
lity during the two laft centuries ; almoft inceffant
ftruggles for dominion, from 714 till the conqueft of
Granada, and union of the two crowns of Caftile and
Aragon ; the expulfion of about 400,000 Jews by Fer¬
dinand and Ifabella, and of 900,000 Moors, A. D.
1610 ; the difcovery of South America in 1493, which
has gradually drained the country of its inhabitants and
its induftry ; the calamities of war, during two centu¬
ries, from the acceffion of the emperor Charles V. ; the
form of government, and national prejudices, which dif-
courage foreigners from fettling in the kingdom, and.
are inimical to manufactures, commerce, and agricul¬
ture ; the debauchery that prevails among all ranks ;
the great number of convents ; the celibacy of the cler¬
gy ; religious oppreffion, and numerous feftivals, which
leffen the number of working days, and fo abridge the
labour of the people.”
Of the number above ftated, the clergy are rekoned at
leaft 147,722 : viz. of fecular clergy, 60,240 ; of monks
49,270 ; of nuns and friars, 22,337, and of fubaltern
minifters of the church 15,875. The numbers of the
clergy have indeed diminiffied by more than 27,000, du¬
ring the laft 30 years of the 18th century, as in the
year 1768 they amounted to 176,057. ipp
According to a calculation in the year 1776, the cities, Number of
towns, villages, and hamlets, amounted to 84459 C-0) 3 i°V™S’g^" t
and public edifices and temples to 30,496.
It appears that there exift in Spain 2,628,557 indi¬
viduals of both fexes, who do not contribute, or at leaft
are not fuppofed to contribute, to the population. From
this view, and the progrefs we have already ftated, it
will be eafy to difcover, by comparative calculations
with the detailed ftatements of population in other coun¬
tries, the proportionate number of births, deaths, mar¬
riages, &c. which annually take place in Spain. 200
The Spanifh government, which was of a limited na-Govern-
ture, during the dynafties ef the kings of Caftile andnieIlt‘
Arason, afterwards became an abfolute monarchy. At
^ that
(d) In the year 1788, the number of villages xvas eftimated at 19,219 ; and that of pariffies at 20*080.
I
ues.
2
T
th.
s P A . [5
that period tlie royal prerogative was confined both by
' the exprefs tenor of the laws and the forms of their ad-
miniftration. The peculiar privileges of the two hates
of Caflile and Aragon continued to exift long after their
reunion ; but the royal authority was conftantly taking
umbrage at their exercife. The princes of the Auftrian
family did not openly attack them, but had recourfe to
the more.effctlualmethod of fecretly undermining them*,
and thus they were fo far diminifhed, that at the clofe of
the 17th century they amounted to little more than
mere forms. The attachment of Aragon to the caufe of
the archduke Charles, induced the firft fovereign of the
royal family of France to abolifh them entirely. Phi¬
lip V. having fubdued Aragon, fupprefled the ffates-ge-
neral, the latt meeting having been held at Zaragoza in
the year 1720, on which occafion Queen Ifabella of
Savoy prefided in the abfence of her huiband, who was
at that time in Italy. Since that period no further
power is left the Cortez of Caftile and Aragon, but the
privilege of nominating deputies to the ftates-general of
the kingdom, whenever they are fummoned by the mo¬
narch.
The whole authority, previous to the late revolution,
centered in the king and his minifters 5 the national af¬
fairs were conduced by the different councils, appointed
by the crown, which deliberated and formed their plans
in the capital. Some of thefe poffeffed both legiflative
and executive power, and exercifed the double fundtion
of advifing the king and adminiftering juftice. The
council of Caflile, in this diilribution of power, was
paramount *, its decrees being decifive in the courts, but
its judgments were under the controul of the king.
The refolutions were tranfmitted to the monarch by a
certain number of members, under the title of the Cham¬
ber of Cufile, whofe influence was prodigioufly great.
This council was fo denominated, becaufe the members
chofen by the king formerly co-operated with minifters
in expediting the affairs of ftate in the royal chamber,
and for this purpofe they attended the court wherever it
was held.
Befides the council of Caftile, there was the royal
and fupreme council of the Indies, invefted with the
fame powers, and exercifing fimilar fundlions with re-
fpedl to the American colonies, as the council of Caftile
with refpedl to the European territory.
It is not eafy to afcertain the amount of the revenues
under the late government. They arofe from a tax on
imports and exports ; from the chief objedls of internal
confumption ; from the monopolies of the crown : from
landed eftates ; from tythes of church and abbey lands 5
from the fale of indulgences *, and from the trade with
the American colonies. Their total amount has been
varioufly ftated. M. Jordan has computed it to exceed
7,000,0001. fterling *, by M. de Laborde, the revenues
for the European continent alone, are calculated to ex¬
ceed 8,ooo,oool. fterling.
It would be abfurd to attempt any eftimate of the
military ftrength of Spain in its prefent ftate of difor-
ganization and confufion. During the latter part of the
3 ^
Spain.
203
a ] S P A
18th century, the land forces in time of peace feldom
exceeded 50,000 ill difciplined troops 5 but in time of
Avar, the army was capable of being augmented to a for¬
midable force. In the year 1798 the Handing force
of the Spanifh monarchy amounted to 100,000 effective
men.
Till of late the Spanifh navy was highly refpeftable,
both as to ftrength and difcipline. In the y^ar 1778
the Spanifh fleet confifted of 148 veffels of all defcrip-
tions ; and of thefe more than 60 were thips of the line.
In 1788, the number of fhips of the line amounted to
68, and that of large frigates to 47. In the prefent
long conteft among the powers of Europe, the navy of
Spain has been greatly diminiihed ; and the only fleet
of any importance now exitling is that in the harbour
of Cadiz.
There are in Spain feveral orders of knighthood, or OrdersJof
as they are called, military orders. The principal is knighthood,
that of the Go/den Fleece, inftituted in the year 1430, by
Duke Philip the Good. The order of St Jago di Com-'
poftella was inftiluted by Ferdinand II. in the year
1175, and its badge is a red uniform crofs in twelve de¬
partments. The order of Calatrava, inftituted by San-
cho III. of Callile, has for its badge a red crofs in five
departments. The order of Alcantara was inftituted by
Ferdinand II.; and its badge is a lily placed crofsways.
The order of Montefa, inftituted in the year 1317, by
James III. king of Aragon, is compofed of 19 com-
manderies. 1
The money of Spain is either real or imaginary,' the Coins?"*
former ferving for the purpofe of exchange, the latter for
keeping accounts and tranfafting bufinefs. Both thefe are
common through the whole kingdom *, but feveral kinds
of both are to be found in the different provinces.
Two kinds of real money, both in gold and filver,
are diftinguithed in Spain ; the old, that is, fuch as were,
coined before the year 1772, and thofe coined fubfe-.
quent to that period. None of the former are uniform,,
but confift of fmall pieces of different fizes unequally
cut, and their currency is only by weight. The latter
uniformly bear the head of the fovereign on the obverfe,
and on the reverfe fide the arms of Spain 5 the ancient
gold coins are more intrinfically valuable than the mo¬
dern. The laft only will be here defcribed.
Modern Gold Coins.
Coins.
Durito
Efcudo chico de oro
Veniento de oro
Efcudo de oro
Doblon fenzillo
Doblon de oro
Doblon de quatre
Medio doblon de a
Media onza de oro
Doblon de ocho 1
Onza de oro $
}
}
Value in Sterling money.
4s. 2d. (E)
ocho
1
8s.
16s.
4d.
8d.
il. 13s. 4d.
3I. 6s.
8d.
Modern
(e) In computing the value of the Spanifti coins in fterling money, we have employed M. de Laborde’s tables ;
in which their value is eftimated in money tournois, computing the livre tournois at lod. fterling, and the fol at -Jd.
fterling. . ..
SPA
r 53+ 3 SPA
Spain.
Modern Silver Coins.
Coins.
Real
Real de vellon
Medio real de plata
Real de plata 1
Media pecata j
Pecata 1
Real de a dos §
Efcudo 1
Medio duro
Duro
Pezoduro
Real de a ocho
?
}
Value jn fterling money.
- - id¬
iot!.
- 2s. id.
- 4s. 2d.
205
Weights
and mea¬
sures.
The Spanilh weights and meafures vary confiderably
in different parts o£ the kingdom, as almoft every pro¬
vince has both peculiar to itfelf. The pound generally
confiffs of 16 ounces in that part of the kingdom former¬
ly belonging to the crown of Caftile, and of 12 ounces
in thole annexed to the crown of Aragon j viz. in Ara¬
gon, in the kingdom of Valencia, and in Catalonia ;
but the ounce is not the fame. We lhall here only par¬
ticularize the weights of Caftile.
In the Caftiles they reckon by charges, quintals, aro-
kas, arreldes, pounds, ounces, and drams. The follow¬
ing table gives the proportional value of the Caftilian
weights.
The charge-contain*
  quintal
—— aroba
——— arrelde
■—— pound
■ ounce
   dram
3 quintals
4 arobas
25 pounds
4 pounds
16 ounces
16 drams
30 grains
lb.
300
100
25
4
1
os.
o
o
o
o
o
!
—— gianr
The meafures are ftill more complicated than the
weights •, and efpecially the meafures of capacity will
require to be coniidered rather more in detail. We
ftiail, as ufual, diftinguilh them into long meafure, fupex-
ficial or Icind meafure, and mtafures of capacity.
Long meafure.—The ftandard lineal meafure in Spain
is the royal foot, confifting of 1531V0 lines \ and bear¬
ing to the Englifti foot the proportion of about 153 to
144, or of 17 to 16. This foot, however, is not in ge¬
neral ufe, almoft: every province having its own foot,
which is generally rather lefs than the royal foot. Thus,
the foot in Caftile is 8 lines lefs, and that of Valencia
about 9^-lines lefs than the ftandard.
Of royal feet 100 are equivalent to 10 2 feet 7 inches
of Catalonia, to 107 feet of Valencia, to 115 feet 10
inches and 4 lines of Caftile.
One hundred feet of Catalonia are equal to 92 feet
2 inches 3 lines of the royal foot, to 97 feet 54 lines
of Valencia, and 104 feet 11 inches 11 lines of Caftile.
In Valencia 100 feet are equivalent to 93 feet 4
inches 10 lines of the royal foot, to 98 feet 9 inches of
Catalonia j and 107 feet 2 inches 6 lines of Caftile.
In Caftile, 100 feet are equal to 86 feet 1 inch 5 lines
of the royal foot; to 93 feet 4 inches 9^- lines of Va¬
lencia •, and 92 feet 2 inches 3 lines of Catalonia.
Cloths and fluffs in Catalonia, are meafured by cams>
in other parts of the kingdom by varasthe cana is di¬
vided into 8 pams, the vara into four. The proportions
which thefe bear to the royal foot will be feen from the
following table ;
Pam of Catalonia, -
Cana of Catalonia, - - 1
Six pams make the Paris ell,
Pam of Caftile, -
Vara of Caftile, - - - ;
Pam of the kingdom of Valencia, i
Five paras and a little more than
^-th, or one vara one pam and a
little more than £th, make a Paris f
ell.
Pam of Aragon, -
Vara of the Afturias,
Vara of Aragon, -
A little lefs than 6 pams, or one vara
two pams, make a Paris ell.
Pam of Gallicia for linen drapery,
Vara of Gallicia for ditto,
Ft et.
O
4
o;
2
2
o
2
Inche
7
10
7f
9
5R
Land Meafure.—Land in the provinces belonging to
the crown of Caftile is meafured by ungadas, fanegas,
efiadales, brq/fes, varas, pas, and arar madas. Of thefe
the ungada contains 50 fanegas, about 204^ feet $ the
fanega 400 eftadales =r about 4TI5- feet} the eftadale
two braffes == about ten feet} the brafs two varas, or
about 5 feet 1 inch 4 lines; the pas about i^d of a
vera, and the aranzada about 73 varas. This laft is
only uftd for roeafuring vineyards.
In Rifcayland is meafured by carros,pla%aj, and cele-
mines ; and in Valencia by yugadas, cahi-zadas, funegas,
brafes, and pums.
Meafures of Capacity.—Corn is meafured in the pro¬
vinces belonging to the crown of Caftile by cahizast
fanegas, celemines, and quartillos; and in Bifcay the
fame meafures are ufed, with the exception of the cahiza.
The cahiza contains 12 fanegas, and is = about il-lb.
French ; the fanega contains 12 celemines = 124 lb. j
the celemine 4 quartillos — lolb. 5^ ounces, and the
quartillo =r 2lb. 7^ ounces.
In Catalonia grain is meafured by falmas, charges,
quarterns, cor tans, and picotis. The falma contains 2
charges or 6 quintals ~ 5461b.; the charge contains
2 quarteras or 3 quintals =r 2731b. 5 and the quartero
12 cortans or 4- quintals 1361b. 8 oz.: the cortan
contains 4 picotis or 131b. of i2oz. 11 lb. 6 oz. y
and the picoti 341b. of 12 oz. zr 2lb. 134-oz.
The meafures for liquids vary exceedingly, according
to the liquid they are intended to contain. Thus, at
Madrid, honey is meafured by arobas and quartillos,
the quartillo being about 14-lbs. and the aroba contain-
ing 32 quartillos. Oil is meafured in New Caftile alfo
by arobas and quartillos, but the quartillo is b^lbs. J
and the aroba contains 4 quartillos, or 25 lbs. In Se¬
ville, oil is meafured by the pipe and aroba, the pipe
containing 34 arobas ; while in Valencia it is meafared
bv charges, arobas, and cantaros, the charge containing
12 arobas, and the cantaro equal 28lbs. 1 oz.
Wine in New Caftile is meafured by moyos, an ima¬
ginary meafure, cantaras, azumbres, quartillos, and fex-
iarios..
- o.
SPA [
^in. The moyo c mtains 16 cantaras, the cantara 12
I'lV—azunibres, the azumbre 4 quartillos, each equal to 1 lb.
At Cadiz wine is meafurcd by tonneaux, arobas, azutn-
bres, and quartillos. The tonneaux contains 30 arobasj
the aroba 8 azu-mbres* the azumbre 4 quartillos, each
of-which'is equal to 1 lb. 1 oz. At Seville the meallires
for wine are cantaras, azumbres, and quartillos. The
cantara contains 8 azumbres, the aroba the fame, the
azumbre 4 quartillos, each of which is equal to 1 7 ounces.
In Valencia thefe meafures are, botas or tonneaux,
charges, arobas-, or cantaras, and azumbres or cuentas j
and in Catalonia, pipes, charges, quintals, arobas, quar-
teros, and quartos, of which the pipe contains 4 charges,
the charge 3 quintals, the quintal 4 arobas, the aroba
22 quarterns, the quartero 4 quartos, and the quarto is
equal to nearly 3 ounces'of Catalonian meafure.
The laws of Spain, which for a long time varied
greatly in the different dates of the monarchy, are at
prefent reduced to a confiderable degree of uniformity.
Navarre and Bifcay have retained their ancient laws and
conflitution ; but the revolution which took place in
Spain at the beginning of the 18th century, enabled
Philip V. to introduce into Catalonia and the kingdoms
of Aragon and Valencia the laws of Caftile •, which, ex¬
cepting a few alterations, rendered neeeiTary by local
peculiarities’, dill continue in full effedl.
The laws of Cadile, which are thus become thbfe of
almod all Spain, are contained in the codes known by’
the titles of the Fuero juzgo. Lei/ de /as Jtete pariidas,
Qrdenarniento real, Fuero real, and Recepi/acio'n ; of t hefe'
the lad is a colleriion of occafional edidfs of the kings of
Spain, and enjoys the highed authority.
The Roman law has no validity in Spain, and^thougli
it may be dudied by a few lawyers, as containing firif
principles univerfally applicable 5 yet it is never quoted
in the courts, and is exprefsly excepted againd by fome
of the old law's of Cadile.
The conducling of a law fuit in Spain is fubjeft to
ju- very complicated forms ; whence neceffarily refults a
flownefs of progtefs. The whole bufinefs is carried on
by writers, a peculiar branch of the legal profeflion. In
the fuperior tribunals, the management of caufes is in
like manner committed to a kind of fubaltern magidrates,
called reporters {relatores~), who contrive to render their'
own department a fituation of much greater emolument'
than that of the judge.
In all the branches of civil, military, eccledadical,
and judicial adrainidration. in Spain, is evident a fpirit
of mildnefs and paternal indulgence, which often dege¬
nerates into great abufe. By multiplying courts for the
adminidration of judice, and by edab)idling the long
feries of appeals from jurifdi&ion to jurifdidlion, in order
that each cafe may be heard and re-heard, and receive
an equitable fentence, the dill more imp'ortafif; advan¬
tages of prompt decilion are faerificed, and a door is
opened for chicane.
It is univerfally acknowledged that the courts of ex¬
ception are far too numerous ; they enfeeble the autho-
nty of the edablidied judges, and withdraw a number
of individuals from the fuperinteodance of magidrates'
who refide among'them, afid are- readilv acceffible, to
confign them to the care of didant and dilatory tri¬
bunals.
A confiderable degree of jealoufy and oppodtion alfo
mbfidx among many of the tribunals j hence they mutu-
if H
Mijiiftra-
S3S I , S P A
ally weaken each other’s authority, and the clients arfe
configned over from court to court j fo that lawfuits be¬
come intolerably protracted, and a family is held in fuf-
penfe for two or three generations. The cotifequerice of
this is, that the rich wear out thofe of inferior fortune.
Even the ordinary and regular forms of civil procefs
are llow and complicated. The hufbandman is called
from his labour, the merchant from his commercial con¬
cerns, the artid from his work, and all from their do-
medic affairs. Nearly an equal tardinefs takes place in
criminal proceffeS, fo that witncffes die, and means of
proof are lod, while the guilty often efcape unpunidied ;
and thofe who have been formally acquitted, are dill
fubjeft to a long detention in prifon, w hence they are at
length difmiffed without indemnity, and irretrievably
ruined.
In confeqiience of the great number of courts, the
facility of appeal from one to the other, and the tediouf*
riefs of law fuits ; the multitude of judges, advocates,
Writers, and other fubordinate officers employed in the
adminidration of judice is prodigious. The number of
perfcns employed in the different law eftabliffiments has
been edimated at 100,000, which is nearly an hun¬
dredth part of the population of the country ; and thi
very lad general enumeration of the inhabitants of Spaiti
makes the number of advocates amount to 567 9, and
of writers to 9351 ; befides the judges and their fecre-
taries, the attorneys and their clerks, and the innumer¬
able hod of alguazils and inferior officers.
Another ferious inconvenience in the adminidration
df Spanidi laiv, is the neceffity of repofing entire and
blind confidence in a clafs of fubaltern officers of thfe*
courts, called writers. This appears to be a branch of
the profeffion wholly peculiar to Spain ; the writer exer-
cifing at the lame tirtiC the funftions offecretary, foliei-
tor, notifier, regidrar, and being the foie medium of com¬
munication between the client and the judge.
It is not cudomary in Spain to allow either of the’
parties concerned any copy of the documents requifito'
for carrying on a fuit, except by the exprefs order of the
judge. All the writings on both tides are colledled to¬
gether and bound up into a volume, which remain'3
datedly in the pnffeffion of the writer, who entruds it
for a certain time to the attorneys of the parties for the
inftru&ion of advocates. The writer, to whofe care the
documents of any fuit are committed, alfo regiders the
decrees and fehtenees of the judges on the cafe, and no¬
tifies to the parties concerned, each dep of the procefs,
by reading to them the proper indrumertt'; without,
however, allowing them to have a copy of it.
The union of fo many important fundlions in the fame
perfon, neceffarily affords various opportunities for dif-
bonedy •, and the chance of being impofed upon is dill
further increafed by an unwife regulation which obliges
the defendant, in any add ion, to choofe the fame writer
as is employed by the plaintiff.
It may be remarked that fcarcely any other perfons
are under equal temptations to diffionedy on account of
the almod-total impunity that they enjoy in confequenee
of the following regulation. In all ihofe diftrieds where
there are either a corregidor and fuperior alcade, or two
fuperior1 alcades ; each of thefe officers has an indepen¬
dent'tribunal for the decifion of law fuits; and the riffiit
of pronouncing fentence in any particular cafe belongs
to him of the two at whofe tribunal the fird applies
ti' ,n
Spaiili
SPA
[ 536 ] SPA
Spam, tion was made. Now the eftablifhed falaries of thefe
k » ofiicers are fo fmall, that the largell part of their emolu¬
ments arifes from their fees } this portion of their in¬
come depends wholly on the. writers, Avho have the power
of inflituting fuits in which of the two courts they pleafe.
The natural confequence is, that the judges are induced
to overlook and pafs by in lilence thofe malpraftices of
the writers which they cannot prevent without incurring
a ferious perfonal lofs. Finally, the authority of the
writers is irrefragably eftablifhed by the entire controul
that they execute over all caufes. They alone receive
the declarations and perfonal anfwers of the parties con¬
cerned ; they alone receive the depofitions of the wit-
neffes on each fide ; put what queltions to them they
pleafe ; and record the anfwers without the interpofition,
and even in the abfence, of the judges,
r Another ferious defeat in the adminiftration of juftice
in Spain, is, that the party condemned, however clearly
unjuft may have been his demand, or however Aveak
may have been his defence, is fcarcely ever obliged to
pay his adA'erfary’s cofts of fuit; Avhence it perpetually
happens, that the expences of gaining a juft caufe are
much greater than the lofs of fubmitting to an unjuft
demand ; hence alfo it is in the power of a rich villain
to opprefs and ruin all thofe Avho are unable to fupport
the expences of a law fuit ; which in Spain are enor¬
mous, and perhaps the more fo, becaufe the eftablilhed
2©8 charges are very light.
Religion. 'J'he religion of Spain is the Roman Catholic ; Avhich,
in this country and Portugal, has been carried to a
pitch of fanaticifm unknown to the Italian ftates, or
even in the papal territory. The inquifition, has in
thefe unhappy kingdoms, been inverted with exorbitant
poAver, and has produced the moft ruinous effe&s 5
having been formerly conducted Avith a fpirit totally the
reverfe of the mildnefs and charity of Chriflianity. This
evil has been recently fubdued in a confiderable degree ;
but one fanatic reign Avould fuftice to revive it. A yet
greater evil, which' has fprung from fanaticifm, is the
deftru&ion of morals j for the monks being extremely
numerous, and human paffions ever the fame, thofe
afcetics atone for the Avant of marriage by the pradHce
of adultery •, and the hufbands, from dread of the inqui¬
fition, are conftrained to connive at this enormous abufe.
The confcience is feared by the praftice of abfolution,
and the mind becomes reconciled to the ftrangeft of all
phenomena, theoretic piety and praflical vice united in
bonds almoft indiffoluble.
According to the returns made to the government,
the Spanilh clergy then flood as folloAVS,
Parochial clergy, called curas - - 16,689
Affiftants, called tenientes curas - - 5*771
Sacriftans or fextons _ - - - 10,873
Acolitos to aftift at the altar
Ordinados de patrimonio, having a patrimony
. of three rials per day
Ordinados de menores, Avith inferior ecclefiaf-
tical orders
Beneficiados, or canons of cathedrals, and
other beneficiaries
Monks 61,617
Carry fonvard 148,163
2
5,503
j J3>244
} i°,774
I 23,692
Brought over
Nuns - _ . .
Beatas
Syndics to colleA for the me
Inquifitors _ - _
The archbilhoprics were eight in number •, and the
bilhoprics 46. The moft opulent fee Avas that of To¬
ledo, fuppofed to yield annually about 90,000!. The
Mozarabic Miffal,compofed by St Ifidora for the Gothic
church, after the converfion from Arianifm to the Ca¬
tholic faith, continued to be ufed in Spain till the Moors
Avere fubdued, when the Roman form Avas introduced.
The Spanilh clergy, in proportion to the population Prefers
of the country, is lefs numerous than Avas the clergy offtateof
France prior to the revolution •, even their Avealth is SpaniOi
lefs confiderable, but better adminiftered ; and theirc^er^
contribution to the public revenue is much greater.
As to the general conduA of the Spanilh church, and its
influence on the ftate, avc may remark that after all
the perverted and malicious induftry that has been
exerted in the examination of this queftion, the refult
has turned out highly favourable to the fuperior orders
of the Spanifh clergy, Avho are, for the moft part, free
from thole irregularities Avhich are charged on the clergy
of other countries. The confpicuous lituations in the
Spanilh church are by no means conlidered as the patri¬
mony of the rich and noble, but as the Avell-merited re¬
ward of irreproachable conduA. Whatever may be the
rank of an ecclefiaftic in the facerdotal hierarchy, he
never habitually abfents himfelf from his proper place
ol refidence, Avhere he expends the revenue of his bene¬
fice in alms or public works. From the period of the
reconqueft of Spain from the Moors, moft of the public I
eftabliftiments oavc their foundation to the clergy, by I
whom alfo whole toAvns have been rebuilt and raiftd
from their ruins. The moft beautilul aqueduAs, foun¬
tains, and public Avalks in the cities, have been con-
ftruAed at the expence of their bilhops *, from them alfo
the poor have received the moft effeAual relief in times
of fcarcity, epidemic difeafe, and Avar. The bilhop of
Orenfe converted his epifcopal palace into an alms-
houfe, where were lodged and fupported 300 French
ecclefiaftics, condemned to tranfportation during the 1
furies of the revolution ; the prelate himfelf took his
place at their table, and refufed to partake of any in^
dulgence that he could not alfo procure for his guefts.
Cardinal Orenzana, archbilhop of Toledo, converted
the alcazar of that city into an eftablifhment Avherein
are received 200 children, and 700 poor perfons of all
ages. The biftiop of Cordova, during the fcarcity of
1804, and for a long time afterwards, made a daily di-
ftribution of 1 200 rations of bread to the poor inhabi¬
tants of his diocefe. The aqueduA which conveys Avater
to the city of Tarragona is the work of their archbi-
fhop, Avho has thus conferred upon the place the inap¬
preciable benefits of cleanlinefs and health 5 to both of
Avhich it Avas long a ftranger. Similar inftances of pub¬
lic merit may be found in almoft every diocefe.
With regard to the religious orders, their conduA is
certainly lefs exemplary, though by no means meriting
the reproaches that have been fo liberally call upon
them.
iicants
148,165
32,5°°'
4>I27
2>?°5
188,625
Spaii
1
no
! giia^e
s | litera-
l ■,
SPA [ 537 . 1 . . S P
tliem. The reforms that have taken place at various written in the following century.
; periods have flopped the progrefs of the abufes intro¬
duced by length of time ; and as the numbers of the
monks have diminifhed, their pernicious influence on
public opinion has proportionably de«.lined. Some pro-
greis has been made in the defnable policy of uniting
the different orders of the fame rule into a (ingle order j
and from the prefent prohibition to receive novices, it
is probable that feveral orders are about to be totally
fuppreifed.
The Spanifli language is one of the great fouthern
dialefts which fpring from the Roman; but many of the
words become difficult to the French or Italian ftudent,
becaufe they are derived from the Arabic ufed by the
Moors. The fpeech is grave, fonorous, and of exquifite
melody, containing much of the flow and formal manner
of the orientals.
The Spanifli language is, in fome refpefts, very rich;
itaboundsin compound words,infixperlatives,derivatives,
augmentatives, diminutives, and frequentative verbs ; it
has many quite fynonymous words, and others which
well exprefs the different (hades of meaning. In the
technical terms of arts and feiences it is, however, ex¬
tremely poor ; a few of thefe it has borrowed from the
Latin, and almoft all the reft from the French.
On the whole, the Spaniffi is one of the fineft of the
European languages. It is dignified, harmonious, ener¬
getic, and expreflive; and abounds in grand and fonor¬
ous expreflions, which unite into meafured periods, whofe
cadence is very agreeable to the ear. It is a language
well adapted to poetry; but it alfo inclines to exaggera¬
tion, and its vehemence eafily degenerates into bombaft.
Though naturally grave, it eafily admits of pleafantry.
In the mouth of well educated men it is noble and ex¬
preflive ; lively and pointed in that of the common peo¬
ple; fweet, feduftive, and perfuafive, when uttered by a
female. Amongft the orators it is touching and im-
pofing, though rather diffufe ; at the bar and in the
ichools it is barbarous, and is fpoken about the court in
a concife and agreeable manner.
The literature of Spain is highly reputable, though
little known to the other countries of Europe fince the
decline of Spanifh power. The Bibliotheca Hifpanica
of Antonio will completely fatisfy the curious reader on
this fubjedl. Among the fathers of literature in this
country muff be named Ifidore of Seville, many of whofe
works are extant, and inferior in merit to few of that
epoch. Lives of faints, and chronicles, are alfo found
among the earliefi: productions ; and fucceflive writers
may be traced to the I ith century, when they become
numerous; but before mentioning fome Spanifli autho¬
rities pofterior to that period, it will be proper to re-
colleCt that Arabian learning flouriffied under the ca¬
liphs of Cordova, and produced many illuftrious names
well known to the oriental fcholar, as Aben Roe, or
Averroes, Aben Zoar, Rhazes, &c. nor muff it be for¬
gotten that Aben Nazan wrote a book on the learning
and authors of Spain. On this fubjeCl the inquifitive
are referred to the work of Cafiri.
In the nth century, the Spaniffi authors began to
increafe in number, and the native language begins to
appear. '] his was the epoch of the famous Ctd, Roderic
33idac de Bivar, whofe actions againff the Moors were
Celebrated in contemporary fongs, and by a long poem
Vol. XIX. Part II.
A
After the 13th cen- Spain.
tury, it would be idle to attempt enumerating all the v~”—,r
Spaniffi authors, among whom are Alphonfo the Wife,
who wrote the Librodel Ferolo, a treatife on the Three
Parts of Philofophy ; and at whofe command were com¬
piled the famous Alphonfine Tables of Aftronomy.
Raymond Lully is faid to have written not tewer than
319 books, full of metaphyfical froth. In the 1 5th
century appeared Juan de Mena, a poet of furpriling
powers, fince which time a department of literature can
fcarcely be mentioned in which the Spaniards have not
excelled. It would be unnectffary to repeat the well-
known names of Cervantes, Quevedo, Lopez de Vega,
and others, whofe works are known to all Europe. The
hiftory of Mexico has been celebra ed as a compofition; -
but in fadl it is detective and erroneous. The name of
Bayer in learning, and of beyjos in general knowledge,
have recemiy attradled deferved refpt dl; nor has the * Pfaker-
line of royal authors failed, an elegant tranflation of ton's Geo-
Salluff having been publifhed by the heir apparent to the I,nPh'*
monarchy, the prefent Ferdinand VII*. voi I'
As the rudiments of education are in Spain generally Education,
imparted by the monks, it can fcarcely be expected that
ufeful knowledge ffiould be common in that country. -
The accounts given on this fubjedt by travellers, have
thrown fo little light on the ftate of education in Spain,
that it can be generally underftood only by comparifon
with other Catholic countries. In this comparifon Spain
will be found inferior to France and Italy, but in many
refpe&s fuperior to Auftria and the German ftates.
The number of univerffties in Spain was formerly UnivertTu’
24, but only the following 17 now remain, viz. that of
Pampeluna, in Navarre; of Oviedo, in the Atturias; of
San Jago, in Gallicia ; of Seville, and of Granada, in
the provinces of the fame name ; of Huefca and Zara¬
goza, in Aragon ; of Avila, Ofma, and Valladolid, in
Old Caftile ; of Toledo, Siguenza, and Alcala de Ha-
marez, in New Caftile ; of Cervera, in Catalonia; of
Orihuela and Valencia, in Valencia; and of Salamanca,
in the province of Leon. Of thefe the molt celebrated,
are the univerfities of Zaragoza, Toledo, Alcala, Cer¬
vera, and Salamanca.
The univerlity of Zaragoza has 22 profeflbrs, and that
of Toledo has 24; about 900 ftudents attend the clafles
of the former, and nearly 3000 thofe of the latter ; yet
neither of thefe eftablifliments is known in Europe, or
regarded as of high reputation even in Spain.
The univerfity of Alcala, eftabliftied at a prodigious
expence by Cardinal Ximenes, anfwered for nearly a
century the views of its illuftrious founder. This fplen-
did inftitution confifts of 31 general profeflbrs, and 13
colleges, each of which has its particular eftablifhm»nt
of matters and profeAbrs, and of (tudents, who receive
gratuitous fupport and inftru&ion. At prefent, how¬
ever, this univerfity is gone fo entirely to decay, that
fcarcely a veftige of its ancient fplendour remains, and
the whole number of ftudents fcarcely amounts to 500.
The univerfity of Cervera, founded at the commence¬
ment of the 18th century, with a magnificence truly
royal, poflefles 43 profeflbrs, five colleges, about 90®
ftudents ; but it partakes of the radical fault of all the
Spaniffi univerfities ; the courfe of ftudy is incomplete
and antiquated, and the very name of the inftitution is
fcarcely known beyond the boundaries of Catalonia.
3 Y The
SPA
[ 538 ]
SPA
Spain.
The univerfity of Salamanca, the moft ancient of any
in Spain, has enjoyed a degree of celebrity which en¬
titles it to a particular defcription.
It was founded by Alphonfo IX. between the years
1230 and 1244, and was confiderably enlarged by Fer¬
dinand III. his grandfon. But its moft magnificent pa¬
tron was Alphonfo X. fur named the Wife, ion and iuc-
ceffor of the laft-mentioned fdvereign. This prince
richly endowed it, and drew up a fet of ftatutes for its
government. He eftabliftied a profeflbrfhip oi civil law,
with a falary of 500 maravedies •, a profefforftiip of ca¬
non law, with a falary of 300 maravedies 5 two profeffor-
Ihips of decretals with falaries of 500 maravedies *, two
profeflors of natural philofophy, and as many of logic, with
falaries of 200 maravedies each *, and two matters of
grammar, with'falaries of 300 maravedies. It experi¬
enced alfo the liberality of many fucceeding fovereigns,
and received from the popes a vaft extent of privileges.
For many years this univerfity enjoyed a high reputa¬
tion ; its fame extended over all Europe 5 it was con-
fulted by kings and by popes, and its deputies were re¬
ceived into the general councils, where they well fuf-
tained the chara&er of the body which they reprefented.
Students flocked to it not only from all the provinces
of Spain and Portugal, and from the illands of Majorca
and the Canaries, but alfo from the Weft Indies and
New Spain, and even from France, Flanders, and Eng¬
land. The number of ftudents who attended the clafles
amounted nearly to 13,000. 1 he whole of this vaft
eftablifhment confifted of 25 colleges, a library, and an
hofpital, called DelEjludio, intended for the ameliora¬
tion of poor fcholars.
The celebrity of Salamanca continued in full vigour
during many ages ; but, at length, as rival inftitutions
fprang up, declined by flow degrees, fo that by the year
1395, the number of ftudents did not exceed ycoo*.
ai3 After the evacuation of Spain by the Romans, the-
State of theatrical reprefentations were difeontinued till they were
Sparnfh reftored by the Moors, and from them adopted by the
Gothic Spaniards, who foon became paffionately fond of
the ftage, a tafte which they have everfince preferred.
They had at firft neither theatres nor a ftage, their
dramas were atted in a court, a garden, or the open
fields; the aflors and fpe&ators were mingled, and W'ere
equally expofed to the injuries of the weather.
At a fubfequent period the ftage was marked out by
a kind of boarded platform, and was furrounded by old
clothes, drawn back, on occafion, by means, of cords,
which formed the only decorations, and behind which
the aftors dreffed. Their properties confifted only.of
crooks, fome wfigs and falfe beards, and a few white
Ikins, trimmed with gold fringe.
Theatrical exhibitions became more regular and de¬
cent towards the end of the 16th century, when a new
form was given to them by the exertions of Barthole-
mew Naharro, a middling dramatic poet. Theatres
were then erefted, but the greateft part w'ere upon tref-
fels, and two parallel pieces of canvas formed their
feenes, which were fometimes checquered with various
colours, fometimes covered with miferable paintings, or
adorned with foliage, trees, or flowers.
During all thefe periods, the prompter, with a candle
in his hand, ftationed himfelf on the ftage by the fide
eif the performers who were fpeaking, and jumped from
fide to fide whenever the aftors changed their places,
^ "De La
horde.
213
Th is cuftom prevailed at the end of the 17th century,
and even ftill prevails among the ftrolling companies of'"
fmall towns.
Theatres have at length, however, affumed a hand-
fotner appearance in this country, and cuftoms more
conformable to the reft of Europe. Handiotne theatres
have been multiplied, and their ftages are now well ar¬
ranged and decorated \ all the great cities are well pro¬
vided with them, and many of the fmaller tow ns may
boaft of elegant and not ill furniftred playhoufes.
The prompter no longer runs from one fide of the
ftage to the other ; he is placed in the middle before
the feenes, in a kind of well, where he no longer offends
the fight and tafte of the fpe&ator : but an old cuftom
which is flill obferved, greatly injures the intereft and
effeft of the reprefentation. The prompter, who has the
piece before him, does not wait till the attor is at a lots
to prompt him, but recites the whole drama aloud, fo
that the a&or appears to follow him in his declamation.
By this means two voices are heard in the theatre pro¬
nouncing the fame words, which are confounded, and
often produce a difeord, and the fpedlator who has fiift
heard the piece recited, no longer takes an equal inte¬
reft in the fame verfes, phrafes, and words, which the
a£tor afterwards declaims.
The Spanith theatres are divided into a patio, or area,
and boxes called ba/co and apofentos. The orcheftra,
where the muficians are ftationed, adjoins the ftage ; an
inclofure between it and the pit is let round with arm
chairs, and deftined for the reception of the higher
clafs: the patio, or pit, is placed behind, and filled w ith
benches, and the gradaS confift of two rows of benches
difpofed amphitheatrically on each fide below the boxes,
and fometimes alfo acrofs the lower end of the theatre.
This laft dtvifion is found only in a few theatres ; in the
others, the ipace beneath the boxes is empty, and per-
fons ftand in it. The patio and the gradas contain the
common people, the moft numerous, moft noify, and
moft imperious part of the public.
There are commonly only two tiers of boxes, fotne-
times three ; they extend on each fide from the ftage to
the end of the theatre. The form is the ufual one, but
they are divided from each other by partitions, which
completely {hut them up on each fide, a circumftance
which greatly injures the beauty of the general effc£l.
There is commonly at the end of the theatre fronting
the ftage, a large box with feats placed femicircularly
behind one another, which is called the ca'Z-uela. No
man is allowed to enter it, and only women muffled up
in their mantc/as are admitted.
There are feveral things very Angular and amufing
in this cazuela. Women of every age and condition
are there united; the married are confounded with the
Angle ; the wives of the common people with thofe of
tradefmen and the ladies of the court j the poor woman
w ith the rich one who would not be at the trouble of
drefling to appear in her box. Their appearance is
moft curious 5 they are all covered -with their mante/as,
a kind of white or black veil, and give the idea of a
choir of nuns. It is the place for chattering, and be¬
tween the afts there proceeds from the cazuela a con-
fufed noife like the hum of bees, which aftonilhes and
diverts all who hear it for the firft time. Scarcely.is
the performance ended, when the door of this box, its
galleries, paffages, and the ftaircafe leading to it, are
SPA [ 539 1 SPA
Kpain. all befieged by a great crowd of men of every condi-
v—' tion; fome attrafted by curiofity ; others coming to wait
upon the women who are in it.
Notwithftanding all that has been done for its im*
prove merit, the Span! lb dage is dill far from the cele¬
brity which it once potfeiTed •, and the people do not fe¬
cund the efforts of their bell writers. The ailing is in
a Hill lower Hate. The performers poffefs neither that
dignity which characterizes great perfonages, and en¬
nobles a fabjedl without injuring its interefl ; nor that
fweet exprefiion of voice and gellure which goes to the
heart, and awakens the fentiments it expreffes* In their
acting every thing is violent or inanimate ; every thing
departs from nature. Their recitation is a feat of llrength*
and is performed at the foie expence of the lungs. Cries
fend fhrieks are its moll impreflive part, and the moll ap¬
plauded by the majority of the audience. They put no¬
thing in its proper place : all their action is exaggeratr
ed; when they threaten they roar j when they command
they- thunder; when they figh, it is with an effort which
completely exhaufts the breath. They fubftitute anger
for dignity, violence for fpirit, infipidlty for gallantry.
Their geflares rarely correfpond with the fentiments
they ought to exprefs ; but referable their recitation ;
and are ufually monotonous, eapricious, ignoble, and al-
mofl always violent. The women, in their bur ft* of paf-
fion, become furies; warriors become villains ; generals
robbers; and heroes bravos. Nothing, as they manage
it, is pathetic; nothing makes any impretlion on the aur
'leLa lienee,. The fpeChators, equally unmoved at the end of
,ie. ' the piece, as at the beginning, fee it, without having ex-
214 perienced a Angle moment of intereft or emotion*,
tfluce As labour and culture are reckoned derogatory to the
1 a§r‘" Spaniib character, a fufficient quantity of grain for the
'Ule' fun port of the inhabitants is not raifed, though foe ie ties
for the encouragement of agriculture have been efta-
blithed indifferent parts of the kingdom. The principal
produCls are wine, delicious fruits, oil, filk, honey, and
wax. A considerable proportion of the mountains and
valleys is paltured by imrttenfe flocks of. fheep, whofe
wool is. extremely fine and valuable. Ettremadura is
noted for its excellent paftures ; and the wool in Old
Caflile is reputed the fineit in the kingdom. In Cata¬
lonia the hills are covered, with forefl and fruit trees.
Valencia is celebrated for its filk, and for the exquifite
flavour of its melons. Murcia abounds in mulberry
trees; and the fouthern provinces yield the mod deli¬
cious wines and fruits. Upon the whole, it has been
obferved of Spain, that few countries owe more to nur¬
ture, and lefs to induftry.
The foil in general repofes-on beds of gypfum, which
is an excellent manure. The common courfe of hulban-
dry about Barcelona begins with wheat; which being
ripe in .Tune, is immediately fucceeded by Indian corn,
hemp, millet, cabbage, kidney-beans, or lettuce. The
fecond year thefe fame crops fucceed each other as be¬
fore. The next year they take barley, beans, or vetches;
which coming off the ground before midfummer, are
followed,, as. in the former years, by other crops, only
changing them according to the feafon, fo as to have on
the fame fpot the greateft poffible variety. Near Car-
thagena the courfe is wheat, barley, and fallow. For
wheat they plough thrice, and fow from the middle of
November to the beginning of December; in July they
reap irom 10 to ICO for one, as the feafon happens to be
humid. The rich vale of Alicant yields a perpetual fuc- Spam,
ceflion of crops. Barley is fown in September, reaped ^
in April; fucceeded by maize, reaped in September ;
and by a mixed crop of efculents which follow. Wheat
is fown in November, and reaped in June ; flax in Sep¬
tember, pulled in May. In the vale of Valencia wheat
yields from 20 to 40 ; barley from 18 to 24; oats from
20 to 30; maize 100; rice 43. The Spaniib plough
is generally light ; and is drawn by oxen with the yoke
over the horns; the molt proper and natural mode, as
the chief ftrength of the animal centres in the head.
For a very minute account of agriculture in Spain, fee
De Laborde’s View, vol. iv. chap. 2. Ti„
That prejudice which regards the mechanic arts as State of'
bafe, is not yet extinguiihed in Spain : hence it happens the arts,
that thefe arts are either neglefted, or abandoned to fuch
unlkilful hands, as in general to render the Spaniards
much behind their neighbours in the ufeful arts of life.
The influence of this prejudice is lead in the province of
Catalonia, where the laws, cuftoms, and opinions are fa¬
vourable to artizans ; and it is accordingly in this pro¬
vince that the mechanic arts have made the greatell
progrefs. Foreign artiils experience great difficulties in
this country. They are not allowed to practice without
gaining admiffion into fome incorporation or company,
and this has almoft always been refufed them.
Some arts have, however, made confiderable progrefs
in Spain, efpecially thofe of gilding leather, and print¬
ing, which has lately acquired a great degree of perfec¬
tion.
The fabrication of articles of gold and filyer might
become an important object in a country where thefe
metals abound ; but it is negledtcd, and the demand is
alrnoft entirely fupplied from foreign markets. What
little they perform in this way at home is ufually very
ill executed, and exorbitantly dear. Madrid, however,
begins to poiTefs fome good workmen in this 'way ; en¬
couragement would increafe their number, and facilitate
the means of improvement; but manual labour is there
exceflively dear. Hence the Spaniards prefer foreign
articles of this kind, which, natwithftanding the ex¬
pence or carriage, the enormous duties which are paid
on thefe articles, and the profits of the merchants, are
bill cheaper than thofe made at home. ^
The liberal arts are cultivated in this country with ArdOtcr.
more affidulty and fficcefs. The 16th century was theture.
moft brilliant period of the arts in Spain, as well as of
the fciences, <)f literature, and of the power and gran¬
deur of thounonarchy. A crowd of able architects ap¬
peared at once under Charles V. and Philip II. They
creeled numerous edifices, which will immortalize the
reigns of tliefe princes and the names of the artifis.
John de Herrera and Cepedes difplayed the higheft ta¬
lents; Pedro de-Uria conitrudled the magnificent bridge
of Almarnz, in Etiremadura ; John-Baptift-Monegro of
Toledo, aflifled in the building of the Efcurial, and of
the church of St Peter at Rome.
The flrutbures of that age are the finefl: in Spain, and
perhaps the only ones in the country which deferve to
fix the attention of the fkilful fpedlator,. There are fome
among them which, in regularity, folidity, and magni¬
ficence, deferve to be compared with the fined buildings
of the Romans. The bridges of Badajoz over the Gua-
diana, and of Toledo, over the Manzanares, are of thia
period ; as are alfo the grand houfe or palace, now the
2 ^ 2 council-
SPA t 54° ] SPA
council-houfe at Madrid, and the beautiful edifices
which adorn Toledo ; the palace of Los Vargas j the
hofpital of St John the Baptift, and that of the Holy
Crofs. During the fame time, the alcaxar of this city,
built under Alphonfo X. was reftored with the gran¬
deur and magnificence which it ftill difplays; and the
noble palace Avas erected, known under the name of the
Houfe of Pilate, at Madrid.
That magnificent building the Efcurial, which the
Spaniards called the eighth AA'onder of the rvorld, Avhich
ufed to lodge at once the king and his court, and 200
monks. This famous palace, which aftonifhes us by its
mafs and extent, by the flrength of its ftrufture, the
regularity of its proportions, and the fplendour of its
decorations, as much as by the repulfive appearance of
its fite and neighbourhood, alfo belongs to the fame pe¬
riod, having been erefted in the reign of Philip II.
The decline of architecture became as complete in
the 17th century as its Hate had been flourilhing in the
preceding age. From this period no architect occurs
worthy of remembrance j and the buildings are mon-
ftrous maffes, defUtute of order, tafle, and regularity.
One only deferves notice, the prifon of Madrid, called
Carcel de Conte, the work of a happy genius, who
kneAV hoAV to profit by the bright examples of the pre¬
ceding period.
About the middle of the i 8th century, hoAvever, ar¬
chitecture began again to be culti\Tated Avith fuecefs.
The academy of San-Fernando, at Madrid, has already
produced feveral able men in this branch, Avho purfue
their art Avith credit. The handfome bridge built over
the Xarama, between Aranjuez and Madrid, in the
reign of Charles III. difnlays the talents of Mark de
Vierna, his architect ; the cuftom-houfe of Valencia,
and the temple-church of the fame city, conftruCted on
the plan of Michael Fernandez ; the exchange of Bar¬
celona; the triumphal arch Avhich forms the gate of Al¬
cala, at Madrid, and the fnufif manufaCfory at Seville,
do honour to the Spanilh architecture of the prefent
day.
Spain jufilv boafts of many eminent fculptors ; but of
all the liberal arts, painting is that Avbich has been moft
eulth'-ated in Spain, and in which its natives have
belt fucceeded. The Spanifh fchool is much lefs
knoAvn than it deferves : it holds a middle place be¬
tween the Itaban and Flemilb fchools; it is more natu¬
ral than the former, more noble than the latter, and
partakes of the beauties of both. It has particularly
excelled in facred fubjeCts; and Ave recognife in the
Spanilh piClures the feelings ufually experienced by the
people of the myfteries of religion. By none have de¬
vout eeftafv, fervour, and genuine piety, been fo Avell
exprefied, or the myftic naffion given Avith fo much
truth. It is not in correCInefs of defign, or noblenefs of
form, that the Spanifh artifts ufually excel, but in ihe
pure imitation of nature, in grace, truth, effeCI, and the
cxpreffion of feelings.
The Spaniards have at length opened their eyes to
the utility of the arts ; they acknowledge them to be
adA^antageous and deserving of refpeCl, and have begun
to give them fuch encouragement as is likely to promote
a tafte for them, and to infure their adA'ancement. Go¬
vernment has done fomething by affording protedion
and countenance to the neAv eftaHifbments; but the
flrongeft impulfe has been given by individuals^ or pri¬
vate affociations.
1
Spain noAv poffeffes an academy of painting, at Se- Spam, i
ville, and tAvo academies of the fine arts, one at Ma- v-~
drid, and the other at Valencia. The firft oavcs its ori¬
gin to an affociation of the painters of Seville formed by
themfelves, about the year 1660 ; Charles III. revived
it, and eilablifhed there a fchool of the fine arts. That
of Madrid Avas founded by Philip V. The laft Avas efta-
blifhed by the exertions of fome private perfons, aflifted
by the benefaCIion of AndreAV Marjoral, archbifliop of
Valencia, and the protection of the municipal body.
Charles III. came to its afliftance 26 years alter its eil'a-
blifhment, with an annual gift of nearly 700I. Thefe
academies have for their objc'Ct the itudy and improve¬
ment of painting, fculpture, and architecture; they
give public leffons on thefe three arts, and diflribute an¬
nual prizes among their pupils. That of Madrid, or
San-Fernando, fends its pupils to Rome at the expence
of government, to complete their Itudies.
Public and gratuitous fehools for draAving have been
eftablifhed Avithin the laft 20 years in different places;
at Madrid, Cordova, Valencia, Seville, Zaragoza, Bar¬
celona, &c. The laft of thefe is fupported by the mer¬
chants ; that of Vergara was founded by the patriotic
fociety of Bifcay ; and thofe of Zaragoza and Cordova
oAve their birth to the zeal and generofity of two indivi¬
duals ; the firft to Don Martin Noy Cochear, the laft
to Don Antonio Cavallero, the prefent bithop of Cor¬
dova. Thofe of Madrid, Seville, and Valencia, depend
on the academies of thefe cities. JlS |
The manufactures of Spain Avere more flourifhing du-Mamifac*'
ring the government of the Moors in that country, than tares. 1
they have been at any fubfequent period. So complete,
ly had the kingdom declined in this refpeCt at the end
of the 16th century, when Philip V. afcended the
throne, that it is faid by De Laborde to have been ab-
folutely deftitute of trade. The inteftine Avars which
ravaged the kingdom during the firft 14 years of that
reign, and the low ftate to which the national finances
were reduced, prevented the government from paying
attention to manufactures; and it was not till after tran¬
quillity had been reftored, and regulations adopted with
refpeCt to the public revenue, that the natives Avere in¬
duced to wear articles of their own manufacture. Since
the reigns of Ferdinand VI. and Charles III. this part
of the internal trade of the kingdom has greatly impro-
A7cd, and the manufactures of Spain are now once more
on a refpeCtable footing.
The Spanifh manufactures enumerated by De La¬
borde, in his VieAV of Spain, are thofe of cloth and
other woollen goods; filks ; brocaded fluffs in gold and
filver ; linens and other articles formed from flax or
hemp ; cottons; leather, and other articles manufactu¬
red from Ikins and hides ; paper ; china and delft
Avare ; brandies; beer; aquafortis; fait of lead ; (hears
for the Avoollen trade; copper, iron, and brafs goods;
glafs and mirrors ; fuap ; hats ; articles for the marine;
military implements ; arms and ammunition; tobacco
and fnuff. Of thefe, the moft important are, the Avool¬
len and filk manufactures ; leather ; brandy ; military
Aveapons ; foap and tobacco.
The principal places for the Avoollen manufactures
are, Aulot, Arens, Vich, and the convent of Gironne
in Catalonia; Jaca, and the diftriCt of Cincavilla in A-
ragon, and Burgos in Old Caftile, for Avoollen {lock¬
ings ; Barcelona, Zaragoza, and Burgos, for blankets;
Junquera, Segovia, Burgos, and many others for baizes
1
SPA
I 541 1
SPA
Spain, and flannels j Eftella in Navarre, Efcoray in Bifcay,
Grazolerna in Seville, Toledo, &c. for coarfe cloths,
which laft article is manufactured in large quantities
throughout the kingdom. The woollen fluffs fabricated
in Spain, are in general of a very inferior quality, the
wool being imperfeCtly fcoured, and the dyeing fo ill
executed, that the colours are never permanent.
The chief manufactures for filken articles are thofe
for blonde lace throughout Catalonia, and at Almagro
in La Mancha j for filk ftockings, at Malaga, Zarago¬
za, Valencia, Talavera, and Barcelona j and for filk
taffeties, ferges, damalks, and velvets, at Jaen, Grana¬
da, Murcia, Valencia, Malaga, Zaragoza, Toledo, Ta¬
lavera, and Barcelona. The articles of this manufacture
are in general flout and excellent*, but they do not
poffefs that brilliancy of appearance fo remarkable in the
Trench filks. /
Tanning, currying, and dreffing hides, ikins, and
all kinds of leather, are very general throughout Spain ;
but the fldns and hides prepared at Arevaca and Po-
zuelo, are in greateft repute. The greateft quantity of
foie leather is manufactured in the provinces of Aragon
and Catalonia ; and in the latter province are made and
exported a prodigious number of Ihoes.
The manufacture of brandy is confined chiefly to the
flates belonging to the crown of Aragon, efpecially at
Torres in Aragon 5 at Selva, Mataro, &c. in Catalo¬
nia ; and in Valencia.
Spain has long been famous for its manufacture of Spain-
military weapons ; and it is well known that the fwords,—y'—J
fabres, hangers, and bayonets, made at Toledo and
Barcelona, are of a very fuperior temper. Large ma¬
nufactories for fire-arms occur in the diftriCt of Guipuf-
coa, and two royal founderies for brafs cannon, are-efta-
biilhed at Barcelona and Seville.
There is only one manufactory for tobacco and fnuff
in Spain, viz. at Seville ; but this is on a moft extenfive
fcale, and is fuppofed to yield of annual profits about
800,cool. Aerling. Here are employed 20 2 mills,
turned by 300 horfes or mules 5 and the various opera¬
tions call for the daily labour of above 1400 perfons. 2t^
Confidering the extent of fea coaft belonging to the Commerce,
kingdom of Spain, its commerce is but inconfiderable,
and principally takes place between the mother-country
and the American colonies. Spain, indeed, carries on
a foreign trade with every country in Europe 5 but4its
principal tranfaClions are, with England, Holland, Ita¬
ly, and France. Its exports to thefe countries confift
almoft entirely of raw produce, as, if we except oil,
wine, brandy, flioes, fait, and a few coarfe cloths- and
filken articles, the trade in manufactured goods is al¬
moft wholly confined to the interior of the country.
Its chief exports, and the amount yielded by each for
the feveral provinces, as well as the whole amount of
the export trade of Spain, to the reft of Europe, will be
feen in the following table.
Value of Exports from each Province in Pounds Sterling.
Goods exported. \Cataloma. Valencia.
NutSj
Oil,
Cork,
Wine,
Linens and cotton fluffs,
Silk handkerchiefs,
Paper,
Brandy,
Shoes and (hoe foies,
Kaifins,
Dried figs,
Almonds,
Dates,
Barylla,
Kermes,
Salt,
Spart worked,
Silk,
Cutlery,
Ribbons,
Corn,
Saffron,
Wool,
Flax,
Coarfe cloths,
Silk and wool mixtures,
Worfted ftockings,
Salt provifions,
Oranges and lemons,
Hemp,
Madder,
Brooms,
L. 26,oooL.
26,667,
235’99°'
2,667,103,333
295,007
5*>°42
73>333!
262,500 125,000
22,024
10,625
5.333
6,563
6,250
i5.875
7,292
9>2i°
6,875
I,OQ2,10ji 289,521
Andalujia.\ Murcia.
l; " l.
208.333
508.333 SW0
625,000
34,375
833,333
2,209,374
108,333
4,166
229,166
5,0-o
2,083
78,041
2,500
460,539
Aragc
38,333
53,437
48,75°
1,458
2,666
5,833
540
79,063
230,080
Other Provinces.
L.8,336
641,682
A large quantity
from Gallicia.
From Old Caftile,
716,685
Total.
L. 34,336
23 5,000
235,990
645.583
295,007
5I,°42
73,333
387,500
22,024
635,625
39,7o8
6,563
6,250
124,208
7,292
842.583
4,166
267,499
5,000
2,083
2,500
690,432
1,458
2,666
5,833
540
79,o63
66,667
6,87 c
4,908,304
The
SPA f 542
The above table- is confined almoft entirely to the try
European exports. To thefe mull: be added the amount
of Spanilh exports to the American colonies, in order to
acquire a juft view of the total amount of the export
commerce. The following table will ftiow the amount
of the exports, both of home and foreign produce, from
Spain to America in 1784, as eftimated by Mr Townf-
end in pounds fterling.
Ports.
Cadiz
Malaga
Seville
Barcelona
Corunna
Santander
Canaries
Tortola
Gijon
Total
Home produce.
1,438,912
I9^>379
62,713
122,631
64^575
36>7i5
24^974
7,669
4,281
L. 1,958,849
Foreign produce
2,182,531
I4.301
3°>543
21,240
39,962
9W3
289
10,190
L.2,389,229
Total.
3.621,443
210,680
93.256
i43.87I
104.53 7
126,888
24.974
7.958
I4>471
L.4,384,878
Of thefe exports we are to regard chiefiy thofe of
'Spanilh produce, and thefe Mr Townfend has probably
■ eftimated too high. M. dfc Laborde, on whofe authori¬
ty we are more difpofed to rely, ftates the value of
Spanilh domeftic merchandife exported to America in
the year 1788, as amounting to 1,635,6581. fterling,
"while in 1792, it amounted to 2,812,500!. fterling, and
on an average of five years, from 1788 to 1792, it
amounted to 1,833,3331. fterling. The amount of fo¬
reign merchandife exported in 1788, was 1,484,315!.
■fterling. Adding the average to this laft fum, we have
3,317,6481. fterling for the whole export trade to Ame¬
rica. This added to 4,908,304!. fterling, makes a
grand total of 8,225,952!. fterling for the whole ex¬
port trade of Spain.
The Spanifti imports are much more confiderable
than the exports. Before the prefent troubles, Spain
imported from Holland, tapes, linen drapery, common
laee, cutlery goods and paper ; from Silefia, linen dra¬
pery ; from Germany, more particularly from Ham¬
burgh, quantities of haberdalbery ; from England, cali¬
coes, iron nnd fteel goods, fine cloth, quantities of cod
fifh and ling *, the value of the laft articles is eftimat;-
ed at three millions of duros, five millions livres tour-
nois, (208,333b 13s. qd.) ; from France, calicoes, linen
drapery, filk Hackings, filks, camlets, and other kinds of
worfted ftuffs, fine cloths, gilded articles, fewiellery, iron
goods, haberdaftiery, fteel goods, and perfumery*
We have not fatisfaflory documents fufficient to af-
certain the amount of thefe imports, but it was certainly
much lefs than that of the imports from the American
colonies. Thefe latter, according to Mr Townfend’s
ftatement, amounted in 1784 to 12,635,173b fterling*,
to> which, if we add nearly half a million for duty, we
[hall have a total of above thirteen millions fterling for
American imports alone. De Laborde eftimates the
total amount of American imports for the year 1788 at
8,382,330b fterling, of which Cadiz alone imported
6,617,873b fterling. If to the above amount we add
377,679b for the duty at the fame period, we (hall have
« fotal of 8,960,009b fterlir.g againft the mother cotm-
5
] SPA
deducing from this 3,317,648b for the average ex- Spain,
ports, we have 5,642,361!. as the balance of trade in '~v-
favour of the Spanifti colonies.
Though there are in Spain many navigable rivers, xnia^°,,
few canals of communication have been conftru&ed to vigation.
improve the internal navigation of the country. The
canal of Aragon, completed during the reign of Charles
IV. muft be highly beneficial to that province. Two
canals, viz. that of Tueuftre and the imperial canal,
both of which begin at Navftrre, run in various wind¬
ings through Aragon, by turns receding from or ap¬
proaching the river Ebro, where at length they termi¬
nate. Befides the dykes, banks, fluicts, and bridges
necefiary in the courfe of thefe canals, an aqueduct has
been conftrudted in the valley of Rlozalen, 710 fathoms
in length, and 1 7 feet thick at the bafe, in which the
canal runs.
The canal of Caftile, proje&ed and begun in the laft
reign, has been almoft: abandoned. It was to com¬
mence at Segovia, lixteen leagues north of Madrid, to
follow the courfe of the Erefma, that falls into the
Douro, and to be continued as far north as Reynofa j
which is twenty leagues from St Ander, a fea port. At
Reynofa is the communication with the canal of Ara¬
gon, that unites the Mediterranean to the bay of Bif-
cay. Above Pal.encia, a branch goes weft ward through
Rio-Seco and Benevento to Zamora ; making the canal
of Caftile, in its whole extent, 140 leagues j where it is
completed, viz. between Reynofa and Rio7Seco, its width
at top is 56 feet, at bottom 20, and nine in depth.
In 1784, a canal was planned, which, from the foot
of the mountains of Guadarama near the Efcurial, fhould
proceed fouthwaid to the Tagus*, afterwards to the
Guadiana, and terminate at the Guadalquiver above
Andaxar. Some other attempts to improve the inland
navigation of the country have been Unfuccefsful.
There is no nation in Europe which difplays fuch a General
variety of national charafter as Spain. In no two pro-cliara&er
vinces are the manners and eharafler exactly alike. Itot
is therefore difficult to colled traits on which to found
the national charader of the Spaniards ; and this cha-
rader has been varioufty reprefented by different writers.
From the tranfadions which have, lately taken place
between that people and the Britifh nation, we confers
ourfelves prejudiced againft them ; and we (hall there¬
fore, inftead of Iketching their charader according to
eur own preconceived notions, endeavour to delineate it
as coneifelv a* poffible from De Laborde, who is pro¬
bably a fufficiently competent judge.
Thes, national pride, fays this author, is every where the
fame. The Spaniard has the higbeft opinion of his na¬
tion and himfelf, and this he expreffes with energy, in his
geftures, words, and adions. This opinion is difeovered
among*all ranks in life, and all claffes of focietv. Its
refult is a kind of haughtinefs, (pinetimes repulfive to
him who is its objed, but ufeful in giving to the mind
a fentiment of noblenefs and felf-efteem which, fortifies
it againft all meannefs.
In later times the Spaniards have not degenerated
from the valour of their anceftors. The Spanifti foldier
is (till one of the beft in Europe, when placed under an
experienced general, and brave and intelligent officers.
He poffeffes a cool and fteady valour ; he long endures
fatigue and hunger, and eafily inures himfelf to labour.
The Spaniards are-very referred, and rather wait for,
than
I Span.
32!
ifeifities
ciharac-
t ;in the
firalpro
V : ES-
S P A
than court the advances of a firangcr.
1 their apparent gravity, they poffefs an inward gaiety,
which frequently fhines out when proper occafions call
it forth.
The Spaniard is very flow in all his operations ; he
often deliberates when he ought to-Ud, and fpuiis affairs
as much by ternporifing as the natives of other countries
do by precipitation. This tardinefs would be but a
flight defed, did it not proceed from a ferious radical
want, from the invincible indolence and hatred of labour
which prevails among all ranks of fcciety.
That jealoufy which was formerly proverbial among
the Spaniards, is now greatly dim ini filed ; hufhands are
much leis fufpieious, and women much more acteffible.
Lattices have difappeared ; duennas exiff only in roman¬
ces \ veils are exchanged for mantelas ; houfes are thrown
open, and the women have recovered a liberty by which
they are lefs tempted to go affray than when their virtue
was entrulfed to locks and grates, and to the iuperin-
tendance of guards often faithlefs and eafiiy corrupted.
In fine, the Spaniards are fober, difcrett, adroit, frank,
patient in adverfity, flow in deciiion, but wife in delibe¬
ration 5 ardent in enterprife, and conllant in purfuit.
They are attached to their religion, faithful to their
king, hofpitable, charitable, noble in their dealings, ge¬
nerous, liberal, magnificent *, good friends, and full of
honour. They are grave in carriage, ferious in difcourfe,
gentle and agreeable in converfalion, and enemies to
falfehood and evil fpeaking.
Such is the Spanilh chara&er as drawn by De La-
borde. Its varieties in the feveral provinces are thus
ftated by the fame author. The Old Cafiilians are fi-
lent, gloomy, and indolent, and are the mofl fevercly
grave of all the Spaniards ; but they pofl'efs a Heady
prudence, an admirable conftancy under adverfity, an
elevation of foul, and an unalterable probity and up-
rightnefs. The chara&er of the natives of New Caftile
is nearly the fame, but more open, and lefs grave and
taciturn. Indocility and conceit make part of the
charafter of the people of Navarre ; they are diftin-
guifhed by lightnefs and adroitnefs. The JBifcayans are
proud, impetuous, and irritable ; abrupt in difcourfe
and in acfion 5 haughty and independent, but induf-
trious, diligent, faithful, hofpitable, and fociable. The
Gallieians are gloomy, and live very little in fociety ;
but they are bold, courageous, laborious, very fober, and
diftinguiflied for their fidelity. The Afturians partake
of the character of the Gallicians and Bifcayans j but
they are lefs induftrious than the former, lefs'civilized,
lefs fociable, lefs amiable, and more haughty than the
latter. The people of Eftremadura are proud, haughty,
vain, ferious, indolent; but remarkably fober, honour¬
able, and much attached to their own province, which
they feldom quit. The Mercians are lazy, liftlefs, plot¬
ting, and fufpieious ; attached neither to fciences, arts,
commerce, navigatiwn, nor a military life. The Valen-
cians are light, inconftant, and indecifive ; gay, fond of
pleafure, little attached to each other, and ffill lefs to
ftrangers, but affable, agreeable, and-diligent. The Ca-
}atans are proud, haughty, violent in their paflions, rude
in difcourfe and in a&ion, turbulent, untraftable, and
jpaffionately fond of independence ; they are not particu¬
larly liberal, but aftive, induftrious, and indefatigable 5
they are failors, hufbandmen, and builders, and refort to
afl corners of the world to feek their fortunes. They are
l 543 3 S P A
Yet in fpite of brave, intrepid, fometimes rafh, obttinale in adhering
their fckemes, and often fuccefsful in vanquithing, by ’
their fteady perfeverance, obftaeles which would appear
infurmountable to others. 22^
_ The natives of almoft every province have fome di- Manners
fiinguifliing peculiarity in Choir drels, manr ers, and pur-and cuf*
fuits. Before the aecefiion of the houfe ot Bourbon totoia'*
the throne, the ufual drels of a Spanilh nobleman con¬
fided of a llouched hat, a long black or brown cloak,
lliort jerkin, and ftrait breeches, with a long Toledo
fword j but French dreffes are now introduced at court.
The higher claffes wear their hats under their arm. The
common people wrap themieives up to the eyes in a
brown cloak, called aleapo, that reaches to the ground 3
and conceal their hair beneath a cotton cap, and a broad
hat called ifombrero. When a lady walk abroad, her
head and upper part of her body are covered with a
mantela 3 that is, a white or, black veil, lo that it is im-
poffible the ihould be known. At home, the drels is a,
jacket and a petticoat of iilk or cotton. The hair is ge¬
nerally a hne black 3 and powder is rare.
in romance, the ladies are celebrated for beauty, and
fome of them deferve that character 3 yet beauty is not
their general chara6ter. They are of a flender make,
but with great art they fupply the defeats of nature.
By an indiferiminate ufe of paint, they disfigure their
complexion and fhrivel their fkin.
Several of the Spanhh culloms and habits, which feem
ridiculous to foreigners, are gradually wearing out, and
in procefs of time will no doubt be corretted. The
higher elaffes at breakfaft ufe chocolate, and feldom tea.
Dinner generally confifts of beef, veal, pork, mutton,
and beans, boiled together. They are fond of garlic 3
and it is proverbial that olives, falad, and radiflies, are
food for gentlemen. The men-drink little wine, and
the women ule water or chocolate. Both fexes fleep
after dinner, and air themieives in the cool of the even¬
ing. Iheir repafts are compoled of fweatmeats, bifeuit,
coffee and fruit, which fervants dillribute to the com¬
pany 3 who keep their feats, and have little converfa-
tion.
Dancing and cards are favourite amufements. Thea¬
trical exhibitions are generally inlipid or ridiculous bom-
balt, low wit, ablurdity, and buffoonery. 1 he combats
of the cavalleros and bull fights, are almoft peculiar to
this country. On thefe occafions young gentlemen
w'ere ufed to fhow their courage to their m ill relies'
and were honoured and rewarded according to their fuc-
cefs. But thefe exhibitions were lately conducitd with
greater economy and pariimony 3 and mercenary cham¬
pions ftudied in the molt fecure and graceful manner to
deilroy the devoted animal. See BuLL-Figkting.
i he chief deleft in all ranks is an averlion to labour
and induftry. The higher orders bellow no attention on
agriculture and commerce 3 they refide for the moll part
at court and in the metropolis, reckoning it beneath
their dignity to live in villas on their eftates among their
tenants. In their eftimation, a labouring man quits the
dignity of the Spanilh charafter, and renders himfelf an
objeft of contempt. Hence a liftlefs indolence prevails
Thoufands wafte their time in total want of every incite¬
ment to aftion. Iheir intelleftual powers lie dormant
and their views and exertions are confined within the’
narrow fphere of mere exiftence. The common people
have no encouragement to-induftry 3 andmuft feel little.
concern..
SPA
[
Spain, concern for the welfare of a country where a few over-
u—V—^ grown families engrofs every thing valuable, and never
think, of the condition of their vaffals. '1 he indigent
Spaniard does not beftir himfelf unlefs impelled by want,
becaufe he perceives no advantage to be derived from
indultry. A ftranger to intemperance and excels, his
fcanty fare is eafiiy procured j and under a climate fo
propitious, few clothes are required. The hovel which
he occupies, together with all its contents, has a mean,
filthy, defpicable appearance and all that relates to
\ Playfair bears the impreflion of wretchednefs and mifery J.
Tliere are certain cuftoms which may be regarded as
’peculiar to the Spaniards, or which at lead are fcarcely
found in any other European country. The number of
fervants retained in the families of the higher ranks is
prodigious *, and even a tradefman’s wife, in narrow cir-
cumftances, will frequently have four maid fervants,
though (he cannot, with propriety, employ more than
t.wo. The houfes of gentlemen, and efpecially of gran¬
dees, fwarm with them •, and, not unfrequontly, aU the
principal fervants will have their wives and children
lodged with them, and fupported by their mafter.. We
have heard of one nobleman who was at the daily ex¬
pence of 120I. merely for the maintenance of his nume¬
rous retainers.
The Spaniards are fond of meeting in the evening in
parties, which are often very numerous. On thefe oc-
cafions, the ladies as they arrive place themfelves in one
room, and the gentlemen in another j or elfe the ladies
range themfelves in a line along the fide of the room,
the lady of the houfe always taking the lowed place
next to the door, whild the men remain danding, or
feat themfelves on the oppofite fide. They remain fe-
parated in this manner till the card parties are introdu¬
ced. They play at loo, loto, and other games of a fi-
milar kind. Thofe who do not play, either look on,
or embrace the opportunity of chatting with the perfon
mod intereding to them. Others form little circles,
where the eonverfation is ufually very animated. Thefe
parties very much refemble the French evening, and
the Englidi rout.
A refrefco fometimes makes part of thefe entertain¬
ments, but only on particular occafions, when the com¬
pany, is more than ufually numerous. But orgeat, le¬
monade, orangeade, ices of different kinds, fweetmeats,
and bifcuits, are didributed with uncommon profufion j
and chocolate ends the funcion, as all thefe entertain¬
ments are called.
Many precautions are taken in Spain againfl the heat.
The rooms are watered feveral times a-day, and the win¬
dows are {haded on the outfide with awnings of cloth or
ticking, or on the infide by large and full curtains. In
fome places, as at Valencia, the glafs is taken out of the
windows at the approach of fummer, and the doors of
the apartments are all fet open.
The beds in Spain are hard, being made of mattreffes,
laid on paillaffes, reding bn a wooden bottom. The
furniture of the houfes is ufually very fimple, and the
floors are covered with matting or printed cloth. 1 he
chairs have rudi bottoms, and are ufually of different
heights, thofe for the ladies being one-third lower than
thofe for the gentlemen.
Among the principal amufements of the Spaniards
mud be reckoned mufic and dancing. Though the Spa¬
niards .have a tade for mufic, they are by no means
224
Atmife-
ments.
54+ 1 S P A
proficients in that accomplifirment. Their principal in-
drument is the guitar, which is in the hands oi every ^
body. Different provinces have alfo their peculiar in-
druments. Thus the Gallicians ufe a dull and heavy
bagpipe j the Catalonians a large flageolet, and a little
drum or tabor j and the Bifcayans a fhort Hute, with
foui holes. Cadaneltes art aho extremely common,
and are employed with great dexterity ana adcirefs in
the national dances.
The Spaniards are padionately fond of dancing, and
they have certain dances which are peculiar to bpatfn
•Of thefe the fandango is the moll celebrated, arm ap¬
pears to be the molt ancient. It is a very extraordinary
dance, in which the whole body is thrown into a regu¬
lar and harmonious convulfion, exprefiive of the mod
lafcivious ideas.
The pafiion of the Spaniards for thefe dances is carried
to a height which can fcarcely be imagined. Nvfooner
are the guitar and the linging to which they are danced
heard in a ball room or theatre, than a murmur oi de¬
light arifes on all fides ; all faces become animated j the
feet, hands, and eyes of all prefent are put in motion:
it is impodible to defcribe the effe£t produced. Mr
Townfend, an Englidi traveller, affirms, that if a per¬
fon were to come fuddenly into a church or a court of
judice playing ihefandango, or the coiero, prielts, judges,
lawyers, criminals, auditnce, one and all, grave and gay,
young or old, would quit their lunftions, forget all di-
dinftions, and all fet themftives a dancing.
The Spanidr balls are directed by two perfons chofen
among the vifitors, who are called bajlenei as, and with
the hat under the arm, and the cane in the hand, per¬
form the office of maders of the ceremonies. One is
for the gentlemen, the other for the ladies. It is their
bufinefs to appoint who is to dance, whether minuets or
country dances : they are in general very attentive to
theobfervance of precedence and etiquette, and have ufu¬
ally the complaifance to contrive that thofe ffiall dance
together to whom it is peculiarly agreeable to meet.
A lingular cudom is obferved at thefe balls, which
appears new and drange to a foreigner. I he lady
chofen to dance rifes, croffes the room alone, and places
herfelf where die is to begin dancing, without waiting for
her partner to lead her out j and after the dance is over,
her partner makes his bow to her again in the middle
of the room without taking any further concern about
her, or handing her back to her place. But this cuitoi*
prevails only in the provinces.
The bull-fights noticed above were once not only a
favourite but a falhionable fpeflacle in Spain. Every
city, and almod every fmall town, had a place fet apart
for thefe darling combats j and hither all ranks and ages
reforted with the greated avidity, and witnefied the
prowefs of the combatants, and the torture of the
w retched animals, whom they were hired to butcher,
with the mod favage expreffions of delight. Thefe
fights made a part of every fedival, and, as foon as they
were announced, the houlewiie lef t her family, the tradef-
man forfook his ffiop, the artid his work-room, the la¬
bourer his field, and joy and expedition wete painted on
every countenance. 1 o the honour of the nation, thefe
cruel fports are at length abolidied, and Spain has
thus fet an example of humanity, which Britain,
with all her civilization and refinement, need not blufli
to copy.
Nav-SPAl#,
s P A t 545 ] SPA
ew-Spain New-SPAIN. See Mexico.
II SPALATRO, or Spalatto, a rich, populous, and
ftrong town of the republic of Venice, capital of Ve-
^ netian Dalmatia, with a good harbour and an arohbi-
fhop’s fee. Here are the ruins of the palace of Diocle-
fian, of which the late Mr Robert Adam publilhed in
1764 a fplendid account, enriched with 71 folio plateSi,
In 1784, Spalatro was nearly depopulated by the plague.
It is llrong by fituation, being built on a peninfula,
which is joined to terra firma by a neck of land half a
mile over. It is feated on the gulf of Venice, 3 9 miles
fouth-eaft of Sebenico, and 102 north-welt of Ragufa.
E. Long. 17. 31. N. Lat. 44. 4.
SPALLANZANI, Lazarus, a celebrated natura-
lift, was born at Scandiano, in the duchy of Modena, in
January 1729. He began his ftudies in his native coun¬
try, and went to Reggio de Modena at 1 5 years of age,
to profecute them further. He was initruded in the
belles lettres by the Jefuits, who contended with the
Dominicans in order to fecure his attachment; but his
third for knowledge determined him to go to Bo’ogna,
where his relative Laura Bafli, a Woman highly cele¬
brated for her genius, eloquence, and Ikill in natural
philofophy and mathematics, was one of the mod didin ■
guifhed profeflors of the Inditute and of Ita’y Under
this enlightened guide, he was taught to prefer the du-
dy of nature to that of her commentators, judging of
the real value of the commentary by its refemblance to
the original. He availed himfelf of the wifdom of that
lady’s counfels, the happy effedls of which he very loon
experienced. Spallanzani’s tade for philofophy was not
exclufive, for he carefully dudied his own language,
became a proficient in the Latin tongue, and attached
himfelf above every other to the Greek and French.
By the advice of a father whom he ardently loved, he
applied himfelf to jurifprudence ; but being urged by
Anthony Vallifnieri to renounce his vocation, by pro¬
curing the confent of his father, he gave himfelf up to
the dudy of mathematics with more zeal than ever, at
the fame time devoting himfelf to the ftudy of lan¬
guages, both living and dead.
It was not long before he was known all over Italy,
and, what is leldom the cafe, his own country fird put
that value on his talents which they judly merited.
He waschofen profeffor of logic, metaphyfics, and Greek,
in the univerfity of Reggio, in the year 174?, where
he taught during ten years, devoting every moment of
his leifure time to the dudy and contemplation of the
works of nature. The attention of Haller and Bonnet
was fixed by his obfervations on the animalculee of in-
fufions, the latter affiding him in his laudable career,
and ever after didinguidnng him as one of the learned
interpreters of nature.
Spallanzani was invited to the univerfity of Modena
in the year 1760, and fame years after he declined to
accept of the offers made to him by the academy of
Peterfburg, as well as fimilar ones from Coimbra, Par¬
ma, and Cefena, though extremely advantageous. He
preferred his native fpot, and therefore continued at
Modena till the year 1768, and faw raifed up by his
care a generation of men condituting at that time the
glory of Italy, among whom v/e find Venturi, Belloni,
Lucchelini, and Angelo Mazzo.
While Spallanzani remained at Modena, he publifh-
td his Saggio di O/J'enjas&ioni Microfconiche concernente
V01. XIX. Part II.
il Systema di Needham e Ruffon, in 1765, in which he Spallitu*
edablifhes, by a number of the mod ingenious and folid i4;u“'
experiments, the animality of microfcopic animalcules. ~v
This work was fent by the author to Bonnet, who drew
from it a prediction refpechng the future celebrity of
Spallanzani, which he lived to fee accompli died. This
circumdance gave birth to the mod intimate friendlhip,
which laded to the clofe of life, and conhituted thejr
chief happinefs. During the fame year he publidied a
truly original work, entitled De Lapidibus ab aqua re
fihentibus, in which he proves, in oppuiition to the com*
monly received opinion, by the mod fatisfaftory expe¬
riments, that what are called duels and drakes, are not
produced by the eladicity of the water, but by the ef-
fe£t naturally refulting from the change of diredion ex¬
perienced by the done in its movement, after it has
druck the water, and that it has been carried over the
hollow’ of the cup formed by the concuflion.
When the univerfity of Padua was re-edablifhed up¬
on a larger fcale, the Count de Firmian was dirtded by
the emprefs Maria Therefa, to invite Spallanzani to be
profeflbr of natural hidory, to which his great reputa¬
tion made him competent, although it was folicited by
many celebrated charaders 5 and he merited it by ins
fuccefs, as immenfe crowds of Undents thronged to his
ledures. He had a fine genius, and his knowledge was
of vad extent j his method was fimple, but rigorous in
its nature, and what he knew he conneded with prin¬
ciples firmly edablhhed. He acquired the valuable art
of interpreting nature by htrfelf, which dittufed luch a
light over his ledures, that every thing became perfpi*
cuous, which could be faid to afford any indrudion.
His difeourfes were plain and animated, and the ele¬
gance and purity of his Ityle charmed every hearer.
He prepared his ledures a year before hand, and it was
his chief aim to render them ufeful in an eminent de¬
gree. His new’ obfervations made them always new
and engaging. Many learned perfons who attended his
ledures were not above becoming his fcholars, in order
to acquire a more extenfive knowledge of what they
knew before, and to learn that which otherwifi they
might probably never have known. Tlu Contemplation
de la Nature of Bon net was his text book, the vacan¬
cies of which he ably filled up, fuliy explained the ideas,
and edablidred the theories bv his own experiments.
This work was tranflated by him into the Italian lan¬
guage, and he added much to its value by notes of his
own, the fird volume of which he publiflied in 1769, and
the fecond the following year.
His connedion with Bonnet tended, in a great mea-
fure, to influence his genius, which yield* d to the fevere
method of invedigation adopted by the philofopher of
Geneva. He was proud of being the pupil of fuch an
illudrious charader, upon whofe writings he inceffantly
bedowed every leifure moment, and thus became anxious
to learn from Nature herfelf the proofs of Bonnet’s fen-
timents refpeding the generation of organized bodies,
the pleafing nature of which refearch captivated his at¬
tention for a considerable time.
The fird two volumes of this work, entitled Opufvli
di Fifica Animate e Vegetabile, were published in the
year 1776, containing the explanation of part of the
microfcopic obfervations which were previouily given
to the world.
If it mud be admitted that the art of accurate obfer-
3 Z vatic*
SPA
[ 546 1
S P A
$paUa*-
zani.
lion is by far the moft difficult, it cannot be denied that
it is at the fame time the moft necefiary, and requires
the moft brilliant talents and abilities, which were pof-
fefied by Spallanzani in a remarkable degree, as is fully
evinced by all his refearches and all his admirable wri¬
tings. _ .
The polite manner in which he conduced his aifpute
with Needham refpedling the phenomena of generation,
fecured for him a high degree of applaufe. On this
occafion he treated of the influence of cold upon ani¬
mals, and proved that the torpidity offome during win¬
ter, does not depend on the impreflion the blood may
receive from it, fince a frog deprived of blood, becomes
torpid when reduced to the fame cold ftate by being
immerfed in ice, and fwims as formerly when reftored
to a proper degree of warmth.
Spallanzani travelled through Switzerland and the
Grifons in the year 1779* after which he went to Ge¬
neva, fpending a month with his friends, by whom his
converfation was as much admired as his mafterly wri¬
tings. From this place he returned to Pavia, and in
1780 publifhed two more volumes of his Differta’zione
di Fifica Animate e Vegetable, wherein he. unfolded the
fecrets of the interpretation of two very intricate phe¬
nomena, concerning the economy of animals and ve¬
getables. He was led to this ftudy from feme experi¬
ments made by him upon digejhon, for his ledfures-, and
he repeated the experiments of Reaumur on gallinace¬
ous birds, remarking that the trituration which in this
eafe is favourable to digeftion, could not be a very
powerful means. He perceived that the gizzard of thofe
birds, by which the {tones of fruit are pulverized, did
not digeft the powder thus formed, it being neceflary
that it (hould undergo a new operation in the ftomach,
previous to its becoming chyle for the production of
the blood and other humours.
This fubjeCt may be regarded as one of the moft dif¬
ficult in phyfiology, becaufe theobferver is always under
the neeeflity of acting and looking in the midft of dark-
nefsj the animal muft be managed with care., that the
derangement of the operations may be avoided ^ and
'when the experiments are completed with great.labour,
it is requiftte that the confequences be well diftinguifll-
ed. Spallanzani in this work is truly enchanting, ana-
lyfing faCts with fcrupulofity, in order to afeertain their
caufes with certainty j comparing Nature with his ex¬
periments, in order to form a correft judgment refpeCl;
ing them; laying hold of every thing eiTential to them
in°his obfervations, and meafuring their lolidity by the
increafe or diminution offuppofed caufes.
Mr John Hunter appears to have been greatly hurt
by this work, which ltd him to publifh, in the year
178$, Some Obfervations upon Digeflion, in which he
threw out fome bitter farcaims againft the Italian na-
turalift, who took ample revenge by publifliing this
work in the Italian language, and addrefling to Caldani
in 1788, Una Lettcra Apologetica w Rifpojia alle OJfer-
va%ione del Signor Giovanni Hunter. In this he ex-
pofed with great moderation, but at the fame time with
logic which nothing could refift, the miftakes and er¬
rors of the Britifti phyfiologift, leaving the power of a
reply altogether hopelefs.
'I'he generation of animals and plants is treated of in
the fecond volume of this laft-mentioned work, in which
Jke proves the pre-exiftence of germs to fecundation-, by
experiment as fatisfaClory as lurprilingi {hewing alfo
the exiftence of tadpoles in the females of five difterent
fpecies of frogs, in lalamanders, and toads, before their
fecundation. He likewxfe recounts the fuccefs of fomo
artificial fecundations upon the tadpoles oi thofe five
fpecies, and even upon a quadruped.
In the year 1781, he took the advantage of the aca¬
demical vacation, for the purpofe of making a journey,
in order to add to the cabinet of Pavia. He fet out
for Marfeilles in the month of July that year, where he
began a new hiftory of the lea, which prefented him
with many new and curious faCts on numerous genera
of the natives of the ocean. He went alfo to finale,
Genoa, Mafia, and Carrara, to make obfervations on
the quarries of marble, held by ftatuaries in luch eftima-
tion. He then returned to Spezzia, and brought from
thence to Pavia a vaft number of fifties, which he de-
pofited in the cabinet of that city, wholly colleded by
himfelf. With the fame view and fuccefs he viiited
thecoafts of Iftria in 1782, and the Apennine moun¬
tains the fubfequent year, taking notice of the. dreadful
hurricanes, and the aftonifhing vapours by which that
year became fo noted in meteorology. I he emperor
Jofcph, on examining this cabinet, prefented Spallanzani
with a gold medal. In 17855 was 0®ere<^ ^ie c^air
of natural hiftory by the univerfity of Padua, vacant by
the death of Anthony Vallifnieri ; but in order to pre¬
vent his acceptance of it, his falary was doubled by the
archduke, and he went to Conftantinople with Cheva¬
lier Zuliani, who had been appointed ambafiador from
the Venetian republic. He fet out on the 21ft of Au-
guft, and reached the Turkifh metropolis on the nth of
O&ober, where he remained during eleven months.
His attention was fixed by the phyfical and moral phe¬
nomena of this country, which were new even to Spal¬
lanzani. He ftrayed along the borders of the two leas,
and afeended the mountains in the vicinity •, he paid a
vifit to the ifland of Chalki, difeovering to the Turks a
copper mine, the exiftence of which they had never
once conjeaured. He difeovered an iron mine not far
from Conftantinople, in the ifland of Principi, of which
the Turks were equally ignorant, and prepared to re¬
turn for Italy on the 16th of Auguft
A voyage by fea was undoubtedly the lafeft, but the
dangers to which he would be expoied by land were re¬
garded as nothing when contr.afted with the idea of be¬
ing beneficial to feienee and to man. Having reached
B ichareft, Mauroceni the friend of feienee, received
Spallanzani with marks of dillin£l ion, prefented him
with many rarities which the country produced, and
gave him horfes for travelling, with an elcort.of 30
troopers, to the utmoft confines of his own dominions.
Our philofopher palled by Hermanftadt in Tranfylvania,
and reached Vienna on the 7th of December, where he
remained during five days, and had two long comc.-
ences with the emperer Jofeph II. was much eftetmed
by the nobility of that city, and refpeafully vifited by
many literary charadfers. W hen he arrived at. Paria,
the Undents went out of the city gates to meet him, ana
teftified their joy at his return by repeated acclama¬
tions. He was almoft inftantly drawn to the auditory,
and compelled to afeend the- chair from which he had
been accuftomed to deliver his fafcmating le&uresj but
their demonftrations of joy and ftmuts of applaufe made
him requeft of them to give over, and indulge him wi#
Spallas.,
zani.
SPA [ 547 ] SPA
fpatian- tliat rcpofe in liis own houfe which was nov/ To abfolute-
zani- ]y neceffary. His ftudents this year exceeded 500.
So extenlive was the fame of Spallanzani become by
this time, that envy was determined, if poffible, to
wound his reputation. If his difeoveries were too new,
folid, and original, to be fuccefsfully difputed, that vile
paffion, or rather /?<?«</, began to queftion his integrity
and uprightnefs refpefting the adminiltration of the ca¬
binet of Pavia; but this iniquitous attempt to tarnifh
his honour, only made it thine forth with redoubled
fplendour. The juridical examination of the tribunals
made his integrity appear even purer than before ; and
it mud be mentioned to his honour, that he had the
fortitude to forget this event •, his enemies in general
confeffed their miftake, renounced their unprovoked ani-
mofity, and dill hoped to regain a friendthip of which
they had proved themfelves fo unworthy.
In the voyage of Spallanzani we meet with what
may be denominated a new volcanology. We are
there indrufted how to meafure the intensity of volca¬
nic fires, and in his analyfis of the lava^ aimed to touch
the particular gas which tears thofe torrents of done in
fufion from the bowels of the earth, and raifes them to
the top of Mount Etna. T-his delightful work is clofed
by fome important enquiries into the nature of Swal¬
lows, the mildnefs of their difpofitions, the rapidity of
their flight, difeuffingthe celebrated problem refpeeding
their remaining torpid during the winter feafon, pro¬
ving that artificial cold, much more intenfe than what
is ever naturally experienced in our climates, does not
.•reduce thefe birds to the torpid date.
Things apparently impoflible were often difeovered
by Spallanzani. In the year f795 he made one of
this defenption, which he gave to the world in his Lct-
tere fopra ilfopetto cVun nttovo fenfo nei Pippi/lre/Ii. In
that work we are informed that bats, if de prived of
fight, aft with the fame precifion in every indance as
thofe which have their eyes ; that they diun in the
fame manner the mod trivial obdacies, and alfo know
where to fix themfelves when their flight is terminated.
Several philofophers confirmed thefe afloniflung experi¬
ments, from which a fufpieion arofe, that thefe animals
rnuft have a new fenfe, as it appeared to Spallanzani
that the other known fenfes could not compenfate for
the want of fight •, but he was afterwards inclined to
•think, in Gonfequence of Profeflfor Jurine’s experiments
on the organ of hearing in bats, that in this particular
in fiance the -'fenfe of hearing might poflibly fupply the
want of fight.
The literary career of this celebrated naturalifl was
terminated by a letter to Giobert, entitled Sopra la
piante chitife tie vnji Jcntro l'aqua e /'aria, efpojle a Pirn-
media!a lame folare e a I'ombra. Thefe numerous works,
which met with the higheft approbation, do not com¬
prehend the whole of his multifarious labours •, for the
phenomena of refpiration had occupied his attention a
confiderable time \ their points of refemblance and dif-
fimilitude in many fpecies of animals ; and he had near¬
ly finifiied his voyage to Conflantinople, as well as col-
leftcd many valuable materials for a hiflory of the fea,
when his life and labours were unfortunately termina¬
ted.
He was feized with a retention of urine on the 4th of
February 1799, and next morning was deprived of the
regular ufe of his faculties, only enjoying a found mind
during very fliort intervals. Tourdes and Profefibr Spallan-
Scarpa did every thing to fave him, which could be pro- z®ni
duced by the joint exertions of genius, experience, and Sparga-
friendfiiip, but in vain. He died on the 17th j but we nium.
know not what credit is due to the aflertion, that lie
edified thofe around him during his laid moments by his
piety. Be that as it may, while his works exilt to fpeak
for themfelves, impartial pofterity will regard him as a
very extraordinary man. Thefe works have been tranf-
lated into almofi every European language, and he wras
admitted a member of the academies and learned focie-
ties of London, Stockholm, Gottingen, Holland, Lyons,
Bologna, Turin, Padua, Mantua, and Geneva, and he
received from Frederick the Great the diploma of mem¬
ber of the academy of Berlin.
SPAN, a meafure taken from the fpace between the
thumb and tire tip of the little finger when both arc
firetchod out. The fpan is eilimated at three bands-
breadths or nine inches.
SPANDRELL, the foiid work on each haunch of
an arch, to keep it from fpreading.
SPANHEIM, Ezekiel, a learned writer in the
17th century, was born at Geneva in 16295 and
in 1642 went to Leyden to ftudy. Here he difiia-
guilhed himfelf to great advantage 5 and his reputation
fpreading, Charles Louis eleftor palatine fent for him
to be tutor to his only fon. This talk our author dif-
charged to the entire fatisfaftion of the eleftor 5 by
whom he was alfo employed in divers negotiations at
foreign courts. He afterwards entered into the fervice
of the eleftor of Brandenburg, who in 1680 fent him
envoy extraordinary to the court of France, and foon
alter made him a xninifter of ftate. After the peace at
Ryfwic, he %vas again fent on an embafiy to France,
where he continued from the year 1697 to 1702. The
eleftor of Brandenburg having during that interval af-
fumed the title of King of PruJJia, conferred on him the
title and dignity of a baron. In 1702 -he left France 5
and w'ent ambaffador to England, where he had been
feveral times. Here he died in 1710, aged 8r years.
It is furprifing, that in difchargrng the duties of a public
minifter with fo much exaftnefs, and amidit fo many
different journeys, lie could find time enough to write
the feveral books publiflied by him. It may be faid of
him, that he acquitted himfelf in his negotiations like a
perfon who had nothing elfe in his thoughts 5 and that
■he wrote like a man who had fpent his whole time in his
ftudy. The principal ef his works are, 1. Depreejlantia
et ufu numifmatum antiquorum; the beft edition of
which is in two volumes folio. 2. Several letters or
differtations on fcarce and curious medals. 3. A pre¬
face and notes to the edition of the emperor Julian’s
works, printed at Leipfic in 1696, folio.
SPANIEL, m Zoology. See Canis, Mammalia
Index.
SPAR, in Mineralogy, a name given chiefly to fome
of the cryftallized combinations of lime, as the carbo¬
nate and the fluate 5 tbu former being called limply
lime/par, the latter fluor fpar, or Derbyfhire fpar, from
the name of the place where it is found in greateft abun*
dance. See Mineralogy.
SPARGANIUM, Bur-reed, a genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs of moncecia, and to the order of
triandria ; and in the natural fyftem ranged under the
3d order, Calamarice. See Botany Index.
3 Z 2 SPARLING,
SPA [ 54^
SPARLING, or Spirling, a fraall fi(K belonging to
the genus Salmo. See Ichthyology, p. 99.
SPARMANNIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of polyandria, and to the order of monogynia.
See Botany Index.
SPARROW. See Fringilla, Ornithology
Index.
See Falco, Ornithology In-
]
3 P A
See Asparagus, Botany and
S PARED W-IIawk.
dex.
Spar row-Graft.
Gardening Index.
SPARRY-acid. See FLUORIC-Acid, Chemistry
j[/j dex •
SPARTA, or Lacedaemon, the capital of the
country ot Laconia in Greece, an ancient and molt re¬
nowned Rate, the inhabitants of which have been in all
ages celebrated for the Angularity of their laws and cha-
The hiftory rafter.—The hiftory of Sparta for many ages is entirely
of Sparta fabulous j and the authentic accounts commence only
mo ft I y fa- wjth tiie celebrated lawgiver Lycurgus, who dourilhed
butous till about g70 B> c> See the article Lycurgus.
Lycmfil After his death, the firft important tranfaftion which
we And mentioned in the Spartan hillory is the IVlelle-
nian war, which commenced in the year 752 B. C. and
ended in the total reduftion of the Meffenian territory,
as related under the article MESSENIA. During this
period, according to fome authors, a great change took
place in the government of Sparta. 1 his was the crea¬
tion of the ephori, which is afcribed to one of the kings
named Theopompus. This man perceiving that there
was a neceffity for leaving magiilrates to execute the
laws, when the kings were obliged to be in the Aeld,
appointed the magiftrates above mentioned, who after¬
wards made fo great a rigure in the Hate (lee Ephori).
One great privilege of the ephori was, that they did
not rife up at the prefence of the kings, as all other ma¬
giftrates did : another was, that if the kings oftended
aa-ainft the laws, the ephori took cognizance of the of¬
fence, and inflifted a fuitable punilhment. From the
firft e’leftion of the ephori, the year was denominated,
as at Athens from the firft eleftion of the archons.
The conqueft of Meffenia gave Sparta the fuperiority
over the reft of the ftates, excepting only that of Athens,
which for a long time continued to be a very trouble-
fome rival: but the contefts between thefe two rival
ftates have been fo fully related under the article At¬
tica, that nothing more is requifite to be added in this
iconic!as place.—In the time of the Perfian war, Leonidas the
undertakes Spartan king, diftinguiflied himfelf in fuch a manner as
to defend become the admiration not only of that but of every
the ftraits fucceeding age. It being refolved in a general council
pyhe a-"10” to defend1 the (trails of Thermopylae againft the Per-
gainft the fians, 'JOOO* foot were put under the command of Leo-
L’erfians. nidas; of whom, however, only 300 were Spartans.
.iciiuuM. mcias; or wnorn, nuwcvci, winy "— ~r 
*LSer Leonidas did not think it prafticable to defend the pafs
Navels againft fuch multitudes as the Perfian king com manded j
vol. i. and therefore privately told his friends, that his defign
I.468. -was to devote himfelf to death for his country.
Xerxes advancing near the ftraits, was ftrangely fur-
prifed to find that the Greeks ivere refolved to difpute
his paflage 5 for he had always flattered himfelf, that on
his approach they would betake themfelves to flight,
and not attempt to oppofe his innumerable forces.
However, Xerxes ftill entertaining fome hopes of their
3
flight, waited four days without undertaking any thing, Sparta,
on purpofe to give them time to retreat. During this v—i
time, he ufed his utmoft endeavours to gain and corrupt ^ ^
Leonidas, promifing to make him mafter of all Greece fians repul>
if he would come over to his intereft. His offers being fed with
rejefted with contempt and indignation, the king °r-|reath !
dered him by a herald to deliver up his arms. Leoni- auSWel*
das, in a ftyle and with a fpirit truly laconical, anfwer-
ed, “ Come thyfelf, and take them.” Xerxes, at this re¬
ply, tranfported with rage, commanded the Modes and
Ciflians to march againft them, take them all alive, and
bring them to him in fetters. The Medes, not able to
Hand the ihock of the Greeks, foon betook themfelves
to flight : and in their room Hydarnes was ordered to
advance with that body which was called Immortal, and
confifted of 10,000 chofen men •, but when thefe came
to clofe with the Greeks, they fucceeded no better than
the Medes and Ciffians, being obliged to retire with
great (laughter. The next day the Perfians, reflefting
on the (mall number of their enemies, and fuppofing fo
many of them to be wounded that they could not pof-
fibly maintain a fecond fight, refolved to make another
attempt j but could not by any efforts make the Greeks
give way : on the contrary, they were themfelves put
to a (hameful flight, ihe valour of the Greeks exert¬
ed itfelf on this occafion in a manner fo extraordinary,
that Xerxes is faid to have three times leaped from his
throne, apprehending the entire deftruftion of his army.
Xerxes having loft all hopes of forcing his ivay
through troops that were determined to conquer or die,
was extremely perplexed and doubtful what meafureshe
fliould take in this pofture of affairs; when one Epialtes,-
in expeftation of a great reward, came to him, and dif- 4
covered a fecret paffage to the top of the hill which They are
overlooked and commanded the Spartan forces. The frown a
king immediately ordered Hydarnes thither with his fe-to
left body of io,oco Perfians ; who marching all night, fummnd
arrived at break of day, and poffeffed themfelves of that the ftmls
advantageous poft. Ihe Phocaeans, who defended this
pafs, being overpowered by the enemy’s Rumbers, re¬
tired with precipitation to the very top of the mountain,
prepared to die gallantly. But Hydarnes, neglefting to
puriue them, marched down the mountain with all pof-
fible expedition, in order to attack thofe who defended
the ftraits in the rear. Leonidas being now apprifed
that it was impofiible to bear up againft the enemj,
obliged the reft of his allies to retire: but he (laid him¬
felf, with the Thefpians, Thebans, and 3CO Lacedemo¬
nians, all refolved to die with their leader ; who being
told by the oracle, that either Sparta fhould be deftroy-
ed or the king lofe his life, determined without the lead
hefitation to facrifice himfelf for his country. I he
Thebans indeed remained againft their inclination, be¬
ing detained by Leonidas as hoftages; for they were
fufpefted to favour the Perfians. The Thefpians, with
their leader Demophilus, could not by any means be
prevailed upon to abandon Leonidas and the Spartans.
The augur Megiftias, who had foretold the event of
this enterprife, being preffed by Leonidas to retire fent
home his only fon; but remained himfelf, and died by
Leonidas. Thofe who (laid did not feed themfelves with
any hopes of conquering or efcaping, but looked upon
Thermopylae as their graves; and when Leonidas, ex¬
horting them to take fome nourifhment, faid, ibatfthey
SPA [ 549 ] SPA
| *rtr fliould all fun together with Pluto, with one accord they
^ ' fet up a lh.' ..t of joy, as if they had been invited to a
j banquet.
I jiidas Xerxes, after pouring out a libation at the rifing of
kijli with fun? began to move with the whole body of his ar-
ajiis men. as he had been advifed by Epialtes. Upon their
approach, Leonidas advanced to the broadelt part of
the paifage, and fell upon the enemy with fuch undaunt¬
ed courage and refolution, that the Perlian officers were
obliged to Hand behind the divifions they commanded,
in order to prevent the flight of their men. Great num¬
bers of the enemy falling into the fea, were drowned 5
others wrere trampled under foot by their own men, and
a great many killed by the Greeks ; who knowing they
could not avoid death upon the arrival of thofe who
were advancing to fall upon their rear, exerted their
utmoft efforts. In this action fell the brave Leonidas j
which Abrocomes and Hyperanthes, two of the bro¬
thers of Xerxes, obferving, advanced with great refolu¬
tion to feize his body, and carry it in triumph to Xerxes.
But the Lacedsemonians, more eager to defend it than
their own lives, repulfed the enemy four times, killed
both the brothers of Xerxes, with many other command¬
ers of diftindtion, and refcued the body of their beloved
general out of the enemy’s hands. But in the mean
time, the army that was led by the treacherous Epialtes,
advancing to attack their rear, they retired to the nar-
nwveft place of the paffage, and drawing altogether
except the Thebans, polled themfelves on a rifing ground.
In this place they made head againfl the Perfians, who
poured in upon them on all fides, till at length, not
vanquifhed, but oppreffed and overwhelmed by numbers,
they all fell, except one who efcaped to Sparta, where
he was treated as a coward and traitor to his country j
but afterwards made a glorious reparation in the battle
of Plataea, where he diitinguilhed himfelf in an extraor¬
dinary manner. Some time after, a magnificent monu¬
ment was eredled at Thermopylae, in honour of thofe
brave defenders of Greece, with two infcriptions ; the
one general, and relating to all thofe who died on this
occafion, importing, that the Greeks of Peloponnefus,
to the number only of 4000, made head againft the Per-
fian army, confifling of 3,000,000. The other related
to the Spartans in particular, and was compofed by the
poet Simonides, to this purport : “ Go, palfenger, and
acquaint the Spartans that we died here in obedience to
their juft commands.” At thofe tombs a funeral oration
was yearly pronounced in honour of the dead heroes, and
| public games performed with great folemnity, wherein
none but the; Lacedaemonians and Thefpians had any
fhare, to fhow that they alone were concerned in the
j glorious defence of Thermopvlae.
Mindful At the end of the 77th Olympiad, a moft dreadful
wti uake earthquake happened at Sparta, in which, according to
111 1:ta- Diodorus, 20,000 perfons loft their lives ; and Plutarch
tells us, that only five houfes were left Handing in the
whole city. On this occafion the Helotes or Haves,
whom the Spartans had all along treated with the ut-
moft cruelty, attempted to revenge themfelves, by ta¬
king up arms, and marching dire&ly to the ruins of the
city, in hopes of cutting off at once thofe who had efca¬
ped from the earthquake. But in this they were pre¬
vented by the prudence of the Spartan king Archida-
mus j for he, obferving that the citizens were more de-
firous of preferving their effedls than taking care of
their own lives, caufed an alarm to be founded, as if he Sparta
had known that an enemy was at hand. On this the v—
citizens armed themfelves in halte with fuch weapons
as they could come at j and having marched a little
way from the city, met the Helotes, whom they loon ^
compelled to retire. The latter, however, knowing War with
that they had now no mercy to expert from thofe who the Helo-
had already treated them with fuch cruelty, reiblved totes*
defend themfelves to the laft. Having therefore feized
a fea-port town in Meffenia, they from thence made
fuch incurfions into the Spartan territories, that they
compelled thofe imperious mailers to alk afliltance from
the Athenians. This was immediately granted ; but
when the Spartans faw that the fldll of the Athenians
in befieging towns was much greater than their own,
they became jealous, and difmiffed their allies, telling
them that they had now no farther occalion for their
fervices. On this the Athenians left them in difguft j
and as the Helotes and Meffenians did not choofe to
come to an engagement with a Spartan army in the
field, but took Ihelter in their fortified places, the war
was protracted for ten years and upwards. At laft the
Helotes were reduced to their former mifery j and the
Meffenians were obliged to leave Peloponnefus, on pain
of being made flaves al£b. Thefe poor people were
then received by the Athenians, who granted them
Naupa&us for their refidence, and afterwards brought
them back to a part of their own country, from whence
in the courfe of the Peloponnefian war they had driven
the Spartans. ^
In the year 431 B. C. the Peloponnefian war com-With ths'
menced 4 of which a full account has been given under Atheniana
the article Attica, N° 116—165. It ended moft un- aT'd l>er-
fortunately for the Athenians ; their city being taken fiaaS‘
and difmantled, as related in the article above mention¬
ed. I bus were the Spartans raifed to the higheft pitch
of glory ; and in the reign of Agefilaus, they feemed
to be on the point of fubverting the Perfian empire, as
related under the article Persia, N° 34. But here
their good fortune and their views of empire were fud-
denly checked. Agefilaus had carried on the war in
Afia with the greateft fuccefs 5 and as he would heark¬
en to no terms of accommodation, a Perfian governor
named 'lit/iraujies, having firft attempted in vain to
bribe the king, difpatched Timocrates the Rhodian with
50 talents into Greece, in order to try whether he could
there meet with any perfons lefs incorruptible than the
Spartan monarch. This agent found many who inclined
to accept his offers •, particularly in Thebes, Corinth,
and Argos.. By diftributing the money in a proper
manner, he inflamed the inhabitants of thefi* three cities 9
againft the Spartans ; and of all others ihe Thebans general
came into his terms with the greateft readinefs. They™1' bina-
faw that their antagomfts would not of their own ac-tl0n a£ainft
cord break with any of the ftates of Greece, and did
not choofe to begin the war themfelves, beeaufe the
chiefs of the Perfian l&ftion tvere unwilling to be ac¬
countable for the event. For this reafon they perfua-
ded the Locrians to invade a fmall diftrid which lay in
difpute betvvixt the Pbocians and themfelves. On this
the Pbocians invaded Locus j the Locrians applied to
the Thebans, and the Phocians to the Spartans. The
la.tter were glad of an opportunity of breaking with th«
Thebans \ but met with a much warmer reception than
they expeded. Their old general Lyfander, who had
reduced
tparta.
SPA [ 550 ] SPA
-Sparta, reduced Athens, was defeated and killed, with the 1ms
t*"—y of 1000 men: on which difafter Ageiilaus was recalled,
and obliged to relinquilh all hopes of conquering the
Pertians. His return changed the fortune of the war
fa much, that all the ftates began to grow weary of a
contelt from which nobody derived any advantage ex-
Pea e of cept the king of Perfia. In a Ihort time a treaty was
Antalcklas. concluded, known in hiftory by the name of the peace
of Antalcidas. The terms of this treaty were highly
* See Per- difadvantageous and difhonourable to the Oieeks \ tor
N’ 37- even the Spartans, though fuceehful in Greece, had
loft a great battle at fea with the Perfian fleet under
ConorTthe Athenian, which entirely broke their power
in Afia.
By the peace of Antalcidas, the government ot Boe*
otia was taken from the Thebans, which they had for
a long time enjoyed •, and by this they were fo much
provoked, that at firft they abfolutely refufed to accede
to the treaty •, but as Agefilaus made great preparations
to invade them, they thought proper at lall to comply.
HoftiHt'es However, it was not long before a new war commenced,
recomrnen- which threatened the total fubverfion of the Spartan
ced. ftate. As, by the jieace of Antalcidas, the king of
Perfia had in a manner guaranteed the fovereignty of
Greece to Sparta, this republic very foon began to ex-
ercife its power to the utmoft extent. 1 he IVIantineans
were the firft who felt the weight of their refentment,
although they had been their allies and confederates.
In order to have a pretence for making war againft
them, they commanded them to quit their city, and to
retire into five old villages which, they laid, had ferved
their forefathers, and where they would live in peace
themfelves, and give no umbrage to their neighbours.
This being refufed, an army was fent againft them to
befiege their city. The fiege was continued through
the fummer with very little fuccefs on the part of the
Spartans ; but having during the winter fealon dammed
up the river on which the city ftood, the water rofe to
fuch a height, as either to overflow or throw down
the houfes 3 which compelled the Mantineans to fubmit
to the terms preferibed to them, and to retire into the
old villages. The Spartan vengeance fell next on the
Phliafians and Olynthians, whom they forced to come
into fuch meafures as they thought proper. After this
they fell on the Thebans, and, by attempting to feize
on the Pineum, drew the Athenians alfo into the quar¬
rel. But here their career was flopped: the Ihebans
had been taught the art of war by Chabrias the Athe¬
nian *, fo that even Agefilaus himfelf took the command
of the Spartan army in vain. At fea they were de-
TheVower feated by Timotheus the fon of Conon •, and by land
»f Sparta the battle of Leuftra put an end to the fuperiority
entirely whjch Sparta had held over Greece for near 500 years,
feroken. gee LeUCTRA.
After this dreadful defeat, the Spartans had occafion
to exert all their courage and refolution. I he women
and neareft relations of thofe who were killed in battle.,
inftead of fpending their time in lamentations, fhook
each other by the hand, while the relations of thofe
who had efcaped from the battle hid themfelves among
the women ; or if they were obliged to go abroad, they
appeared in tattered clothes, with their arms folded, and
their eyes fixed on the ground. It was a law among
the Spartans, that fuch as fled from battle ftiould be de¬
graded from their honours, fhould be bon&rained to ap-
4
pear in garments patched with divers colours, to Treat Sparta,
their beards half-ihaved, and to fuffer any to beat them
who pleafed, without refiftance. At prefent, however,
this law was dupenied with ; and Agefilaus by his pru¬
dent conduct kept up the Ipirits of the people, at the
fame time that by hisikill in military affairs he checked
the progrefs of the enemy. \ et, during the litetime of
Epaminondas the 1 heban general, the war went on
greatly to the diladvantage (if the Spartans \ but he be¬
ing killed at the battle of Mantinea, all parties becaftie
quickly delirous ot peace. Agefilaus did not long fur-
vive; and with him, we may fay, periihed the glory of
Sparta. Soon after this all the ffates of Greece fell
under the power of Alexander the Great; and the
Spartans, as well as the reft, having become corrupt,
and loft their martial fnirit, became a prey to domeftic
tyrants, and to foreign invaders. They maintained
their ground, however, with great refolution againft the
celebrated Pyrrhus king of Epirus j whom they repul-
fed for three days fuccefiively, though not without af-
fiftan.ee from one of the captains of Antigonus. Soon
after this, one of the kings of Sparta named per¬
ceiving the univerfal degeneracy that had taken place,
made an attempt to reftore the laws and difcipline of
Lycurgus, by which he fuppofed the ftate would be re-
ftored to its former glory. But though at firft he Aghand
with fome appearance of fuccefs, he was in a ihort time Cieomew
tried and condemned by the ephori as a traitor to Lis *
country. Cleomenes, however, who alcended the throne
in 216 B. C. accompliihtd the reformation which Agis
had attempted in vain. He fuppreffed the ephori; can¬
celled all debts ; divided the lands equally, as they had
been in the time of Lycurgus 5 and put an end to the
luxury which prevailed among the citizens. But at la ft
he was overborne by the number of enemies which fur-
rounded him j and being defeated in battle by Anti¬
gonus, he fled to Egypt, where he put an end to his
own life. With him perifhed every hope of retrieving
the affairs of Sparta: the city for the prefent fell into
the hands of Antigonus ; after which a fucceflion of ty¬
rants took place ^ till at laft all difturbances were ended
by the Romans, who reduced Macedon and Greece
to provinces of their empire, as has been related under
thefe articles. _ 14
It remains now only to fay fometbing-concemingthe Inftitutil
charaefer, manners, and cuftomsof the Spartans, which, ofLycurJ
as they were founded on the laws of Lycurgus, may s
bell be learned from a view of thefe laws.. _ 15 Q
The inftitutions of Lycurgus were divided into l2Hlslaws |
tables. The firft comprehended fueh of the. Spartan conrernii
laws as regarded religion. The ftatues of all the godsu ’S
and goddeffes were reprefented in armour, even to Ve¬
nus herfelf j the reafon of which was, that the people
might conceive a military life the moft noble and ho¬
nourable, and not attribute, as other nations did, floth
and luxury to the gods. As to facrifices, they confifl¬
ed of things of very ftnall value ; for which Lycurgus
himfelf gave this reafon, That want might never hinder
them from worftiipping the gods. 1 hey were forbidden
*to make long or rafh prayers to the heavenly powers,
and were injomed to afk no more than that they might
live honeftly and difeharge their duty. Graves were,
permitted to be made within the bounds of the city,
contrary to the cuftom of moft of the Greek nations \
nay, they buried clofe by their temples, that all degrees
•tonrta.
j.nd«
S P A [5
of people might be made familiar with death, and not
conceive it fueh a dreadful thing as it was generally
efteemed elfewhere : on the fame account, the touching
dead bodies, or affifling at funerals, made none unclean,
!! but were held tube as innocent and honourable duties
as any other. There was nothing thrown into the
grave with the dead body } magnificent fepulchres were
forbidden ; neither was there fo much as an infcription,
however plain or modeft, permitted. Tears, lighs, out¬
cries, were not allowed in public, becaufe they were
thought difhonourable in Spartans, whom their lawgiver
would have to bear all things with equanimity. Mourn¬
ing was limited to n days ; on the 12th the mourner
facrificed to Ceres, and threw afide his weeds. In fa¬
vour of luch as were flain in the wars, however, and of
women who devoted themfelves to a religious life, there
was an exception alhrwed as to the rules before mention¬
ed ; for fuch had a fiiort and decent infcription on their
tombs. When a number of Spartans fell in battle, at
a diilance from their country, many of them were bu¬
ried together under one common tomb *, but if they fell
on the frontiers of their own Rate, then their bodies
were carefully carried back to Sparta, and interred in
their family fepulchres.
teeming If- Lycurgus divided all the country of Laconia in¬
ti divifion to 30,000 equal ftiares : the city of Sparta he divided
into 9000, as fome fay ; into 6oco, as others fay *, and
as a third part will have it, into 4 500. The intent of/
the legiflator was, that property thould be equally di¬
vided among his citizens, fo that none might be power¬
ful enough to opprefs his fellows, or any be in fuch ne-
ceffity, as to be therefrom in danger of corruption.
With the fame view he forbade the buying or felling
thefe pofleffions. If a ftranger acquired a right to any
of thefe (hares, he might quietly enjoy it, provided he
fubmitted to the laws of the republic. The city of
Sparta was umvalled ; Lycurgus trufting it rather to
the virtue of its citizens than to fhe art of rnafons. As
to the houfes, they were A'ery plain ; for their ceilings
could only be wrought by the axe, and their gates and
doors only by the faw ; and their utenfils w'ere to be
of a like ftamp, that luxury might have no inftruments
among them.
III. The citizens were to be neither more nor lets
than the number of city lots ; and if at any time there
happened to be more, they were to be led out in co¬
lonies. As to children, their laws were equally harfli
and unreafonable ; for a father was direfled to carry his
new-born infant to a certain place, where the graved
men of his tribe looked upon the infant •, and if they
perceived its limbs ftraight, and thought it had a whole-
fome look, they then returned it to its parents to be
educated 5 otherwife it was thnwvn into a deep ca¬
vern at the foot of the mountain Taygetus. This law
feems to have had one very good effeft, viz. making
■women very careful, when they were with child, of ei¬
ther eating, drinking, or exercifing, to excels : it made
them alfo excellent nurfes j for which they were in
mightv requeft throughout Greece. Strangers were
not allowed to refide long m the city, that they might
not corrupt the Spartans bv teaching them new cuf-
toms. Citizens were alfo forbidden to travel, for the
fame reafon, unlefs the good of the (late required it.
Such as were not bred up in their youth according to
the kw, were not allowed the liberty of the city,, be-
[7 ..
e citi-
z«« chil-
fap See.
51 ] SPA
caufe they held it unreafonable, that one who had not Sparta,
fubmitted to the laws in his youth fliould receive the be-
nefit of them when a man. 1 hey nevc.r preferred any
llranger to a public office ; but if at any time they had
occafion for a ptrfon not born a Spartan, they firit made
him a citizen, and then preferred him. is
IV. Celibacy in men was infamous, and punifhed in Of celibacy
a molt extraordinary manner ; for the old bachelor was “ncl raar‘
conftrained to walk naked, in the depth of winter, ria^e'
through the market-place : while he did this, he was
obliged to fing a fong in difparagement of himlelt; and
he had none of the honours paid him which otherwife
belonged to old age, it being held unreafonable, that
the youih ffiould venerate him who was refolved to
leave none of his progeny behind him, to revere them
when they grew old in their turn. The time of mar¬
riage was alfo fixed j and if a man did not marry when
he was of full age, he was liable to an adfion ; as were
fuch alfo as married above or below themfelves. Such
as had three children had great immunities ; fuch as had
four were free from all taxes whatfoever. Virgins were
married without portions ; becaufe neither want fhould
hinder a man, nor riches induce him, to marry contrary
to his inclinations. When a marriage was agreed on^
the hufband committed a kind of rape upon his bride.
Huffiands went for a long time, fecretly and by Health,
to the beds of their wives, that their love might not be
quickly and tafily extinguished. Huffiands were allow¬
ed to lend their wives j but the kings were forbidden
to take this liberty. Some other laws of the like nature
there were, which as they were evidently againft mo-
defiy, fo they were far from producing the end for
which Lycurgus defigned them ; finee, though the men
of Sparta wrere generally remarkable for their virtue, the
Spartan women were as generally decried for their
boldnefs and contempt of decency. j
V. It was the care of Lycurgus, that, from their Education
very birth, the Lacedaemonians fliould be inured totheir
conquer their appetites for this reafon he direft- chll|L««v,
ed, that nurfes fhould accuffom their children to
fpare meals, and now and then to faffing ; that they
ffiould carry them, when 1 2 or 13 years- old, to thole
wffio ffiould examine their education, and who fhould
carefully obferve whether they were able to be in the
dark alone, and whether they had got over all other
follies and weaknefies incident to children. He direct¬
ed, that children of all ranks fhould be brought up in
the fame w’ay ; and that none fliould be more favoured,
in food than another, that they might not, even in their
infancy, perceive any difference between poverty and
riches, but confider each other as equals, and even as
brethren, to whom the fame portions were affigned,
and who, through the courfe of the ir iives, W'cre to fare
alike : the youths alone ivere allowed to eat fleffi : older
men ate their black broth and pulfe j the lads flept to¬
gether in chambers, and a+ter a manner fe me-what re-
fembling that flill in ufe in Turkey for the janizaries :
their beds, in the fummer, were very hard, being corn-.
pofed of the reeds plucked by the hand from the banks
of the Eurotas : in winter their beds were fofter, but
by no means downy, or fit to indulge immoderate fieep.
They ate altogether in public-, and in cafe any abftain-
ed from coming to the tables, they were fined. It was
likewife ftritfJy forbidden for any to eat or drink at
home before they came to the common meal; even then
each
Sparta.
SPA t 55
each had his proper portion, that e?ery thing might be
ao
Of their
done there with gravity and decency. The black broth
was the great rarity of the Spartans, which was com-
pofed of fait, vinegar, blood, &c. fo that, in our times,
it would be eileemed a very unfavoury foup. If they
were moderate in their eating, they were fo in their
drinking alfo •, third was the foie meafure thereof", and
never any Lacedaemonian thought of drinking for plea-
fure: as for drunkennefs, it was both infamous and Se¬
verely punilhed ; and, that young men might perceive
the reafon, Haves were compelled to drink to excefs, that
the beadlinefs of the vice might appear. When they
retired from the public meal, they were not allowed any
torches or lights, becaufe it was expefled, that men
who were perfedlly fober fliould be able to find their
way in the dark : and, befides, it gave them a facility
of marching without light; a thing wonderfully ufeful
to them in time of war.
men VI. As the poor ate as well as the rich, fo the rich
diet, cloth- could wear nothing better than the poor : they neither
mg, See. changed their faftnon nor the materials of their gar¬
ments •, they were made for warmth and Strength, not
for gallantry and fhow : and to this cuftom even their
kings conformed, who wore nothing gaudy in right of
their dignity, but were contented that their virtue
fliould dhtinguifh them rather than their clothes. I he
youths wore a tunic till they were twelve years old ; af¬
terwards they had a cloak given them, which was to
ferve them a year : and their clothing was, in general,
fo thin, that a Lacedaemonian veft became proverbial.
Boys were always ufed to go without (hoes ', but when
they grew up, they rvere indulged with them, if the
manner of life they led required it •, but they were al¬
ways inured to run without them, as alfo to climb up
and flip down deep places with bare feet: nay, the very
(hoe they ufed was of a particular form, plain and
ftrong. Boys were not permitted to wear their hair j
but when they arrived at the age of twenty, they fui-
fered their hair and beard to grow. Baths and anoint¬
ing were not much in ufe among the Lacedaemonians •,
the river Eurotas fupplied the former, and exercife the
latter. In the field, however, their fumptuary laws did
not take place fo ftrifllv as in the city for when they
went to war, they wore purple habits they put on
crowns when they were about to engage the enemy
they had alfo rings, but they were ot iron •, which me¬
tal was mod efteemed by this nation. A oung women
wore their vefts or jerkins only to their knees, or, as
fome think not quite fo low ; a cuftom which both
Greek and Roman authors cenfure as indecent. Gold,
precious ftones, and other coftly ornaments, were per¬
mitted only to common women 5 which permiflion was
the ftrongeft; prohibition to women of virtue, or who af¬
fected to be thought virtuous. Virgins went abroad
without veils, with which married women, on the con¬
trary were always covered. In certain public exercifes,
in which girls were admitted as well as boys, they were
both obliged to perform naked. Plutarch apologifes
for this cuftom, urging, that there could be no danger
from nakednefs to the morals of youth whofe minds
were fortified and habituated to virtue. One of Ly-
curgus’s principal views in his inftitutions, was to era¬
dicated the very feeds of civil difienfion in his republic.
Hence proceeded the equal divifion of eftates injoined
by him ", hence the contempt of wealth, and the negleCl
1 ] SPA
of other diftin&ions, as particularly birth, he confider- Sparta
ing the people of his whole (late as one great family j't-
diftindtions which, in other commonwealths, frequently
produce tumults and coniufions that (hake their very
foundation. 2I |
VII. Though the Spartans were always free, yet itObedien
was with this reftriCHon, that they were fubfervient to otneu
their own laws, which bound them as ttriftly in the city,?6™”’
as foldiers, in other dates, were bound by the rules of
war in the camp. In the firft place, ftrict obedience to
their fuperiors was the great thing required in Sparta.
This they looked upon as the very bafis of government j
without which neither laws nor magiftrates availed much.
Old age was an indubitable title to honour in Sparta:
to the old men the youth rofe up whenever they came
into any public place •, they gave way to them when
they met them in the ftreets, and were filent whenever
their elders fpoke. As all children were looked upon
as the children of the (late, fo all the old men had the
authority of parents : they reprehended whatever they
faw amifs, not only in their own, but in other people’s
children : and by this method Lycurgus provided, that
as youth are everywhere apt to oftend, they might be
nowhere without a monitor. The laws went (fill fur¬
ther : if an old man was prefent where a young one
committed a fault, and did not reprove him, he was
puniftred equally with the delinquent. Amongft the
youths there was one of their own body, or at moft
two years older than the reft, who was ftyled iren : he
had authority to queilion all their a&ions, to look
ftridlly to their behaviour, and to punilb them if they
did amifs; neither were their punilhments light, but,
on the contrary, very fevere ; whereby the youth were
made hardy, and accuftomed to bear ftripes and rough
ufage. Silence was a thing highly commended at Spar¬
ta, "where modefty was held to be a moft becoming vir¬
tue in young people ", nor was it reftrained only to their
words and actions, but to their very looks and geftures;
Lycurgus having particularly direfted, that they (liould
look forward, or on the ground, and that they fliould
always keep their hands within their robes. . A ftupid
inconfiderate perfon, one who would not liften to in-
ftruaion, but was carelefs of whatever the world might
fay of him, the Lacedaemonians treated as a fcandal to
human nature *, with fuch a one they would not con-
verfe, but threw him off as a rotten branch and worth-
lefs member of fociety. . . u ||
VIII. The plainnefs of their manners, and their be-LeanuIi:;
ing fo very much addifted to war, made the Lacedae¬
monians lefs fond of the fciences than the reft of the
Greeks. A foldier was the only reputable profeflion
in Sparta; a mechanic or hulbandman was thought 3.
low fellow. The reafon of this was, that they imagi¬
ned profefllons which required much labour, fume eon-
ftant pofture, being continually in the houfe, or always
about a fire, weakened the body and depreffed the
mind : whereas a man brought up hardily, was equally
fit to attend the fervice of the republic in time of
peace, and to fight its battles when engaged in war.
Such occupations as were neceffary to be followed tor
the benefit of the whole, as hufbandry, agriculture,
and the like, were left to their (laves the Helotes; but
for curious arts, and fuch as ferved only to luxury, they
would not fo much as fuffer them_ to be introduced in
their city; in confequence of which, rhetoricians, ap-
a*
Irenes.
SPA [5
g«rs, bankers, and dealers in money, were (hut out.
The Spartans admitted not any of the theatrical diver-
lions among them ; they would not bear the reprefen-
tation of evil even to produce good ; but other kinds
of poetry were admitted, provided the magiftrates had
the perufal of pieces before they were handed to the
public.
Above all things, they affe&ed brevity of fpeech,
and accutlomed their children, from their very infancy,
never to exprefs themfelves in more words than were
ftriftly neceffary ; whence a concife and fententious ora¬
tory is to this day ftyled Laconic. In writing they ufed
the fame concifenels 5 of which we have a llgnal inftance
•in a letter of Archidamus to the Eleans, when he un-
derftood that they had fome thoughts of allHling the
Arcadians. It ran thus: “ Archidamus to the Eleans :
It is good to be quiet.” And therefore Epaminondas
thought that he had reafon to glory in having forced
the Spartans to abandon their monofyllables, and to
lengthen their difeourfes.
The greateft part of their education confifted in gi¬
ving their youth right ideas of men and things : the
iren or mailer propofed queftions, and either commend¬
ed the anfwers that were made him, or reproved fueh
as anfwered weakly. In thefe queftions, all matters,
either of a trivial or abftrufe nature, were equally avoid¬
ed j and they were confined to fuch points as were of
the higheft importance in civil life j fuch as, Who was
the bell man in the city ? wherein lay the merit of
fuch an adtion ? and, Whether this or that hero’s fame
was well-founded ? Harmlefs raillery was greatly en¬
couraged $ and this, joined to their Ihort manner of
fpeaking, rendered laconic replies univerfally admired.
Mulie was much encouraged j but in this, as in other
things, they adhered to that which had been in favour
with their anceftors 5 nay, they were fo ftridl therein,
that they would not permit their Haves to learn either
the tune or the words of their molt admired odes j or,
which is all one, they would not permit them to ling
them if they had learned them. Though the youth of
the male fex were much cherilhed and beloved, as thofe
-that were to build up and continue the future glory of
the ftate, yet in Sparta it was a virtuous and modeft af-
fedlion, untinged with that fenfuality which was fo
fcandalous at Athens. The good effe&s of this part of
Lycurgus’s inftitutions were feen in the union that
reigned among his citizens •, and which was fo extra¬
ordinary, that even in cafes of competition, it was hard¬
ly known that rivals bore ill-will to each other ; but,
on the contrary, their love to the fame perfon begat a
fecondary friendfhip among themfelves, and united them
in all things which might be for the benefit of the per¬
fon beloved.
Some authors have accufed this great lawgiver of en¬
couraging theft in his inftitutions 5 which, they fay,
was not held fcandalous among the Spartans, if it were
fo dexteroufly managed as that the perfon was not de¬
tected in it. But this is certain, and feems to be a
ftrong contradiction of the heinous charge, that when a
theft was difeovered, it was punilhed with the utmoft
feverity : a perfon even fufpeCled of it would endure
the heavieft punilhments rather than acknowledge it,
and be branded with fo bafe a crime.
IX. The exercifes inftituted by law fall under the
•ninth table. In thefe all the Greeks were extremely
Vol. XIX. Part II.
S3 1 § P A
careful, but the- Lacedaemonians in a degree beyond Sparta,
the reft ; for if a youth, by his corpulenge, or any -y—*
other means, became unfit for thefe exercifes, he under¬
went public contempt at leaft, if not banifhment.—
Hunting was the ufual diverfion of their children ; nay,
it was made a part of their education, becaufe it had
a tendency to ftrengthen their limbs, and to render
thofe who praCtifed it fupple and fleet : they likewife
bred up dogs for hunting with great care. They had
a kind of public dances, in which they exceedingly de¬
lighted, and which were common alike to virgins and
young men ; indeed, in all their fports, girls were allow¬
ed to divert themfelves with the youths : infomuch,
that, at darting, throwing the quoit, pitching the bar,
and fuch like robuft diverfions, the women wrere as dex¬
terous as the men. For the manifeft oddity of this pro¬
ceeding, Lycurgus afligned no other reafon, than that
he fought to render women, as well as men, ftrong and
healthy, that the children they brought forth might be
fo too. Violent exercifes, an|l a laborious kind of life,
were only enjoined the youth ; for when they were
grown up to men’s eftate, that is, were upwards of 30
years old, they were exempted from all kinds of labour,
and employed themfelves wholly either in affairs of ftate
or in war. They had a method of whipping, at a cer¬
tain time, young men in the temple of Diana, and about
her altar ; which, however palliated, was certainly un¬
natural and cruel. It wras efteemed a great honour
to fuftain thefe flagellations without weeping, groan¬
ing, or fhowing any fenfe of pain $ and the thirft of
glory was fo ftrong in thefe young minds, that they
very frequently fuffered death without fhedding a tear
or breathing a figh. A defire of overcoming all the
weakneffes of human nature, and thereby rendering his
Spartans not only fuperior to their neighbours, but to
their fpecies, runs through many of the inftitutions of
Lycurgus j which principle, if well attended to, tho¬
roughly explains them, and without attending to which
it is impoflible to give any account of them at all. „4
_ X. Gold and filver were, by the conftitutions of Money,
Lycurgus, made of no value in Sparta. He was fo Ne¬
well apprized of the danger of riches, that he made the
very poffeflion of them venal j but as there wras no li¬
ving without fome fort of money, that is, fome common
meafure or Itandard of the worth of things, he dire£t-
ed an iron coinage, whereby the Spartans were fup-
plied with the ufeful money, and at the fame time had
no temptation to covetoufnefs afforded them ; for a very
fmall fum was fufficient to load a couple of horfes, and
a great one muft have been kept in a barn or wareheufe.
The introduction of all foreign money was alfo prohibited,
that corruption might not enter under the name of com¬
merce. The molt ancient method of dealing, viz. by-
barter, or exchange of one commodity for another, was
preferved by law in Sparta long after it had gone into
difufe everywhere elfe. Intereft wras a thing forbidden in
the Spartan commonwealth ; where they had alfo a law
againft alienation of lands, accepting prefents from fo¬
reigners, even without the limits of their own country,
and when their authority and character might well feem
to excufe them.
XI. Such of the laws of Sparta as related to courts of Courts’of
juftice may be brought under the nth table. Thirtyjuftice.
years muft have paffed over the head of him who had
a right to concern himfelf in juridical proceedings.
4 Young
SPA F 554 ] SPA
Sparta. Young men were thought unfit for them *, and it was
* "r * even held indecent, and of ill report, for a man to
have any fondnefs for law-fuits, or to be bufying him-
felf at the tribunals, when he had no affairs there of
his own. By thefe rules Lycurgus thought to (hut
out litigioufnefs, and to prevent that multiplicity of
fuits which is always fcandalous in a date. As young
people were not permitted to inquire about the laws
of other countries, and as they Avere hindered from
hearing judicial proceedings in their courts, fo they
were likewife forbidden to alk any queftions about, or
to endeavour to difcover, the reafons of the larvs by
which themfelves were governed. Obedience was their
duty } and to that alone they Avould have them kept.
Men of abandoned charaflers, or Avho were notorioufly
of ill fame, loft all right of giving their votes in refpeft
of public affairs, or of fpeaking in public aifemblies j
for they Avould not believe that an ill man in private
life .could mean his country better than he did his neigh-
hour.
Military XII. Till a man Avas 30 years old, he Avas not ca-
i’erviee. pable of ferving in the army, as the beft authors agree :
though fome think that the military age is not Avell
afcertained by ancient Avriters. They Avere forbidden
to march at any time before the full-moon ; the rea-
fon of which law is very hard to be difcoA'ered, if in¬
deed it had any reafon at all, or Avas not rather founded
on fome fuperftitious opinion, that this Avas a more
lucky conjunflure than any other. They Avere like-
Avife forbidden to fight often againft the fame enemy ;
which was one of the Avifeft maxims in the political
fyftem of Lycurgus : and Agefilaus, by offending a-
gainft it, deftroyed the power of his country, and loft
her that authority AA’hich for many ages fhe maintain¬
ed over the reft of Greece •, for, by continually war¬
ring againft the Thebans, to Avhom he had an invete¬
rate hatred, he at laft beat them into the knoAvledge
of the art of Avar, and enabled them, under the com¬
mand of Epaminondas, to maintain for a time the prin¬
cipality of Greece. Maritime affairs they Avere forbid¬
den to meddle Avith, though the neceflity of things com¬
pelled them, in procefs of time, to tranfgrefs this inftitu-
tion, and by degrees to transfer to themfelves the domi¬
nion of the fea as Avell as of the land : but, after the Pe-
loponnefian Avar, they again neglected nav'al affairs from
a perfuafion that failors and ftrangers corrupted thofe
with Avhom they converfed. As they never fortified
Sparta, they were not ready to undertake fieges: fight¬
ing in the field was their proper province, and, Avhile
they could overcome their enemies there, they rightly
conceived that nothing could hurt them at home. In
time of war they relaxed fomewhat of their ftrid man¬
ner of living, in which they were Angular. The true
reafon for this was, in all probability, that war might
be lefs burdenfome to them ; for, as we have more than
once obferv^ed, a ftrong defire to render them bold and
warlike was the reigning paffion of their legiftator. They
were forbidden to remain long encamped in the fame
place, as well to hinder their being furprifed, as that
they might be more troublefottie to their enemies, by
wafting every corner of their country. They ftept all
night in their armour ; but their outguards were not
alloAved their fhields, that, being unprovided of defence,
they might not dare to fleep. In all expeditions they
'were careful in the performance of religious rites } and,
>
after their evening meal Avas 04rer, the foldicrs fung to- Sparta
gether hymns to their gods. When they Avere about , tl
to engage, the king facrificcd to the mufes, that, by LSfartllim
their afliftance, they might be enabled to perform deeds
Avorthy of being recorded to lateft times. Then the
army advanced in order to the found of flutes, which
played the hymn of Caftor. The king himfelf fung the
paean, Avhich Avas the fignal to charge. This Avas done
Avith all the folemnity imaginable ; and the foldiers
were fure either to conquer or die : indeed they had no
other choice j for if they fled they Avere infamous, and
in danger of being flain, even by their own mothers, for
difgracing their families. In this confifted all the ex¬
cellency of the Spartan women, Avho, ifpoffible, exceed¬
ed in bravery the men, never lamenting over hufbands
or fons, if they died honourably in the field ; but de¬
ploring the fhame brought on their houfe, if either the
one or the other efcaped by flight. The throAving aAvay
a fhield alfo induced infamy; and, Avith refpeft to this,
mothers, Avhen they embraced their departing fons, Avere
wont to caution them, that they fhould either return
armed as they Avere, or be brought back fo when they
were dead ; for, as Ave have obferved, fuch as were llain
in battle Avere neverthelefs buried in their OAvn country.
When they made their enemies fly, they purfued no
longer than till viftory Avas certain j becaufe they Avould
feem to fight rather for the honour of conquering, than
of putting their enemies to death. According to their
excellent rules of war, they Avere bound not to fpoil the
dead bodies of their enemies ; but in procefs of time,
this, and indeed many other of their moft excellent re¬
gulations, fell into defuetude. He who overcame by
ftratagem, offered up an ox to Mars ; Avhereas he Avho
conquered by force, offered up only a cock ; the former
being efteemed more manly than the latter. After 40
years fervice, a man Avas, by law, no longer required to
go into the field ; and confequently, if the military age
Avas 30, the Spartans Avere not held invalids till they
Avere 70.
SPARTIANUS, /Elius, a Latin hiftorian, Avho
Avrote the lives of Adrian, Caracalla, and four other
Roman emperors. He lived under the reign of Dio-
clefian, about the year 290.
SPARTTUM, Broom, a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of diadelphia, and order of decandria ; and
in the natural fyftem arranged under the 3 2d order,
Papilionaceee. See Botany Index.
The flower buds are in fome countries pickled, and
eaten as capers *, and the feeds have been ufed as a bad
fubftitute for coffee. The branches are ufed for mak¬
ing befoms, and tanning leather. They are alfo ufed
inftead of thatch to cover houfes. The old wood fur-
nifhes the cabinet-maker Avith beautiful materials for
vaneering. The tender branches are in fome places
mixed with hops for brerving, and the macerated bark
may be manufadlured into cloth.
The junceum, or Spanifh broom, grows naturally in
the fouthern provinces of France, as well as in other parts
of the fouth of Europe. It groAvs in the pooreft foils,
on the fteepeft declivities of the hills, in a ftony foil, phyjique,
Avhere hardly any other plant could vegetate. In a few
years it makes a vigorous fhrub ; infinuating its roots
betiveen the interftices of the ftones, it binds the foil,
and retains the fmsll portion of vegetable earth fcattered
over thefe hills, Avhich the autumnal rains would other-
7 A'/ife
SPA F 555 1 S P E
•partium. ■wire wafh away. It is moft eafily raifed From Feed, which
'—V“—' is uFually fown in January, after the ground has recei¬
ved a flight dreffing.
The (hrub Ferves two ufeful purpofes. Its branches
yield a thread of which linen is made, and in winter fup-
port fheep and goats.
In manufafturi ng thread from broom, the youngefl
plants are cut in the month of Auguft, or after harveft,
and gathered together in bundles, which at firit are laid
in the fun to dry : they are then beaten with a piece of
wood, wafted in a river or pond, and left to deep in
the water for about four hours. The bundles thus
prepared are taken to a little diftance from the water,
and laid in a hollow place made for them, where they
are covered with fern or draw, and remain thus to deep
for eight or nine days 5 during which time, all that is
neceffary, is to throw a little water once a-day on the
heap, without uncovering the broom. After this, the
bundles are well wafted, the green rind of the plant or
epidermis comes off, and the fibrous part remains; each
bundle is then beaten with a wooden hammer upon a
done, to detach all the threads, which are at the fame
time carefully drawn to the extremity of the branches.
After this operation, the faggots are untied, and fpread
upon dones or rocks till they are dry. The twigs mud
not be peeled till they are perfeftly dry ; they are then
dreffed with the comb, and the threads are feparated ac¬
cording to the finenefs, and fpun upon a wheel.
The linen made of this thread ferves various purpofes
in rural economy. The coarfed is employed in making
facks and other drong cloths for carrying grain or
Feeds. Of the fined is made bed, table, and body li¬
nen. The peafants in feveral places ufe no other, for
they are unacquainted with the culture of hemp or flax,
their Foil being too dry and too barren for railing them.
The cloth made with the thread of the broom is very
ufeful ; it is as foft as that made of hemp ; and it wnuld
perhaps look as well as that made of flax if it was more
carefully fpun. It becomes white in proportion as it is
deeped. The price of the fined thread, when it is fold,
which feldom happens, is generally about a ftilling a
pound.
The other ufe to which this broom is applied, is to
maintain fteep and goats during winter. In the moun¬
tains of Lower Languedoc thefe animals have no other
food from November to April, except the leaves of trees
preferved. The branches of this broom therefore are a
refource the more precious, that it is the only freft nou-
riflnnent which at that feafon the flocks can p>rocure,
and they prefer it at all times to every other plant. In
fine weather the fheep are led out to feed on the broom
where it grows 5 but in bad weather the fliepherds cut
the branches, and bring them to the fteep folds. There
is, however, an inconvenience attending the continued
ufe of this food. It generally produces inflammation in
the urinary paffages. But this inconvenience is eafily
removed by cooling drink, or a change of food, or by
mixing the broom with fomething elfe.
It is perhaps needlefs to add, that it differs much
from the broom that is common everywhere in the north
of Europe, though this too, in many places, is ufed for
food to cattle. Both of them produce flowers that
are very much reforted to by bees, as they contain a
great quantity of honey juice. And this ftould be
another inducement to the cultivation of the Spanifh Spartium
broom. „
SPAR US, Gir thead, a genus of fiftes belonging Pe^>e>< ^
to the order of thoracici. See ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
The fparus auratus, or gilthead, was well known to the
Romans, who did not efleem them unlefs they were fed
with Lucrine oyflers, as Martial informs us,
Non omnis laudem pretiumque AUBATA meretury
Sed quifolus erit concha Lucrina cibus.
Lib. xiii. Ep. 93.
SPASM, a convulfion. See Medicine, N° 278.
SPAT HA, in Botany, a flieath j a fpecies of calyjf
which burffs lengthwife, and protrudes a ftalk fupporting
one or more flowers, which commonly have no perian-
thium or flower-cup.
SPATHACEHi (from fpatha, “ a fteath”), the
name of the ninth order in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a
Natural Method, confifting of plants whofe flowers are
protruded from a fpatha or fteath. See Botany In*
dex.
SPATHELIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of pentandria, and to the order of trigynia. See
Botany Index.
SPAW. See Spa.
SPAWN, in Natural Hijlory, the eggs of fillies or
frogs.
SPAVENTO. See Scanto.
SPAVIN, in the manege, a difeafe in horfes, being
a fwelling or ftiffnefs, ufually in the ham, occafioning a
lamenefs. See Farriery Index.
SPAYING, or Spading, the operation of caftra-
ting the females of Feveral kinds of animals, as fows,
bitches, &c. to prevent any further conception, and
promote their fattening. It is performed by cutting
them in the mid flank, on the left fide, with a (harp
knife or lancet, taking out the ovaries, and cutting them
off, and fo ftitthing up the wound, anointing the part
with tar, and keeping the animal warm for two or
three days. The ufual way is to make the incifion a-
flope, two inches and a half long 5 that the fore-finger
may be put in towards the back, to feel for the ovaries,
which are two kernels as big as acorns on both fides of
the uterus, one of which is drawn to the ivound, and
thus both taken out.
SPEAKER of the Houfe of Commons, a member of
the houfe ele6!ed by a majority of votes thereof to aft
as chairman or prefident in putting queftions, reading
briefs, or bills, keeping order, reprimanding the refrac¬
tory, adjourning the houfe, &c. See Parliament.
SPEAKING, the art or aft of exprefling one’s
thoughts in articulate founds or words. See Gram-
mar, Language, Reading, and Oratory, Part iv.
SPEAKING-Trumpet. See Trumpet.
SPEAR-Mint. See Mentha, Botany Index.
SPEAR-Wort. See Ranunculus, Botany Index.
SPECIAL, fomething that is particular, or has a
particular defignation ; from the Latin fpecies, in oppo-
fition to the general, from genus.
SPECIES, in Logic, a relative term, exprefling an
idea which is comprifed under fome general one called
a genus. See Logic, N° 68.
Species, in Commerce, the feveral pieces of gold,
filver, copper, &e. which having paffed their full
4 A 2 preparatien
S P E
[ 556 ]
S P E
Special
II.
Specinc
Gravity.
See
preparation and coinage, are current in public
Money.
Species, in Algebra, are the letters, fymbols, marks,
1 or characters, which reprefent the quantities in any ope¬
ration or equation. This Ihort and advantageous way
of notation was chiefly introduced by Vieta, about the
year 1590 ■, and by means of it he made many difcove-
ries in algebra, not before taken notice of.
Species, in Optics, the image painted on the retina
by the rays of light reflefted from the feveral points of
the furface of an objeft, received by the pupil, and
collected in their paflage through the eryftalline, &c.
It has been a matter of difpute among philolophers,
whether the fpecies of objeCts which give the foul an oc-
cafion of feeing, be an effidiun e. the fubftance of the
body ; a mere impreffion which they make on all bo¬
dies under certain cireumStances.• or whether they are
not fame more fubtile body, fuch as light. 1 he moderns
have decided this point by the invention of artificial
eyes, in which the fpecies of objects aro received on pa¬
per, in the fame manner as in the natural eye.
SPECIFIC, in Philofophy, that which is peculiar to
any thing, and dittinguiflies it from all others.
Specifics, in Medicine. By fpecifics is not meant
fuch as infallibly and in all patients produce falutary
effefts. Such medicines are not to be expefted, bc-
caufe the operations and effects of remedies are not
formally inherent in them, but depend upon the mu¬
tual aftion and reaftion of the body and medicine upon
each other ; hence the various effedts of the fame me¬
dicine in the fame kind of diforders in different pa¬
tients. and in the fame patient at different times. By
fpecific medicines we underftand fuch. medicines as are
found to be more uniform in their effects than others in
any particular diforder.
SPECIFIC Gravity, is a term much employed in the
difcuflions of modern phyfics. It expreffes the weight
of anv particular kind of matter, as compared with the
weight of the fame bulk of fome other body of which
the weight is fuppofed to be familiarly known, and is
therefore taken for the ftandard of comparifon. The
body generally made ufe of for this purpofe is pure
water.
The fpecific gravity of bodies is a very interefting
queftion both to the philofopher and to the man of bufir
nefs. The philofopher confiders the weights of bodies
as meafures of the number of material atoms, or the
quantity of matter which they contain. This he does
on the fuppofition that every atom of matter is of the
fame weight, whatever may be its fenfible form. This
fuppofition, however, is made by him with caution, and
he has recourfe to fpecific gravity for afcertaining its
truth in various ways. This fliall be confldered by and
by. The man of bufinefs entertains no doubt of the
matter, and proceeds on it as a fare guide in bis moft
intereiiing tranfaftions, We meafure commodities of
various kinds by tons, pounds, and ounces, in the fame
manner as we meafure them by yards, feet, and inches,
or by bufhels, gallons, and pints •, nay, we do this with
much greater confidence, and prefer this meafurement
to all others, whenever we are much interefted to know
the exaft proportions of matter that bodies contain.
The weight of a quantity of grain is allowed to inform
us much more exactly of its real quantity of ufeful mat¬
ter than the moft accurate meafure of its bulk. We fee
2
many circumftances which can vary the bulk of a quah- Specifi,;!
tity of matter, and thefe are frequently fuch as we can- Gravityi
not regulate or prevent ; but we know very few indeed '""""Y'-
that can make any fenfible change in this weight with¬
out the addition or abftraftion of other matter. Even,
taking it to the fummit of a high mountain, or from the
equator to the polar region, will make no change in its
weight as it is afcertained by the balance, becaufe there
is the fame real diminution of weight in the pounds and
ounces ufed in the examination.
Notwithftanding the unavoidable change which heat
and cold make in the bulk of bodies, and the permanent
varieties of the fame kind of matter which are caufed
by different circumftances of growth, texture, &c. moft
kinds of matter have a certain conftancy in the denfity
of their particles, and therefore in the weight of a given
bulk. Thus the purity of gold, and its degree of adul¬
teration, may be inferred from its weight, it being purer
in proportion as it is more denfe. The denfity, there¬
fore, of different kinds of tangible matter becomes cha-
racteriftic of the kind, and a left of its purity 5 it marks
a particular appearance in which matter exiits, and may
therefore be called, with propriety, Specific.
But this denfity cannot be directly obfervtd. It is
not bv comparing the diitances between the atoms of
matter in gold and in water that we fay the firft is 19
times denfer than the laft, and that an inch of gold con¬
tains 19 times as many material atoms as an inch of
water j we reckon on the equal gravitation of every
atom of matter whether of gold or of water; therefore
the weight of any body becomes the indication of its
material denfity, and the weight of a given bulk be¬
comes fpecific of that kind of matter, marking its kind,
and even afcertaining its purity in this form.
It is evident that, in order to make this comparifon
of general ufe, the ftandard mull be familiarly known,
and muft be very uniform in its denfity, and the com¬
parifon of bulk and denfity muft be eafy and accurate.
The moft obvious method would be to form, with all
nicety, a piece of the ftandard matter of fome convenient
bulk, and to weigh it very exa&ly, and keep a note of
its weight : then, to make the comparifon of any other
fubftance, it muft be made into a mafs of the fame pre-
cife bulk, and weighed with equal care •, and the moft
convenient way of exprefling the fpecific gravity would
be to confider the weight of the ftandard as unity, and
then the number exprefling the fpecific gravity is the
number of times that the weight of the ftandard is con¬
tained in that of the other fubftance. This comparifon
is moft eafily and accurately made in fluids. We have
only to make a veffel of known dimenfions equal to
that of the ftandard which we employ, and to weigh it
when empty, and then when filled with the fluid. Bay*
the moft difficult part of the procefs, the making a
veffel of the precife dimenfions of the ftandard, may be
avoided, by ufing fome fluid iubftance for a ftandard.
Any veffel will then do *, and we may enfure very great
accuracy bv ufing a veffel with a {lender neck, fuch as
a phial or matrafs j for when this is filled to a certain
mark in the neck, any error in the eflimation by die
eye will bear a very fmall proportion to the whole. 1 he
weight of the ftandard fluid which fills it to this mark
being carefully afeertained, is kept in remembrance.
The fpecific gravity of any other fluid is had by weigh¬
ing the contents of this veffel when filled with it, and
D dividing
s P E [ 557 ] s P E
ecific dividing the weight by the weight of the ftandard. The
: avity. quotient is the ipeeific gravity of the fluid. But in all
r'Y 1 ■■J other cales this is a very difficult problem : it requires
very nice hands, and an accurate eye, to make two
bodies of the fame bulk. An error of one hundredth
part in the linear dimenfions of a folid body makes an
error of a 30th part in its bulk ; and bodies of irregular
fliapes and friable fubifanee, fueh as the ores of metals,
cannot be brought into convenient and exact dimenfions
for meafure merit.
From all thefe inconveniences and difficulties we are
freed by the celebrated Archimedes, who, from the prin¬
ciples of hydroltatics difcovered or eftabliffied by him,
deduced the accurate and eafy method which is now
univerfally pradlifed for difcovering the fpecific gravity
and denfity of bodies. (See Archimedes and Hy¬
drodynamics). Inftead of meafuring the bulk of
the body by that of the dilplaced fluid (which would
have been impoffible for Archimedes to do with any
thing like the neceffary preeifion), we have only to ob-
ferve the lofs of weight fuftained by the folid. This can
be done with great eale and exactnef-. Whatever may
be the bulk of the body, this lofs of weight is the
weight of an equal bulk of the fluid •, and we obtain the
fpeeifie gravity of the body by Amply dividing its whole
weight by the weight loit : the quotient is the fpecific
gravity when this fluid is taken for the ftandard, even
though we Ihould not know the abfolute weight of any
given bulk of this ftandard. It alfo gives us an eafy
and accurate method of afcertaining even this fundamen¬
tal point. We have only to form any folid body into
an e.xadf cube, fphere, or prifm, of known dimenfions,
and obferve w hat weight it lofes when immerfed in this'
ftandard fluid. This is the weight of the fame bulk of
the ftandard to be kept in remembrance *, and thus we
obtain, by the bye, a moft eafy and accurate method
for meafuring the bulk or folid contents of any body,
however irregular its fhape may be. We have only to
fee how much weight it lufes in the ftandard fluid ; we
can compute what quantity of the ftandard fluid will
have this weight. Thus ffiould we find that a quantity
of fand, or a furze bufh, lofes 250 ounces when im¬
merfed in pure water, we learn by this that the folid
meafure of every grain of the fand, or of every twig
and prickle of the furze, when added into one fum,
amounts to the fourth part of a cubic foot, or to 432
cubic inches.
To all thefe advantages of the Archimedean method
of afcertaining the fpecific gravity of bodies, derived
Irom his hydroftatical doftrines and difcoveries, rve may
add, that the immediate ftandard of comparifon, namely,
water, is, of all the fubftances that we know, the fitteft
for the purpofe of an univerfal ftandard of refere nce.
In its ordinary natural ftate it is fufficiently eonftant and
uniform in its weight for every examination where the
utmoft mathematical accuracy is not wanted ; all its
variations arife from impurities, from which it may at
all times be feparated by the Ample procefs of diiiilla-
tion : and we have every reafon to think that when
pure, its denfity, when of the fame temperature, is in¬
variable.
Water is therefore univerfally' taken for the unit of
that fcale on which we meafure the fpecinc gravity of
bodies, and its weight is called 1. The fpecific gravity
of any other body is the real weight in pounds and Specific
ounces, when of the bulk of one pound or one ounce of gravity.
water. It is therefore of the firft importance, in all " v
difeuflions refpetiing the fpecific gravity of bodies, to
have the precife weight of fome known bulk of pure
■water. We have taken fome pains to examine and com¬
pare the experiments on this fubjeft, and ffiall endea¬
vour to afeertain this point with the precifion which it
deferves. W e ffiall reduce all to the Engliih cubic foot
and avoirdupois ounce of the Exchequer ftandard, on
account of a very convenient circumftance peculiar to
this unit, viz. that a cubic foot contains almoft precifely
a thoufand ounces of pure water, fo that the fpecific
gravity of bodies exprefles the number of fuch ounces
contained in a cubic foot.
We begin with a trial made before the houfe of com¬
mons in 1696 by Mr Everard. He weighed 2145.6
cubic inches of water by a balance, which turned fen-
fibly with 6 grains, when there were 3© pounds in each
fcale. The weights employed were the troy weights,
in the depofit of the Court of Exchequer, which are ftill
preferved, and have been moft fcrupuloufly examined
and compared with each other. The weight was 1131
ounces 14 pennyweights. This wants juft 11 grains of
a thoufand avoirdupois ounces for 1728 cubic inches, or
a cubic foot 5 and it would have amounted to that
weight had it been a degree or two colder. The tem¬
perature indeed is not mentioned 5 but as the trial was
made in a comfortable room, we may prefume the tem¬
perature to have been about 550 of Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer. The dimenfions of the veflel were as accu¬
rate as the nice hand of Mr Abraham Sharp, Mr Flam-
ftead’s afliftant at Greenwich, could execute, and it was
made by the Exchequer ftandard of length.
1 his is confided in by the naturalifts of Europe as a
very accurate fiandard experiment, and it is confirmed
by many others both private and public. The ftandards
of weight and capacity employed in the experiment are
ftill in exifter.ee, and publicly known, by the report of
the Royal Society to parliament in 1742, and by the
report of a committee of the houfe of commons in 17 58.
This gives it a fuperiojity over all the meafures which
have come to our knowledge-.
The firft experiment, made with proper attention,
that we meet with, is by the celebrated Snellius. about
the year 1615, and related in his Eratq/lhenes Batuvus.
He weighed a Rhinland cubic foot of diftilled water,
and found it 62.79 Amfterdam pounds. If this was the
ordinary weight of the {hops, containing 7626 Engliflr
troy grains, the Engliffi cubic foot muft be 62 pounds
9 ounces, only one ounce more than by Everard’s expe¬
riment. If it was the Mint pound, the weight was 62
pounds 6 ounces. The only other trials which can come
into competition with Mr Everard’s are fame made by
the Academy of Sciences at Paris. Picart, in 1691,
found the Paris cubic foot of the water of the fountain
d’Arcueil to weigh 69.588 pounds, poids de Paris. Hu
Hamel obtained the very fame refult ; but Mr Monge,
in 1783, fays that filtered rain-water of the temperature
I 20 (Reaumur)' weighs 69.3792. Both thefe meafures
are confiderably below Mr Everard’s, which is 62.^,
the former giving 62.053, and ^6 latter 61.868. M.
Lavoifier ftates the Paris cubic foot at 70 pounds, which
makes the Englifti foot 62.47. ^ut there is an incon-
fiftency
S P E
S P E [ 558 ]
Speciti fiftency among them which makes the companion im-
Gravity. p0{fible. Some changes were made in 1688, by royal
* authority, in the national ftandards, both oi weight and
length } and the academicians are exceedingly puzzled
to this day in reconciling the differences, and cannot
even afcertain with perfedt affurance the lineal meafures
which were employed in their moft boafted geodetical
operations.
Such variations in the meafurements made by perfons
of reputation for judgment and accuracy engaged the
writer of this article ibme years ago to attempt another.
A veffel was made of a cylindrical form, as being more
eafily executed with accuracy, whofe height and dia¬
meter were 6 inches, taken from a moft accurate copy
of the Exchequer ftandard. It was weighed in diftilled
water »f the temperature 550 feveral times without
varying 2 grains, and it loft 42895 grains. This gives
for the cubic foot 998.74 ounces, deficient from Mr
Everard’s an ounce and a quarter j a difference which
may be expedted, fince Mr Everard ufed the New River
water without diftillation.
We hope that thefe obfervations will not be thought
fuperfluous in a matter of fuch continual reference, in
the moft interefting queftions both to the philofopher
and the man of bufinefs ; and that the determination
which we have given will be confidered as fufficiently
.authenticated-.
Let us, therefore, for the future take water for the
ftandard, and fuppofe that, -when of the ordinary tempe¬
rature of fummer, and in its ftate of greateft natural pu¬
rity, viz. in clean rain or fnow, an Englilh cubic foot of
it weighs a thoufand avoirdupois ounces of 437.5 troy
grains each. Divide the weight of any body by the
weight of an equal bulk of water, the quotient is the
fpecific gravity of that body 5 and if the three firft
figures of the decimal be accounted integers, the quo¬
tient is the number of avoirdupois ounces in a cubic foot
of the body. Thus the fpecific gravity of the very fineft
gold which the refiner can produce is 19.365, and a
cubic foot of it weighs 19365 ounces.
But an important remark muft be made here. All
bodies of homogeneous or unorganifed texture expand
by heat, and contract by cooling. The expanfion and
eontraftion by the fame change of temperature is very
different in different bodies. Thus water, when heated
from 6o° to ioo°, increafes its volume nearly of
its bulk, and mercury only X|-T, and many fubftances
much lefs. Hence it follows, that an experiment de¬
termines the fpecific gravity only in that very tempera¬
ture in which the bodies are examined. It will there¬
fore be proper always to note this temperature *, and it
will be convenient to adopt fome very ufeful tempera¬
ture for fuch trials in general: perhaps about 6o° of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer is as convenient as any. It
may always be procured in thefe climates without in¬
convenience. A temperature near to freezing would
have fome advantages, becaufe water changes its bulk
very little between the temperature 3 2° and 450. But
this temperature cannot always be obtained. It will
much conduce to the facility of the comparifon to know
the variation which heat produces on pure water. The
following table, taken from the obfervations of Dr
Blagden and Mr Gilpin (Phil. Tranf. 1792) will an-
Xwer this purpofe.
Tempera¬
ture ot
Water
Bulk
of
Water.
Specific
Gravity.
3°
35
4°
45
5°
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
99910
99070
99914
99932
99962
100000
100050
100106
100171
100242
100320
100404
100501
100602
1.00090
T.OOO94
1.00086
1.00068
I.OOO38
1.00000
0-9995°
0.99894
0.99830
0 99759
0.99681
0.99598
0.99502
0.99402
Sped
Gravis
'—r
Thofe gentlemen obferved the expanfion of water to b#
very anomalous between 3 2° and 4 50. This is diftimft-
ly feen during the gradual cooling of water to the point
of freezing. It contrasts for a while, and then fud-
denly expands. But we feldom have occafion to mea*
fure fpecific gravities in fuch temperature.
The reader is now fuffieiently acquainted with the
principles of this hydroftatical method of determining
the fpecific gravity of bodies, and can judge of the pro¬
priety of the forms which may be propofed for the ex¬
periment.
The fpecific gravity of a fluid may be determined
either by filling with it a veffel with a narrow neck, or
by weighing a folid body that is immerfed in it. It is
hard to fay which is the beft way. The laft is not fub-
jecft to any error in filling, hecaufe we may fufpend the
folid by a fine wire, which will not difplace any fenfible
quantity of the fluid •, and if the folid is but a little
heavier than the fluid, the balance being loaded only
wdth the excefs, will be very fenfible to the fmalleft want
of equilibrium. But this advantage is perhaps compen-
fated by an obftruftion to the motion of the folid up
or down in the fluid, arifing from vifcidity. When the
weight in the oppofite fcale is yet too fmall, we llowly
add more, and at laft grain by grain, which gradually
brings the beam to the level. When it is exaftly level,
the weight in the fcale is fomewhat too great 5 for it
not only balances the preponderance of the folid, but
alfo this vifcidity of the fluid. But we may get rid of
this error. Add a fmall quantity more ; this will bring
the beam over to the other fide. Now put as much
into the fcale on the fame fide with the folid *, this will
not reftore the beam to its level. We muft add more
till this be accomplilhed 5 and this addition is the mea-
fure of the vifcidity of the fluid, and muft be fubtrafted
from the weight that was in the other fcale when the
beam came firft to a level. This effect: of vifcidity is
not infenfible, with nice apparatus, even in the pureft
water, and in many fluids it is very confiderable—and,
what is worfe, it is very changeable. It is greatly di-
minithed by heat; and this is an additional reafon for
making
S P E
making tliofe trials in pretty warm temperatures. But
for fluids of which the vifcidity is confiderable, this
' method is by no means proper ; and we muft take the
other, and weigh them in a veffel with a narrow neck.
Mercury xnuft alfo be treated in this way, becaufe we
have no folid that will link in it but gold and platina.
It is not fo eafy as one would imagine to fill a velfel
precifely to the fame degree upon every trial. But if
we do not operate on too fmall quantities, the unavoid¬
able error may be made altogether infignificant, by ha¬
ving the neck of the veffel very fmall. If the veffel hold
a pound of water, and the neck do not exceed a quarter
of an inch (and it will not greatly retard the operation
to have it half this fize), the examinator mult be very
carelefs indeed to err one part in twothoufand; and
this is perhaps as near as we can come with a balance.
We muff always recoiled! that the capacity of the veffel
changes by heat, and we mult know this variation, and
take it into the account. But it is affedtation to regard
(as Mr Homberg would make us believe that he did)
the diftenfion of the veffel by the preffure of the fluid.
His experiments of this kind have by no means the con-
fiftency with each other that Ihould convince us that he
did not commit much greater errors than what arofe
from diftenfion.
In examining either folids or fluids, we muft be
careful to free their furface, or that of the veffel in which
the fluid is'to be weighed, from air, which frequently
adheres to it in a peculiar manner, and, by forming a
bubble, increafes the apparent bulk of the folid, or di-
minifties the capacity of the veffel. The greateft part
of what appears on thofe occafions feems to have ex-
ifted in the fluid in a ftate of chemical union, and to
be fet at liberty by the fuperior attradlion of the fluid
for the contiguous lolid body. Thefe air bubbles muft
be carefully brulhed off by hand. All greafy matters
muft be cleared off for the fame reafon : they prevent
the fluid from coming into contad!.
We muft be no lefs careful that no water is imbibed
by the folid, which svould increafe its weight without
increafing its bulk. In feme cafes, however, a very
long maceration and imbibition is neceffary. Thus, in
examining the fpecific gravity of the fibrous part of ve¬
getables, we fhould err exceedingly if we imagined it as
fmall as appears at firft. We believe that in molt plants
it is at leaf! as great as water, for after long maceration
they fink in it.
It is almoft needlefs to fay that the niceft and moft
fenfible balances are neceffary for this examination. Ba¬
lances are even conftrudted on purpofe, and fitted with
feveral pieces of apparatus, which make the examina¬
tion eafy and neat. We have deferibed (fee Balance)
Mr Gravefande’s as one of the moft convenient of any.
His contrivance for obferving the fradtions of a grain is
extremely ingenious and expeditious, efpecially for de-
tedting the effed! of vifcidity.
I he hydrometer, or areometer, is another inftrument
for afeertaining the fpecific gravity of fluids. This very
pretty inftrument is the invention of a lady, as eminent
for intelledlual accompliftiments as (he was admired for
her beauty. Hvpatia, the learned daughter of the cele¬
brated mathematician Theon of Alexandria, became fo
eminent for her mathematical knowledge, that (he was
Blade public profeffor of the fcience in the firft fchool
la world. She wrote a commentary on the works
[ 559 1
S P E
Specific
Gravity.
of Apollonius and of Diophantus, and compofed Af-
tronomical Tables ; all of which are loft. Thefe rare
accomplilhments, however, could not fave her from the
fury of the fanatics of Alexandria, who cut her in pieces
for having taken an offenfive part in a difpute bettveen
the governor and patriarch.—We have deferibed fome
of the moft approved of thefe inftruments in the article
Hydrometer, and fhall in this place make a few ob-
fervations on the principles of their conftrudlion, not as
they are ufually made, accommodated to the examina¬
tion of particular liquors, but as indicators of pure fpe¬
cific gravity. And we muft premife, that this would,
for many reafons, be the beft way of conftrudting them.
The very ingenious contrivances for accommodating
them to particular purpofes are unavoidably attended
with many fources of error, both in their adjuftment by
the maker and in their ufe ; and all that is gained by a
very expenfive inftrument is the faving the trouble of
infpedting a table. A Ample fcale of fpecific gravity
would expofe to no error in conftru£!ion, becaufe all
the weights but one, or all the points of the fcale but
one, are to be obtained by calculation, which is incom¬
parably more exa6t than any manual operation, and
the table can always be more exadt than any complex
obfervation. But a ftill greater advantage is, that the
inftruments would by this means be fitted for examin¬
ing all liquors whatever, whereas at prefent they are al¬
moft ufelefs for any but the one for which they are con¬
ftrudted.
Hydrometers are of two kinds. The moft fimple
and the moft delicate are juft a fubftitute for the hydro-
ftatical balance. They confift of a ball (or rather an
egg or pear-ftiaped veffel, which moves more eafily
through the fluid) A (fig. I.) having a foot projedting p]ate
down from it, terminated by another ball B, and a flen- ecccxcix.
der (talk or wire above, carrying a little difh C. The fig. i.
whole is made fo light as to float*' in the lighteft fluid we
are acquainted with $ fiich as vitriolic or muriatic ether,
whole fpecific gravity is only 0.73. This number Ihould
be marked on the diih, indicating that this is the fpecific
gravity of the fluid in which the inftrument floats, fink¬
ing to the point D of the Item. The ball B is made
heavy, and the foot is of fome length, that the inftru¬
ment may have liability, and fwim eredl, even if confi-
derably loaded above ; and, for the fame reafon, it muft
be made very round, otherwife it will lean to a fide.
When put into a heavier liquor, its buoyancy will caufe
it to float with a part of the ball above the furface.
Weights are now put into the fcale C, till the inftru¬
ment fink to D. The weight put into the fcale, added
to the weight of the inftrument, is the weight of the
difplaced fluid. This, compared with the weight of the
■whole when the inftrument is fwimming in pure water
gives the fpecific gravity of the fluid. All trouble of
calculation may be avoided by marking the weights
with fuch numbers as lhall indicate the fpecific gravity
at once. Thus having loaded the inftrument fo as to
fink it to D in pure water, call the whole weight 1000 •
then weigh the inftrument itfelf, and fay, “ as the weight
when fwimming in water is to its prefent weight, fo is
1000 to a 4th proportional.” This is the fpecific gra¬
vity of the liquor which would float the unloaded' in¬
ftrument. Suppofe this to be 730. The hydrome¬
ter would juft float in muriatic ether, and this ftiould
be marked on the fide. Now make a fet of fmall .
weights*
S 'P E [
Specific weights, and mark them, not by their weights in grains,
TPravity. , fuc|i units tliat 2^o of them (hall be equal to the
weight which fits the inftrument for pure water.
Suppofe that, in order to float this inftrument in a
certain brandy, there are required 186 in thefe {mall
weights. This added to 730 giv£s 916 for the fpecific
gravity, and fhows it to be precifely excife proof fpi-
rit. , Nine weights, viz. 256, 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4,
2, 1, will fuffice for all liquors from ether to the
ftrongeft worts. And that the trouble in changing
the weights may be greatly leffened, let a few circles
o, b, c, d, e, be marked on the top of the ball. When
w.e fee it float unloaded at the circle C for inftance, we
know it will require at leaft 128 to fink it to D on the
Item.
If the weights to be added above are confiderable,
it raifes the centre of gravity fo much, that a fmall want
of equilibrium, by laying the Aveights on one fide, will
produce a great inclination of the inftrument, which is
unfightly. Inftead therefore of making them loofe
weights, it is proper to make them round plates, with a
fmall hole in the middle, to go on a pin in the middle
of the fcale. This will keep the inftrument always up¬
right. But unlefs the hydrometer is of a confiderable
fize, it can hardly be made fo as to extend from the
lighteft to the heavieft fluid Avhich Ave may have occa-
, fion to examine, even though Ave except mercury. Some
of the mineral acids are confiderably more than twice
the weight of ether. When there is fuch a load at top,
the hydrometer is very apt to overfet, and inclines with
the fmalleft want of equilibrium. Great fize is incon¬
venient even to the philofopher, becaufe it is not always
in his power to operate on a quantity of fluid fufficient
to float the inftrument. Therefore two, or perhaps
three, are neceflary for general examination. One may
reach from ether to Avater 4 another may ferve for all li¬
quors of a fpecific gravity betAveen one and one and a
half •, and the third, for the mineral acids, may reach
from this to two. If each of thefe be about two folid
inches in capacity, Ave may eafily and expeditioufly de¬
termine the fpecific gravity Avithin one ten thoufandth
part of the truth : and this is precifion enough for moft
purpofes of fcience or bufinefs.
The chief queftions are, 1. To afcertain the fpecific
graAnty of an unknown fluid. This needs no farther
explanation. 2. To afcertain the proportion of tAvo
fluids which are known to be in a mixture. This is
done by difcovering the fpecific gravity of the mixture
by means of the hydrometer, and then deducing the
proportion from a comparifon of this with the fpecific
gravities of the ingredients.
In this mode of examination the bulk is always the
fame.; for the hydrometer is immerged in the different
fluids to the fame depth. Now if an inch, for example,
of this bulk is made up of the heavieft fluid, there is an
inch wanting of the lighteft; and the change made in
the Aveight of the mixture is the difference between the
Aveight of an inch of the heavieft, and of an inch of the
lighteft ingredients. The number of inches therefore
of the heavieft fluid is proportional to the addition made
to the weight of the mixture. Therefore let B and b
be the bulks of the heavieft and lighteft fluids in the
bulk /3 of the mixture ; and let D, d, and ^ be the den-
fities, or the weights, or the fpecific gravities (for they
:are in one ratio) of the heavy fluid, the light fluid, and
560 ] S P E
the mixture (their bulk being that of the hydrometer). Sped
We have /3~B-f-A The addition Avhich would have Gl'av
been made to the bulk if the lighteft fluid Avere
changed entirely for the heavieft, Avould be D—d ; and
the change which is really made is § ~d. Therefore
/3 : b—Y)—d: ^—d. For fimilar reafons we ftiould have
■(i : B = D—d : D—^ ; or, in Avords, “ the difference be¬
tween the fpecifc gravities of the two fluids, is to the dif¬
ference between the fpecific gravities of the mixture and
. of the Ughtef fluid, as the bulk of the whole to the bulk
of the heavief contained in the mixture and “ the dif¬
ference of the fpecific gravities of the two fluids, is to the
difference of the fpecific gravities of the mixture and of
the heavief fluids, as the bulk of the whole to that of the
light.eft contained in the mixture,'1'' This is the form in
wThich the ordinary bufinefs of life requires the anfwer
to be exprefled, beeaufe we generally reckon the quan¬
tity of liquors by bulk, in gallons, pints, quarts. But
it would have been equally eafy to have obtained the
anfwer in pounds and ounces; or it may be had from
their bulk, fince we know their fpecific gravities.
The hydrometer more commonly ufed is the ancient
one of Hypatia, confifting of a ball A (fig. 2.) made
fteady by an addition B, below it like the former, but
having a long ftem CF above. It is io loaded that it
finks to the top F of the ftem in the lighteft of all the
fluids Avhich we propofe to meafure with it, and to fink
only to C in the heavieft. In a fluid of intermediate
fpecific gravity it Avill fink to fome point between C
and F.
In this form of the hydrometer the Aveight is always
the fame, and the immediate information given by the
inftrument is that of different bulks with equal Aveight.
Becaufe the inftrument finks till the bulk of the dif-
placed fluid equals it in Aveight, and the additions to the
difplaced fluid are all made by the ftem, it is evident
that equal bulks of the ftem indicate equal additions of
volume. Thus the ftem becomes a fcale of bulks to the
fame Aveight*
The only form in which the ftem can be made with
fufficient accuracy is cylindrical or prifmatical. Such a
ftem may be made in the moft accurate manner by Avire-
draAving, that is, pafling it through a hole made in a hard¬
ened fteel plate. If fuch a ftem be divided into equal
parts, it becomes a fcale of bulks in arithmetical progref-
fion. This is the eafieft and moft natural divifion of the
fcale; but it will not indicate denfities, fpeeific gravities,
or weights of the fame bulk in arithmetical progreflion.
The fpecific gravity is as the Aveight divided by the bulk.
Now a feries ofdivilors (the bulks), in arithmetical pro¬
greflion, applied to the fame dividend (the bulk and
weight of the hydrometer as it floats in Avater), Avill not
give a feries of quotients (the fpecific gravities) in aiith-
metjcal progreflion; they Avill be in what is called, har¬
monic progreffion, their differences continually diminifii-
ing. This Avill appear even avhen phyfically confidered.
When the hydrometer finks a tenth of an inch near the
top of the ftem, it difpl aces one tenth of an. inch or .a
light fluid, compared Avith that difplaced by it when it
■ is floating Avith all the ftem above the furface. In order
therefore that the divifions of the ftem may. indicate
equal changes of fpecific gravity, they muft be in aferies
of harmonic progreflionals increafing. The point at
Avhich the inftrument floats in pure Avater ftiould be mar¬
ked IOOO, and thofe above it 999, 998, 997>
spinning machinery; plate ccccxcix.
S P E
Specific
Gravity.
thofe below the water mark muft be numbered ioox,
1002, 1003, &c. Such a fcale will be a very appofite
picture of the denfities of fluids, for the denfity or vici¬
nity of the diviflons will be precifely fimilar to the den¬
fity of the fluids. Each interval is a bulk of fluid of
the fame weight. If the whole inftrument were drawn
out into wire of the fize of the ftem, the length from the
water mark would be 1000.
Such are the rules by which the fcale muft; be divi¬
ded. But there muft be fome points of it determined
by experiment, and it will be proper to take them as re¬
mote from each other as poflible. For this purpofe let
the inftrument be accurately marked at the point where
it ftands, in two fluids, differing as much in fpecific gra¬
vity as the inftrument will admit. Let it alfo be mar¬
ked where it ftands in water. Then determine with the
utmoft precifion the fpecific gravities of thefe fluids, and
put their values at the correfponding points of the fcale.
Then the intermediate points of the fcale muft be com¬
puted for the different intervening specific gravities, or
it muft be divided from a pattern fcale of harmonic pro-
greflionals in a way well known to the mathematical in-
ftrument-makers. If the fpecific gravities have been ac¬
curately determined, the value loco will be found to
fall precifely in the water mark. If we attempt the di-
vifion entirely by experiment, by making a number of
fluids of different fpecific gravities, and marking the ftem
as it ftands in them, we (hall find the divifions turn out
very anomalous. 1 Ins is however the way uliially prac-
tifed ; and there are few hydrometers, even from the
belt maker, that hold true to a Angle divifion or two.
Yet the method by computation is not more troublefome 5
and one fcale of harmonic progreftionals will ferve to
divide every ftem that offers. We may make ufe of a
fcale of equal parts for the ftem, with the afliftance of
two little tables. One of thefe contains the fpecific gra¬
vities in harmonic progrcftion, correfponding to the
arithmetical fcale of bulks on the ftem of the hydrome¬
ter •, the other contains the divifions and fradlions of a
diyifion of the fcale of bulks, which correfpond to an
arithmetical fcale of fpecific gravities. We believe this
to be the beft method of all. The fcale of equal parts
on the ftem is fo eafily made, and the little table is fo
eafily infpefted, that it has every advantage of accuracy
and difpatch, and it gives, by the way, an amufing view
of the relation of the bulks and denfities.
We have hitherto fuppofi d a fcale extending from the
lighted to the heavieft fluid. But unlefs it be of a very
inconvenient length, the divifions muft be very minute.
Moreover, when the bulk of the ftem bears a great pro¬
portion to that of the body, the inftrument does not fwim
fteady 5 it is therefore proper to limit the range of the -
inftrument in the fame manner as thofe of the firft kind.
A range from the denfity of ether to that of water may
be very well executed in an inftrument of very moderate
fize, and two others will do for all the heavier liquors;
er an equal range in any other denfities as may fuit the
ufual occupations of the experimenter.
Io avoid the inconveniences of a hydrometer with
a very long and {lender ftem, or the neceffity of having
a lories of them, a third fort has been contrived, in
which the principles of both are combined. Suppofe
a hydrometer with a ftem, whofe bulk is -,—th of that
of the ball, and that it finks in ether to the top of the
ftem ; it is evident that in a fluid which is T^-th heavier,
Vol. XIX. Part II.
L 5<5i 1
S P E
the whole ftem will emerge; for the bulk of the difp!ace& Speci'fit
fluid is now T'rth of the whole lefs, and the weight is the , Grav W
fame as before, and therefore the fpecific gravity is 7~th
greater.
Thus we have obtained a hydrometer which will indi¬
cate, by means of divifions marked on the ftem, all fpe¬
cific gravities from 0.73 to 0.803 > f<)r 0.803 i- Toth-
greater than O.73. Thefe divifions muft be made in
harmsnic progreffion, as before direfled for an entire
fcale, placing 0.73 at the top of the ftem and 0.803 at
the bottom.
When it floats at the loweft divifion, a weight may
be put on the top of the ftem, which will again fink it
to the top. This weight muft evidently be 0.073, or
Toth of the weight of the fluid difplaced by the unload¬
ed inftrument. The hydrometer, thus loaded, indicate*
the fame fpecific gravity, by the top of the ftem, that
the unloaded inftrument indicates bv the loweft divi¬
fion. Therefore, when loaded, it will indicate another
feries of fpecific gravities, from 0.803 to 0.8833
( — 0.803-l-o.0803), and will float in a liquor of the
fpecific gravity 0.8833 Mth the whole ftem above the*
furface.
In like manner, if we take off this weight, and
put on iarO.080.3, A will fink the hydrometer to the
top of the ftem ; and with this new weight it wi&
indicate another feries of fpecific gravities from 0.8833
to 0.97163 (=0.8833+0.08833). And, in the fame
manner, a third weight =08833 Avi11 again fink it to
the top of the ftem, and fit it for another feries of fpe¬
cific gravities up to 1.068793. And thus, with three
weights, we have procured a hydrometer fitted for all
liquors from ether to a wort for a malt liquor of two
barrels per quarter. Another weight, in the fame pro-
grtflion, will extend the inftrument to the ftrongeft wort
that is brewed.
This is a very commodious form of the inftrument,
and is now in very general ule for examining fpiriiuous
liquors, worts, ales, brines, and many fuch articles of
commerce. But the divifions of the fcale are general¬
ly adapted to the qut ftions which naturally occur in the
bufinefs. Thus, in the commerce of ftrong liquors,
it is ufual to eftimate the article by the quantity of fpi-
nt of a certain ftrength which the liquor contains.  
This we have been atcuftomed to call proof fpirit, and
it is fuch that a wine gallon weighs 7 pounds 1 2 ounces ;
and it is by this ftrength that the excife duties are le¬
vied. I herefore the divifions on the fcale, and the
weights which connect the fucceflive repetitions of the
fcale, are made to exprefs at once the number of gal¬
lons or parts of a gallon of proof fpirits contained in a
gallon of the liquor. Such inftruments fave all trouble
of calculation to the. excifeman or dealer 5 but they li¬
mit the ufe* of a very delicate and expenfive inftrument
to a very narrow employment. It would be much bet¬
ter to acihere to the expreffion either of fpecifie gravity
or of bulk ; and then a very fmall table, which could be
comprifed in the frhalleft cafe for the inftrument, might
render it applicable to every kind of fluid.
The reader cannot- but have obferved that the fuc-
ceffive weights, by which the fliort fcale of the inftru¬
ment is extended to a great range of fpecific gravities,
do not increafe by equal quantities. Each difference is
the weight of. the liquor difplaced by the graduated
ftem of the inftrument when it is funk to The top of
4 B the
Specific
Gravity.
S P E [ 562 ] S P E
the fcale. It is a determined aliquot part of the whole
weight of the inftrument fo loaded, (in our example it
is always TVtb of it). It increafes therefore in the fame
proportion with the preceding weight of the loaded
iniirument. In (hort, both the fucceffive additions, and
the whole weights of the loaded inftrument, are quan<-
tities in geometrical progreflion; and in like manner,
the diviftons on the {bale, if they correfpond to equal
differences of fpecific gravity, muft alfo be unequal.—
This as not fufftciently attended to by the makers j and
they commit an error here, which is very conftderable
when the whole range of the inftrument is great. For
the value of one divifion of the fcale, when the largeft
weight is on, is as much greatef than its value when
the inftrument is not loaded at all, as the full loaded
inftrument is heavier than the inftrument unloaded. No
manner whatever of dividing the feale will correfpond
to equal differences of fpecific gravity through the
whole range with different weights*, but if the divi¬
sions are made to indicate equal proportions of gravity
when the inftrument is ufed without a weight, they
will indicate equal proportions throughout. This is
evident from what we have been juft now faying; for
the proportion of the fpecific gravities correfponding to
any two immediately fuoceeding weights is always the
lame.
The beft way, therefore, of conftrudting the inftru-
ment, fo that the fame divifions of the feale may be ac¬
curate in all its fucceflive repetitions with the diffetent
weights, is to make thefe divifions in geometrical pro¬
greflion. The correfponding fpecific gravities will al¬
fo be in geometric proportion. Thefe being all inferted
in a table, we obtain them with no more trouble than
hy infpedling the fcale which ufually accompanies the
hydrometer. This table is of the moft eafy conftruc-
tion; for the ratio of the fucceflive bulks and fpecific
gravities being all equal, the differences of the logarithms
are equal.
This will be illuftrated by applying it to the exam¬
ple already given of a hydrometer extending from 0.73
to 1.068793 with three weights. This gives four re¬
petitions of the fcale on the ftem. Suppofe this fcale
divided into 10 parts, we have 40 fpecific gravities.—
Let thefe be indicated by the numbers o, I, 2, 3, &c.
to 40. The mark o is affixed to the top of the ftem,
and the divifions downwards are marked I, 2, 3, &c.
the loweft being 10. Thefe divifions are eafily deter¬
mined. The ftem, which we may fuppofe 5 inches
long, was fuppofed to be i^th of the capacity of the
ball. It may therefore be confidered as the extremity
of a rod of j 1 times its length, or 55 inches, and we
jntift find nine mean proportionals between 50 and 55
inches. Subtract each of thefe from 55 inches, and
the remainders are the diftances of the points of divi¬
fion from o, the top of the fcale. The fmalleft weight
is marked 10, the next 20, and the third 30. If the
inftrument loaded with the weight 20 finks in fome li¬
quor to the mark 7, it indicates the fpecific gravity 27,
that is, the 27th of 40 mean proportionals between
O.73 and 1.068793, or 0.944242. To obtain all thefe
intermediate fpecific gravities, we have only to fubtraft
9.8633229, the logarithm of 0.73 from tliat of Specify
1.068793, viz. 0.0288937, and take 0.0041393, the Gravity,
40th part of the difference. Multiply this by 1, 2, 3,
&c. and add the logarithm of 0.73 to each of the pro¬
ducts. The fums are the logarithms of the fpecific gra¬
vities required. Thefe will be found to proceed fo
equably, that they may be interpolated ten times by a
fimple table of proportional parts, without the fmalleft
fennble error. Therefore the ftem may be divided in¬
to a hundred parts very fenfible to the eye (each being
nearly the 20th of an inch), and 406 degrees of fpecific
gravity obtained within the range, which is as near as
we can examine this matter by any hydrometer. Thus
the fpecific gravities correfponding to N° 26, 27, 28,
29, are as folio
26 0.
27 O.
28 o.
29 o.
iw
93529
94424
953 28
96241
1 ft Diff. 2d Diff.
895
9°4
9*3
Nay, the trouble of infpeCting a table may be avoid¬
ed, by forming on a fcale the logarithms of the num¬
bers between 7300 and 1068.793, and placing along
fide of it a fcale of the fame length divided into 40a
equal parts, numbered from o to 400. Then, looking
for the mark ftiown by the hydrometer on this fcale of
equal parts, we fee oppofite to it the fpecific gravity.
We have been thus particular in the illuftration of
this mode of conftrudtion, becaufe it is really a beauti¬
ful and commodious inftrument, which may be of great
ufe both to the naturalift and to the man of bulinefs.—
A table may be comprifed in 20 oftavo pages, which
will contain the fpecific gravities of every fluid which
can intereft either, and anfwer every queftion relative
to their admixture with as much precifion as the ob-
fervations can be made. We therefore recommend it
to our readers, and we recommend the very example
which we have given as one of the moft convenient.
The inftrument need not exceed eight inches in length,
and may be contained in a pocket cafe of two inches
broad and as many deep, which will alfo contain the
fcale, a thermometer, and even the table for applying it
to all fluids which have been examined.
It is unfortunate that no graduated hydrometer can
be made fo eafily for the examination of the corrofive
mineral acids (a). Thefe muft be made of glafs, and
we cannot depend on the accurate cylindric form of any
glafs ftem. But if any fuch can be procured, the con-
ftru&ion is the fame. The divided fcale may either be
on thin paper pafted on the infide of the ftem, or it may
be printed on the ftem itfelf from a plate, with ink made
of a metallic calx, which will attach itfelf to the glafs
with a very moderate heat. We would recommend
common white enamel, or arfenical glafs, as the fitteft
material for the whole inftrument; and the ink ufed, in
taking the impreflion of the fcale, may be the fame that
is ufed for the low-priced printing on Delft ware pot¬
tery.—Firft form the fcale on the ftem. Then, having
meafured the folid contents of the graduated part as ex¬
actly as poffible, and determined on the general Ihape
of
(a) It would be worth while to try copper enamelled. See note at page 599. of this volume.
! Specific
BJrsvity.
,, „ s p E r s<5j i
of the ball and counterpoife below, calculate its fize, fo Nd 3. may be fpared.
(that it may be a little lefs than ten times that of the
Item. The glafs-blower can copy this very nearly, and
join it to the Item. Then make two brines of other li¬
quors, which (hall have fpecifrc gravities in the ratio of
10 to II. Load the iiiftrumerit fo that it may link to
© in the lighted. When put into the heavieft, it thould
rife to 10. If it does not rife fo high, the immerfed part
is too fmall. Let the glafs-blower enlarge the ball of
the counterpoife a little. Repeat this trial till it be ex-
aft. Nothing now remains but to form the weights :
And here We obiefve, that when the intlrument is to
have a very great range, as for examining all dates of
the vitriolic acid, it has a chance of being very tot¬
tering- when loaded with the greated weight on the
top of fo long a feale. To avoid this, Mi”Quin and
others have added dune of their weights below. 
But this will not fuit the prefent condruftiont becaufe
It will alter the proportion between the bulks of the
dem and immerfed part. Therefore let thefe weights
confid of cylinders of metal fra-all enough to go into
the dem, and let them be foldered to the end of long
wires, which will let them go to the bottom, and leave
a fmall hook or ring at top. 1 hefe can lie alonglide
of the indrument in its cafe. This is indeed the bed
condruftion for every hydrometer, becaufe it makes it
incomparably more deacly. I’he mdrument is poifed
by fmall (hot or mercury. But it will be much better to
do it with Newton’s lulible metal (three parts of tin,
jive parts of lead, and eight parts of bifmuth) in coarfe'
filings. When the exaft quantity has been put in, the
indrument may be fet in a veffel of oil, and .this kept
on the fire till all is completely melted. It foon freezes
again, and remains fad. If this metal is not to be had,
let a few bits of fealing-wax be added to the mercury
or diot, to make up the counterpoife. When heated,
it will Boat a-top, and when it freezes again it will
keep all fad. Thus we diall make a very complete and
cheap indrument.
There is yet another method of examining the fpe-
cific gravities of fluids, fird propofed by Dr Wilfon,
late profedbr of adronomy in the univerfity of Glafgow!
I his is by a feries of fmall glafs bubbles, differing equal¬
ly, or according to fome rule, from each other in fpeci-
fic gravity, and each marked with its proper number.
When thefe are thrown into a fluid which is to be exa¬
mined, all thofe Which are heavier than the fluid will fall
to the bottom. Then holding the vcffel in the hand,
or near a fire or candle, the fluid expands, and one of
the floating bubbles begins to fink. Its fpecific gravity,
therefore, ivas either equal to, or a little lefs than, that
of the fluid j and the degree of the thermometer, when
it began to fink, will inform us how much it was defi¬
cient, if we know the law of expanfion of the liquor.
Sets of thefe bubbles fitted for the examination of fpi-
rituous liquors, with a little treatife fliowing the manner
of ufing them, and calculating by the thermometer, are
made by Mr Brown, an ingenious artifl of Glafgow,
and are often ufed by the dealers in fpirits, being found
both accurate and expeditious.
Alfo, though a bubble or two fliould be broken, the
drength of fpirits may eafily be had by means of the
remainder, unlefs two or three in immediate fucceffion
be wanting : for a liquor which anfwers to N° 4. will
mk N° 2. by heating it a few degrees, and therefore
S P E
This is a great advantage in or¬
dinary bufinefs. A nice hydrometer is not only an ex-
pendve inftrument, but exceedingly delicate, being fo
very thin. If broken or even bruifed, it is ufelefs, and
can hardly be repaired except by the very maker.
As the only quedion here is, to determine how many
gallons of excife proof fpirits is contained in a quantity
of liquor, the artid has condrufted this feries of bubbles
in the fimpled manner poffible, by previoufly making
40 or 50 mixtures, of fpirits and water, and then adjud-
ing the bubbles to thefe mixtures.. In feme lets the
number on each bubble is the number of gallons of
proof fpirits contained in 100 gallons, of the liquor. In
other lets the number on each bubble expreffes the gal¬
lons of water which will make a liquor of this drength,
if added to 14 gallons of alcohol. Thus, if a liquorlan
fwers to N0 4, then 4 gallons of water added to 14
gallons of alcohol will make a liquor of this drength.
The fird is the bed method ; for we Ihould be midaken
in fuppofing that 18 gallons, which anfwer to N° 4, con¬
tains exaftly 14 gallons of alcohol : it contains more
than 14, for a realon to be given by and by.
By examining the fpecific gravity of bodies, the phi-
lofopher has made fome very curious difeoveries. The
mod remarkable of thefe is the change which the denli-
ty of bodies differs by mixture. It is a mod reafonable
expeftation, that when a cubic foot of one fubdance is
mixed ,/m/ how with a cubic Aot of another, the bulk
of the mixture will be two cubic feet; ai;d that i 8 gal-'
Ions of water joined to 18 gallons of oil will fill a veffel
of 36 gallons. ^ Accordingly this was never doubted ;
and even Archimedes, the mod fcrupulous of mathema¬
ticians, proceeded on this fuppafition in the folution of
his famous problem, the difeovery of the proportion of
filver and gold in a mixture of both. He does not even
mention it as a podulate that may be granted him, fo
mucli did he conceive it to be an axiom. Yet a little
refleftion feems fufficient to make it doubtful and to
require examination. A box filled with mufket-balls
will receive a confiderable quantity of fmall (hot, and af¬
ter this a confiderable quantity of fine land, and after
this a confiderable quantity of water. Somethino- Hke
this might happen in the admixture of bodies of porous
texture. But luch fubdances as metals, glafs, and fluids
where no difeontinuity of parts can be perceived, or was
fufpefted, feem free from every chance of this kind of
introfufeeption. Lord Bacon, however, without beino-
a naturalid or mathematician ex profc/Jh, inferred from
the mobility of fluids that they confided of diferete par¬
ticles, which mud have pores interpofed, whatever be
their figure. And if we alcribe the different denfities, or
other fenfible qualities, to difference in fize or figure of
thofe particles, it mud frequently happen that the fmall-
er particles will be lodged in the interdices between the
larger, and thus contribute to the weight of the fenfible
mafs without increafing its bulk. He therefore fufpefts
that mixtures will be in general lefs bulky than the 1'uni
of their ingredients.
Accordingly, the examination of this quedion was
one of the fird employments of the Royal Society of
London, and long before its inditution had occupied
the attention of the gentlemen who afterwards compo-
fed it. The regider of the Society’s early meetings
contains many experiments on this fubjeft, with mix¬
tures of gold and filver, of other metals, and of various
4 R 2 fluidsJ
Specuio
Gravity.
S P E [ 564 1 s P E
Specific fluids, examined by the hydroflatical balance of Mr
Gravity. g0yje> j)r Hooke made a prodigious number, cbief-
ly on articles of commerce, which were unfortunately
loft in the fire of London.
It was fopn found, however, that Lord Bacon’s con-
jedture had been well founded, and that bodies changed
their duifity very fenfibly in many cafes. In general,
it was found that bodies which had a ftrong chemical
affinity increafed in denfity, and that their admixture
was accompanied with heat.
By tins difcoverv it is manifeft that Archimedes had
not folved the problem of detedfing the quantity of fil-
Vt. r mix d with the gold in King Hiero’s crown, and
that the phyiical folution of it requires experiments made
on all the kinds of matter that are mixed together.
We do not find that this has been done to this day, aL
though we mav aftirm that there are few queftions of
more importance. It is a very curious fadl in chemi-
ftrv, and it would be moft defirable to be able to re¬
duce it to fome general law's : l1 or inftance, to aicertain
what is the proportion of two ingredients which pro¬
duces the greateft change of denfity. This is impor¬
tant in the fcience of phyfics, becaufe it give us confi-
derable information as to the mode of adtion of thofe
natural powers or forces by which the particles of tan¬
gible matter are united. If this introfufeeption, con¬
centration, compenetration, or by whatever name it
be called, were a mere reception of . the particles of
©ne fubitance into the interftices of thofe of another,
it is evident that the greateft concentration would be
obferved when a fmall quantity of the recipiend is mix¬
ed with, or diffeminated through, a great quantity of
the other. It is thus that a fmall quantity of fine land
will be received into the interftices of a quantity of
fmall fhot, and will increafe the weight of the bagful
without increafing its bulk. T he cafe is nowftfe differ¬
ent when a piece of freeftone has grown heavier by
imbibing or abfnrbing a quantity of water. If more
than a certain quantity of fand has been added to the
fmall (hot, it is no longer concealed. In like manner,
various quantities of water may combine with a mafs of
clay, and increafe its fize and weight alike. All this
is very conceivable, occafioning no difficulty.
But this is not the cafe in any of the mixtures we
are now confidering. In all tbefe, the firft additions of
either of the two fubftanees produce but an inconfider-
able change of general denfity ; and it is in general
moft remarkable, whether it be condenfation or rare-
fa&ion, when the twm ingredients are nearly of equal
bulks. We can illuftrate even this difference, by re-
flefting on the imbibition of w-ater by vegetable folids,
fuch as timber. Some kinds of wood have their weight
much more increafed than their bulks •, other kinds of
wood are more enlarged in bulk than in weight. The
like happens in grains. This is curious, and ffiows in the
moft unqueftionable manner that the particles of bodies
are not in contadi, but are kept together by forces
which acl at a diftance. For this diftance between
the centres of the particles is moft evidently fufceptible
of variation •, and this variation is occafioned by the in-
troduclion of another fubftance, which, by adiing on
the particles by attradlion or repulfion, diminiffies or
ihcreafes their mutual actions, and makes new diftances
neceflary for bringing all things again into equilibrium.
We refer the curious reader to.the ingenious theory of.
4
the abbe Bofcovich for an excellent illuftration of this
fubjedl (Theor. Vhil. Nat. § do Solutione Chemica.)
This queftion is no lefs important to the man of bu-
finefs. Till we know the condenfation of thofe metals
by mixture, we cannot tell the quantity of alloy in gold
and filver by means of their fpecific gravity nor can we
tell the quantity of pure alcohol in any fpirituous liquor,
or that of the valuable fait in any lolution of it. For
want of this knowledge, the dealers in gold and filver
are obliged to have recourfe to the tedious and difficult
teft of the affay, which cannot be made in all places or
by all men. It is therefore much to be wilhed, that
fome perfons would inftitute a feries of experiments in
the moft interefting cafes : for it muft be obferved, that
this change of denfity is not alway s a fmall matter *, it is
fometimes very confiderable and paradoxical. A re¬
markable inftance may be given of it in the mixture of
brafs and tin for bells, great guns, optical fpeculums,
&.c. The fpecific gravity of call brafs is nearly 8.006,
and that of tin is nearly 7.363. If two parts of brafs be
mixed with one of tin, the ipecific gravity is 8.917 \
whereas, if each had retained its former bulk, the fp. grav.
( 2 X 8.006 ft-7-363
would have been only 7-793
(=
Spedfit
Gravity.
)•
A mixture of equal parts flrould have the fpecific gravity
7.684 '■> but it is 8.441. A mixture of two parts tin
with one part brafs, inftead of being 7.577, is 8.027.
In all thefe cafes there is a great increafe of fpecific
gravity, and confequently a great condenfation of parts
or contraflion of bulk. The firft mixture of eight cu¬
bic inches of brafs, for inftance, with four cubic inches
of tin, does not produce 12 cubic inches of bell-metal,
but only 10ft nearly, having ffirunk It would ap¬
pear that the diftances of the brafs particles are moll af-
feifted, or perhaps it is the brafs that receives the tin in¬
to its pores •, for w'e find that the condenfations in thefe
mixtures are nearly proportional to the quantities of the
brafs in the mixtures. It is remarkable that this mix¬
ture with the lighteft of all metals has made a compofi-
tion more heavy and denfe than brafs can be made by
any hammering.
The moft remarkable inftance occurs in mixing iron
with platina. If ten cubic inches of iron are mixed with
of platina, the bulk of the compound is only 9ft
inches. The iron therefore has not limply received the
platina into its pores : its own particles are brought
nearer together. There are fimilar refults in the folu¬
tion of turbith mineral, and of fome other falls, in wa¬
ter. The water, inftead of riling in the neck of the vef-
fel, when a fmall quantity of the fait has been added to
it, finks confiderably, and the two ingredients occupy
lefs room than the water did alone.
The fame thing happens in the mixture of water with
other fluids and different fluids with each other : But u'e
are not able to trace any general rule that is obferved
with abfolute precifion. In moft cafes of fluids the
greateft condeniation happens when the bulks of the in¬
gredients are nearly equal. Thus, in the mixture of al¬
cohol and water, we have the greateft condenfation
when 16I ounces of alcohol are mixed with 20 ounces
of water, and the condenfation is about of the whole
bulk of the ingredients. It is extremely various in dif¬
ferent fubftanees, and no claffification of them can be
made in this refpe£t.
A diflertation has been publifhed on- this fubjeft by
S P E
•peeifrc
uravity.
s P E [565
Dr Hahn of Vienna, intiiled De Ejfieacia Mixtionis in
mutandis Curporum Vo/uminibus, in which all the re¬
markable initances of the variation of denlity have been
eolleded. All that we can do (as we hare no directing
principle) is to record Inch inftances as are of chief im¬
portance, being articles of commerce.
The firft that occurs to us is the mixtures of alcohol
and water in the compofition of fpirituous liquors. This
has been confidered by many with great care. The molt
fcrupulous examination of this, or perhaps of any mix¬
ture, has been lately made by Dr Blagden (now Sir
Charles Blagden) of the Royal Society, on the requi-
lition of the Board of Excife. He has publilhed an ac¬
count of the examination in the Philofophical Tranfac-
■tions of London in 1791 and 1792. We lhall give an
account of it under the article SPIRITUOUS Liquors;
and at prefent only feledt one column, in order to fhow
the condenfation. The alcohol was almolt the llrongelt
that can be produced, and its fpecific gravity, when of
the temperature 6o°, was 0.825. The whole mixtures
were of the fame temperature.
Column 1. contains the pounds, ounces, or other
meafures by weight, of alcohol in the mixture. Co¬
lumn 2. contains the pounds or ounces of water. Co¬
lumn 3. is the fum of the bulks of the ingredients, the
bulk of a pound or ounce of water being accounted x.
Column 4. is the obferved fpecific gravity of the mix¬
ture, taken from Dr Blagden’s diflertation. Column 5.
is the fpecific gravity which would have been obferved
if the ingredients had each retained its own fpecific gra¬
vity. 'I his we calculated by dividing the fum of the
two numbers of the firlt and fecond columns by the cor-
refponding number of the third. Column 6. is the dif¬
ference of column 4. and column 5. and exhibits the
condenfation.
TABLE.
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
*9
x8
W.
o
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
H
15
16
n
18
19
20
20
20
Volume.
24.2424
25.2424
26.2424
27.2424
28.2424
29.2424
30.2424
3 1.24 24
32.2424
33-2424
34.2424
3C2424
36.2424
37.2424
38.2424
39.2424
40.2424
41.2424
42.2424
43.2424
44.2424
43-0303
48.1182
Sp. Grav
obferved.
O.825O
O.8360
O.8457
0.8 <43
0.8621
0.8692
0-8757
0.8817
0.8872
0.8923
0.8971
0.9014
0.9055
0.9093
0.9129
0.9162
0.9193
0.9223
0.9250
0.9276
0.9300
0-9325
o-9349
Sp Grav.
c dculated
0.8250
o 8320
o 8383
0-8443
0.8498
O.8549
0.8597
O.8642
O.8684
O.87 24
O.8761
O.8796
O.8829
O.8860
0.8891
O.8919
O.8946
O.8971
O.8996
O.9OI9
O.904I
O.9063
O.9087
Condenfa¬
tion.
CO
40
74
IOO
123
J43
160
175
188
X99
216
218
226
233
238
243
247
252
254
257
259
262
262
i7
16
*5
14
*3
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
o
W.
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Volume.
40.6061
39-3939
38.18x8
36.9697
35-7576
34-5455
33-3333
32.1212
3c.9091
29.6970
28.4849
27.2727
26.0606
24.8485
23.6364
22.4242
21.2121
20.0000
Sp. Grav.
obferved.
Sp Grav.
calculated.
i'ondenfa-
tion
°-9375
0.9402
0.9430
0.945S
0.9488
0.9518
0.9549
0.9580
0.9612
0.9644
0.9675
0.9707
0.9741
0.9777
0.9818
0.9865
0.9924
1.0000
0.9112
0.9139
°-9I67
0.9197
0.9229
0.9263
0.9300
0.9340
0.9382
0.9429
0.9479
°-9533
o-9593
0.9659
0.9731
0.9811
0.9900
1.0000
263
263
263
261
259
255
249
240
230
215
196
174
148
118
87
54
24
Specific
Gravity.
It is to be remarked, that the condenfation is greatefl
when 164- ounces of alcohol have been added to 20 of
w'ater, and the condenfation is -g-V^TT* or nearly -^th
of the computed denfity. Since the fpecific gravity of
alcohol is 0.825, ^ evident that 164 ounces of alco¬
hol and 20 ounces of water have equal bulks. So that
the condenfation is grcatefl when the fubffances are mix¬
ed in equal volumes 5 and 18 gallons of alcohol mixed
w'ith 18 gallons of water will produce not 36 gallons of
fpirits, but 35 only.
We may alfo obferve, that this is the mixture to •
which our revenue laws refer, declaring it to be one to
fix or one in feven under proof, and to weigh 7 pounds
13 ounces per gallon. This proportion was probably fe-
ledled as the moil ealily compofed, viz. by mixing equal
meafures of water and of the ftrongelt fpirit which the
known proctfies of diftillation could produce. Its fpeci¬
fic gravity is c.939 very nearly.
We mufi conlider this elaborate examination of the
mixture of water and alcohol as a flandard feries of ex¬
periments, to which appeal may always be made, whe¬
ther for the purpofes of fcience or of trade. The regu¬
larity of the progreflion is fo great, that in the column
which we have examined, viz. that for temperature 6o°,
the greateft anomaly does not amount to one part in fix
thoufand. The form of the feries is alfo very iudici-
oufiy chofen for the purpofes of fcience. It would per¬
haps have been more dii edlly ftereometrical had the pro¬
portions of the ingredients been Hated in bulks, which
are more immediately connected with denfity. But the
author has affigned a very cogent reafon for his choice,
viz. that the proportion of bulks varies by a change of
temperature, becaufe the water and fpirits follow differ¬
ent laws in their expanfion by heat.
This is a proper opportunity for taking notice of a
millake which is very generally made in the conclufions
drawn from experiments of this kind. Equal additions
of the fpirit or w-ater produce a feries of fpecific gravi¬
ties, which decreafe or increafe by differences continual¬
ly diminilhing. Helnce it is1 inferred that there is a con-
tra&ion of bulk. Even Dr Lewis, one of our moll ac-
complilhed
Specific
'Gravity.
S P E :[ 566 ] S P E
advai ces this pofitioli, in a dif- the fpecific gravity obferved and thus we learn whe- Specif
complifhed naturaliits
( fertation on the potaih of America ; and it confiderably
aifetls his method for eilimating the ifrength of the pot-
aili leys. But that it is a miftake, appears plainly from
this, that although we add for'ever equal quantities of
the fpirits, we (ball never produce a mixture which has
as fmall a fpecitic gravity as alcohol. Therefore the fe-
ries of fucceffire gravities muft approximate to this with¬
out end, like the ordinates of a hyperbolic curve refer¬
red to its affymptote.
That this may appear in the moft general terms, let
w reprefent the weight of the conflant quantity of wa¬
ter in the mixture, and let a be the weight of the fmall
addition of fpirits. Alfo let to reprefent the bulk of
this quantity of water, and b the bulk of the fmall ad¬
dition of alcohol. The weight of the mixture is
“dnd its bulk is u'-j-Z', and its fpecific gravity is ~j^j.
If we now add a fecond equal quantity of fpirits, the
weight will be w-\- 2 a, and if the fpirit retains its den-
fity unchanged, the bulk will be w-\-2b, and the fpeci¬
fic gravity is ——2 : : and after any number m of fueh
0 u> -{- 2 0
equal additions of fpirits, the fpecific gravity will be
—,. Divide the numerator of this fraflion by its
denominator, and the quotient or fpecific gravity will
■be I-}   r • This confifts of the conftant part 1,
'vc-\-mb
and the variable part  We need attend only
to this part. If its denominator were conftant, it is
plain that the fucceflwe fpecific gravities would haye
equal differences, each being — becaufe m in-
creafes by the continual addition of an unit, and a—b
is a conflant quantity. But the denominator su-f-OT £
continually increafes, and therefore the value of the frac-
. a—b
tion
w
——- continually diminlfhes.
Therefore the gradual dimiiiution of the increments
or decrements of fpecific gravity, by equal additions of
one ingredient to a conflant meafure of the other, is not
of itfelf an indication of a change of denfity of either
of the ingredients ; nor proves that in very diluted mix¬
tures a greater proportion of one ingredient is abforbed
or lodged in the interftices of the other, as is generally
imagined. This mufl be afcertained by comparing
each fpecific gravity with the gravity expreffed by 1 -f-
tu-f-w(a—b)
W-j-7U b
This feries of fpecific gravities refembles fuch a nu¬
merical feries as the following, 1 *, j 1.56 ;
1.163 ; 1.-{-69 ; &c, the terms of which alfo confift of
the conflant integer 1, and the decimal fraftions 0.156 $
0.163 j 0.169 j &c. The fraflion
m^a—Z')
ther by the bulk of the added ingredient, fullers any Gravity!
change. We (hall have occafion by and by to refume
the confideration of this queltion, which is of the firfl
moment in the theory of fpecific gravities, and has great
influence in many tranfadlions of commerce.
This feries of fpecific gravities is not fo well fitted
for commercial tranfaflions. In thefe the ufual quef-
tipn is, how many gallons of alcohol is there in a calk,
or fome number oi gallons of fpirit ? and it is more
diredlly anfwered by means of a table, formed by mix¬
ing the ingredients in aliquant parts of one conflant
bulk. The following table, con (true led from the ex¬
periments of Mr Briffon of the academy of Paris, and
publifhed in the Memoirs for 1769, is therefore in-
ferted.
W.
o
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
J4
15
16
16
*5
M
*3
12
Denfity
obferved.
O.8371.
O.8527
OV8674
O.881 5
O.8947
0.9075
O.9199
0-93r7
0.9427
0.95x9
0.9598
0.9674
a9733
°-979I
0.9852
0.9919
1.0000
Denfity
Computed.
Conden-
i at ion.
O.8571
O.8473
0.8575
O.8677
O.8778
o.888o
0.8982
0.9084
0.9186
0.9287
09389
0.9491
0-9593
c.9695
0.9796
0.9898
t.ooco
63
115
I57
189
214
235
251
2c6
243
217
189
144
99
57
21
Bulk of
IO,COG
grains.
1.0000
0-9937
0.9885
0.9844
0.9811
0.9786
0.9765
0-9749
0.9744
0-9757
0.9783
0.9811
0.9856
0.9901
0.9943
0.9979
i .0000
ipreffes'
w-\-mb
this decimal part. Call this d, or make d — —^.
L w-\-mb
, , m a—wd ,
This will give us y ; r.. Now a is the weight
& m(i-\-d) 0
of tba added ingredient, and d is the variable part of
In this table the whcle quantity of fpirituous liquor is
always the fame. 'The firfl column is the number of
meafures (gallons, pints, inches, &c.) of water in the
mixture : and column 2d gives the meafures of alcohol.
Column 3d is the fpecific gravity which was obferved
by Mr Briffon. Column 4th is the fpecific gravity
which would have been obferved if the fpirits, or wa¬
ter, or both, had retained their fpecific denfity un¬
changed. And the 5th column marks the augmenta¬
tion of fpecific gravity or denfity in parts of io,oco.
A 6th column is added, fhowing the bulk of the 16
cubic meafures of the two ingredients. Each meafure
may be conceived as the 16th part of 10,000, or 625 $
and we may fuppofe them cubic inches, pints, gallons,
or any folid meafure.
This table fcarcely differs from Sir Charles Blag-
den’s ; and the very fmall difference that may be ob¬
ferved, arifes from Mr Briffon’s having ufed an alco¬
hol not fo completely rectified. Its fpecific gravity is
9.8371, whereas the other was only 0.8250.
Here it appears more diflinfUy that the condenfa-
tion is greateif when the two ingredients are of equal
bulk.
Perhaps this feries of fpecific gravities is as declara¬
tive as the other, whether or not there is a change df
denfity Induced in either of the ingredients. The
5; whols
S P E
■whole bulk being always the fame, it is plain that the
( fucceflxve equal additions to one of the ingredients is a
fueceflive equal abftra&ion of the other. The chanae
produced, therefore, in the weight of the whole, is the
difference between the weight of the ingredient which
is taken out and the weight of the equal meafure of the
other which fupplies its place. Therefore, if neither
ingredient changes its denfity by mixture, the weiohts
of the mixtures will be in arithmetical progreffion.b If
they are not, there is a variation of denfity in one or
both the ingredients.
We fee this very clearly in the mixtures of water and
alcohol. I he firft fpecific gravity differs from the fe-
cond by 156, and the laft differs from the preceding by
no more than 81. Had neither of the denfities chan-
ged, the common difference would have been 102.
We obferve alio, that the augmentation of fpecific gra¬
vity, by the fucceffive addition of a meafure of wa¬
ter, grows lefs and lefs till 12 meafures of water is mixed
with 4 of alcohol, when the augmentation is only 58,
and then it increafes again to 81.
It alfo appears, that the addition of one meafure of
water to a quantity of alcohol produces a greater change
of denfity than the mixture of one meaiure of alcohol
to a quantity of water. Hence feme conclude, that the
water, difappears. by being lodged in the interftices of
the fpirit. Eut it is more agreeable to the juiteit no¬
tions which we can form ox tne internal conftitution of
tangible bodies, to iuppofe that the particles of xvater di-
minifli the diffances between the particles of alcohol
by their ftrong attractions, and that this diminution
(excedingly minute in itfelf) becomes fenfible on ac¬
count of the great number of particles whole diffances
are thus diminiihed. This is merely a probability
founded on this, that it would require a much greater
diminution of diftances if it was the particles of water
which had their diftances thus diminiihed. But the
greater probability is, that the condenfation takes place
in both.
.We have been fo particular in our confideration of
this mixture, becaufe the law of variation of denfity lias,
in this inftance, been afeertained with fuch precifion by
the elaborate examination of Sir Charles Elagden, fo
that it may ferve as an example of what happens in al-
moft every mixture of bodies. It merits a ftill farther
difeuftion, becaufe it is intimately connedfted with the
a&ion of the corpufcular forces *, and an exaft knowledge
of the variations of diftance between the particles will
go far to afeertain the law of adiion of thefe forces.
But the limits of a work like this will not permit us to
dwell longer on this fubjeff. We proceed therefore to
give another ufeful table.
Ibe vitriolic or fulphuric acid is of extenfive ufe in
manufa&ures under the name of oil of vitriol. Its va¬
lue depends entirely on the faline ingredient, and the
water is merely a vehicle for the acid. This, being
much denfer than water, affefis its fpecific gravity, and
thus^ gives us a method of afeertaining its ftrength.
The ftrongeft oil of vitriol that can be eafily manu-
faftured contains 6i2-/0- grains of dry acid, united with
3°7inj grains of water, which cannot be feparated from
it by diftillation, making 1000 grains of oil of vi¬
triol. Its fpecific gravity in this ftate is 1.877.
Xhe following table Ihows its Ipecifie gravity at the
[ 567 3
s p E
temperature of 550 when diluted by the fucceflive addi- Specific
tion of parts of water by weight. Gravity.
01. Vit.
10
Specific Gravity.
 -a 
X
Water.
O
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
50
60
Obl'erved.
I.877
I.644
I.474
I.381
1.220
1.274
I.243
1.211
I.183
1.172
I.I48
1.128
Calculated.
I.877
I.JOl
i-3S°
1.269
1.219
1.184
1-'59
1.140
1.125
1.113
1.103
1.084
1.069
Cond.
.OO
•I43
.124
.112
.101
.090
.084
.071
.070-
.070
.070
.064
•°59
Here is obferved a much greater condenfation than
in the mixture of alcohol and water. But we cannot
affign the proportion of ingredients which produces the
greateft condenfation j becaufe we cannot, in any cale,
fay what is the proportion of the faline and watery in¬
gredients. I he ftrongeft oil of vitriol is already a wa-
tcry folution ; and it is by a confiderable and uncertain.
detour that IVfr Kirwan has aftigned the proportion of
612 and 388 nearly. If this be the true ratio, it is un¬
like every other folution that we are acquainted with j
for in all folutions of falts, the fait occupies lefs room in
its liquid foim than it did when lolid } and here it would
be greatly the reverfe.
1 his folution is remarkable alio for the copious emer¬
gence of heat in its dilutions with more w:ater. This
has been aferibed to the great fuperiority of water in its
capacity of heat; but there are fafts which render this
very doubtful. A veflel of w'ater, and another of oil of.
vitiiol, being brought from a cold room into a warm
one, they both imbibe heat, and rife m their tempera¬
ture 5 and the water employs nearly the fame time to
attain the temperature of the room.
Aquafortis or nitrous acid is. another fluid very much
employed in commerce ; fo that it is of importance to
afeertain the relation between its faline ftrength and its
fpecific gravity. We owe alfo to Mr Kirwan a table
for this purpofe.
The moft concentrated ftate into which it can eafily;.
be brought is fuch, that 1000 grains of it confifts of
563 grains of water and 437 of dry acid. In this ftate
its fpeeific, gravity is 1.557
acid.
Let this he called nitrous.
Nitr. Ac.
10.
X
Water.
O
I
6
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
mn
1.474
*-359
1.269
1.214
'•ns
1.151
1.127
1.106
1.086
J-557
1.474
I-273
1.191
1.147
1.120
1.101
1.087
I'°77
1.068
0.077
0.078
0.067
g.°55
0.050
0.040,
0.029
o.c 18
, There ffs not the fame uniformity in the denfities of
tins acid in its different ftates of dilution. This feems-
owing
s P E [568] S P E
Specific oniaK to tlie variable prop,.rtioa of the deleterious and . us the mod inftreaive as to this circumflance. A glafs
Gravity. vjtaj a;r compofe this acid. It is more denfe in veffel was ufed, having a (lender cylindrical neck, and
as it contains more of the latter ingre-
proportion
dient.
The proportions of the aeriform ingredients of the
muriatic acid are fo very variable, and fo little, under
our command, that we cannot frame tables of its fpe-
cific gravity which would enable us to judge of its
ilrength.
It is a general property of thefe acids, that they
are more expanfible by heat as they are_ more concen¬
trated. •_ #
There is another clafs of fluids which it would oe of
great confequence to reduce to fome rules with refpeft
to tpecilic gravity, namely, the folutions of falls, gums,
and refins. It isInterefting to the philofppher to know
in what manner falts are contained in thefe watery fo¬
lutions, and to difcover the relation between their
ftrength and denlity *, and to the man of bufinefs it
would be a moft defirable thing to have a criterion of
the quantity of fait in any brine, or of extraftable mat¬
ter in a deco&ion. It would be equally defirable to
thofe who are to purchafe them as to thofe who manu-
faiflure or employ them. Perhaps we might afeer-
tain in this way the value of fugar^ depending on the
quantity of fweetening matter which it contains j a
thing which at prefent refts on the vague determina¬
tion of the eve or palate. It would therefore be doing
a ureat fervice to the public, if fome intelligent perfon
would undertake a train of experiments with this view.
Accuracy alone is required ; and it may be left to the
philofophers to compare the fads, and draw the confe-
quences respecting the internal arrangement of the par¬
ticles.
One circumftance in the folution of falts is very ge¬
neral ; and we are inclined, for ferious reafons, to think
it univerfal ; this is a diminution of bulk. This indeed
in fome falts is inconfiderable. Sedative fait, for in-
llance, hardly {hows any diminution, and might be con-
(idered as an exception, were it not the fingle inftance.
This circumftance, and fome confiderations connefted
with our notions of this kind of folution, difpofe us to
think that this fait differs in contraction from others
only in degree, and that there is fomc, though it was
not fenfible, in the experiments hitherto made.
Thefe experiments, indeed, have not been numerous.
Thufe of Mr Achard of Berlin, and of Dr Richard
Watfon of Cambridge, are perhaps the only ones of
which we have a deferiptive narration, by which we can
judge of the validity of the inferences drawn from them.
The fubjeft is not fufceptible of much accuracy , for
falts in their foiid form are feldom free from cavities
and fhivery interftices, which do not admit the water
on their firft immerfion, and thereby appear of greater
bulk when we attempt to meafure their fpecific gravity
by weighing them in fluids which do not diffolve them,
fuch as fpirits of turpentine. They alfo attach to them-
felves, with confiderable tenacity, a quantity of atmo-
fpheric air, which merely adheres, but makes no part of
their compofition. This efeapes in the aft of folution,
being fet at liberty by the ftronger affinity of the water.
Sal gem, however, and a few others, may be very accu¬
rately meafured ; and in thefe inftances the degree of
contraftion is very conftant.
The following experiments of Dr Watfon appear to
holding 67 ounces of pure water when filled to a cer¬
tain mark. The neck above this mark had a fcale of
equal parts pafted on it. It was filled to the mark with
water. Twenty-four pennyweights of fait were thrown
into it as fpeedily as po.flible, and the bulk of the fait
was meafured by the elevation of the water. Every
thing was attended to which could retard the immediate
folution, that the error arifing from the folution of the
firft particles, before the reft could be put in, might be
as fmall as poflible; and in order that both the abfolute
bulk and its variations might be obtained by fome known
fcale, 24 pennyweights of water were putin. This raB
fed the lurface’ 58 parts of the fcale. Now we know
exaftly the bulk of 24 pennyweights of pure water. It
is 2.275 cubic inches ; and thus we obtain every thing ,
in abfolute meafures : And by comparing the bulk of
each fait, both at its firft immerfion and after its com¬
plete folution, we obtain its fpecific gravity, and the
change made on it in pafling from a foiid to a fluid form.
The following table is an abftraft of thefe experiments.
The firft column of numbers is the elevation of the fur-
face immediately after immerfion ; the fecond gives the
elevation when the fait is completely diffolved ; and
the third and fourth columns are the fpecific gravities of
the falts in thefe two ftates.
I 'wentv-tbur Pennyweights.
Water
Glauber’s fait
Mild volatile alkali
Sale ammoniac
Refined white fugar
Coarfe brown fugar
White fugareandy
Lymington Glauber’s fait
Terra foliata tartari -
Rochelle fait
Alum not quite dilTolved
Borax not one half diffol-
ved in two days
Green vitriol
White vitriol
Nitre
Sal gem from Northwich
Blue vitriol
Pearl afties
Tart, vitriolatus
Green vitriol calcined to
white - - -
Dry fait of tartar
Bafket fea falt
Corrofive fublimate -
Turbith mineral - -
The infpeftion of this lift naturally fuggefts two ftates
of the cafe as particularly interefting to the philofopher
ftudying the theory of folution. The firft (late is when
the lixivium approaches to laturation. In the very point
of faturation any addition of fait retains its bulk un¬
changed. In diluted brines, we (hall fee that the den-
P E
Specific fity of the fluid fait is greater, and gradually diminifhes
Gravity* as we add more fait. It is an important queftion,
"''v Whether this diminution goes on continually, till the
fluid denfity of the fait is the fame with its folid den-
fity ? or, Whether there is an abrupt paflage from fome
degree of the one to the fked degree of the other, as we
obferve in the freezing of iron, the fetting of ftucco, and
fome other inftances ?
The other interefting ftafce is that of extreme dilution,
when the differences between the fiicceffive denfities bear
a great proportion to the denfities themfelves, and thus
enable the mathematician to afcertain with fome preci-
iion the variations of corpufcular force, in confequence of
a variation of diftance between the particles. The Iketch
of an invefligation of this important queftion given by
Bofeovich in his Theory of Natural Philofophy, is Very
promifing, and fhould incite the philofophical chemift to
the ftudy. Ihe firft thing to be done is to compare the
law of fpecific gravity; that is, the relation between the
fpecific gravity and quantity of fait held in folution.
Wilhing to make this work as ufeful as poflible, we
have fearched for experiments, and trains of experi¬
ments, on the denfity of the many brines which make
important articles of commerce j but we were mortified
by the fcantinefs of the information, and difappointed in
our hopes of being able to combine the detached obfer-
vations, fuited to the immediate views of their authors,
in fuch a manner as to deduce from them feales (as they
may be called) of their ftrength. We rarely found thefe
detached obfervations attended with circumftances which
Would connect them with others; and there wTas fre¬
quently fuch a difcrepancy, nay oppofition, in feriefes
of experiments made for afeertaining the relation be¬
tween the denfity and the ftrength, that we could not
obtain general principles which enable us to conftruft
tables of ftrength a priori.
Mr Lambert, one of the firft mathematicians and
philofophers of Europe, in a differtation in the Berlin
Memoirs (1762), gives a narration of experiments on
the brines of common fait, from which he deduces a very
great condenfation, w'hich he attributes to an abforption
in the weak brines of the fait, or a lodgement of its
particles in the interftices of the particles of water. Mr
Achard of the fame academy, in 1785, gives a very
great lift of experiments on the bulks of various brines,
made in a different way, which fhow no fuch introfuf-
eeption; and Dr Watfyn thinks this confirmed by expe¬
riments which he narrates in his Chemical Effays. We
fee great reafon for hefitating our affent to either fide,
and do not think the experiments decifive. We incline
to Mr Lambert’s opinion; for this reafon, that in the
fucceflive dilutions of oil of vitriol and aquafortis there
is a moft evident and remarkable condenfation. Now
what are thefe but brines, of which we have not been
able to get the faline ingredient in a feparate form ?
The experiments of Mr Achard and Dr Watfon were
made in fuch a way that a fingle grain in the meafure-
ment bore too great a proportion to the w'hole change
of fpecific gravity. At the fame time, fome of Dr Wat-
fon’s are fo fimple in their nature that it is very difficult
to withhold the affent.
In this ftate of uncertainty, in a fubjetft which
feems to us to be of a public importance, ure thought
Jt our duty to undertake a train of experiments to
which recourfe may always be had. Works like tins
Vol. XIX, Part II,
C S69 1
S P E
are feldom confidered as fources of original informa¬
tion ; and it is thought fufficient when the know¬
ledge already diffufed is judicioufly compiled. But a
due refpedl. for the public, and gratitude for the very
honourable reception hitherto given to our labours, in¬
duce us to exert ourfelves with honeft zeal to merit the
continuance of public favour. We affure our readers
that the experiments were made with care, and on quan¬
tities fufficiently large to make the unavoidable irregu¬
larities in fueh cafes quite infignificant. The law of
denfity was afeertained in each fubftance in two ways.
We diffolved different portions of fait in the fame quan¬
tity of water, and examined the fpecific gravity of thfe
brine by weighing it in a veffel with a narrow neck.
The portions of fait were each of them one eighth of
what would make a nearly faturated folution of the tem¬
perature 55. We did not make the brine ftronger, that
there might be no rilk of a precipitation in form of
cryftals. We confidered the fpecific gravities as the
ordinates of a curve, of which the abfeiff^ were the
numbers of ounces of dry fait contained in a cubic foot
of the brine. Having thus obtained eight ordinates
correfponding to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 portions of
fait, the ordinates or fpecific gravities for every other
proportion of fait were had by the ufual methods of in-
terpofition.
The other method Was, by firft making a brine near¬
ly faturated, in which the proportion of fait and water
was exactly determined. We then took out one-eighth
of the brine, and filled up the veffel with water, taking
care that the mixture fhould be complete ; for which
purpofe, befides agitation, the diluted brine was allow¬
ed to remain 24 hours before weighing. Taking out
one-eighth of the brine alfo takes out one-eighth of the
fait; fo that the proportion of fait and water in the dilu¬
ted brine Was known. It was now weighed, and thus
we determined the fpecific gravity for a new proportion
of fait and water.
We then took out one-feventh of the brine. It is
evident that this takes out one-eighth of die original
quantity of fait; an abftraSion equal to the former.
We filled the veffel with water with the fame precau¬
tions ; and in the fame manner we proceeded till there
remained only one-eighth of the original quantity of fait.
The fpecific gravities by thefe two methods agreed
extremely well. In the very deliquefeent falts the firft
method exhibited fome fmall irregularities, arifing from
the unequal quantities of water which they had imbibed
from the atmofphere. We therefore confided moft in
the experiments made with diluted brines.
That the reader may judge of -the authority of the
tables which we (hall infert, we fubmit to his infpedion
one feries of experiments. • •
Two thoufand one hundred and eighty-eight grains
of very pure and dry (but not decrepitated) commoil
faff, prepared in large cryftals, were diffolved in 6562
grains of diftilled water of the temperature 550. A
fmall matrafs with a narrow neck, which held 4200
grains of diftilled water, was filled with this brine. Its
contents weighed 5027 grains. Now 6562 + 2188
: 2x88 - 5027 : 1256.75. Therefore the bottle of
brine contained 1256.75 grains of fait diffolved in
3770.25 grains of water. Its fpecific gravity is =:
^203» or 1‘19^9°S ? and a cubic foot of brine weighs"
C
1x96.0
Specific
Gravity.'
V—=
S P E [
Specific 1196.9 ounces avoirdupois. Alfo 5027 •
Gravity- 1196.9 : 299.28. Therefore a cubic foot of this brine
* contains 299.28 ounces of perfectly dry fait.
The fubfequent fteps of the procefs are reprefented as
follows.
Salt.
8)1256.75
Brine.
8)5027
628.4
4398.6
527-4
7)1099.6
I57*1
7)49260
7°3-7
942-5
157.1
6)4827.0
804.5
785.4
I57*1
5)4729.0
946
628.3
157.1
47T-2
157.1
SM-1
I57-1
4222.3
604.7
4022. c
706.5
377°-25
— ^ of brine
Remains.
Water to fill
it again.
2d Brine,
taken out.
Water added
3d Brine.
Taken out.
Remains.
Water added
3783
847
4)4630
1157-5
3472-5
i°54-5
3)4527
1509
3OI8
I4°5
2)4423
2212
2211
2102
157-0
4313
Water.
Wt. of
'.ub. Ft.
1196 9
II72.7
1 r49-3
4th Brine.
Taken out.
Remains.
Water added
5th Brine.
Taken out.
Remains.
Water added
6th Brine.
Taken out.
Remains.
Water added
7th Brine.
Taken out.
Remains.
Water added
8th Brine.
Salt in
Cub. Ft.
II25.9
II02.3
299.28
37-4Il
261.87
37-41
224.46
187.05
149.64
1077.9
I053-3
1027.9
57° 1 S P E
- cubic foot are made the abfciflie, and the weights of the Specific
cubic foot of brine are the correfponding ordinates, the . G‘^Y|T
curve will be found to be extremely regular, refembling
a hyperbolic arch whofe affymptote makes an angle of
30° with the axis. Ordinates were then interpolated,
analytically for every 10 ounces of contained fait, and
thus the table was conftrutted. We did not, however,(
reft it on one feries alone 5 but made others, in which
one-fourth of the fait was repeatedly abftradled. They
agreed, in the cafe of common fait, with great exaflnefs^
and in fome others there were Come very inconfiderable
irregularities.
To {how the authority of the tables of ftrength was,
by no means our only motive for giving an example of
the procefs. It may be of ufe as a pattern for fimilar
experiments. But, befides, it is very inftru&ive. We
fee, in the firft place, that there is a very fenfible change
of denfity in one or both of the ingredients. For the
feries is of that nature (as we have formerly explained),
that if the ingredients retained their denfities in every
proportion of commixture, the fpecific gravities would
have been in arithmetical progreflion 5 whereas we fee.
that their differences continually diminilh as the brines
grow more denfe. We can form fome notion of this
by comparing the different brines. Thus in the firft brine,
weighing 5027 grains, there are 3770 grains of water
in a veffel holding 4200. If the denfity of the water
remains the fame, there is left for the fait only as much
fpace as would hold 430 grains of water.. In this
fpace are lodged 1257 grains of fait, and its fpecific,
gravity, in its liquid form, is = 2.8907 very near*
ly. But in the 8th brine the quantity of water is
4156, the fpace left for 157 grains of fait is only the
bulk of 44 grains of water, and the denfity of the fait is
112.23
74.82
37-41
= 3.568, confiderably greater than before. This
£57 __
44
induced us to continue the dilution of the brine as fol¬
lows, beginning with the 8th brine.
2)4313 8th brine
2156.5
157
78.5
2156.5
2105.5
78.5
39-7
39-7
2)4262.0 9th brine
2131
2102
2)4233 i Oth brine
2116.5
Thus, by repeated abftra&ion of brine, fo as always
to take out ^th of the fait contained in one conftant bulk,
we have obtained a brine confiftingof 157 grains of fait
united with 4313—157, or 4T56 grains of water.
Its fpecific gravity is =1,0279, and a cubic foot
of it weighs 1028 ounces, and contains 37t& ounces of
dry fair. In like manner may the fpecific gravity, the
we ght of a cuoie foot, and the fiat it contains, be efti-
jnated for the intermediate brines.
“When thefe eight quantities of fait contained in a
2116.5
2102
19.8 4218 utta brine.
This laft brine contains 4198.2 grains of water, lea¬
ving only the bulk of 1.8, grains of water to contain
19.8 of fait, fo that the fait is ten times denfer than
water. This will make the ftrength 243 inftead of
210 indicated by the fpecific gravity. But we do not
pretend to meafure the denfities with accuracy in thefe
diluted brines. It is evident from the procefs that a
fingle
s P E t 571 ] S P E
Specific fingle grain of excefs or defect in taking out the brine
Gravity. and replacing it rvith water has a fenfible proportion to
the whole variation. But we fee with fufficient evi¬
dence, that from the ftrong to the ^veak brines the
fpace left for the portion of fait is continually diminilh-
ing. In the firft dilution 5274- grains of water were
added to fill up the veffel *, but one-eighth of its contents
of pure water is only 525 : fo that here is a diminution
of two grains and a hall in the fpace occupied by the re¬
maining fait. The fubfequent additions are 604.7 j
706.55847* 1054.55 14055 21025 2105.5521025
21025 inftead of 6005 7005 8405 10505 14005
2100 5 2100 5 2100 5 2100. Nothing can more plain¬
ly {how the condenfation in general, though we do not
iearn whether it happens in one or both of the ingredi¬
ents 5 nor do the experiments fiiow with fufficient ac¬
curacy the progreffion of this diminution. The exceffes
of the added water being only fix or feven grains, we
cannot expect a nice repartition. When the brine is
taken out, the upper part of the vellel remains lined
with a briny film containing a portion of fait and water,
perhaps equal or fuperior to the differences. Had our
time permitted, we ffiould have examined this matter
with fcrupulous attention, ufing a veffel with a ftill nar¬
rower neck, and in each dilution abllrafting one half of
the brine. The curve, whofe abfciffse and ordinates
reprefent the weight of the contained fait and the
weight of a conftant bulk of the brine, exhibits the beft
and moft fynoptical view of the law of condenfation,
becaufe the polition of the tangent in any point, or the
X
value of the fymbol -, always ftiows the rate at which
. y.
the fpecific gravity increafes or diminiffies. We are
inclined to think that the curve in all cafes is of the hy¬
perbolic kind, and complete 5 that is, having the tan¬
gent perpendicular to the axis at the beginning of the
curve. The mathematical reader will eafily guefs the
phyfical notions which incline us to this opinion 5 and
will alfo fee that it is hardly poffible to difcover this ex¬
perimentally, becaufe the miftake of a fingle grain in
the very fmall ordinates will change the pofition of the
tangent many degrees. It was for this reafon that we
thought it ufelefs to profecute the dilution any farther.
But we think that it may be profecuted much farther
in Dr Watfon’s or Mr Achard’s method, viz. by dif-
folving equal weights of fait in two veflels, of very dif¬
ferent capacities, having tubular necks, in which the
change of bulk may be very accurately obferved. We
can only conclude, that the condenfation is greateff in
the ftrongeft brines, and probably attains its maximum
when the quantities of true faline matter and water are
nearly equal, as in the cafe of vitriolic acid, &c.
We confider thefe experiments as abundantly fuffici¬
ent for deciding the queftion, “ Whether the fait can be
received into the pores of the water, or the water into
the pores of the fait, fo as to increafe its weight without
increafing its bulk ? and we muff grant that it may.
We do not mean that it is limply lodged in the pores as
fand is lodged in the interffices of fmall {hot 5 but the
two together occupy lefs room than when feparate. The
experiments of Mr Achard were infufficient for a deci-
fion, becaufe made on fo fmall a quantity as 600 grains
of water. Dr Watfon’s experiments have, for the moft
part, the fame defeft. Some of them, however, are of
great value in this queftion, and are very fit for after-
taining the fpecific gravity of diffolved falls. In one of
them (not particularly narrated) he found that a quan¬
tity of diffolved fait occupied the fame bulk in two very
different ftates of dilution. We cannot pretend to re¬
concile this with our experiments. We have given thefe
as they Hood 5 and we think them conclufive, becaufe
they were fo numerous and fo perfeflly confiftent with
each other 5 and their refult is fo general, that we have
not found an exception. Common fait is by no means
the molt remarkable inftance of condenfation. Vege¬
table alkali, fal ammoniac, and fome others, exhibit
much condenfation.
We thought this a proper opportunity of confidering
this queition, which is intimately connected with the
principles of chemical folution, and was not perhaps
confidered in fufficient detail under the article Che¬
mistry. We learn from it in general, that the quan¬
tities of fait in brines increafe at fomewhat a greater
rate than their fpecific gravities. This difference is in
many cafes of fenfible importance in a commercial view.
Thus an alkaline lixivium for the purpofes of bleaching
or foap-making, whofe fpecific gravity is 1.234, or ex_
ceeds that of water by 234, contains 361 ounces of fait
in a cubic foot 5 a ley which exceeds the weight of
water twice as much, or 468 ounces per cubic foot, con¬
tains 777 ounces of fait, which exceeds the double of
361 by 55 ounces more than feven per cent. Hence
we learn, that hydrometers for difcovering the ftrength
of brines, having equal divifions on a cylindrical Item,
are very erroneous 5 for even if the increments of fpe¬
cific gravity were proportional to the quantities of fait
in a gallon of brine, the divifions at the bottom of the
ftem ought to be fmaller than thofe above.
The conftruflion of tire following table of ftrengths
from the above narrated feries of brines is fufficiently
obvious. Column ift is the fpecific gravity as difcover-
ed by the balance or hydrometer, and alfo is the number
of ounces in a cubic foot of the brine. Col. 2d is the
ounces of the dry fait contained in it.
TABLE of Brines of Common Salt.
Weight
Cub. Ft.
Brine.
Salt
Cub.Ft.
Weight
Cub. Ft.
Brine.
Salt
Cub.Ft
I.OOO
1.008
1.015
1.022
I.029
I.O36
x.°43
I.OCO
I*°J7
1.064
1.070
1.077
1.083
1.090
1.096
1.103
o
10
20
3°
40
50
60
70
80
90
IOO
I 10
120
130
I40
*5°
1.109
160
i*ii5
1.122
1.128
1.140
1.147
l‘lS9
1.165
1.172
1.178
1.184
1.190
1.197
1.203
1.206
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
316
1.208
320
The
Specific
Gravity.
4C ^
Specifia
Gravity.
S P E [ 572 ] S P E
Tlxe table differs confiderably from Mr Lambert’s.
The quantities of fait correfponding to any fpecific gra¬
vity are about -j^th lefs than in his table. But the
reader will fee that they correfpond with the feries of
experiments above narrated ; and thefe were but a few
of many which all correfponded within an hundredth
part. The caufe of the difference feems to be, that
mod kinds of common fait contain magnelian falls,
which contain a very great proportion of water neceffary
for their cryilallization. The fait which we ufed was
of the puretl kind, but fuch as may be had from every
fait work, by Lord Dundonald’s very eafy procefs, viz.
by pairing through it a faturated folution boiling hot,
which carries off with it about four-fifths of all the bit¬
ter falts. Our aim being to afcertain the quantities of
pure fta-falt, and to learn by the bye its relation to
water in refpedt of denfity, we thought it neceffary to
ufe the pureff fait. We alfo dried it for feveral days
in a ftove, fo that it contained no water not abfolutely
neceflary for its crystallization. An ounce of fuch fait
will communicate a greater fpecific gravity to water
than an ounce of a fait that is lefs pure, or that contains
extraneous water.
The fpecific gravity 1.090 is that of ordinary pickles,
which are eftimated as. to ftrength by floating an egg.
We cannot raife the fpecific gravity higher than
1.206 by fimply diffolving fait in cold water. But it
will become much denfer, and will even attain the ipe-
eific gravity 1.240 by boiling, then holding about 366
ounces in the cubic foot of hot brine. But it will de-
pofit by cooling, and when of the temperature 550 or
6o°, hardly exceeds 1.206. We obtained a brine by
boiling till the fait grained very rapidly. When it
cooled to 6o°, its fpecific gravity was 1.2063 ^ for a
veffel which held 3506 grains of diftilled water held
4229 of this brine. This was evaporated to drynefs,
and there were obtained 1344 grains of fait. By this was
computed the number interpofed between 3x0 and 320
in the table. We have, however, raifed the fpecific
gravity to 1.217, by putting in no more fait than was
neceffary for this denfity, and ufing heat. It then
cooled down to 6o° without quitting any fait; but if a
few grains of fait be thrown into this brine, it will
quickly depofit a great deal more, and its denfity will
decreafe to 1.206. We find this to hold in all falls;
and it is a very inftruftive faiff in the theory of cryftal-
lization ; it refembles the effeft which a magnet pro¬
duces upon iron filings in its neighbourhood. It makes
them temporary magnets, and caufes them to arrange
themfelves as if they had been really made permanent
magnets. Juft fo a cryftal already formed difpofes the
reft to cryftallize. We imagine that this analogy is
complete, and that the forces are fimilar in both cafes.
The above table is computed for the temperature 550;
but in other temperatures the ftrength will be different
on two accounts, viz. the expanfion of the brine and the
diffolving power of the water. Water expands about
40 parts in 1000 when heated from 6o° to 212°. Sa¬
turated brine expands about 48 parts, or one-fifth more
than water; and this excefs of expanfion is nearly pro¬
portional to the quantity of fait in the brine. If there¬
fore any circumftance ftiould oblige us to examine a
brine in a temperature much above 6o°, allowance ftiould
be made for this. Thus, ftiould the fpecific gravity
of brine of the temperature 130 (which is nearly half
3
way between 60 and 2x2) be 1.140, we muft increafe Specifioi
it by 20 (half of 40) ; and having found the ftrength Gravity,j
240 correfponding to this corrected fpecific gravity, we
muft correct it again by adding 1 to the ipecific gravity
for every 45 ounces of fait.
But a much greater and more uncertain correftion is
neceffary on account of the variation of the diffolving
power of water by heat. This indeed is very fmall in
the cafe of fea-falt in comparifon with other falls. We
prefume that our readers are apprifed of this peculiarity
of fea-falt, that it diffolves nearly in equal quantities in
hot or in cold water. But although water of the tem¬
perature 60 will not diffolve more than 320 or 325
ounces of the pureft and dryeft fea-falt, it will take up
above 20 ounces more by boiling on it. When thus
faturated to the utmoft, and allowed to cool, it does not
quit any of it till it is far cooled, viz. near to 6o°. It
then depofits this redundant fait, and holds the reft till
it is juft going to freeze, when it lets it go in the inftant
of freezing. If evaporated in the ftate in which it con¬
tinues to hold the fait, it will yield above 400 ounces
per cubic foot of brine, in good cryftals, but rather over¬
charged with water. And fince in this ftate the cubic
foot of brine weighs about 1220 ounces, it follows, that
820 ounces of water will, by boiling, diffolve 400 of
eryftallized fait.
The table {hows how much any brine muft be boiled
down in order to grain. Having obferved its fpecific gra¬
vity, find in the table the quantity of fait correfponding.
Call this x. Then, fince a boiling hot graining or fatu¬
rated folution contains 340 ounces in the cubic foot of
brine, fay 240 : loco — x : —-0° x. This is the bulk
' ° 34°
to which every cubic foot (valued at 1000) muft be
boiled down. Thus fuppofe the brine has the fpecific
gravity 1109. It holds 160 ounces per foot, and we
muft boil it down to
ioco X160
34°
or 471 ; that is, we
muft boil off -- —
1000
of every cubic foot or gallon.
Thefe remarks are of importance in the manufacture
of common fait; they enable us to appretiate the va¬
lue of fait fprings, and to know how far it may be pru¬
dent to engage in the manufacture. For the doCtrine
of latent heat affures us, that in order to boil off a cer¬
tain quantity of water, a certain quantity of heat is in-
difpenfably neceffary. After the moft judicious appli¬
cation of this heat, the confumption of fuel may be too
expenfive.
The fpecific gravity of fea-water in thefe climates
does not exceed 1.03, or the cubic foot weighs 1030
ounces, and it contains about 41 ounces of fait. 'Ihc
brine pits in England are vaftly richer; but in many
parts of the world brines are boiled for fait which do
not contain above 10 or 20 ounces in the cubic foot.
In buying fait by weight, it is of importance to know
the degree of humidity. A fait will appear pretty dry
(if free from magnefian falls) though moiftened with one
per cent, of water; and it is found that incipient humi¬
dity expofes it much to farther deliquefcence. A much
fmaller degree of humidity may be difeovered by the
fpecific gravity of a brine made with a few ounces of
the fait. And the infpe&ion of the table informs us,
that
S P E
jecific that the brine fl-iould be weak 5 for the differences of
ravity* fpecific gravity go on diminifhing in the ftronger brines :
^ “ 300 ounces of dry fait diffolved in 897. ounces of water
ihould give the fpecific gravity 1197. Suppofe it be
but 1190, tile quantity of fait correfponding is only
290 ; but when mixed with 897 ounces of water, the
weight is 1x97, although the weight of the cubic foot
is only 1190. There is therefore more than a cubic
foot of the brine, and there is as much fait as will make
more than a cubic foot of the weight 1190. There is
1197
290 X Tup’ °r 29it ouaces> ancl there is 8-f ounces of
water attached to the fait.
The various informations which we have pointed out
as deducible from a knowledge of the fpecific gravity of
the brines of common fait, will ferve to fuggeft leveral
advantages of the knowledge of this circumftance in
other lixivia. We (hall not therefore refume them, but
limply give another table or two of fuch as are moll: in-
terefling. Of thofe, alkaline leys are the chief, being of
extenlive ufe in bleaching, foap-making, glafs-making,
&c.
We therefore made a very ftrong ley of the pureft
vegetable alkali that is ever ufed in the manufactories,
not thinking it neceffary, or even proper, to take it in
1 573 }
S P E
its Hate of utmoft purity, as obtained from cubic nitre Specific
and the like. We took lalt of tartar from the apothe- , Gra^;ty’t
cary, perfedly dry, of which 3983 grains were diffolved v
in 3540 grains of diffilled water} and after agitation for
feveral days, and then Handing to depofit fediment, the
clear ley was decanted. It Avas again agitated } be-
caufe, when of this llrength, it becomes, in a very fhort
time, rarer above and denfer at the bottom. A flafk.
containing 4200 grains of water held 6165 of this ley
when of the temperature 550. Its fpecific gravity Avas
therefore 1.4678, and the 6165 grains of ley contained
3264 grains ol fait. We examined its fpecific gravity
in different Hates of dilution, till we came to a brine
containing 51 grains of fait, and 4x89 grains of Avater,
and the contents of the fialk weighed 4240 grains : its
fpecific gravity Avas therefore 1.0095. In this train of
experiments the progreflion was moH regular and fatif-
faftory } fo that when Ave conHrufted the curve of fpe¬
cific gravities geometrically, none of the points deviated
from a moft regular curve. It Avas confiderably more
incurvated near its commencement than the curve for
lea-falt, indicating a much greater condenfation in the
diluted brines. We think that the following table, con-
H.rufted in the fame manner as that for. common fait,
may be depended on as A'ery exaft.
Weight of
Cub. Fcot
oz.
IOOO
1016
10^1
I045
1085
1071
1084
1098
1112
112 c
1138
1150
1162
bait
cont.
oz.
o
20
40
60
80
100
I 20
I40
l6o
l8o
200
220
240
Weight of
Cub. Foot
oz.
1174
1187
I 200
12X2
1224
1236
I 248
1259
1270
1281
1293
I3°5
Salt
cont
oz.
260
280
300
2 20
340
360
380
400
420
440
460
480
500
Weight of
Cub Foot
1329
*340
l3Sl
1362
I372
1384
*39$
1406
I4I7
1428
t438
X449
1.460
Salt
cont.
}20
540
c6o
580
600
620
640
660
680
700
720
740
760
Weight of
Cub. Foot
I47I
1482
J493
I5°4
15I5
1526
L537
1347
*337
IJ67
I577
1586
Salt
cont.
02.
780
800
820
840
860
880
900
920
940
960
980
1000
We fee the fame augmentation of the denfity of the
ialt in the diluted brines here as in the cafe of common
fait. Ihus a brine, of Avhich the cubic foot weighs
1482 ounces, or Avhich has the fpecific gravity 1.482,
contains 800 ounces of dry alkali and 682 of Avater,
Iherefore, if avc fuppofe the denfity of the water un¬
changed, there remains the bulk of 318 ounces of water
to receive 840 ounces of fait: its denfity is therefore ?
■ _ 318”
~ 2.512 nearly. But in the brine Avhofe Aveight per
foot is only 1016 there are 20 ounces of fait, and there¬
fore 996 of water ; and there is only four ounce-mea-
fores of water, that is, the bulk of four ounces of Avater,
to receive 20 ounces of fait. Its fpecific gravity there-
r . 20
ore is , _ 5, almoH twice as great as in the flrong
brine. Accordingly Mr Achard is difpofed to admit the
ab for pi ion (as it is carelefsly termed) in the cafe of fal
tart. But it is a general (avc think an univerfal) fadt
in the folution of falts. It mud be carefully diflin-
guilhed from the firH contra&ion of bulk Avhich falts
undergo in pafling from a folid to a Huid form. The
contraction now under confideration is analogous to the
contraction of oil of vitriol when diluted Avith Avater }
for oil of vitriol mud be confidered as a very flrong
brine Avhich we cannot dephlegmate by diflillation, and
therefore cannot obtain the dry faline ingredient in a
feparate form, fo as to obferve its folid denfity, and fay
how much it contracts in firfl becoming fluid. The rvay
of conceiving the firfl contraaion in the ad of folution
as a lodging of the particles of the one ingredient on the
interflices of the other, “ qu"1 i/s fe nichent^ en augmentutit
le poids fans afficier le volume de la faumuref as Euler
and Lambert exprefs themfelves, is impoflible here, Avhen
both are fluids. Indeed it is but a flovenly Avay of
thinking
Specific
Gravity.
S P E [574
tlvinking in either cafe, and fbould be avoided, becaufe
inadvertent perfons are apt to ufe as a phyfical principle
•what is merely a mode of fpeech.
We learn from the table, that a hydrometer with
•equidiftant divifions on a cylindrical or prifmatical Item
is ftill more erroneous than in the brines oi common
fait.
We learn from the experiments of Kirwan, Lavoifier,
and others, that dry fait of tartar contains about one-
fourth of its weight of fixed air. In many applications
of this fait to the purpofes of manufafture, this 'ingredi¬
ent is of no ufe. In fome it is hurtful, and muft be ab-
ftrafted by lime. Soap-maker’s ley confifts of the pure
alkaline fait dilfolved in water. It is therefore of im¬
portance to afcertain its quantity by means of the fpeci-
fic gravity of the brine. For this pur-pofe we took a ley
of fal tart, whofe fpecific gravity was i.20417, con¬
taining 3 14 ounces of mild alkali in a cubic foot of ley,
and we rendered it nearly cauftic by lime. The fpecific
gravity was then 1.1897. This is a very unexpected
refult. Nothing is employed with more fuccefs than
quicklime for dephlegmating any watery fluid. We
{hould rather have expedited an increafe of fpecific gra¬
vity by the abftraCtion of fome of the water of the men-
Itruum, and perhaps the water of the cryftallization, and
the aerial part of the fait. But we muft afcribe this to
the great denfity in which the fixed air exifts in the mild
• alkali.
It is unnecfiary to give fimilar tables for all the falls,
unlefs we were writing a dilfertation on the theory of
their folution. We (hall only obferve, that we examin¬
ed with particular attention fal ammoniac, becaufe Mr
Achard, who denies what is called the abforption of
falts, finds himfelf obliged to allow fomething like it in
this fait. It does not, however, differ from thofe of
which we have given an account in detail in any other
refpeft than this, that the changes of fluid denfity are
much lefs than in others (inftead of being greater, as
Achard’s experiments feem to indicate) in all brines of
moderate ftrength. But in the very weak brines there
is indeed a remarkable difference 5 and if we have not
committed an error in our examination, the addition of
one part of fal ammoniac to 64 of water occupies lefs
room than the water alone. We think that we have met
with this as an accidental remark by fome author, whofe
work we do not recolleCt. But we do not choofe to
reft fo much on our form of the experiment in fuch weak
brines. The following mixtures will abundantly ferve
for conftruCting the table of its ftrength: Sal ammoniac
960 grains was diffolved in 3506 grains of water,
making a brine of 4466 grains. A phial which held
1600 grains water held 1698 of this brine. It contained
1698 X 960 ^ grajns 0£ fait. The fpecific gra-
SP E
4466
vity was
1698
1600’
1061 ounces. It alfo contained
1061 x 365
1698 ’
Series.
Brine.
Sp. Gr.
Weight of brine,
After taking out
After taking out y,
After taking out •§■,
After taking out 4,
O2. Salt. Specie;!
in Gravrjl
Gub. Ft. Speftad
228
I/?, 1698 I.061
2d, 1676 I.048 171
3</, 1633 1.033 114
4^,1630 I.019 57
5//$, 1616 I.OIO 281
6t/i, 1610 1.0063 14i
4, yt/i, 1605 1.0038 74
This feries is extremely regular, and the progrefs of
denfity may be confidently deduced from it.
From the whole of this difquifition on the relation be¬
tween the fpecific gravities of brines and the quantities of
fait contained, we fee in general that it may be gueffed
at, with a ufeful degree of precifion, from the denfity or
fpecific gravity of faturated folutions. We therefore
conclude with a lift of the fpecific gravities of feveral
faturated folutions, made with great care by the bifhop
of Landaff.—The temperature was 42°. The firft nu¬
merical column is the denfity of faturated brine, and the
next is the denfity of a brine confiding of 12 parts (by
weight) of water and one of fait. From this may be
inferred the quantity in the faturated folution, and from
this again may be inferred the quantity correfponding
to inferior denfities.
Borax,
Cor. Sublim.
Alum,
Glaub. fait,
Common fait,
Sal. oath. amar.
Sal ammon.
Vol. alk. mite,
Nitre,
Rochelle fait,
Blue vitriol,
Green vitriol,
White vitriol,
Pearl afti,
J.pio
1.037
^33
1.054
1.198
1.232
1.072
1.087
1.095
1.114
1.1 co
I>157
1.386
J-534
1.029
1.059
1.039
1.026
1.050
1.052
1.043
1.045
:i.o6i, and the cubic foot weighed
288
ounces of fait. By repeated abftraftion of brine, and
.-replacing with water, we had the following feries :
SPECTACLES, in Dioptrics, a machine confiding
of two lenfes fet in filver, horn, &c. to aflift the de¬
feats of the organ of fight. Old people, and others who
have flat eyes, ufe convex fpe&acles, which caufe the
rays of light to converge fo as to meet upon the retina:
whereas myopes, or (hort-fighted people, ufe concave
lenfes for fpedtacles, which caufe the rays to diverge,
and prevent their meeting ere they reach the retina.
See Optics.
Some cafes of a peculiar nature have been met with
where the fight receives no afliftance from the ufe of
either convex or concave glaffes. To remedy this, the
following method was contrived and fuccefsfully adopt¬
ed. A man about fixty years of age having almoft en¬
tirely loft his fight, could fee nothing but a kind of
thick mift with little black fpecks in it which feemed to
float in the air. He could neither read, walk the ftreets,
nor diftinguifh his friends who were moft familiar to
him. In this deplorable fituation he procured fome
fpe&acles with large rings: and having taken out the
r glaffes.
S P- E
tenthly
M 1799
Wades glafles, he fubftituted for them a conic tube of black
II Spanilh copper. Looking through the large end of the
^re' cone he could read the fmalleft print placed at its other
extremity. Thefe tubes were of different lengths, and
the openings at the end were alfo of different fizes; the
fmaller the aperture the better could he diffinguifh the
fmalleft letters j the larger the aperture the more words
or lines it commanded 5 and confequently the lefs occa-
fion was there for moving the head and the hand in
reading. Sometimes he ufed one eye, fometimes the
other, alternately relieving each, for the rays of the two
eyes could not unite upon the fame objeft when thus fe-
parated by two opaque tubes. The thinner thefe tubes,
the lefs troublefome are they. They muft be totally
blackened within fo as to prevent all fhining, and they
fhould be made to lengthen, or contract, and enlarge or
reduce the aperture at pleafure.
When he placed convex glaffes in thefe tubes, the
letters indeed appeared larger, but not fo clear and di-
ftinft as through the empty tube: he alfo found the
tubes more convenient when not fixed in the fpe&acle
rings 5 for when they hung loofely they could be raifed
or lowered with the hand, and one or both might be
ufed as occafion required. It is almoft needlefs to add,
that the material of the tubes is of no importance, and
that they may be made of iron or tin as wTell as of cop¬
per, provided the inftdes of them be fuftieiently black¬
ened *.
Ocular SPECTRA, images prefented to the eye
after removing them from a bright objeft, or clofing
fk Tranf.them. . When any one has long and attentively looked
17I at a bright objcft, as at the fetting fun, on clofing his
eyes, or removing them, an image, which refembles in
form the objeflt he was attending to, continues fome
time to be vifible. This appearance in the eye we fliall
call the ocular fpedrum of that obje£L
Thefe ocular fpeftra are of four kinds: ift, Such as
are owing to a lefs fenfibility of a defined part of the
retina, or fpe&ra from defe& of fenfibility. 2d, Such
as are owing to a greater fenfibility of a defined part of
the retina, or fpeftra from excefs of fenfibility. 3d, Such
as referable their objefr in its colour as well as form j
which may be termed direft ocular fpettra. 4th, Such
as are of a colour contrary to that of their objedt, which
may be termed reverfe ocular fpedtra.
SPECTRE, an apparition, or fomothing fuppofed to
be preternaturally vifible to human fight, whether the
ghofts of dead men or beings fuperior to man.
A belief that fupernatural beings fometimes make
themfelves vifible, and that the dead fometimes revifit
the living, has prevailed among moft nations, efpecially
sn the rudeft ftages of fociety. It was common among
the Jews, among the Greeks, and among the Romans,
as we find from the Scriptures, and from the poems of
Homer and Virgil. Celeftial appearances were indeed
fo often exhibited to the Jews, that the origin of their
belief is not difficult to be explained.—The Divine Re-
ing manifefted himfelf to each of the patriarchs by fome
fenfible fign, generally by a flame of fire, as he did to
Mofes. Under this femblance alfo did he appear to the
Ifraelites during their abode in the defert, and after
they obtained a fettlement in the land of Canaan. Nor
did they believe that heavenly beings alone affumed a
enfible appearance: They believed that deceafed men
■ 0 fometimes revifited this world. When Saul went
[ 575 ]
S P E
to confult the witch at Endor, he afked her to bring Spe&re.
up the perfon whom he fhould name unto her: a proof ~—*“*—
that he confidered his demand as eafy to be performed,
and therefore that he probably afted under the influence
of popular opinion. The fame opinion had been gene¬
rally entertained at a much earlier period j for necro¬
mancy and witchcraft, the arts by which the dead were
frippofed to be raifed, had been prohibited while the If¬
raelites were in the wildernefs, and yet untainted Avith
the vices of the Canaanites. They muft therefore have
derived them from Egypt, the cradle of fuperftition, as
well as of the arts and fciences.
Among the Greeks and Romans the apparition of
fpeflres was generally believed. On innumerable occa-
fions the gods are faid to have difeovered themfelves to
the eyes of mortals, to have held conferences, and to
have interpofed their aid. The ghofts of the dead, too,
are faid. to have appeared. When y£neas, amidft the
diffraction and confufion of his mind in flying from the
deftruction of Troy, had loft his wife by the way, ho
returned in fearch of her. Her fhade appeared to him
(for fhe herfelf had been flain) with the fame afpefr as
before, but her figure was larger. She endeavoured to
affuage the grief of her unhappy hufband, by aferibing
her death to the appointment of the gods, and by fore¬
telling the illuftrious honours which yet awaited him.
But Avhen ./Eneas attempted to clafp her in his arms, the
phantom immediately vanifhed into air. From this ftory
we may obferve, that the ancients believed that the um¬
brae or fhades, retained nearly the fame appearance after
death as before j that they had fo far the refemblance of
a body as to be vifible; that they could think and fpeak
as formerly, but could not be touched. This deferip-
tion applies equally well to thofe fliades which had
pafled the river Styx, and taken up their refidence in
the infernal regions. Such were the ftiades of Dido, of
Deiphobus, and all thofe which iEneas met with in his.
journey through the fubterraneous world.
It appears from the writings of modern travellers who-
have vifited rude and favage nations, that the belief of-
fpedlres is no lefs common among them. Mr Bruce
tells us, that the prieft of the Nile affirmed, that he had
more than once feen the fpirit of the river in the form
of an old man with a white beard. Among the Maho¬
metans the doffrine of fpeclres feems to be reduced to
a regular fyftem, by the accounts which they give of
genii. Whoever has read the Arabian Nights Enter- ■
tainments muft have furnifhed his memory with a thou-
fand inftances of this kind. I heir opinions concerning
genii feem to be a corrupted mixture of the doftrines of
the Jews and ancient Perfians. In Chriftian countries,
too, notwithftanding the additional light which their re-
Ijgion has fpread, and the great improvement in the
fcienCxes to which it has been fubfervient, the belief of.
ghofts and apparitions is very general, efpecially among
the lower ranks. They believe that evil fpirits fome¬
times mike their appearance in order to terrify wicked
men, efpecially thofe who have committed murder.—
They ftrppofe that the fpirits of dead men affume a cor¬
poreal appearance, hover about church-yards and the
houfes of the deceafed, or haunt the places .where mur¬
ders have been committed. (See Ghost). In feme
places it is believed that beings have been feen bearing
a perfect refemblance to men alive. In the Highlands
of Scotland, what is called the fecond fight is ftill be-.
lieved
S P E [ 576 'j S P E
Spe&r*. lleved by many (fee SECOND Sight); viz. that future
 ' events are foretold by certain individuals by means of
fpeftral reprefentation.
So general has the belief of fpecfres been, that this
circumllance alone may be thought by fome lufhcient to
prove that it muft have its foundation in human nature,
or muft reft upon rational evidence. When any doc¬
trine has been univerfally received by all nations, by
generations living feveral thoufand years from one an¬
other, and by people in all the different ftages of focie-
ty, there is certainly the ftrongeft prefumption to con¬
clude that fuch a doftrine has its foundation in reafon
and in truth. In this way we argue in favour of the
exiftence of a God, concerning moral diftrnffion, and
the doftrine of a future ftate : and certainly fo far we
anme well. But if the fame argument be applied to
idolatry, to facrifices, or to apparitions, we mall find
that it is applied improperly. Idolatry was very general
among ancient nations 5 fo was the offering of facrifices,
fo was polytheifm : but they were by no means univer-
fal. Should we allow, for the fake of fhortening the
argument, that all ancient nations were polytheifts and
idolaters, and prefented oblations to their imaginary
deities, all that could be concluded from this conceflion
is, that they fell into thefe miftakes from their igno¬
rance and from the rude ftate of fociety, from which
their imperfeft knowledge of theology and moral philo-
fophy was never able to refcue them. Thefe erroneous
notions fled before the brightnefs of the Chriftian fyftem >
while the doftrines of the exiftence of God, of moral
diftinftion, and of a future ftate, have been roprz
thoroughly confirmed and afcertained. The fame thing
may be faid of the belief of fpeares. However gene¬
rally it has been adopted in the firft ftag.es of fociety, or
by civilized nations who had made but little progrefs in
the ftudy of divine things, it has been rejefted, we may
fay invariably, wherever theology and philofophy have
gone hand in hand.
As all popular and long eftablifhed opinions are cb-
jefts of curiofity and refearch for the philofopher, we
think the belief of fpe&res worthy of fome attention
even in this light. It will therefore, we hope, give
fome fatisfaftion to the philofophical. reader to fee a
fhort account of the fources or principles from which
the belief is derived. But as the belief of fpetfres is
connected with other opinions which appear to us high¬
ly injurious to religion opinions which have been fup-
ported by many learned men, and which are ftill be¬
lieved by fome men of literary education—-it rvill alfo
be proper, in the firft place, to confider the evidence on
which this belief refts, in which we muft confider both
their probability and credibility.
In the prefent inveftigation we mean to iet afide al¬
together the celeftial appearances recorded in Scriptuie,
as beinPr founded on uncjueftienable evidence, and per-
feftly agreeable to thofe rules by which the Deity a els
in the ufual courfe of his Providence. The Ifraelites,
during the exiftence of their ftate, were immediately
under the authority of God, not only as the moral go¬
vernor of the world, but as the king of Ifrael. In the
infancy of the world, while men were rude and unen¬
lightened, and entirely under the influence of idolatry,
many revelations were necefiary to preferve in their
minds pure ideas of the nature of God, and of the wor-
fhip due to Him. They were neceffary alfo to pave the
way for that illuftrious difpenfation which the Lord Je- Sped
fus came from Heaven to diffufe over the world. Every V'l
celeftial appearance recorded in Scripture Was exhibited
for fome wife and important purpofe, w hich muft be ap¬
parent to every perfon who confiders thefe appearances
with attention. But when the Scriptures were written
and publiftied, and the Chriftian religion fully eliablilh-
ed, revelation ceafed, and miracles a!nd heavenly mef-
fages were no longer requifite. What credit then ought
we to give to thofe marvellous ftories related in ancient
authors concerning prodigies in the heavens, and the ap¬
parition of angels both good and bad.
It is not pretended that any of thefe prodigies and
appearances were exhibited for purpofes equally great
and important with thofe which are deferibed in Scrip¬
ture : And can we fuppofe that the all-wife Governor of
the world would permit his angels to render themfelves
vifible to the eye of man for no purpofe at all, or for a
purpofe which might have been equally well accomplifh-
ed without their interpofition ? Would this be confiftent
with perfect wifdcm, or would it be confiftent even with
the excellence and fuperiority of underftanding which
we are taught to aferibe to thefe elevated beings ? The
whole will ef God is revealed to us in the Scriptures j
what further ufc for the vifible interpofition of angels ?
It may be objected, Are they not all miniftering fpirits,
fent forth to minifter for them who ftiall be heirs of
falvation * ? We anfwer, That angels may animate and *Hcb..|‘
fuoport good men by an invifible interpofition. ButM*
the Apoftle is not fpeaking of celeftial fpirits. . The
word ayyiMs fignifies “ a meffengerand in Scripture
often refers to men. In the paflage which we are now
reviewing it certainly is applied with much more pro¬
priety to men than to angels: for the Apoftle is ftating
a comparifon between the Prophets, by whom God, at
fundry times and in divers manners, fpake in time pad
to the fathers, and the Son, by whom he hath fpoken
in thefe laft days.
And if God has given no commiflion to his angels to
deliver to men fince the publication of the Chriftian re¬
ligion, is there any probability that he would give any
commiffion or any licence to evil fpirits ? It wfill be
faid, that this doctrine is clearly taught in the New Tef-
tament, in thefe words, “ The devil goeth about as a
roaring lion feeking whom he may devour.'” We will
not avail ourfelves of the interpretation of fome, who ji|
fay that the word devil, which in the Greek language
fignifies an advsrfnry, or Jlnndercr, refers here to fome
human being, who was a violent enemy of the Chri-
ftians. All that can be deduced from thefe words, upon
the fuppofition that they refer to a malignant fpirit, is
merely that, he goeth about feducing men to vice. But
it is not by afluming a hideous form, and prefenting
himfelf to the midnight traveller, that fueh a purpofe is
to be accomplifhed. A fpirit may probably have direct
accefs to our minds without, the intervention of any
thing corporeal ; and by exciting our paflions may
plunge us into vice, which is the only objeft fuch a be¬
ing is fuppofed to have in view. None of the marvel¬
lous ftories which we have heard concerning the appari¬
tion of evil fpirits lead us to conclude that they appear
to entice men to commit crimes. We never heard ot
any evil fpirits that required men to fteal, to perpetrate
robbery or murder. They only appeared to terrify iome
crazy timorous individuals, who have whims and fancies
J enow
S P E [ 577 ] S P E
Sjeelrc. enow of tlieir own to agitate their minds, though no pre- he was continually haunted by the apparition in the Spectre.
'■""'v ternatural vifion (liould ever appear to them. It is not moil hideous iliapes, which even threatened to tear him'
confident, therefore, with the character of God, and in pieces, till at lalt he delivered the meffage. Now,
what he has revealed to us of his will, to believe that had this fpe&re had the lead common fenfe, it -would
he would commiflion good angels, or permit evil angels, have appeared firft to Elenor Welfh and her hulband
to appear to men fince the propagation of the gofpel, Davis, and frightened them into compliance at once,
or indeed at any former period of the world, unlefs and not have kept poor Taverner in fuch conftant dif-
fome great and mighty purpofe was to be fulfilled. It quietude, who had no concern in the matter,
is not confident with what we know of the nature of Another very odd circumdanoe refpe6ling apparitions
good or bad angels to fuppofe, that though permidion in general mud not be omitted, which is, that they have
were granted them occafionally to diow themfelves to no power to fpeak till they are addreffed. In the 271k
men, that they wmuld appear in that way which dory- of Glanville’s Relations we read of an old woman that
tellers defcribe. appeared often to David Hunter, a neat-herd, at the
It is equally improbable that the fpirits of the dead houfe of the bifhop of Down and Conners. When-
who have removed from this world fhould again be per- ever die appeared, he found himfelf obliged to follow
mitted to vifit it. At death men undergo as great, her 5 and for three quarters of a year poor David fpent
perhaps a greater change, than when they came fird in- the whole of almod every night in fcampering up and
to the light of the fun. Is it not therefore as impro- down through the woods after this old woman. How
bable that a man fhould return in a vifible corporeal long this extraordinary employment might have conti-
form after death, as that, after having arrived at man- nued, it is impodible to guefs, had not David’s violent
hood, he diould return to the date in which he was be- fatigue made him one night exclaim, “ Lord blefs me !
fore his birth ? Such changes as thefe are evidently wmuld I were dead !—(hall I never be delivered from
made permanent by the invariable laws of nature. But this mifery !” On which the phantom replied, “ Lord
fuppofe it were podible, for what purpofe diould they blefs me too 1 It was happy you fpoke fird, for till then
return ? To defcribe to us what is pading in the other I had no power to fpeak, though I have followed you
world, to animate us to virtue, by informing us of the fo long.” Then die gave him a melfage to her two
rewards which there await the good ; or to alarm us, fons, though David told her he remembered nothing
by deferibing the punilhment of the wicked. Thefe about her. David, it feems, neglected to deliver the
feetn important reafons. But Divine Providence has meflage j at which the old beldam was fo much provoked,
wifely thrown a veil over futurity. We know every that die returned and hit him a hearty blow on the.
thing of the other world from the fcripture which it dioulder, which made him cry out, and then fpeak to
is proper for us at prefent to know. And as to incen- her. Now if die could not fpeak till David addrefied
tives to virtue, we are already blelfed ivith a number her, why might die not have applied this oratorial me-
fufiiciently great and powerful for moral beings, who dicine the fird time die appeared to him ? It would
are to adl from rational motives, and not from com- have faved both Jierfelf and him many a weary journey ;
pulfion. “ He that will not hear Mofes and the pro- and certainly David ivould much rather have had even
phets, will not be perfuaded though one rofe from the half a dozen of blows from her choppy fids than have
dead.” wanted fo many nights deep. To complete the dorv,
There is one drong obje&ion againd the probability we mud add, that when David’s wife found it irnpodl-
of fpeftres, which is fufficient to prove that they are ble to keep him from following the troublefome vifi-
not intelligent creatures ; or at lead that they podefs tor, die trudged after him, but never was gratified with
fo fhall a degree of intelligence, that they are unquali- a fight of the enchantrefs. David’s little dog too was
fied to a<d with prudence, to propofe any end to them- a dutiful attendant on his mader during his pilgri-
felves, or ufe the proper means to accomplidi that end. mage.
Ghods often appear in order to difcover fome crime It is remarked by Glanville, that ghods are generally
that has been committed : but they never appear to a very eager to be gone. Indeed they are often fo much
magidrate, or perfon in authority, but to fome illiterate fo, that they do not day to tell their errand. One
clown, who happens to live near the place where the would be induced from this, as well as the circumdan-
crime was perpetrated 5 to fome perfon who has no con- ces already mentioned, to think that they are the du-
neftion with the affair at all, and who in general is the pided and dulled of the dead that affume the appear-
mod improper in the world for making the difcovery. ance of ghods ; unlefs we adopt the ingenious folution
For infiance, in Glanville’s Saclucifmus triumphatus (a of Glanville, “ that it is a very hard and painful thin»
book written in the lad century by a chaplain of Charles for them to force their thin and tenuious bodies into a
II. in fupport of the common opinions refpefting witch- vifible confidence ; that their bodies mud needs be ex¬
craft and apparitions), we have the following dory ; ceedingly compreffed ; and that therefore they mud be
James Haddock, a farmer, was married to Elenor in hade to be delivered from the unnatural preffure.”
Welfli, by whom he had a fon. After the death of With refpeft to the evidence in favour of fpeftres, if
Haddock, his wife married one Davis ; and both agreed examined ever fo dightly, it will be found very de-
to defraud the fon by the former marriage of a leafe be- fedtive. They only appear to one perfon at a time ;
queathed to him by his father. Upon this the gbod of they are feen only in the night ; they are vifible only
Haddock appeared to one Francis Taverner the fervant to ignorant, illiterate, and credulous perfons, and never
of Lord Cliicheder, and defired him to go to Elenor prefent themfelves before men of education and learning.
Wellh, and to inform her that it was the will of her That fpeflres only appear to one perfon at a time,
tonner hufband that their fon fhould enjoy the leafe. even though there are more in company, is an objedtiou
Taverner did not at firft execute this commiflion 3 but againft the credibility of their appearance quite infur-
\ ol. XIX. Part II. 4 D mountable.
S P E
Spertre. mountable. How is it poffible that two men of eye-
~ ' light equally good, directing their eyes to the fame fpot,
fiiould not fee fo large an objeft as that of a man or
woman at a fmall diftance equally well ? Some will tell
us that a mitt is caft over the eyes of the one, while the
view of the other is free from obftru£Hon. But how is
this to be proved ? and bcfides, what purpofe would it
ferve ? Ghofts have feldom any fecrets to difclofe ; they
might be proclaimed to a multitude with'as much pro¬
priety as confined to one perfon. Shall we be told, that
the fpeftre has the power of becoming vifible to fome,
and of remaining invifible to others ? This cannot be
allowed without adopting opinions deftru&ive to reveal¬
ed religion ; for it would be a miracle : and we cannot
be perfuaded, without evidence, that God would em¬
power any inferior being to controul at pleafure the wife
laws which he has ordained for governing the world.
To him who is of a different opinion, we would recom¬
mend Farmer on Miracles 3 a book in which this quef-
tion is fully examined.
Speftres appear only in the night. But why fliould
they flmn the light of the fun ? Thofe mifehievous
ghofts that Glanville mentions might indeed have fome
reafon to choofe midnight for the execution of their
pranks, as they would be more eafily detefted in open
day. Such was the roguith drummer that haunted Mr
Mompeffon’s houfe, who beat his drum all night, threw
the old gentlewoman’s clothes about the room, hid her
Bible in the alhes, plucked the clothes off the bed, and
amufed himfelf with tofling about Mr Mompeffon’s
ftioes. But why ihould a grave ferious ghoft appear at
midnight ? Might it not deliver its meffage with as
much eafe and more fuccefs in the day-time ? In the
day-time it would not excite much fear j it would be
liftened to therefore with more attention *, and did it
choofe to exhibit itfelf before a number of witneffes, its
grievances would be more fpeedily redreffed, becaufe
more perfons would intereft themfelves in feeing juftice
done to the injured ghoft.
Speftres not only choofe the moft improper time, but
the moft improper perfons. To render the teftimony of
any perfon credible, he muft not only be a man of vera¬
city, but he muft have fufficient ability to judge of the
fubjeft to which he is to bear witnefs. It is not on the
evidence of an ignorant illiterate perfon, who has more
S P E
fancy and fear than judgment, that we are to reft our Spefti*.
belief of what is fupernatural. It is alfo worthy of re-
mark, that we have never heard of a ghoft appearing to
any perfon who did not previoufly believe their exiit-
ence. A man muft be prejudiced in favour of this opi¬
nion, or he will never fee a ghoft. But fenfible men
know, that he who has been accuftomed to hear fright¬
ful ftories of ghofts and apparitions gliding through a
churchyard, or haunting fome particular place, can
fcarcely pafs through a churchyard, or haunted fpot
without conjuring up in his imagination the hideous
phantoms which he has been accuftomed to affociate
with fuch places. Is it ftrange, then, that an ignorant
man, with a mind uncultivated and uninformed, with
all the prejudices of the nurfery about him, Ihould ima¬
gine he fees ghofts in thofe places where he believes
they hover, efpecially in the dead hour of midnight,
when, with the flighteft aid of the imagination, a cow
may be turned into a monftrous phantom, and the re-
fleftion of the beams of the moon from a little wrater be
converted into a ghoft with a winding-flieet ? But why
Ihould apparitions ftiun men of underftanding and learn¬
ing ? Why ftiould learning be formidable to them (a) ?
It was not fo with theceleftial meffengers mentioned in
the Scriptures : they appeared to the patriarchs and pro¬
phets j and the miracles there recorded were performed
in the moft public places, before the eyes of Rabbles,
of Scribes, and Pharifees. Indeed this circumftanee is
fufficient to deftroy the evidence of fpeclres. They
have never been feen by any but men of weak or dii-
tempered minds, or by men who have previoufly be¬
lieved in them.
Having now confidered the evidence on which, the
belief of fpeftres refts, we will endeavour to give fome
account of the foundation of it. To trace an opinion
that has prevailed fo generally in the world to its
fource, is a labour not unworthy of the philofopher,
even though the opinion be falfe. It is always gratify¬
ing to deteil the caufes of error : it is no lefs ufeful j for
in order to refute error, it is often fufficienc to point out
the fources from which it has fprung. To reach the
origin of the belief of fpe&res is not more difficult than
to account for idolatry or polytheifm. In the infant
ftate of the intellectual powers every thing is confidered
as poffefling life and intelligence. The child beats the
ftool
[ 578 ]
(a) The celebrated hiftorian De Thou had a very fingular adventure at Saumur, in the year 1598. One
night, having retired to reft very much fatigued, while he was enjoying a found fleep, he felt a very extraordi¬
nary weight upon his feet, which having made him turn fuddenly, fell down and awakened him. At firft he
imagined that it had been only a dream, but hearing foon after fome noife in his chamber, he drew afide the cur¬
tains, and faw, by help of the moon, which at that time {hone very bright, a large white figure walking up and
down, and at the fame time obferved upon a chair fome rags, which he thought belonged to thieves who had
come to rob him, The figure then approaching his bed, he had the courage to aik it what it was. “ I am
(faid it) the Queen of Heaven.” Had fuch a figure appeared to any credulous ignorant man in the dead of
night, and made fuch a fpeech, would he not have trembled with fear, and have frightened the whole neigh¬
bourhood with a marvellous <j£fcription of it ? But He Thou had too much underftanding to be fo impoled up¬
on. Upon hearing the words which dropped from the figure, he immediately concluded that it was fome mad
woman, got up, called his fervants, and ordered them to turn her out of doors after which he returned to bed
and fell afleep. Next morning he found that he had not been deceived in his conje&ure, and that having forgot
to (hut his door, this female figure had efcaped from her keepers, and entered his apartment. I he brave Scbom-
berg, to whom De Thou related his adventure fome days after, confeffed that in fuch a cafe he would not have
ftiown fo much courage. The king alfo, who was informed of it by Schomberg, made the fame acknowledge¬
ment.
S P E
ityeSre, ftool over which he has fallen with the fame paflion that
he would treat his companion : The young girl talks to
her doll as if it underftood her : The favages aferibe
every change which they obferve bn the face of nature
to the action of fame animated being. As knowledge
advances, they fingle out tbofe beings which feem to
produce the moft linking effefts, arrange them into
fome kind of order, and divide the government of the
world among them. Unable, at the fame time, to con¬
ceive any notion of a pure fpirit, they imagine thofe di¬
vinities are corporeal beings. This is the foundation of
idolatry. The belief of fpefires is but another flop.
That thefe animated corporeal beings, to whom they
addrefs their prayers, and who prefide over the World,
Ihould on particular occafions difplay themfelves to the
human eye, is what they mult be previoufly difpofcd to
expeft. Hence the numberlefs appearances of the hea¬
then gods, of the Perfian and Mahometan genii. The
belief of ghofts may be eafily deduced from the opi¬
nions entertained refpe&ing a future Hate. Thefe opi¬
nions are founded on that eifential dodtrine of natural
religion, that there is another world in which men fliall
exift when death has removed them hence. This doc¬
trine has been univerfally received both by favage and
civilized nations ; but, as might be expedted, men have
formed very different fentiments concerning the nature
-of a future ftate, of the fituation and employments of
departed fpirits, according to the degree of knowledge
which they poifeiTed. But the general opinion in an¬
cient and rude nations was, that departed fpirits retain¬
ed the fame external appearance, the fame pafTions and
principles as before. Nothing therefore was more na¬
tural than the opinion, that they might occalionally re-
vifit this world, from an anxious d^fire to alleviate the
iofferings of thofe beloved friends and relations whom
they had left behind them, or to communicate from the
U'nfeen world what might be important to their welfare.
Upon fuch an errand did Creiifa appear to iEneas.
The apparition of the ghofts of murderers is ealily ex¬
plained upon the fame general principles. The remorfe
and horror of mind which the murderer feels are fiippo-
fed to haunt him in the other world, and to render his
Gtuation there intolerable (efpecially if the murder was
bever dete&ed and puniftied), till h<3 return and give in¬
formation againft himfelf. In this way, then, we
think it highly probable the belief of fpe&res has origi¬
nated. But many other eaufes concur to confirm and
propagate this belief. Thefe are, imperfedl vifion uni¬
ted with fear, dreams, opium, difeafes, drunkennefs, and
»pium.
x. Indiftinft viiion is one fource of apparitions, efpe-
cially when the mind is under the influence of fear. It
is well known, that the fenfe of feeing conveys no idea
of diftance till improved by experience and obfervation;
ftnd how we come at length to diftinguifh objects at a
diftance from thofe that are near, has been explained in
another place (fee METAPHYSICS, N° 50.).
In the daytime we feldom commit miftakes, becaufe
We know the objeft at which we look j but at night,
[ 579 1
S P E
when we fee objt&s obfeurely, and know not what they Spectre,
are, we have no diftindf idea either of their diftances or v """
of their magnitude. We may miltake a buib that is
near us for a tree at a diftance ; or if the imagination bo
under the influence! of fear, it will eafily convert it into
a gigantic figure. “ It is generally aflerted (fays Buf*
fon) that thefe figures exift only in the imagination ; yet
they may have a real exiftence in the eye ; for whenever
we have no other mode of judging of an unknown ob¬
ject but by the angle it forms in the eye, its magnitude
will uniformly increafe in proportion to its propinquity.
It it appears, when at the diftance of 20 or 30 paces,
to be only a few feet high, its height, when within two
or three feet of the eye, will be many fathoms. An ob¬
ject of this kind mult naturally excite terror and afto-
mftunent in the fpedlator, till he approaches and rccog-
nifes it by adual feeling; for the moment a man knows
an object, the gigantic appearance it aflumed in the eye
inftantly diminifhes, and its apparent magnitude is redu¬
ced to its real dimenfions. But if, inftead of approach¬
ing fuch an object, the fpciflator flies from it, he can
have no other idea of it but from the image which it
formed in his eye; and, in this cafe, he may affirm with
truth that he law an objeft terrible in its afpeft, and
enormous in its flze. Thus the notions concerning fpec-
tres is founded in nature, and depend not, as fome phi-
lofophers affirm, upon the imagination alone.”
In addition to thefe obfervations of Buffon, we may
take notice, that objects are always magnified in a fog;
lo that when a tog happens in the night-time, objects
may be magnified to an enormous fize. But, at any
rate, whether there be fog in the night or not, there is
fuch a great analogy between darknefs and a fog, that
if the latter deceive us with refpedt to the fize of objects,
the former will alfo deceive us. The writer of this ar¬
ticle was palling the Irith of Forth at Queensferry, near
Edinburgh, one morning which was extremely foggy.
1 hough the water be only two miles broad, the boat
did not get within fight of the fouthern ffiore till it ap¬
proached very near it. He then law to his great fur-
prife a large perpendicular rock, where he knew the
Ihofe Was low and almoft flat. As the boat advanced a
little nearer, the rock feemed to fplit perpendicularly
into portions, which feparated at a little diftance from
one another. He next faw thefe perpendicular divifions
move ; and upon approaching a little nearer, found it
was a number of people Handing on the beach, waiting
the arrival of the ferry-boat.
2. Dreams are another fertile fource of apparitions.
It is well known to every perfon, that while the mind
is under the influence of a dream it confiders it as
much a reality as it does any particular a&ion while
aiVake. Now if a perlon of a weak fuperftitious mind
fhould have a very lively dream, which interefts his paf-
fions, particularly the paffion of fear, it may make fo
deep an impreffion, that he may be firmly convinced that
he has actually feen with his eyes what has only paffed
before his imagination (fee Apparition) (b). We
fliall here tell a ftory, by way of illuftration, which we,
4 H 2 have
(b) When the thoughts are much troubled, and when a perfon fleeps without the circumftances of going to bed,
t>r putting off his clothes, as wheU he nods in his chair, it is very difficult, as Hobbes remarks, to diftinguiffi a
dream from a reality. On the contrary, he that compofes himfelf to fleep, in cafe of any uncouth or abfurd fanev (
‘■'eafily fufpefts it to have been a dream.—*Leviat/iari, par. i. c. i.
S P E
Speclre. have received on unqueftionable authority. An Eaft
 v—- India captain had an honeft faithful fervant named
John, for whom he had a great regard. John died, if
we recollcft right, on a voyage from England to the
Eaft Indies during a French war. As the (hip ap¬
proached the place of its deftination the captain had a
dream, in which John appeared to him, and earneftly
befought him not to fail to the port for which he was
bound, as it was in the hands of the French, ihe cap¬
tain, though not addi&ed to fuperftition, thought it
prudent to follow this admonition j and after landing at
a different port, he rvas informed that the place to which
he had intended to fleer was, according to the informa¬
tion of the dream, captured by the French. On the
voyage home, the captain had a fecond dream, in which
John again appeared to him, and gave him notice that
he fhould foon die, and that the (hip fliould be taken in
the mouth of the Channel by the French. Next morn¬
ing the captain called his firft mate, told him his dream,
which he believed was prophetic, and delivered his pa¬
pers, that he might take proper care of them after his
deceafe. Every thing happened exactly as the dream
had foretold •, the captain died, and the veffel was taken
by a French man of war in the mouth of the Channel.
This dream, wonderful as it appears, is eafily explained.
In the voyage out to India, nothing was more natural
than that the captain fhould fometimes be thinking, that
amidft the various chances of war, the port to which he
was bound might be taken 5 perhaps it was a place of
confequence, which the French might be eager to pof-
fefs. The captain being accuflomed to revolve thefe
thoughts in the day-time, they would naturally return
at night •, the regret which he felt for the lofs of a faith¬
ful fervant might mingle with his apprehenfions, and
thus produce the dream. Perhaps the advice was fuch
as John would have given had he been alive.. It is
equally eafy to explain the caufe of the dream in the
paffage home. I he captain, wre are told, was very ill,
and thought himfelf dying, at the very time he had the
fecond dream, and therefore did not expedf to reach
England. This part of the dream, then, was only his
own thoughts, delivered by his fervant. As to the
other part, that his fhip fhould be taken in the mouth of
the Channel, it may be thought unaccountable how the
very place fhould be forefeen. But we muff recoiled,
that the mouth of the Channel, being over againft the
coaft of France, was by far the moil dangerous place in
the whole paffage •, and that, therefore, the captain had
more reafon to be afraid of lofing his fhip there than in
any other place. The ufe which we mean to make of
this ftory is this : Had the captain been a man of a weak
mind, he would certainly have confidered the dream as
a reality, and believed that, inftead of having dreamed
'of the things on which his imagination had dwelt, he
had a&ually feen his fervant return from the dead, and
heard him deliver the meffage. But, on the other hand,
the captain, though he believed the dream was prophe¬
tic, mentioned it without any %ns of fear 5 and no man
bf courage and reflexion ever fees an apparition. This
•fight is referved for the weak, the timid, and the fuper-
Uitious. Of this many inltances might be mentioned.
q. Spcftres are alfo fometimes occafioned by opium.
Gaffendi the philofopher found a number of people go¬
ing to put a man to death for having intercourfe with
the devil; a crime which the poor wretch readily ac-
S P E
knowledged. Gaffendi begged of the people that they Spectre 1
would permit him firft to examine the wizard before put-
ting him to death. They did fo 5 and Gaffendi, upon
examination, found that the man firmly believed himfelf
guilty of this impoftible crime. He even offered to Gaf¬
fendi to introduce him to the devil. The philofopher
agreed ; and when midnight came, the man gave him a
pill, which he faid it was neceffary to fwallow before
letting off. Gaffendi took the pill, but gave it to his
dog. ^ The man having fwallowed his, fell into a pro¬
found deep •, during which he feemed much agitated by
dreams. The dog was affe&ed in a fimilar manner.
When the man awoke, he congratulated Gaffendi on
the favourable reception he had met with from his fable
highnefs. It was with difficulty Gaffendi convinced
him that the whole was a dream, the effeft of foporific
medicines, and that he had never ftirred from one fpot
during the whole night.
4. That difeafes, efpecially the night-mare, the hy¬
pochondria, hyfieric paffion, and madnefs, are another
fource of fpeftres, we have the ftrongeft reafon to affirm.
Perfons fubjeft to the night-mare often imagipe that
they fee fpe£tres. This is ftill more the cafe with hy¬
pochondriac and hyfteric perfons, and thofe who are in
any degree deranged in their intellects. A fad which
fell within, the obfervation of the writer of this article
will both prove and illuftrate this affertion. In a vil¬
lage in one of the midland counties of Scotland, lived a
widow diftir.guilhed among her neighbours for decency
of manners, integrity, and refpeCl for religion. She af¬
firmed, that for feveral nights together ffie had heard a
fupernatural voice exclaiming aloud, Aiurder ! murder!
This was immediately reported through the neighbour¬
hood ; all were alarmed, and looked around them with
folicitude for the deteClion of the murder which they
fuppofed to have been committed 5 and it was not long
till a difeovery feemed adually to be made. It was re¬
ported, that a gentleman, who had relations at no great
diftance, and had been refiding in the eft Inuies, had
lately arrived with a cpnfiderable fortune ; that he had
lodged in an inn about three miles off j and that he had
afterwards been feen entering a houfe in the village
where the widow lived, from which he had never re¬
turned. It was next affirmed, that a tradefman palling
the churchyard about twelve at midnight had feen four
men carry a dead corpfe into that cemetery. T hefe three
faffs being joined together feemed perfeftly to agree and
to confirm one another, and all believed fome horrible
murder had been committed. The relations of the gen¬
tleman thought they were called upon to make inquiry
into the truth of thefe allegations : phey accordingly
came firft to the churchyard, where, in company with
the fexton, they examined all the graves with great
care, in order to difeover whether any of them had
been lately dug, or had the appearance of containing
more than one coffin. But this fearch was to no pur-
pofe, for no alteration had been made upon the graves.
It was next reported that the murdered man had been
buried in a plantation about a mile diftant from the vil¬
lage. As the alarm was now very general, a number of
the inhabitants propofed of their own accord to explore
it. They accordingly fpread themfelves over the wood,
and fearched it with care, but no grave nor new dug
earth was found. The writer of this article, who was
then a bov at Ichool, was along with them. The mat-
[ S8o ]
S P E [ 581 ] S P E
Are. ter did not reft here : The perfon who was faid to have
t -y-*—tfeen four in in carry a dead corpfe into the churchyard
at midnight was fummoned to appear before a meeting
of the jultices of the peace. Upon examination he de¬
nied any knowledge of the affair, but referred the court
to another perfon from whom he had received his infor¬
mation. This perfon was examined, and the refult was
the fame as the former. In fliort, one perfon had heard
it from another, who had received it from a third, who
had heard it from a fourth j but it had received a little
embelliihment from every perfon Avho repeated it. It
turned out to be the fame with Smullet’s flory of the
three black crows, which feme body was fald to have
vomited.
Upon inquiry at the inn where the Weft Indian gen¬
tleman had lodged, no fuch gentleman had been feen
there. It was found afterwards he had never left the
Well Indies. Still, however, the veracity of the widow
was not difputed ; and feme dark and fecret tranfadlion
was fufpefted. But the whole affair was at length ex¬
plained by difeovering that fhe was fomewhat deranged
by melancholy. And the cries which flic had at firll
imagined fhe had heard Avere afterwards imitated by
feme roguifli perfon, who was highly amufed Avith
fpreading terror among the credulous.
5. Drunkennefs alfo has the poAver of creating fpedlres.
Its natural effeft in moft cafes is to derange the under-
ftanding, to throw it off its guard, and to give full fcope
to that paflion Avhich has a natural difpofition to gain
an afcendancy ; and fometimes it excites paffions which
fcarcely feem to exifl at any other time. It makes
fome men licentious, fome furious, feme all benevolence
and kindnefs, fome from being coAA'ards it renders un¬
daunted heroes. It feldom, if ever, excites fear ; and
therefore it may be thought ftrange that men fliould
imagine they fee ghofts when intoxicated. But it muff
be remarked, that the ghofls Avhich the drunkard fees,
he fees not Avith the fame alarm and terror as men who
are fober. He is not afraid of them. He has the cou¬
rage to converfe Avitli them, and even to fight Avith
them, if they give him provocation. A man returning
home intoxicated, affirmed that he had met with the
devil-, and that after a fevere encounter he had A'an-
quifhed him and brought him to the ground, to Avhich
he had nailed him faff by driving his ftaff through his
body. Next morning the ftaff was found flunk Avith
great violence into a heap of turfs!
6. Many apparations of fpedlres have no other origin
than the artifices of the Avaggifh or felf-interefled. Dr
Plot, in his Natural Hiflory of Oxfordfhire, relates a
marvellous flory, which Aviil illuflrate this afiertion.
Soon after the murder of King- Charles I. a commiflion
W'as appointed to furvey the king’s houfe at Wood-
ffock, Avith the manor, park, woods, and other de-
mqfnes to that manor belonging ^ and one Collins, under
!a feigned name, hired himfelf as fecretary to the com-
miffioners, Avho, upon the 13th of Odlober 1649,
and took up their refidence in the king’s own rooms.
His majefly’s bed-chamber they made their kitchen, the
council hall their pantry, and the prefence-chamber was
the place Avhere they fat for the difpatch of bufinefs.
His majefly’s dining-room they made their Avood yard,
•and flored it with the wood of the famous royal-oak
from the High Park, Avhich, that nothing might be
Avith the name of king about it, they had dug up
r' I
by the roots, and fplit and bundled up into faggots for Spe&re.
their firing. Things being thus prepared, they fat on w
the x6th of the fame month for the difpatch of bufinefs j
and in the midfl of their firll debate there entered a
large black dog (as they thought,) which made a dread¬
ful howling, overturned two or three of their chairs,
and then crept under a bed and vanifhed. Thus gavTe
them the greater furprife, as the doors were kept con-
flantly locked, fo that no real dog could get in or out.
The next day their furprife Avas increafed, Avhen fitting
at dinner in a lower room, they heard plainly the noife
of perfons Avalking over their heads, though they Avell
knew the doors Avere all locked, and there could be no
body there. Prefently after they heard alfo all the Avood
of the king’s oak brought by parcels from the dining¬
room, and thrown Avith great violence into the prefence
chamber; as alfo all the chairs, flools, tables, and other
furniture, forcibly hurried about the room ; their papers,
containing the minutes of their tranfaclions Avere
torn, and the ink-glafs broken. When all this noife
had ceafed, Giles Sharp, their fecretary, propofed to
enter firft into thefe rooms ; and in prefence of the com-
miffioners, from whom he received the key, he opened
the doors, and found the wood fpread about the room,
the chairs tofled about and broken, the papers torn, the
ink-glafs broken (as has been faid), but not the leaf!
track of any human creature, nor the lead reafon to
fufpedl one, as the doors Avere. all fall, and the keys in
the eullody of the commiflioners. It Avas therefore un-
aniruoufty agreed, that the power Avhp did this mifehief
mull have entered the room at the key-hole. The
night following, Sharp the fecretary, Avith tAvo of the
commiftioners fervants, as they Avere in bed in the fame
room, Avhich room Avas contiguous to that Avhere the
commiffioners lay, had their bed’s feet lifted up fo much
higher than their heads, that they expeflcd to have
their necks broken, and then they Avere let fall at once
•with fo much violence as fhook the Avhole houfe, and
more than eA-er terrified the commiffioners. On the
night of the 19th, as all were in bed in the fame room
for greater fafety, and lights burning by them, the can¬
dles in an inftant A\rent out with a fulphureous fmell,
and that moment many trenchers of wood were hurled
about the room, Avhich next morning were found to be the
fame their honours had eaten on the day before, which
were all removed from the pantry, though not a lock
was found opened in the Avhole houfe. The next night
they fared Hill Avorfe 5 the candles Avent out as before,
the curtains of their honours beds Avere rattled to and
fro Avith great violence; their honours received many
cruel blows and bruifes, by eight great pewter-difhes
and a nurpber of Avooden trenchers being thrown on
their beds, Avhich being heaved off, were heard rolling
about the room, though in the morning none of thefe
Avere to be feen. This night likeAvife they were alarm¬
ed with the tumbling doAvn of oaken billets about their
beds, and other frightful noifes 5 but all Avas clear in the
morning, as if no fuch thing happened. The next
night the keeper of the king’s houfe and his dog lay in
the commiflioners room, and then they had no diffur-
bance. But on the night of the 22d, though the dog
lay in the room as before, yet the candles went out, a
number of brick-bats fell from the chimney into the
room, the dog howled piteoufly, their bed clothes were
all ftripped off, and their terror increafed. On the
24th
13 P E t 582 3 S P E
•'Spa&re. 74th they thought all the wood of the king’s oak was
A’r f *'» violently thrown down by their bed tides j tliey counted
64 billets that fell, and lome hit and (hook the beds in
■which they lay ; but in the morning none were found
■there, nor had the door been opened where the billet
wood was kept. The next night the candles were put
out, the curtains rattled, and a dreadful crack like thun-
-der was heard } and one of the fervants running in hafte,
thinking his mafter was killed, found three dozen of
trenchers laid fmoothly under the quilt by him. But all
"this was nothing to what fucceeded afterwards: The
•2pth, about midnight, the candles went out, fcmething
walked majeftically through the room, and opened and
fhut the windows •, great ilones were thrown violently
into the room, fome of which fell on the beds, others
■on the door ; and at about a quarter after one a noife
was heard as of forty cannon difeharged together,
and again repeated at about eight minutes ditlance.
This alarmed and raifed all the neighbourhood, who
coming into their honours room, gathered up the great
ftones, fourfeore in number, and laid them by in the
corner of a field, where, in Dr Plot’s time, who reports
this ftory, they were to be feen. This noife, like the
'difeharge of cannon, was heard through all the country
for 16 miles round. During thefe noifes, which were
heard in both rooms together, the conrmifiioners and
itheir fervants gave one another over for loft, and cried
out for help ; and Giles Sharp, fnatching up a fiword,
had well nigh killed one of their honours, miftaking
'him for the fpirit, as be came in his ftiirt from his own
room to theirs. While they were together, the noife
was continued, and part of the tiling of the houfe was
ftript off, and all the windows of an upper room were
taken away with it. On the 30th at midnight fome-
thing walked into the chamber treading like a bear 4 it
walked many times about, then threw the. warming-pan
violently on the Hoot; at the fame time a large quantity
rof broken glafs, accompanied with great ftones and
horfes bones, came pouring into the room with uncom¬
mon -force. Thefe were all found in the morning to the
aftonifhment and terror of the commiflioners, who were
yet determined to go on with their bufinefs. But on
the firft of November the moft dreadful feene of all en-
fued : Candles in every part of the room were lighted
up, and a great fire made *, at midnight, the candles
all yet burning, a uoife like the burfting of a cannon
was heard in the room, and the burning billets were
toffed about by it even into their honours beds ; who
called Giles and his companions to their relief, other-
wife the houfe had been burnt to the ground $ about
an hour after the candles went out as ufual, the crack
tm if many cannon was heard, and many pailfuls of
green (linking water Were thrown Upon their honours
beds } great ftones were alfo thrown in as before, the
bed curtains and bedfteads torn and broken, the win¬
dows {battered, and the whole neighbourhood alarmed
with the moft dreadful noifes j nay, the very rabbit-
ftealers that were abroad that night in the warren were
fo terrified, that they fled for fear and left their ferrets
behind them. One of their honours this night fpoke,
and, in the name of God, afked what it was, and why it
dijhtrbed them fo ? No anfwer was. given to this \ but
the noife ceafed for a while, when the fpirit came again ;
and, as they all agreed, brought with it feven devils worfe
iJian itfelf Qne of the fervants now lighted a large
candle, and fet it in the door-way between the two Spw
chambers, to fee what pafl'ed ; and as he watched it,‘'■"w, j
he plainly law a hoof ftriking the candle and eandle-
ftick into the middle of the room, and afterwards ma¬
king three ferapes over the fluff, feraped it out. Up¬
on this the fame perfon was fo bold as to draw a fword $
but he had learce got -it out when he felt another in-
vifible hand holding it too, and pulling it from him 4
and at length prevailing, (truck him lo violently on
theliead with the pummel, that he fell dovv-n for dead with
the blow. At this inftant was heard another burft like
the difeharge of the broadfide of a (hip of war, and at
about a minute or two’s diltance each no lefs than 19
more fueh : thefe (hook the houfe fo violently, that they
expeded every moment it would fall Upon their heads.
The neighbours, on this, as has been faid, being all
alarmed, flocked to the houfe in great numbers, and all
joined in prayer and pfalm finging 5 during which the
noife ftill continued m the other rooms, and the dif¬
eharge of cannons w-as heard as from without, though -
no vifible agent was feen to difebarge them. But
what was the moft alarming of all, and put an end to
their proceedings effedually, happened the next day as
they were all at dinner, when a paper, in which they
had figned a mutual agreement to referve a part of the
premites out of the general furvey, and afterw ards to (hare
it equally amongft themfelves, (which paper they had hid
for the prefent under the earth in a pot in one corner
of the room, and m which an orange-tree grew), was
confirmed in a wonderful manner, by the earth’s taking
fire with which the pot was filled, and burning violent¬
ly with a blue fume, and an intolerable flench •, lo that
■they were all driven out of the houfe, to which they
could never again be prevailed upon to return.
This wonderful contrivance was all the invention of
the memorable Jofcph Collins of Oxford, otherwile
called Funny Joe, who having hired himfelf as fecreta-
ry, under the name of Giles Sharp, by knowing the pri¬
vate traps belonging to the houfe, and the help of
pulvisfulminans and other chemical preparations, and
letting his fellow-fervants into the feheme, carried on
the deceit without difeovery to the very laft ; infomuch
that the Dr Plot, in his Natural Hiftory, relates the
whole for fad, and concludes in this grave manner,
“ That though tricks have been often played in affairs of
this kind, many of the things above related are not re-
concileable with juggling •, fueh as the loud noifes, be¬
yond the power of man to make without fuch inftru-
ments as were not there 4 the tearing and breaking the
bed^s 4 the throwing about the fire 4 the hoof treading
out the candle ; and the driving for the fword, and the
blow the man received from the pummel of it.”
SPECTRE of the Broken, a fingular phenomenon ob-
ferved on the top of the Broken, one of the Hartz
mountains in Hanover, of which M. Haue has given
the following account. “ After having been here (fays
he) fin- the thirtieth time, and having procured informa¬
tion refpe(fling the above-mentioned atmofpheric pheno¬
menon, I was at length, on the 23d of May 1797*
fortunate as to have the pleafure of feeing it; and per¬
haps my defeription may afford falisfaftion to others w'ho
vifit the Broken tlmough curiofity. The fun rofe about
four o’clock, and, the atmofphere being quite ferene to¬
wards the eaft, his rays could pafs without any obftruc-
tion over the Heinrichftibhe. In -the fouth-weft, how-
aver,
(fire
1
(alum
S P E [ 5S3 ] S P
ever, towards Achtermannfhohe, a brifk weft wind car- for difclofing it to the public,
E'
ried before it thin tranfparent vapours, which were not
^ yet condenfed into thick heavy clouds.
“ About a quarter paft four I went towards the inn,
and looked round to fee whether the atmofphere would
permit me to have a free profpedt to the fouth-weft ;
when I obferved, at a very great diftance towards Ach-
termannihbhe, a human figure of a monftrous fize. A
violent guft of wind having almoft carried away my
hat, I clapped my hand to it by moving my arm to¬
wards my head, and the coloffal figure did the fame.
“ The pleafure which I felt on this difeovery can
hardly be deferibed •, for I had already walked many a
weary ftep in the hopes of feeing this ftladowy image,
without being able to gratify my curiofity. I imme¬
diately made another movement by bending my body,
and the colofifal figure before me repeated it. I was
dfefiroils of doing the fame thing once more—but my
coloflus had vanilhed. I remained in the fame polition,
waiting to fee whether it -would return *, and in a few
minutes it again made its appearance on the Achter-
mannfhdhe. I paid my refpeifts to it a fecond time,
and it did the fame to me. I then called the landlord
of the Broken ; and having both taken the fame pofi-
tion which I had taken alone, we looked towards the
AehtPrmannfhohe, but faw nothing. We had not,
however, ftood long, when two fuch coloffal figures
Were formed over the above eminence, which repeated
our compliments by bending their bodies as we did ;
after which they vanithed. We retained our pofition j
kept our eyes fixed on the fame fpot, and in a little the
two figures again ftood before us, and were joined by a
third. Every movement that we made by bending our
bodies thefe figures imitated—but with this difference,
that the phenomenon was fometimes weak and faint,
fom'etimes ftrong'and well defined. Having thus had
an opportunity of difcovering the whole fecret of this
phenomenon, I can give the following information to
fuch of my readers as may be defirous of feeing it them-
felves. When the riling fun, and according to analogy
the cafe will be the fame at the fettiftg fun, throws his
rays over the Broken upon the body of a man Handing
oppofitfe to fine light clouds floating around or hover¬
ing paft him, he needs only fix his eyes ftedfaftly upon be made through the fand upwards, to difeharge the
them, and, in all probability, he will fee the fingular air. The moulding fand from Higbgate near London,
fpeclacle of his ow7n lhadow extending to the length of ufed by the founders, is as good as any . for calling
was publilhed in tire Speculum,
Nautical Almanack for 1787, and is as follows : Melt " 1
the copper in a large crucible, employing iome black
flux, compofed of two parts of tartar and one of nitre :
when melted, add to it the brafs and the filver. Let
the pure tin be melted in another crucible, alfo with
fome black flux. Take them both from the fire, and
pour the melted tin into the fufed mafs in the \argeCron/ledt’f
crucible. Stir the whole well with a dry fpatula /voMk*
of bireh, and pour off the fufed metal immediately in-pf’^a,
to a large quantity of cold water. The fudden chill of
the water will caufe the fluid metal to divide into an:
infinite number of fmall particles, which will cool in-
ftantly.
If the copper be completely faturated, the frafture
of one piece of this mixed metal will appear bright,,
and of a gloffy look, reiembling the face of pure quick-
filver. But if it is of a brown reddilh colour, it wants
a little more tin. To afeertain the required proportion,,
melt a fmall quantity, known by weight, of the mixed
metal, with a known very fmall part of tin ; and, if
neceffary, repeat the trial with different dofes, till the
frafture of the new mixture looks as already deferibed.
Having now afeertained the neceffary addition of tin
that is required, proceed to the laft melting of the
whole metal, together with the additional proportional
dofe of tin ; fufe the whole, obferving the fame cau¬
tions as before; and you will find that the mixture will
melt with a much lefs heat than that for the firft fufion.
Have ready as many ounces of white arfenic in coarfe
powder as there are pounds in the weight of the metal;
wrap up the arfenic in a fmall paper, and put it, ,
with a pair of tongs, into the crucible j Hir it well
with the fpatula, retaining the breath to avoid the ar-
fenical fumes or vapours (which however are not found
to be hurtful to the lungs) till they difappear •, take the
crucible off the fire, clear away the drofs from the top
of the metal, pour In about one ounce of powdered ru-
fin, with as much metal, in order to give the metal a
clean furface, and pour out the metal into the moulded,
flafks.
The fpeculunr fliould be moulded with the con¬
cave furface downwards, and many fmall holes fhould
five or fix hundred feet, at the diftance of about two
miles before him.”
SPECULARIS Lapis, compofed of large plates of may happen to
extferne tbinnefs. (See Talc, MineraLog-y- Index), llscope.
The white variety with large and broad leaves, com- But in addition to what has now been faid, we muft
monly called ifinglafs and Mufcovy g/<fs', is imported notice fome other information relative.to the grindino-,
in great quantities ; the miniature-painters cover their poliihing, and other important circumftances connedled
piflures with it •, the lantern-makers fometimes ufe it with the method of preparing the moll perfefl fpeculum
inftead of horn •, and minute objects are ufually pre- f6r telefcopes. The metal being taken out of the fialk
lerved between two plates of it, for examination by the as already noticed, and this fhould be done as foon as it
thefe metallic mirrf>rs. . The call metal fhould be taken
out from the fand of the flaiks whilft it is hot, or ejfe it
crack if left to cool within. See Te*
microfeope.
SPECULATIVE, fomething relating to the the¬
ory of fome art or fcience, in contradiftin£Hon to prac¬
tical.
has become folid, and while it is yet red hot, care muft
be taken to keep the face downwards to prevent it from
finking. Holding it in that pofition by the git, force
out the fand from the hole in the middle of the mirror
SPECULUM for reflefting telefcopes, is made of with a piece of wood or iron, and place the fpeculum in
a kind of white copper confifting of 32 parts fine red an iron pot, with a large quantity bf ;b6t afhes or fmall i
copper, one of brafs, 15 of grain-tin, and three of coals, fo as to bury the fpeculum in them a fuffieienfc-
white arfenic. The procefs given by the late J. Ed- depth. If the fand is not forced out of the hole in the
wards, who was rewarded by the Board of Longitude manner above direfled, the metal, by finking as it cools,
& iviU
S P E. [ 584 } S P E
Speculum, will embrace the fand in the middle of the fpeculum fo
v " ' tight, as to caufe it to crack before it becomes entirely
cold. And if the metal be not taken out of the fand,
and put in a pot with hot alhes or coals to anneal it, the
moiiture from the fand will always break the metal. Let
the fpeculum remain in the allies till the whole is be¬
come quite cold. The git may be eafily taken off by
marking it round with a common fine half round file,
and giving it then a gentle blow. The metal is then to
be rough ground and figured.
But before we proceed to defcribe that procefs,
it may be proper to give an account of another com-
pofition for the fpeculum of a refledting telefcope,
which has been employed with great fuccefs, by Rochon
director of the marine obfervatory at Breft. Of this
compofition the principal ingredient is platina •, which,
in grains, muff be purified in a ftrong fire by means of
nitre and the fait of glafs, or that flux which in the
Englilh glafs-houfes is called by the workmen fandifer.
To the platina, when purified, add the eighth part
of the metal employed in the compofition of common
fpecula ; for tin without red copper would not produce
a good effeft. This mixture is then to be expofed to
the molt violent heat, which muff be Hill excited by
the oxygen gas that difengages itfelf from nitre when
thrown into the fire. One melting would be infuffi-
cient : five or fix are requifite to bring the mixture to
perfection. It is neceffary that the metal fliould be in
a ftate of complete fufion at the moment when it is
poured into the mould. By this procefs I have been
enabled (fays the author) to conflruft a telefcope with
platina, which magnifies the diameters of objefts five
luiridred times, with a degree of clearnefs and difbnCt-
nefs requifite for the niceft obfervations. The large fpe¬
culum of platina weighs fourteen pounds: it is eight
inches in diameter, and its focus is fix feet. I hough
the high price of platina will, in all .probability, for
ever prevent it from coming into general ufe for the
fpeculums of telefcopes, wre thought it proper to notice
this difcovery, and fhall now proceed to the grinding of
the fpeculum.
For accomplilhing this objeCt, a very complicated
procefs is recommended in Smith’s Optics, and one not
much more fimple, by Mr Mudge in the 67th volume
of the Philofophical TrnnfaEhons; but according to
Mr Edwards, whofe fpeculums are confeffedly the beft,
neither of thefe is neceffary. Befides a common grind-
ftone, all the tools that he made ufe of are a rough
grinder, which ferves alfo as a polifher, and a bed of
hones. When the fpeculum was cold, he ground its
furface bright on a common grindftone, previoufly
brought to the form of the gage } and then took it to
the rough grinder.
The tool is compofed of a mixture of lead and tin,
or of pewter, and is made of an elliptical form, of fuch
dimenfions, that the Ihorteft diameter of the eliipfe is
equal to the diameter o^ the mirror or Ipeculum, and
the longeft diameter is to the fliorteft in the proportion
of ten to nine. This rough grinder may be fixed upon
a block of wood, in order to raife it higher from the
bench •, and as the metal is ground upon it with fine
emery, Mr Mudge, with whom, in this particular, Mr
Edwards agrees, directs a hole or pit to be made in
the middle of it as a lodgement for the emery, and deep
grooves to be cut out acrofs its furface with a graver
for the fame purpofe. By means of a handle fixed on Speai
the back of the metal with foft cement, the fpeculum'"-“Vh
can be whirled round upon this grinder fo rapidly, that
a common labourer has been known to give a piece of
metal, four inches in diameter, fo good a face and figure
as to fit it for the hones in the fpaee of two hours. The
emery, however fine, will break up the metal very much j
but that is remedied by the fubfequent proceffes of hon*
ing and polifhing.
When the metal is brought to a true figure, it muff
be taken to a convex tool, formed of feme {tones from
a place called Edgedon in Shropihire, fituated between
Ludlow and Bilhop’s Cattle. The common blue hones,
ufed by many opticians for this purpofe, w ill fcarcely
touch the metal of Mr Edward’s fpeculums 5 but where
they mutt be employed for wrant of the others, as little
water fliould be ufed as poflible when the metal is put
upon them ; becaufe it is found by experience that they
cut better when but barely W'et, than when drenched
with water. The flones, however, from Edgedon are
greatly preferable ; for they cut the metal more eafily,
and having a very fine grain, they bring it to a fmooth
face. Thefe ftones are directed by Mr Mudge to be
cemented in fmall pieces upon a thick round piece of
marble, or of metal made of tin and lead like the former
compofition, in fuch a manner, that the lines between
the flones may run ftraight from one fide to the other ;
fo that placing the teeth of a very fine faw in each of
thefe divifions, they may be cleared from one end to
the other of the cement which rifes between the ftones.
As foon as the hones are cemented down, this tool
muft be fixed in the lathe, and turned as exactly true
to the gage as poflible. It fliould be of a circular fi¬
gure, and but very little larger than the metal intended
to be figured upon it. If it be made confiderably lar¬
ger, it will grind the metal into a larger fphere and a
bad figure j and if it be made exaftly of the fame fize,
it will work the metal indeed into a figure truly fphe-
rical, but will be apt to ftiorten its focus, unlefs the me¬
tal and tool be worked alternately upwards. On thefe
accounts Mr Edwards recommends it to be made about
one twentieth part longer in diameter than the fpeculum,
becaufe he has found that it does not then alter its fo¬
cus 5 and he earneftly diffuades the ufe of much water
on the hone pavement at the time of ufing it, otherwife,
he fays, that the metal in different parts of it will be of
different degrees of brightnefs.
The metal being brought to a very fine face and
figure by the bed of ftones, is ready to receive a polifh,
which is given to it by the elliptical rough grinder co¬
vered with pitch. With refpefl to the confiftency of
this pitch, Mr Mudge and Mr Edwards give very dif¬
ferent directions. Whilft the former fays that it Ihould
be neither too hard nor too foft, the latter affirms that
the harder the pitch is, the better figure it will give
to the metal. Pitch may be eafily made of a fufficient
hardnefs by adding a proper quantity of rofin ; and
when it is hardened in this way, it is not fo brittle as
pitch alone, which is hardened by boiling. Mr Ed¬
wards advifes to make the mixture juft fo hard as to
receive, when cold, an impreffion from a moderate pre -
fure of the nail of one’s finger. W7hen the elliptical
tool is to be covered with this mixture, it muft be made
pretty warm,.and in that flate have the mixture poerc
upon it when beginning to cool in the crucible. ^
S P E
jculum. author recommends this coating to bo made everywhere
of about the thicknefs of half a crown ; and to give it
the proper form, it mutt, when fomewhat cool, be
preffed upon the face of the mirror, which has firft been
dipped in cold water, or covered over with very fine
writing paper. If it be not found to have taken the
exact figure from the firft prefiure, the ftirface of the
pitch muft be gently warmed, and the operation repeat¬
ed as before. All the fuperfluous pitch is now to be
taken away from the edge of the polilher with a pen
knife, and a hole to be made in the middle, accurately
round, with a conical piece of wood. This hole fhould
go quite through the tool, and Ihould be made of the
fame fize, or fomewhat lefs than the hole in the middle
of the fpeculum. Mr Edwards fays, that he has always
found that fmall mirrors, though without any hole in
the middle, polilh much better, and take a more cor-
reft figure, for the polilher’s having a hole in the mid¬
dle of it.
The poli(licr being thus formed, it muft be very
gently warmed at the fire, and divided into feveral
Tquares by the edge of a knife. Thefe, by receiving the
fmall portion of metal that works off in polilliing, will
caufe the figure of the fpeculum to be more corre&
than if no inch fquares had been made. Mr Mudge
'direfts the polilher to be ftrewed over with very fine
'putty ; but Mr Edwards prefers Colcotha-R of vitriol.
Putty (fays he) gives to metals a white luftre, or, as
workmen call it, a filver hue 5 but good colcothar of
vitriol will polifh with a very fine and high black luftre,
fo as ta give the metal finifiied with it the complexion
of polifhed fteel. To know if the Colcothar of vitriol is
good, put feme of it into your mouth, and if you find
‘it diffolves away it is good; but if you find it hard, and
crunch between your teeth, then it is bad, and not well
burned. Good colcothar of vitriol is of a deep red, or
of a deep purple colour, and is foft and oily when rub¬
bed between the fingers ; bad colcothar of vitriol is of a
light red colour, and feels harfii and gritty. The col-
‘ cothar of vitriol fhould be levigated between two fur-
'faces of polifhed fteel, and wrought with a little water;
when it is worked dry, you may add a little more wa¬
ter, to carry it lower down to what degree you pleafe.
■When the colcothar of vitriol has been wrought dry
three or four times, it will acquire a black colour, and
will be low enough, or fuffieiently fine, to give an ex-
quifite luftre. This levigated colcothar of vitriol muft
be put into a fmall phial, and kept with fome wrater up¬
on it. When it is to be ufed, every part of the pitch-
polifher muft be firft brufhed over with a fine camel’s
hair bruth, which has been dipped in pure water, and
Tuboed gently over a piece of dry clean foap. The
walhed colcothar-of vitriol is then to be put upon the
polilher; and Mr Edwards direfts a large quantity of it
to be put on at once, fo as to fatumte the pitch, and
form a fine coating. If a fecond or third application of
this powder be found neceffary, it muft be uled very fpa-
ring]y> or the polifh will be deftroyed which has been
already attained. When the metal is nearly polilhed,
theie will always appear fome black mud upon its fur-
face, as well as upon the tool. Part of this muft be
wiped away with fome very foft wafh leather ; but if the
whole of it be taken away, the polifhing will not be fo
‘well completed.
^A iio reflect to the parabolic figure to be given to
VOL. XIX. Part II.
C 585 1
S P E
the mirror, Mr Edwards allures us, that a very little ex- Speculum
perience in thefe matters will enable any one to give it „ I!
with certainty, by polilhing the fpeculum in the com-. Sl)el[•
mon manner, only with crofs itrokes in every diredtion,
• upon an elliptical tool of the proper dimenfions.
Speculum, a looking-glafs or mirror, capable of re-
fle&ing the rays of the fun.
Speculum, in Surgery, an inftrument for dilating a
wound, or the like, in order to examine it attentively.
See Surgery.
SPEECH, in general, the art or acl of exprelfing a
perfon’s thoughts by means of articulate founds, which we
call words. See Language, Grammar, Reading,
and Oratory, Part IV.
SPEED, John, an Englifh hiftorian, was born at
bavington, in Chefhire, in the year 1542. He was by
profeffion a taylor, and freeman of the company of mer¬
chant taylors in the city of London. In 1606, he pub-
lifhed his Theatre of Great Britain, which was after¬
wards reprinted in folio, under the title of the Theatre
cj the Empire of (Sreat Britain. His genealogies of
Scripture were firft bound up with the Bible in 1611.
when the firft edition of the prefent tianllation was
printed. In 1614 appeared his Hi/lory of Great Bri¬
tain, which has been tranllated into Latin ; and in
(616 he publifhed his Cloud of Witnefes, in oftavo. He
lived in marriage 57 years with his'wife, by whom he
had twelve fons and fix daughters •, and died in 1629.
He was interred in the church of St Giles’s, Cripple-
gate, London, where a monument was erected to his
memory.
SPEEDWELL. See Veronica, Botany Index.
SPELL, a charm confifting of fome words of oc¬
cult power, generally attended with fome ceremony. 
In order to explain it, we will produce a few examples.
On St Agnes’s night, 21ft of January, take a row of
pins, and pull out every one, one after another, faying
a Pater-nofter on flicking a pin m your fleevc, and you
will dream of him or her you ftiall marry.
Another method toffee a future fpoufe in a dream.
The party inquiring muft lie in a different county from Pr°aj;ncial
that in which he commonly refides, and on going to V-
bed muft knit the left garter about the right-legged
flocking, letting the other garter and flocking alone;
and as he rehearfes the following verfes, at every comma
knit a knot:
This knot I knit,
To know the thing I know not yet;
That I may fee
The man (woman) that fiiall my hufband (wife) be ,
How he goes, and what he wears,
And what he does all days and years.
Accordingly, in a dream, he win appear with the in-
fignia of his trade or profefliofi.
Another, performed by charming the moon, thus :
At the firft appearance of the new moon, immediately
after the new year’s day, (though fome fay any other
new moon is as good), go out in the evening, and ftand
over the fpars of a gate or ftile, and, looking on the
frioon, repeat the following lines:
All hail to the moon ! all hail to thee !
I prithee, good moon, reveal to me
This night who my bufband (wife) muft be.
4 F. Immediately
S P E [ 586
Spell Immediately after you muft go to bed, when you will
II dieam of the perfon deltined tor your future huloand or
Spelman. .r 1
1 r- . wife.
^ SPELLING, in Grammar, that part of orthography
which teaches the true manner of refolving words into
thei'- fyllables.
All words are either finiple or compound, as uje,
difufe ; done, undone; and the rules for dividing each
mutt be fuch as are derived from the analogy of l^n-
<ruage in general, or from the eftablifhed cuftom of
Ipeak.ngj which, for the Englilh language, are re¬
duced to the following rules : i. A confonant between
two vowels muft be joined with the latter in ipellmg,
as na-ture, ve-ri-ly, ge-ne-rous; except^ however, the
letter x, which is joined to the firft, as in jlax-en, ox¬
en. &c, and compound words, as in up-on, un-ufed, ike.
2. A double confonant muft be divided, as in let-ter,
man tier, &c. 3. Thofe confonants which can begin
a word, muft not be parted in fpellmg, as in de-Jraud,
re-prove, dijHnB; however, this rule is found iome-
times to fail •, for though gn begins a word, as gnaw,
gnat. See. yet it muft be divided in fpelling, as m cog-
ni %ance, ma-lig ni-ty, &c. 4..Thofe confonants which
cannot begin a word muft be divided, as Id mjeldom. It
in mul ti tude, mp in temper, rd in ar dent; but in fanal
fyllables there are exceptions, as tl in ti tle, dl in han¬
dle, Sec. 5. When two vowels come together, and are
both of them diitin£tly founded, they muft be feparated
in fpelling, as in co-e-val, mu-tu al, Sec. 6. 1 he gram¬
matical terminations or endings muft be fepaiated
in fpelling, as ed in wing-ed, edji in de h-ver-edjt, ing
in hear-ing, ance in de-li-ver-ance, &c. 7. Compound
words muft be refolved into their fimple or component
words, as up-on, in-to, ne-ver the-lefs, not-with-Jiand-ing,
Sec.
SPELMAN, Sir Henry, an eminent Englifti an-
tinuarian, was defeended from an ancient family, and
born at Cengham, near Lynn in Norfolk, about the
' year 1561. He was knighted by King James I. who
had a particular efteem for him on account oHiis known
capacity for bufmefs } and he employed him feveral
times in Ireland on public affairs. When he was
about <;o years of age, he went to refide in London •,
where falling into a ftudy to which his own genius had
always inclined him, he colleaed all fuch books and
MSS. as concerned the fubjeft of antiquities, either fo¬
reign or domeftic. In 1626, he publifhed the firft part
of his well-known Gloffary, which he never carried be¬
yond the letter L •, becaufe, as feme have fuggefted, he
had faid things under “ Magna charta,” and “ Maxi¬
mum confilium,” that could not then have appeared
without giving offence. Upon his death all his papers
came into the hands of his fon Sir John Spelman, a gen¬
tleman who had abilities to have completed his father s
defign, if death had not prevented him. The fecond
part was afterwards publifhed by Sir William Dugdale j
but with all the marks of a fcanty unfinifhed perform¬
ance. The next work he entered upon was an edition
of the Englifti Councils, of which he publifhed the firft
volume about two years before his death, leaving the
fecond volume, as well of this as of his Gloffary, to be
publiftied by Sir William Dugdale. Sir Henry wrote
feveral other tilings, all relating to ancient laws and
cultoms,. and. died in 1641. His Pofthumous Works
Spenci:
*
] S P E
were publiftied in folio, 1698, under the infpc&ion of SpslniEj
Mr Gibfon, afterwards bifliop of London. 11
SPELTER, in Metallurgy, the lame with Zinc. w
SPENCE, Joseph, an eminent writer, was fellow of
New College, Oxford, where he took the degree of A.M.
in 1727. About that time he became firft known as an
author, by an Ejj'uy on Pope's OdyJJey, in which feme
particular beauties and blemijhes of that work are conf-
dered ; a work of great merit, and which for found criti-
cifm and candid difquifition is,almoft without a parallel.
He was elefted profeffor of poetry by the univeriity
in 1728, and held that office ten years, which is as
long as the ftatutes will allow. His Hiftory of Stephen
Duck was firft publifhed in 1731 but it was afterwards
much altered, and prefixed to an edition of Duck’s
poems.
About this time he travelled into Italy as tutor to
the earl of Lincoln, afterwards duke ot New caff ie.—
In 1736 he republiflied Gorboduc, at Mr Popes de-
fire, with a preface giving an account ot the author, the
earl of Dorfet. He quitted his fellowfhip in 1742, up¬
on being prefented by the Society or New College to
the re&ory of Great Harwood in Euckinghamfhire.—
He never refided in his living ; but paid it an annual
vifit, diftributing large fums of money among the poor,
and providing for many of their children. Ihe fame
year he was made profellor of modern hiftory at G-x-
ford. In 1747 he publiftied Polymetis ; or an inquiry
concerning the agreement between the works of the
Roman poets and the remains of ancient artifts, being
an attempt to illuftrate them mutually from each other.
This work was treated by Gray with a contempt which
it did not deferve. He raifes objeifions becaufe the au¬
thor did not illuftrate his fubjeft from Greek writers j
that is, becaufe he failed to execute what he never un¬
dertook. He was inftalled prebendary of the feventlx
ft all at Durham the 24th May 1754. He publifhed
the fame year, “ An Account of the Life, Character,
and Poems, of Mr Blacklock, ftudent of philofophy at
Edinburgh which was afterwards prefixed to his
Poems. The profe pieces which he printed in the Mu-
feum he colleaed and publifhed, together with fome
others, in a pamphlet called Moralities, by Sir Harry
Beaumont. Under the fame name he publiffitd “ Crito,
or a Dialogue on Beauty,” and “ A particular Account
of the emperor of China’s Gardens near Pekin, in a let¬
ter from F. Attiret, a French miffionary now employed
by that emperor to paint the apartments in thofe gar¬
dens, to his friend at Paris.” Both thefe treatifes are
printed in Dodfley’s fugitive pieces, as is alto “ A Let¬
ter from a Swifs Officer to his friend at Rome which
Mr Spence firft publifhed in the Mufeum. In 1758
he publifhed “ A Parallel, in the Manner of Plutarch,
between a moft celebrated man of Florence and one
fcarce ever heard of in England.” This was alio in-
ferted in the fugitive pieces. The fame year he made
a journey into Scotland, which he defenbed in an afiec-
tionate letter to Mr Shenftone, publifficd in Hall s to -
leftion of Letters, 1778. In 1764 he was very well
deferibed by Mr James Ridley, in his admirable dales
of the Genii, under the name of Phefoi Ecneps (his
name read backwards), dervife of the groves. A letter
from Mr Spence to that ingenious moralift, under ttie
fame fignature, is preferved in the 3d volume 01 ^
: nr-iiee
II
lenfer.
S P E [5
lers of Eminent Perfons.” In 1768 he pubMied “ Re¬
marks and Differtations on Virgil, with fome other
cladical obfervations, by the late Mr Holdfworth.” On
the 20th of Auguft the fame year he was unfortunately
drowned in a canal in his garden at Byfleet in Surrey.
He was found flat upon his face at the edge of the ca¬
nal, where the water was fo (hallow as not even to co¬
ver his head. The accident, it was fuppofed, for he
was quite alone, was owing to a fit.
The duke of Newcaflle poflefles fome manufcript vo¬
lumes of anecdotes collefted by Mr Spence, from which
Dr Johnfon was permitted to infertmany extra&s in his
Lives of the Poets.
SPENCER, Dr John, an eminent divine, was born
in Kent in 1630, and educated at Cambridge. He was
chofen fellow of his college, and took a doftor’s degree
in 1663. In 1667 he was chofen mafter of Corpus
Chrifti College, and preferred to the deanery of Ely in
1677. He died on the 20th of May 1695. His works
are, I. The Righteous Ruler •, a fermon on Proverbs
Xxix. 2. preached June 28. 1660. 2. A Difcourfe con¬
cerning Prodigies, wherein the vanity of prefages by
them is reprehended, and their true and proper ends af-
ferted and vindicated. To this excellent work was af¬
terwards added, A Difcourfe concerning vulgar prophe¬
cies, wherein the vanity of receiving them as the certain
indications of any future event is expofed j and fome
marks of diftinftion between true and pretended pro¬
phets are laid down. 3. A Latin diflertation concern¬
ing Urim and Thummim. 4. His famous treatife De
legibus Hebrceorum ritualibus et earum rationibus. The
intention of this book, as he informs us himfelf, was to
vindicate the Deity from the imputation of adting from
arbitrary and fantaftical motives. It has been highly
, and juftly efteemed both for the elegance of ftyle and
the uncommon erudition and found fenfe which it dif-
plays. It has, however, (that part of it particularly
which endeavours to deduce fome of the Jewifh cere¬
monies from the practices of their heathen neighbours),
alarmed many perfons, as if fuch a dodflrine, if it could
be proved, would derogate from the Divine wifdom,
and undermine revelation. But this is fo far from being
the cafe, that Dr Spencer’s attempt, whether fuccefsful
or not, deferves the gratitude of Chriftians, becaufe it
has a tendency to throw light on an important and dif¬
ficult fubiefh
SPENSER, Edmund, the poet, was born in London
in the year 15^3, and defcended from an ancient fami¬
ly of the Spenfers in Northamptonfliire. All we know
concerning his education is, that he was admitted a
fizer of Pembroke-hall in Cambridge, and matriculated
in 1569. At this time began his intimacy with Mr
Gabriel Harvey, a man of genius and a poet. In 1576*
having completed his degrees in arts, he left the univer¬
sity, as it is conjectured, for want of fubfiftence, and
retired to the north of England. Here he had the
misfortune to become enamoured of his Rofalind, who,
“after flattering his paffion for a time, at length prefer-
87 ] SEE
red his happier rival. Spenfer continued in the fcotmtry Spenfer,
till the year 1578, when at the perfuafion of his friend Sl]crgulag
Mr Harvey he removed to London, where that gentle¬
man introduced him to Mr Sidney (afterwards Sir Philip
Sidney). Concerning his firfl: introduction to Sir Phi¬
lip, there is indeed a different flory, which was firfl;
told by the writer of his life, prefixed to his works in
1679, and tranfcribed by Hughes, Cibber, and feveral
others j which, neverthelefs, is certainly not true. The
purport of it is, that Spenfer, being unknown to this
Mecaenas of the age, went to Leicefter-houfe, and fent
in the 9th canto of the firfl: book of the Fairy Queen $
that, on reading part of it, Sir Philip ordered his ftew-
ard to give the bearer 50I.; on reading a little farther
50I. more j then 200I.J bidding him to make hafte and
pay the money, left he fhould give the poet his whole
eftate. The ftory tells prettily enough j but it is very
certain, that the Fairy Queen was begun long after his
acquaintance with Sir Philip. By this univerfal patron
of genius, however, he was prefented to Queen Eliza¬
beth, who honoured him with the place of poet-laureat.
About this time he finifhed his Shepherd’s Calendar,
which was firft printed in 1579 ; and in the following
year, being recommended by his patron to the earl of
Leicefter, he went to Ireland as fecretary to the lord
Grey of Wilton, then appointed lord-lieutenant of
that kingdom. Lord Grey was recalled in 1582, and
with him Spenfer returned to London, where he conti¬
nued till after the death of Sir Philip Sidney in 1586 -j
a lofs which he bewailed to the end of his life. The
following year, our poet, having obtained a royal grant
of 3000 acres of forfeited lands in the county of Cork
in Ireland, fet out for that kingdom, took poffeflion of
his eftate, and fixed his refidence in the caftle of Kil-
colman, which had belonged to the earl of Defmond.
In this retirement he refumed his great work of the
Fairy Queen •, and continued in Ireland till, being vi-
fited by his old friend Sir Walter Raleigh in 1389, he
came over with him to England, but returned to Ire¬
land the year following, where he fell in love with a
country girl, and married her. Soon after his mar¬
riage, he paid another vifit to his native country, where
we alfo find him in 1596. In the following year he re¬
turned once more to Kilcolman ; but on the rebellion
of Lord Tyrone, who ravaged the whole county of
Cork, he was obliged to fly for fafety with his family
to England, where, in the year 1599, he died in ex¬
treme poverty (a). He wfas buried in Weftminfter
Abbey, according to his requeft, near Chaucer. A
monument was eredled to his memory by Ann countefs
of Dorfet. We knorv but little of his chara&er as a
man ; as a poet, confidering the age in which he lived,
he deferves our utmoft veneration. He wrote various
pieces befides thofe above mentioned. His whole works,
wdth his life by Hughes, were publiftied in fix volumes
I2mo, in 1715 and 1750.
SPERGULA, Spurrey, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of decandria ; and in the natural fyftem
4 E 2 arranged
(a) This is Camden’s account, and it has been generally believed j but Mr Malone, the lafl: editor of
Shakefpeare’s works, by examining the patent roll, 33 Eliz. p. 3. has difeovered, that in February 1690-1
Spenfer obtained from Queen Elizabeth an annuity or penfion of 50I. during his life ; a fum equivalent to 2ool.
at prefent.
S P E [58
Spdrgula arranged under the 22d order, canjophylletc. See Bo-
I! . TANY Index.
Spurnaieti. SPE^M, the feed whereof an animal is formed. See
Physiology.
SPERMACETI, a whitifh, unftuous, flaky_ fub-
ftance, prepared from oil, but chiefly from the brains of
a fpecies of whale called phyfeter macrocephalus.
The method of preparing Ipermaceti is kept a fecret j
but the procefs is laid to be this : The brains being
taken out of the animal, are then, as fome fay, melted
over a gentle fire, poured into moulds, and when cold
melted again •, and this procefs is continued till they are
purified. Others fay, that after being prefled and drain¬
ed they are more thoroughly purified by fteeping them
in a ley of alkaline fait and quicklime. The brains are
then wafhed, and cut into thin flakes or dices with
wooden knives. One fiflr is faid to afford fome tons of
brains. Good Ipermaceti is glofly and femitranfparent,
in fine white flakes; foft and unftuous to the touch, yet
dry and friable j in tafte, fomewhat like butter, and of
a faint fmell like that of tallow. Some adulterate it
with wax ; but the deceit is difeovered, either by the
fmell of the wax or by the dulnefs of the colour. Some
alfo fell a preparation of oil taken from the tail of the
whale in (lead of that from the brain } but this kind
turns yellow as foon as expofed to the air. Indeed it is
apt in general to grow yellowifh, and to contra6t a ran¬
cid filhy fmell if not carefully fecured from the air,.
The more perfectly it has been purified at firft, the
lefs fufceptible it is of thefe alterations } and after it
has been changed, it may be rendered white and fweet
again by fleeping it afrelli in a ley of alkaline fait and
quicklime. It melts in a fmall degree of heat, and
congeals again as it cools.
Spermaceti is of ufe in medicine. Quincy fays it is
a noble remedy in the afthma, &c. though chiefly ufed
in bruifes, inward hurts, and after delivery. For inter¬
nal ufe, it may be diflblved in aqueous liquors into the
form of an emulfion, by trituration with almonds, the
yoke or white of an egg, and more elegantly by muci¬
lages ; or made into a lohoch, by mixing two drams of
it with a fuitablc quantity of yolk of egg, then adding
half an ounce of frelh drawn oil of almonds, and an
ounce of balfamic fyrup. Spermaceti is not capable of
being diiTolved by cauftic alkalies, and of forming foaps,
like other oily matters : but it is altogether foluble in
oils, and unites by liquefaction with wax and refins j
and in thefe forms is applied externally. But it is cer¬
tain, its greateft property, and that which makes it fo
much in vogue in many places, is its foftening the fkin.
Whence it comes to be ufed by the ladies in paftes,
wadies, &c.
Spermaceti candles are of modern manufacture : they
are made fmooth, with a fine glofs, free from rings and
fears, fuperior to the fineft wax candles in colour and
luitre ; and, when genuine, leave nofpot orftain on the
fined filk, cloth, or linen.
A method has been lately propofed by Dr Smith
Gibbes of Briftol, to convert animal mufcle into a fub-
ftance much refembling fpermaceti. The procefs is re-
flil. TVctz/C markably Ample : Nothing more is neceflary than to
take a dead carcafe and expofe it to a ftream of running
-water : it will in a ihort time be changed to a mafs of
fatty matter. To remove the oflenfive fmell,. a quantity
i ] S P H
of nitrous acid may then be poured upon it, which unit-. Spenajcd
ing with the fetid matter, the fat is leparated in a pure II I
ft ate. This acid indeed turns it yellow, but it may be I
rendered white and pure by the aCtion of the oxygena-1.. |1Sj j
ted muriatic acid. Mr Gibbes brought about the fame
change in a much fhorter time. He took three lean-
pieces of mutton and poured on them the three mineral
acids, and he perceived that at the end of three days
each vras much altered ; that in the nitrous acid was
much foftened, and on feparating the acid from it, he
found it to be exactly the fame with that which he had
before got from the water j that in the muriatic acid
was not in that time fo much altered ; the vitriolic acid
had turned the other black.
SPERMACOCE, Button-wood, a genus of plants-
belonging to the clafs of tetrandria ; and in the natural
fyftem arranged under the 47th order, Stellatce. See
Botany Index.v
SPERMATIC, in Anatomy, fomething belonging to
the fperm or feed.
SPEUSIPPUS, an Athenian philofopher, the ne¬
phew and fuccefl'or of Plato. Contrary to the practice of
Plato, Speufippus required from his pupils a ftated gra¬
tuity. He placed itatues of the Graces in the fchooL
which Plato had built. On account of his infirm ftate
of health, he was commonly carried to and from the aca¬
demy in a vehicle. On his way thither he one day met
Diogenes, and faluted him ; the furly philofopher- rc-
fufed to return the falute, and told him, that fueh a fee¬
ble wretch ought to be afliamed to live ; to which
Speufippus replied, that he lived not in his limbs, but
in his mind. At length, being wholly incapacitated, by
a paralytic ftroke, for the duties of the chair, he refign- - |||
ed it to Xenocrates. He is faid to have been of a vior
lent ten?per, fond of pleafure, and exceedingly avari¬
cious. Speufippus -wrote many philofophical works,
which are now loft, but which Ariftatle thought fuffi-
ciently valuable to purchafe at the expence of three,
talents. From the few fragments which remain of his
philofophy, it appears that he adhered very ftrictly to
the doftrine of his matter.
SPEY, a river of Scotland, riling from a lake of the
fame name in Badenoch, and, after a ferpentine courfe
of 76 miles, paffes by Rothes caflle, and falls into the
German fea at Garnoch near Elgin.. Mr Pennant tells
us, that the Spey is a dangerous neighbour to Caftle
Gordon, overflowing frequently in a dreadful manner,
as appears by its ravages far beyond its banks. Ths
bed of the river is wide and full of gravel, and the chan¬
nel very Uniting. In 1746 the Duke of Cumberland
palled this river at Belly church, near Caftle Gordon,
when the channel was fo deep as to take an officer, from
whom Mr Pennant had the account, and who ivas fix
feet four inches high, up to the breaft. The banks are
here very high and fteep •, fo that had not the rebels
been infatuated in fuch a manner as to negleft oppofi-
tion, the paflage mult have been attended with confi-
derable lofs. On this river there is a great falmon-
filhery ; about 1700 barrels full are caught in the feafon,
and the thore was formerly rented for about 1200I. per
annum : now it is probably doubled.
SPHACELUS, in Surgerya.x\& Medicine, an abfolute
and perfect corruption or death of the parts.
SPH/ERANTHUS, a genus of plants belonging to
the I
iiiseran
thus
II
phmx,
S P H [ sgg ] S P I
and to^ the order of polygamia country from the monfter by a fuccelsful explanation
Bi-
'tea
i- the clafs of fyngenefia
fegregata ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index.
_/ SPHAGNUM, Bog-moss, a genm; of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of cryptogamia and order of mufei.
See Botany Index.
Os SPHENOIDES, the feventh bone of the crani¬
um or tkull. See Anatomy, N° ii.
SPHERE, is a folid contained under one uniform
round furface, every point of which is equally diltant
from a certain point in the middle called its centre ; and
is formed by the revolution of a femicircle about its dia¬
meter. See Geometry.
Proje&ion of the Sphere. See Projection.
Sphere, in Ajlronomy, that concave orb or expanfe
which inverts our globe, and in which the heavenly bo¬
dies appear to be fixed, and at an equal diftance from
the eye.
The better to determine the places of the heavenly
bodies in the fphere, feveral circles are fuppofed to be
deferibed on the furface thereof, hence called the circles
of the fphere : of thefe feme are called great circles, as
the equinoctial, ecliptic, meridian, &c. and othersfmall
circles, as the tropics, parallels, &c. See Geography 3
and Astronomy, pajfim.
Armillary SPHERE. See Geography.
Sphere of ASlivity of a Body, is that determinate
fpace or extent to which, and no farther, the eftluvia
continually emitted from that body reach 3 and where
they operate according to their nature.
SPHERES, in Optics, the fame with metalline mir¬
rors, for telefcopes or other purpofes. See Mirror.
SPHEROID, in Geometry, a folid approaching to
the figure of a fphere. It is generated by the entire
revolution of a femi-ellipfis about its axis. When tire
revolution is made round the largeft axis, the fpheroid
is called prolate ; and when round the rtrortert, oblate.
This laft is the figure of the earth, and probably of all
the planets.
SPHEX, Ichneumon Wasp, or Savage; a genus of
infefts belonging to the order of hymenopterec. See
Entomology Index.
SPHINCTER, in Anatomy, a term applied to a
kind of circular mufcles, or mufcles in form of rings,
which ferve to clofe and draw up feveral orifices of the
body, and prevent the excretion of the contents.
SPHINX, in fabulous hiftory, a monfter which had
the head and breafts of a woman, the body of a dog, the
tail of a ferpent, the wings of a bird, the paws of a lion,
and a human voice. It fprang from the union of Orthos
with the Chimaera, or of Typhon with Echidna. The
Sphinx had been fent into the neighbourhood of
Thebes by Juno, who wilhed to punifh the family of
Cadmus, which ftie perfecuted with immortal hatred,
and it laid this part of Boeotia under continual alarms,
by propofing enigmas, and devouring the inhabitants, if
unable to explain them. In the midft of their confter-
nation the Thebans were told by the oracle, that the
fpbinx would deftroy herfelf as foon as one of the en¬
igmas rtic propofed was explained. In this enigma ftie
wiflied to know what animal walked on four legs in the
.morning, twTo at noon, and three in the evening. Upon
this Creon king of Thebes promifed his crown and his
filler Jocafta in marriage to him who could deliver his
Sphin.f,
SpigeHa,
of the enigma. It was at laft happily explaint d by
Oedipus, who obferved, that man walked on his hands
and feet when young, er in the morning of life 3 at the
noon of life he walked eredl 3 and in the evening of his
days he fupported his infirmities’ upon a ftick. {Vid.
Oedipus"). The iphinx no fooner heard this explanation
than ftie dafhed her head againft a rock, and immedi¬
ately expired. Some mythologifts with to unriddle the
fabulous traditions about the fphinx by the fuppofition
that one of the daughters of Cadmus, or Laius, infeft-
ed the country of Thebes by her continual depreda¬
tions, becaufe the had been refufed a part of her father’s
pofleftions. The lion’s paw exprefled, as they obferve,
her cruelty, the body of the dog her lafcivioufnefs,
her enigmas the fnares Ihe laid for ftrangers and tra¬
vellers, and her wings the difpatch the ufed in her ex¬
peditions.
Among the Egyptians the fphinx was the fymbol
of religion, by reafon of the obfeurity of its myfteries 3
and on the fame account the Romans placed a fphinx
in the pronaos or porch of their temples. Sphinxes
were ufed by the Egyptians to fliow the beginning of
the water’s rifrng, in the Nile : with this view, as it had
the head of a woman and body of a lion, it fignified
that the Nile began to fwell in the months of July and
Auguft, when the fun paiTes through the figns of Leo
and Virgo. There are feveral of thefe ftill to be feen 3
one in particular, near the pyramids, much fpoken of
by the ancients ; being of a prodigious fize, and cut out
of the rock 3 the head and neck appear only at prefent,
the reft of the body being hid in the fand. This, accord¬
ing to Thevenot, is 26 feet high, and 15 feet from the
ear to the chin : but Pliny allures us, the head was no
lefs than 102 feet in circumference, and 62 feet high
from the belly, and that the body was 143 feet long,
and was thought to be the fepulchre of King .Amafis.
The learned Mr. Bryant * obferves, that the fphinx * Ancient
feems to have been originally a vaft rock of different Mythology
ftrata 3 which, from a Ihapelefs mafs, the Egyptian fa-v°i-C.
ftiioned into an objeft of beauty and veneration. The ^ 5;52'
Egyptians ufed this figure in their building 5 from them
the Greeks derived it, and afterwards improved it into
an elegant ornament. It is alfo frequently ufed in mo¬
dern architefture.
It is proper to obferve, that the fphinx of the Egyp¬
tians is faid in the Afiatic Refearches f to have been f Vol. ii.
found in India. Colonel Pearfe was told by Murari P- 334-
Pandit, a man of learning among the Hindoos, that the
fphinx, there called fingh, is to appear at the end of the
world, and as foon as he is born will prey on an ele¬
phant : he is therefore figured feizingan elephant in his
claws 3 and the elephant is made fmall,. to ftmw that the
fingh, even a moment after his birth, will be very large
in proportion to it. But in oppofition to this account
given by Murari Pandit, the late Sir William Jones, the
learned and illuftrious prefident of the Afiatic Society,
was affured by feveral Brahmans, that the figure taken
for a fphinx was a reprefentation of a lion feizing.a
young elephant. This point therefore requires farther
inveftigation.
Sphinx, Hawk-Moth, a genus of inftfls belonging
to the order of lepidoptcrec. See ENTOMOLOGY Index.
S PIG ELIA, Worm-grass, a genus of plants be- ■
longing.
S P I
gipigetia
II
Spinet.
[ 590 ]
S’ P I
longing to the clafs of pentandria ; and in the natural
fyftem arranged under the 47th order, Stellatce. See
, Botany and Materia Medica Index.
SPICE, any kind of aromatic drug that lias hot and
pungent qualities*, fuch are pepper, nutmeg, ginger,
tinnamon, cloves, &c.
SpICE-IJIands, in the Eaft Indies. See Banda,
MOLUCCA-IJlands, and CEYLON.
SPIDER. See Aranea, Entomology Index.
SPIDERWORT. SeePhalangium, Botany
SPIGNEL. See Athamanta, $ Index.
SPIKE, or Oil of Spike, a name given to an effen-
tial oil diftilled from lavender, and much ufed by the
varnilh-makers and the painters in enamel.
SPIKENARD. See Nardus, Botany Index.
SPILANTHUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of fyngenefia. See Botany Index.
SPINA CERVINA, an old name for rhamnus cathar-
ticus. See Rhamnus, Botany Index.
Spina Ventofa, in Surgery, that fpecies of corruption
of the bones which takes its rife in the internal parts,
and by degrees enlarges the bone, and raifes it into a
tumor. See Surgery.
SPINACIA, SPINAGE, a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of dioecia ; and in the natural fyftem arran¬
ged under the 12th order, Bo/oraccif. See BOTANY
Index ; and for an account of the method of cultivating
fpinage in the garden, fee GARDENING.
SPINAGE, or Spinach. See Spinacia.
SPINAt, in Botany, thorns, rigid prickles: a fpreies
of anna, growing on various parts of certain plants for
their defence ; fpinee ramorum arcent pecora. On the
branches vve find examples in the pyrus, prunus, citrus,
hippophaes, gmelina, rhamnus, lycium, &c. ; on the
leaves, in the aloe, agave, yucca, ilex, hippomane, theo-
phrafia, carlina, &c. *, on the calyx, in the carduus
cnicus, centaurea, moluccella, galeopfis, &c. *, on the
fruit, in the trapa, tribulus, murex, fpinacia, agrimo-
nia, datura, &.c.
SPINAL marrow. See Anatomy Index.
SPIN ALIS, in Anatomy, the name of feveral mufcles,
&tc. of the fpine.
SPINDLE, in Geometry, a folid body generated by
the revolution of fome curve line about its bafe or double
ordinate ; in oppofition to a conoid, which is generated
by the rotation of the curve about its axis or abfeifs,
perpendicular to its ordinate. The fpindle is denomina¬
ted circular, elliptic, hyperbolic, or parabolic, according
to the figure of it* generating curve.
SPINDLE-tree. See Euonymus, Botany Index.
SPINE, Spina Dorsi. See Anatomy, N° 30.
Spine. See Spinac.
SPINET, or SpinNET, a mufical inftrument ranked
in the fecond or third place among harmonious inftru-
ments. It confifts of a cheft or belly made of the moft
porous and refinous wood to be found, and a table of
fir glued on flips of wTood called fummers, which bear
®n the fides. On the table are raifed two little promi¬
nences or bridges, wherein are placed fo many pins as
there are chords or firings to the inftrument. It is
played on by two ranges of continued keys, the former
range being the order of the diatonic fcale, and that be¬
hind the order of the artificial notes or femitones. The
^.eys are fo many flat pieces of wood, which, touched
and prefled down at the end, make the other raife a
jack which ftrikes and founds the firings by means of
the end of a crew’s quill, wherewith it is armed. The
30 firft firings are of brafs, the other more delicate ones
of fleel or iron-wire j they are all ftretched over the
two bridges already mentioned. The figure of the fpi-
net is a long fquare or parallelogram ; fome call it an
harp coached, and the harp an invertedfpinet. See the
article Harp.
This inftrument is generally tuned by the ear, which
method of the praflical mufieians is founded on a fup-
pofition that the ear is a perfeft judge of an o£tave and
a fifth. The general rule is to begin at a certain note,
as C, taken towards the middle of the inftrument, and
tuning all the oflaves up and down, and alfo the fifths,
reckoning feven femitones to each fifth, by which means
the whole is tuned. Sometimes to the common or fun¬
damental play of the fpinet is added another fimilar one
in unifon, and a third in odlave to the firfl, to make the
harmony the fuller j they are either played feparately
or together by means of a flop : thefe are called double
or triple fpinets ; fometimes a play of violins is added,
by means of a bow, or a few' wheels parallel to the keys,
which prefs the firings and make the found laft as long
as the mufician pleafes, and heighten and foften them
more or lefs, as they are more or lefs prefled. The
harpfichord is a kind of fpinet, only with another dif-
pofition of the keys (fee the article. Harpsichord).
The inftrument takes its name from the fmall quill ends
which touch the firings, refembling^zW or thorns.
SPINIFEX, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs
ofpoh/gamia. See Botany Index.
SPINNING, in Commerce, the adt or art of redu¬
cing filk, flax, hemp, wool, hair or other matters, into
thread. Spinning is either performed on the wheel, or
with a diftaff and fpindle, or with other machines pro¬
per for the feveral kinds of working. Hemp, flax,
nettle-thread, and other like vegetable matters, are to
be wetted in fpinning : filks, wools, &c. are fpun dry,
and do not need water ; yet there is a way of fpinning
or reeling filk as it comes off the cafes or balls, where
hot and even boiling water is to be ufed (fee Silk).
The vaft variety, and the importance of thofe branches
of our manufaftures, which are produced from cotton,
Wool, and flax, fpun into yarn, together with the cheap-
nefs of provifions, and the low price of labour in many
foreign countries, which are our rivals in trade, have oc-
cafioned many attempts at home to render fpinning more
eafy, cheap, and expeditious *, for which fee COTTON-
Spinning and COTTON MILLS.
To give an intelligible and accurate defeription of a
Cotton mill would be abundant employment for a vo¬
lume. Our limits admit of nothing like this ; but as
we are certain that many of our readers have viewed a
cotton mill with w'onder, but not with intelligence, or
with leifure to trace the fteps by which the wool from
the bag ultimately affumes the form of a very fine thread.
Bewildered by fuch a complication of machinery, all in
rapid motion, very few, we imagine, are able to recoiled
with diftin&nefs and intelligence the effential part o^
the progrefs by which the form of the cotton is fo won¬
derfully changed. Such readers will not think a page
or two mifemployed, if they are thereby able to under-
ftand this particular, to which all the reft of the procefs
is fubfervient. .
We pafs over the operation of carding, by windfall
S P I
nning. the clots and inequalities of the cotton wool are remo-
'''Y*-—' yed, and the whole is reduced to an uniform thin fleece,
about 20 inches broad. This is gradually detached
from the finiihing card, and, if allowed to hang down
from it, would pile up on the floor as long as the mill
continues to work •, but it is guided oif from the card,
very tenderly, in a horizontal direction, by laying its
detached end over a roller, which is flowly turned round
by the machine. Another roller lies above the fleece,
prefling it down by its weight. By this preflure, a
gentle hold is taken of the fleece, and therefore the flow
motion of the rollers draws it gently from the card at
the fame rate as it is difengaged by the comb ; but be¬
tween the card and the rollers a fet of fmooth pins are
placed in two rows, leading from the card to the rollers,
and gradually approaching each other as we approach
the rollers. By thefe pins the broad fleece is hemmed
in on both Tides, and gradually contracted to a thick roll j
and in this ftate palfes between the rollers, and is com-
preiled in a pretty firm flat idband, about two inches
broad, which falls oft from the rollers, and piles up in
deep tinplate cans fet below to receive it.
It is upon this ftripe or riband of cotton wool that
the operation of fpinning begins. The general effe6t
of the fpinning procefs is to draw out this maflive roll,
and to twill it as it is drawn out. But this is not to
be done by the fingers, pulling out as many cotton fibres
at once as are neceflary for compofing a thread of the
intended finenefs, and continuing this manipulation regu¬
larly acrof’s the whole end of the riband, and thus, as it
were, nibbling the whole of it away. The fingers mutt
be directed, for this purpofe, by an attentive eye. But
in performing this by machinery, the whole riband mull
be drawn out together, and twilled as it is drawn. This
requires great art, and very delicate management. It
cannot be done at once ; that is, the cotton roll cannot
firll be ftretched or drawn out to the length that is ul¬
timately produced from a tenth of an inch of the roll,
and then be twilled. There is not cohefion enough for
this purpofe •, we fhould only break oft’ a bit of the roll,
and could make no farther ufe of it. The fibres of cot¬
ton are very little implicated among each other in the
roll, becaule the operation of carding has laid them al-
moft parallel in the roll 5 and though compreffed a little
by its contrabfion from a fleece of 20 inches to a ri¬
band of only two, and afterwards compreffed between
the difeharging rollers of the carding machine, yet they
cohere fo llightly, that a few fibres mav be drawn out
without bringing many others along with them. For
thefe reafons, the whole thicknefs and breadth of two or
three inches of the riband is ftretched to a very minute
quantity, and then a very flight degree of twill is given
it, viz. about three turns in the inch ; fo that it lhall
now compofe an extremely foft and fpungy cylinder,
which cannot be called a thread or cord, becaufe it has
fcarcely any firmnefs, and is merely rounder and much
flenderer than before, being ftxetched to about thrice its
former length. It is now called flab, or roove.
Although it be ftill extremely tender, and will not
•arry a weight of two ounces, it is much more cohefive
than before, becaufe the twift given to it makes all the
longitudinal fibres bind each other together, and com*
prefs thofe which lie athwart ; therefore it will require
more force to pull a fibre from among the reft, but ftill
»ot.nearly enough to break it. In drawing out a fingle
4
[ 591 1
S P I
fibre, others are drawn out along with it; and if we Spinning*
take hold of the whole affemblage, in two places, about v~—
an inch or ttvo inches afunder, we ihall find that we.
may draw it to near twice its length without any rilk.
of its feparating in any intermediate part, or becoming
much fmaller in one part than another. It feems to
yield equably over all.
Such is the ftate of the flab or roove of the firft for¬
mation. It is ufually called the preparation ; and the
operation of fpinning is confidered as not yet begun.
This preparation is the mort tedious, and requires more
attendance and hand labour than any fubfequent part of
the procefs. For the ftripes or ribands from which it
is made are fo light and bulky, that a few yards only
can be piled up in the cans fet to receive them. A per-
fon muft therefore attend each thread of ilab, to join
frefh ftripes as they are expended. It is alfo the melt
important in the manufafture : for as every inch of the
flab meets with precifely the fame drawing and the fame
twilling in the fubfequent parts of the procels, therefore
every inequality and fault in the flab (indeed in the
fleece as it quits the finilhing card) will continue through
the whole manufadlure. The fpinning of cotton yarn
now divides into two branches. The firft, performed
by what are called jennies, perfedlly refembles the an¬
cient fpinning with the diftaff and fpindle \ the other,
eAXe& fpinning of twi/i, is an imitation of the fpinning
with the fly-wheel. They differ in the fame manner as
the fpinning with the old wool or cotton wheel differs
from the fpinning with the flax-wheel. Mr Arkwright’s
chief invention, the fubftitution of machinery for the im¬
mediate work of the human finger, is feen only in the
manufadture of twift. We lhall therefore confine our
attention to this.
The reft of the procefs is little more than a repeti¬
tion of that gone through in making the firft flab or
roove. It is formed on bobins. Thefe are fet on the
back part of the drawing frame 5 and the end of the
flab is brought forwards toward the attending work¬
man. As it comes forward, it is ftretched or drawn to
about four-thirds of its former length, or lengthened one-
third •, and is then twilled about twice as much as be¬
fore, and in this ftate wound up on another bobin. In.
fome mills two rooves, after having been properly drawn,
are brought together through one hole, and twilled into
one ; but we believe that, in the greater number of
mills, this is deferred to the fecond drawing. It is on¬
ly after the firft drawing that the produce of the opera¬
tion gets the name of Jlub ; before this it is called pre¬
paration, or roove, or by fome other name. The flab is
ftill a very feeble, foft, and delicate yarn, and will not
carry much more weight than it did before in the form
of roove. The perfection of the ultimate thread or yarn
depends on this extreme foftnefs ; for it is this only
which makes it fufceptible of an equable ftretching j all
the fibres yielding and feparating alike.
The next operation is the fecond drawing, which no
way differs from the firft, except in the different pro-
portionings of the lengthening, and the proportion be¬
tween the lengthening and the fubfequent twift. On
thefe points we cannot give any very diftinCl infor¬
mation. It is different in different mills, and with dif¬
ferent fpecies of cotton wool, as may be eafily imagin¬
ed. The immediate mechanifm or manipulation muft
be fliilfully accommodated to the nature of that friction
which
S P I
spinning, ivincii the fibres of cotton exert on each other, cna-
L“ bling one of them to pull others along with it. rIhis
'is greatly aided by the contorted curled form of a cot¬
ton fibre, and a eonfiderablo degree of elafticity which
it poffeffes. In this refpedl it greatly refembles woollen
fibres, and differs exceedingly from thofe of flax: and
it is for this reafon that it is fcarcely poflible to fpin
flax in this way: its fibres become lank, and take any
llrape by the llightetf compreflion, efpecially wrhen
damp in the llightelt degree. But befides this, the fur-
face of a cotton fibre has a harfhnefs or roughnefs, which
greatly augments their mutual friction. 1 his is pro¬
bably the reafon why it is fo unfit for tents and other
dreflings for wounds, and is refufed by the furgeon
even in the mcaneft hofpitals. But this harfhnefs and
Its elafticity fit it admirably for the manufacture of
yarn. Even the fhortnefs of the fibre is favourable •,
and the manufacture would hardly be poflible if the.
fibre were thrice as long as it generally is. If it be
juft fo long that in the finifired thread a fibre will rather
break than come out from among the reft, it is plain
that no additional length can make the yarn any ftrong-
er with the fame degree of compreflion by twining. A
longer fibre will indeed give the fame firmnefs of adhe¬
rence with a fmaller compreflion. This would be an
advantage in any other yarn *, but in cotton yarn the
compreflion is already as flight as can be allowed; were
it lefs, it would become woolly and rough by the fmalleft
ufage, and is already too much difpofed to teazle out.
It can hardly be ufed as fewing thread. Now iuppofe
the fibres much longer j feme of them may chance to
be rtretched along the llab through their whole length.
Tf'lhe flab is pulled in oppofite directions, by pinching
it at each end of fuch fibres, it is plain that it will not
ftretch till this fibre be broken or drawn out •, and that
while it is in its extended ftate, it is aCting on the other
fibres in a very unequal manner, according to their
pofitions, and renders the whole apt to feparate more
irregularly. This is one great obftaele to the fpinning
of flax by fimilar machinery j and it has hitherto pre¬
vented (we believe) the working up of any thing but
the pjorts or tow, which is feparated from the long fine
'flax in the operation of hatcbeling.
A third, and fometimes even a fourth, drawing is
given to the flab formed on the bobins of this fecond
operation. The flab produced is now a flender, but ftill
extremely fofteord, fufceptible of confiderable extenfion,
without rifk of feparation, and without the fmalleft
chance of breaking a Angle fibre in the attempt. In
one or more of the preparatory drawings now deferibed,
two, and fometimes three ftabs, of a former drawing, are
united before the twill is given them. The praCtice is
different in different mills. It is plain, that unlefs great
care be taken to preferve the flab extremely foft and
compreffiblc during the whole procefs, the fubfequeht
drawing becomes more precarious, and we run a rilk of
at laft making a bad loofe thread inftead of a uniform
and Ample yarn. Such a thread will have very little
lateral connection, and will not bear much handling
without feparating into ftrands. The perfection of the
yarn depends on having the laft flab as free of all ap¬
pearance of ftrands as poflible.
The laft operation is the fpinning this flab. 1 his
hardly differs from the foregoing drawings in anything
but the twift that is given it after the laft ftretchingin
.9 P 1
its length. This is much greater than any of the pre- Spinnk.
ceding, being intended to give the yarn hardnefs and ''“““Y-'
firmnefs, fo that it will now break rather than ftretch
any more.
The reader, moderately acquainted with mechanics,
cannot but perceive that each of the operations now
deferibed, by which the roove is changed into the foft
flab, and each of thefe into one flenderer and fomewhat
firmer, by alternately teazling out and twining the foft
Cord, is a fubftitutc for a fingle pull of the finger and
thumb of the fpinfter, which ftie accommodates precifc-
ly to the peculiar condition of the lock of wool which
flie t®uches at the moment. She can follow this through
all its irregularities*, and perhaps no two fucceeding
plucks are alike. But when we cannot give this mo¬
mentary attention to every minute portion, we muft be
careful to introduce the roove in a ftate of perfed uni¬
formity and then every inch being treated in the fame
manner, the final refult will be equable—the yarn will
be uniform.
We are now to deferibe the mechanifm by which all
this is effected. But we do not mean to deferibe a cot¬
ton mill; we only mean to deferibe wbat comes into
immediate contad with the thread; and in fo doing,
to confine ourfelves to what is neceffary for making the
reader perceive its ability to perform the required talk.
We fee many cafes where individuals can apply this
knowledge to ufeful purpofes. More than this would,
we think, be improper, in a national point of view.
Let ABC (fig. i.) reprefent the fedion of a roller, cc^t'1)
whofe pivot D does not turn in a pivot hole, but in the fi(r' lt i
bottom of a long narrow notch DE, cut in an iron
ftandard. abc is the fedion of another iron roller,
whofe pivot d is in the fame notches at each end, while
the roller itfelf lies or refts on the roller ABC below
it. The furfaces of thefe rollers are fluted lengthwife
like a column : only the flutings are very fmall and
fharp, like deep ftrokes of engraving very clofe toge¬
ther. It is plain, that if the roller ABC be made to
turn {lowly round its axis by machinery, in the direc¬
tion ABC (asexpreffed by the dart), the roughnefs of
the flutings will take hold of the fimilar roughnefs of
the upper roller abc, and carry it round alfo in the
diredion of the dart, while its pivots are engaged in
the notches DE, which they cannot quit. If there¬
fore we introduce the end F of the cotton firing or ri¬
band, formed by the carding machine, it will be pulled
in by this motion, and will be delivered out on the other
fide at H, confiderably comprefled by the weight of the
tipper roller, which is of iron, and is alfo prefl'ed down
by a lever which refts on its pivots, or other proper
places, and is leaded with a weight. There is nothing
to hinder this motion of the riband thus compreffed
between the rollers, and it will therefore be drawn
through from the cans. The compreffed part at H
would hang down, and be piled up on the floor as it is
drawn through'} but it is not permitted to hang down
in this manner, but is brought to another pair of iliarp
fluted iron rollers K and L. Suppofing this pair of rollers
to be of the fame diameter, and to turn round in the
fame time, and in the fame direction, with the rollers
•ABC, abc; it is plain that K and L drag in the com¬
preffed riband at I, and ivould deliver it on the other
fide at M, ftill more compreffed. But the roller K is
made fby the wheelwork.) to turn round more fwiftly
I r 592 1
pinning
S P r [ ]
l})Zn ABC- .T,ie difference of velocity at the' fuifface frame.
of the rollers is, however, very fmall, feldom exceeditla
one part m 12 or i ?. But the confequenee of this dif¬
ference is, that the Ikein of cotton HI will be lengthen¬
ed in the lame proportion ; for the upper rollers pref-
fing on the under ones with a confiderable force, their
lharp tlutings take good hold of the cotton between
them ; and finee K and L take up the cotton falter
than ABC and a l? c deliver it out, it mult either be for¬
cibly pulled through between the firft rollers, or it muff
be ftretched a little by the fibres flipping among eaeh
other, or it muff break. When the extenfion is fo very
moderate as we have juft now faid, the only effeft of it
is merely to begin to draw the fibres (which at prefent
are lying in every poffible direction) into a more favour¬
able pofition for the fubfequent extenfions.
1 he fibres being thus drawn together into a more
favourable pofition, the cotton is introduced between a
third pair of rollers O, P, conffruded in the fame way,
but fo moved by the wheel work that the furface of 6
moves nearly or fully twice as faff as the furface of K.
The roller P being alfo well loaded, they take a firm
hold of the cotton, and the part between K and O is
nearly or fully doubled in its length, and now requires
a little twining to make it roundifh, and to confolidate
it a little.
It is therefore led Hoping downwards into a hole or
eye in the upper pivot of the firft fly, called a jack This
turns round an upright axis or ipindle ; the lower end
of which has a pulley on it to give it motion by means
of a band or belt, which paffes round a drum that is
turned by the machinery. 1 hi* jack is of a very inge¬
nious and complicated conftru&km. It is a fubftitute
for the fly of the common fpinning wheel. If made
precifely in the form of that fly, the thread, being fo
very bulky and fpongy, and unable to bear clofe pack¬
ing on the bobin, would fwag out by the whirling of
the fly, and would never coil up. The bobin therefore
is made to lie horizontally ; and this occafions the eem-
plication, by the difficulty of giving it a motion round
a horizontal axis, in order to coil up the twifted roove.
Mr Arkwright has accomplifhed this in a very ingeni¬
ous manner ; the effential circumftances of which we ffiall
here briefly defcribe. A is a roller of hard wood, ha¬
ving its furface cut into {harp flutes longitudinally. On
the axis, which projefts through the fide of the gene¬
ral frame, there is a pulley P, connected by a band with
another pulley Q turning with the horizontal axis
I his axis is made to turn by a contrivance
which is different in every different cotton mill. The
fimpleft of all is to place above the pulley C (which is
turned by the great band of the machinery, and thus
gives motion to the jack), a thin circular dife D, loofe
upon the axis, fo as to turn round on it without ob-
ftruftion. If this dife exceed the pulley in breadth
about -A-th of an inch, the broad belt which turns the
pulley will alfo turn it j but as its diameter is greater
than that of the pulley, it will turn fomewhat flower,
and will therefore have a relative motion with refpeft
to the axis QR, This can be employed, in order to
give that axis a very flow motion, fuch as one turn of
it for 20 or 30 of the jack. This we leave to the in¬
genuity of the reader. The bobin B, on which the
toove is to be coiled up, lies on this roller, its pivots
pa mg through upright! flits in the fides of the general
Vol. XIX. Part II.
S P I
It lies (in A, and is moved round by it, in the S|5inni«».
fame manner as the uppennoft of a pair of drawing rol- "" * ~
lers lies on the under one, and receives motion from it.
It is evident that the fluted furface hf A, by turning
flowly round, and carrying the weight of the bobin,
compreffes a little the cotton that is between them ;
and its flutings, being fharp, take a flight hold of it,
and caufe it to turn round alfo, and thus coil up the
roove, pulling it in through the hole E in the upper
pivot (which refembles the fore pivot or eye of a fpin-
hing wheel fly) in fo gentle a manner as to yield when¬
ever the motion of the bobin is too great for the fpeed
with which the cotton Ikein is difeharged by the rollers
O and P.—-N. B; The axis QR below, alfo gives mo¬
tion to a guide within the jack, which leads the roove
gradually from one end of the bobin to the other, and
back again, fo as to coil it ivith regularity till the bo¬
bin is full. 1 he whole of this internal meehanifm of
the jack is commonly (hut up in a tin cylinder. This
is particularly neceffary when the whirling motion muff
be rapid, as in the fecond and third drawings. If open,
the jacks would meet with much refiftance from the air,
which would load the mill with a great deal of ufelefs
work.
T- he reader is defired now to return to the beginning
of the procefs, and to confider it attentively in its differ¬
ent ftages. We apprehend that the defeription is fuffi-
ciently perfpicuous to make him perceive the efficacy of
the mechanifm to execute all that is wanted, and prepare
a flab that is uniform, loft, and ft ill very extenfible ; in
ffiort, fit for undergoing the laft treatment, by which it
is made a fine and firm yarn.
As this part of the procefs differs from each of tire
former, merely by the degree of twift that is given to
the yarn, and as this is given by means of a fly, not ma¬
terially different from that of the fpinning wheel for flax,
we do not think it at all neceffary to fay any thino- more
about it. v v y b
The intelligent reader is furely fenfible that the yarn
produced in this way muff be exceedingly uniform. The
uniformity really produced even exceeds all expe&ation j
for even although there be fome fmall inequalities in the
carded fleece, yet if thefe are not matted clots, which
the card could not equalife, and only confift of a little
more thicknefs of cotton in fome places than in others,
when fuch a piece of the ftripe comes to the firft roller’
it will be rather more ftretched by the fecond, and again
by the bobin, after the firft very flight twining. That
this may be done with greater certainty, the weights of
the firft moving rollers are made very fmall, fo that tire
middle part of the fleein can be drawn through, while
the outer parts remain faft held.
It is faid that a pound of the fineft Bourbon cotton
has been fpun into a yarn extending a few yards beyond
119 miles! o j j
19 miles
Thefe contrivances have in fome parts of Scotland
been applied to the fpinning of flax. t ions of the
^PINNING Wheel. A very confiderable improvement Societyfor
has been made by Mr Antis of Fulneck near Leeds
the common fpinning wheel. It is well known, that^TT*
hitherto much time has been loft by flopping the wheel ^
in order to ftnft the thread from one ftaple on the flyer
to another ; but in Mr Antis’s wheel the bobin is made
to move backwards and forwards, fo as to prevent the
neceffity of this perpetual interruption, as well as to ob-
^ T viate
s P I [ • 59+ ’ ] S P I
Spinning viate the danger of breaking the thread and lofing the
. il end. This is effected by the axis of the great Avheel
being extended through the pillar next the {pinner, and
Plate formed into a pinion of one leaf A (fig. 2.), which takes
ccccxcix. into a wheel B, feven inches diameter, having on its
%• 2* periphery 97 teeth-, fo that 97 revolutions of the great
wheel caule one of theleffer wheel. On this leffer wheel
is fixed a ring of wire c c c ; .which, being fupported on
fix legs, ftands obliquely to the wheel itfeif, touching it
at one part, and projedling nearly three quarters of an
inch at the oppofite one : near the fide of this wheel is
an upright lever C, about 15 inches long, moving on a
centre, three inches from its lower extremity, and con-
nefted at the top to a Hiding bar D ; from which rifes
an upright piece of brafs E, which working in the notch
of a pulley drives the bobin k backward and forward,
according as the oblique wire forces a pin G in or out,
as the wheel moves round. To regulate and affift the
alternate motion, a weight H hangs by a line to the
Hiding bar, and palling over a pulley 1 rifes and falls as
the bobin advances or recedes, and tends confiantly to
keep the pin in contail with the wire. It is evident,
from this defcription, that one ftaple only is wanted to
the flyer j which, being placed near the extremity K,
the thread pafling through it is by the motion of the bo¬
bin laid regularly thereon. For this invention the So¬
ciety inflituted at London for the Encouragement of
Arts, &c. gave the author a premium of 20 guineas.
SPINOSUS caulis, in Botany, a Hem covered with
ftrong woody prickles, wbofe roots are not fuperficial,
but proceeding from the body of the Hem. \Vhen ap¬
plied to a leaf, JpitioJum folium, it indicates the margin
running out into rigid points or prickles, quod margine
exit in acumina duriora, rigida, pungenha.
SPINOUS, in Botany. See Spinosus.
SPINOUS Fifhes, fuch as have fome of the rays of the
back fins running out into thorns or prickles, as the
perch, &c.
SPINOZA, Benedict, was born at Amfterdam
the 24th November 1632. His father was a Jew of
Portugal, by profeflion a merchant. After being taught
Latin by a phyfician, he applied himfelf for many years
to the ftudy of theology, and afterwards devoted him¬
felf entirely to philofophy. He. began very early to be
diffatisfied with the Jewifli religion j and as his temper
was open, he did not conceal his doubts from the fyna-
gogue. The Jews, it is faid, offered to tolerate his in¬
fidelity, and even promifed him a penfion of a thoufand
dollars per annum, if he would remain in their fociety,
and continue outwardly to praftife their ceremonies.
But if this offer was really made, he rejedled it, per¬
haps from his averfion to hypocrify, or rather becaufe
he could not endure the reftraint which it would have
impofed. He alfo refufed being conftituted heir to an
independent fortune, to the prejudice of the natural
claimants ; and he learned the art of polilhing glafs
for fpe£tacles, that he might fubfift independently of
every one.
He would probably have continued in the fynagogue
for fome time longer, had it not been for an accident.
As he was returning home one evening from the the¬
atre he was {tabbed by a Jew: the wound was flight ;
but the attempt naturally led Spinofa to conclude that
the Jews had formed the defign of affaflinating. him.
After leaving the fynagogue he became a Chriltian,
and frequented the churches of the Lutherans and Cal- Spino;
vinifts. He now devoted himfelf more than ever to his U““‘VV
favourite philofophical fpeculations -, and finding him¬
felf frequently interrupted by the vifits of his friends,
he left Amfterdam, and fettled at the Hague, where he
often continued for three months together without ever
ftirring from his lodging. During his refidence in that
city, his hoftefs, who was a Lutheran, alked him one
day if Hie could be faved while Hie continued in her re¬
ligion ? “Yes (replied Spinoza) provided you join to
your religion a peaceable and virtuous life.” From this
anfwer it has been concluded that he was a Chriftian
in appearance only, while in reality he regarded all re¬
ligions as indifferent. But this conclufion would be
too fevere, even if the woman had been a Mahometan.
His TraEdatus Theologico-politicus, which was publiftied
about that time, is a better proof of his infincerity than
a thoufand fuch conclufions j for this book contains all
thofe doctrines in embryo which were afterwards un¬
folded in his Opera Pojlhuma, and which are generally
confidered as a fyftem of atheifm.
His fame, which had now fpread far and wide, obli¬
ged him fometimes to interrupt his philofophical reve¬
ries. Learned men vifited him from all quarters. While
the prince of Conde commanded the French army in
Utrecht, he intreated Spinoza to vifit him-, and though
he was abfent when the phildfopher arrived, he return¬
ed immediately, and fpent a confiderable time with him
in converfation. The ele£tor Palatine offered to make
Spinoza profeffor of philofophy at Heidelberg } which,
however, he declined.
He died of a confumption at the Hague on the 2x11
February 1677, at the age of 45. His life was a per¬
petual contradiftion to his opinions. He was tempe¬
rate, liberal, and remarkably difinterefted ; he was fo-
ciable, affable, and friendly. His converfation was
agreeable and inftruftive, and never deviated from the
ftricteft propriety.
The only edition of the works of Spinoza that we
have fee n is in two volumes fmall 4to j the former of
which was printed at Hamburg in the year 1670, and
the latter we know not where, in 1677, a few months
after his death. In the Tra&atus Theolcgico-politicus,
already mentioned, he treats of prophecy and prophets ;
and of the call of the Hebrews, whom he affirms to have
been diftinguilhed from other nations only by the ad¬
mirable form of their government, and the fitnefs of
their laws for long preferving their political ftate. He
is likewife of opinion, or at leaft pretends to be fo, that
God may, in what we call z fuper natural way, have gi¬
ven political inflitutes to other nations as well as to the
Hebrews, who were, he fays, at no time a peculiar
people to the Supreme Lord of heaven and earth -, for,
according to him, all hiftory, facred and profane, tefti-
fies that every nation was bleffed with the light of pro-
phecv. That light, indeed, if his notions of it be juft,
was of very little value. He labours to prove, that the
prophets were diftinguiflied from other men only by their
piety and virtue -, that their revelations depended wholly
on their imaginations and the difpofitions of their minds;
that they were often grofsly ignorant and highly preju¬
diced ; that the fpeculative opinions of one prophet are
feldom in unifon with thofe of another; and that their
writings are valuable to us only for the excellent rules
which he acknowledges they contain refpeaing the prac-
S P I
[fioxa.
■ tite of piety and virtue. He then proceeds to treat of
the divine law and of miracles j and endeavours to prove
that no miracle, in the proper fenfe of the ivord, can
have been at any time performed; becaufe every thing
happens by a neceffity of nature, the refult of the d£
vine decrees, which are from all eternity neceffary
themfelves. He acknowledges, that in the Scriptures,
which he profeffes to admit as true hiftory, miracles are
often mentioned ; but he fays that they were only fin-
gular events which the facred hiftorians imagined to be
miraculous: and he then gives fome very extraordinary
rules for interpreting the books of the Old and New
Teftaments where they treat of miracles, or appear to
foretel future events. See our articles Miracle and
Prophecy.
Having thus divefted the Scriptures of every thing
charaiteriflic of a revelation from heaven, he next calls
in queftion their authenticity. He affirms, in contra-
diftion to the cleareft internal evidence, that the Penta¬
teuch and all the other hiftorical books mull have been
written by one man ; and that man, he thinks, could
not have flouriffied at a period earlier than that of Ezra.
1 he grounds of this opinion are umvorthy of the ta¬
lents of Spinoza 5 for that he had talents is incontro¬
vertible. His principal objeftion to the authenticity of
the Pentateuch is, that Moles is made to fpeak of him-
felf in the third perfon, and to talk of the Canaanites
being then in the land ; and becaufe he finds in his
writings, as well as in the books of Joffiua, Judges,
Ruth, Samuel, &c. places deligned by names which he
fuppofes they had not in the early ages of which thefe
books contain the hiftory, he concludes that thefe wri¬
tings muft be one compilation from ancient records
made at a very late period ; more efpecially as the au¬
thor often fpeaks of things of great antiquity remaining
to this day. The books of Either, Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Chronicles, muft have been compiled, he thinks,
under the Maccabees 5 and he feems to conlider as of
equal value with them the ftory of Tobit, and the other
two apocryphal treatifes intitled the Wifdom of Solomon
and Ecelefiafticus.
Thefe fenfelefs cavils, worthy only of one of thofe
modern freethinkers whofe learning, in the opinion of
Bilhop Warburton, is not ffifficient to carry them even
to the confines of rational doubt, w^e have fufficiently
obviated in another place (fee Scripture, N° 8 31).
Spinoza urges them againft the other books of the Old
Teftament. The prophecies of Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Eze¬
kiel, Daniel, Hofea, and Jonah, are, as we have them,
only fragments, he fays, of the writings of thofe men
compiled by the Pharifees under the fecond temple from
ancient and voluminous records.
In the midft of this dogmatical fcepticifm, if we may
Uie fuch a phrafe, he bears fuch a teftimony to the lart
cnapters of the book of Daniel, as we fliould not have
looked for m the writings either of a Jew or of a Deift.
Alter detailing the various hypothefes which in his time
^vere held refpe&ing the author and the intention of the
book oi Job; in which, he fays, Momus is called Sa¬
tan, he proceeds in thefe words : “ Tranfeo ad Da-
melis librum ; hie fine dubio ex cap. 8. ipfius Danielis
cripta continet. Undenam autem priora feptem capi¬
ta efciipta fuerint, nefcio*;” thus admitting the fa¬
mous prophecy of the feventy weeks. The canon of
t e Old Teftament, he fays, was finally fettled by rab-
[ 595 1
s P 1
bins of the Pharifaical feft, who wiffied to exclude from Spinoza,
it the books of Proverbs, Ecc/ejiajies, and Ezekiel, as lT"—■
they had aftually excluded others of equal value ; but
the three books in queftion were inferted by the influ¬
ence of two of the rabbis of greater wifdom and inte¬
grity than the reft.
That fo paradoxical a writer, who had been original¬
ly a Jew, and was now almoft a Deift, ftmuld have
treated the New Eeftament with as little ceremony as
the Old, will not furprife the intelligent reader. He
begins his remarks, however, with affirming, that no
man can perufe the Chriftian Scriptures, and not ac¬
knowledge the apoftles to have been prophets ; but he
thinks that their mode ot prophefying was altogether
difiFerent from that which prevailed under the Mofaic
difpenfation j and that the gift, whatever it was, for-
fook them the inftant that they left off preaching, as
their writings have to him every appearance of human
compofitions. T his diftinftion between Chnftian and
Jewiffi prophecy is the more wonderful, that he founds
it principally on the diffimilarity of Jhjle vifible in the
writings of the Old and New Teftaments ; though, in
his fecond chapter, which treats of the ivorks of the
Jewiffi prophets, he fays exprefsly, “ Stylus deinde
prophet!ae pro eloquentia cujufque prophetae variabat,
prophetic enim Ezekielis et Amofis non funt, ut ilke
Efaiae, Nachumi, eleganti, fed rudiore ftylo feriptae.”
I hat the Hebrew fcholar may be convinced of the
truth of this remark, he recommends to him to ftudy
diligently the writings of thefe prophets, and to confi-
der the occafions on which their prophecies were utter¬
ed : “ Qute ft omnia rede perpendentur (fays he) fa¬
cile oftendant, Deum nullum habere ftydum peculiarem
dicendi, fed tantum pro eruditione, et capacitate pro-
phetae eatenus effe elegantem, compendiofum, feverum,
rudem, prolixum, et obfeurum.” Another objedion
brought by Spinoza againft the prophecies of the New
Teftament arifes from the authors of them having been
at all times mafters of therolelves. This, fays he, was
peculiarly the cafe of St Paul, who often confirms his
dodliine by reafoning, which the Jewiffi prophets never
condefcended to do, as it would have fubmitted their
dogmas to the examination of private judgment. Yet
with fingular inconfiftency, he affirms, that the Jewifti
prophets could not know that the impreffions made on
their imaginations proceeded from God, but by a fign
given them, which by their own reafon or judgment they
knew would never be vouchfafed to an impious or a
wicked man.
After thefe very free remarks on the Scriptures of
the Old and New Teftaments, he naturally enough ex-
preffes a fufpicion, that by thofe who confider the Bible
as the epiftle of God fent from heaven to men, he will
be thought to have finned againft the Holy Ghoft by-
vilifying his dictates. Phis leads him to inquire in what
fen(e the Scriptures are the word of God ; and he
gravely determines them to be fo only as they aBually
contribute to make men more virtuous and holy. It is
not enough that they are calculated to improve virtue
and holinefs . foi fhould the words of the languages in
which they are written acquire in procefs of time a fig-
nincation different from what they had originally; fhould
mankind lofe all know ledge of thefe languages ; or even
fhould they agree to neglect the books, whether from
ignorance or from wilfulnefs—thofe books would ceafe
4 F 2 t«
S P I [ 596 ] s P I
Spinoza. . to be the word of God, and become nothing better than
■’—  ' wafte paper and ink*, juft as the two tables, which Mo-
fes broke on obferving the idolatry of his countrymen,
were not the covenant between Jehovah and the Ifrae-
lites, but merely two pieces of ftone! The Scriptures,
however, are the word of God, becaufe they teach the
true religion of which God is the author*, and they
have taught it in fuch a manner, he fays, that it can
never be loft or corrupted whatever become of the books
of the Old and New Teftaments,or of the languages in
which they are written. The whole of religion, as
the Scriptures themfelves teftify, confills in the love of
God above all things, and ot our neighbours as our-
felves: whence it follows, that we muft believe that God
exifts, and watcheth over all things by his providencej
that he is omnipotent, and has decreed the pious to be
ultimately happy, and the impious miferable5 and that
cur final ialvation depends folely on His grace or favour.
Thefe truths, with their neceffary confequences, are the
word of God: they are clearly taught in the Scriptures,
and can never be corrupted; but every thing elfe in
thefe volumes is vain, he fays, and of no greater impor¬
tance to us than facts related in any other ancient and
authentic hiftory.
Such are the opinions which were entertained of re¬
velation by a man, whom a critic, writing in a Chriftian
country, and, profefling to be a zealous Chriftian him-
felf, has lately pronounced to have been a chofen veJfeL
For what purpofe he was chofen it is not eafy to con¬
ceive. His religion, as it appears in the TraRatus, is
the worft kind of Deifm, and his politics are fucb as
our monthly critics are not wont to teach, and fuch as.
we truft ftvall never be ferioufly taught by any Britifh
fubjeft. By the law of nature, he fays, every man be¬
fore the formation of civil government has an unquef-
tionable right to whatever appears eligible either to his
reafon or to his appetites j and may get poffeflion of it
by intreaty, by violence, by fraud, or by any other means
attended with lefs trouble to bimfelf {five vi,five dalo,
fiveprecibus,five quocunque demum modo faciliiupotent) ;
and may treat as an enemy every perfon who ftlall at¬
tempt to obftruft his purpofe. But when men agree
to devolve this right upon others, and to conftitute a
political ftate, which both reafon and appetite muft per-
fuade them to do, then are they in duty bound to obey
every mandate of the government, however abfurd it
may be {omnia mandata tametji abfurdiffima'), as long as
that government can enforce its edidiis, and no longer j
for according to him, right and power are fo infepa-
vably united, that when a government lofes its power, it
has no longer the fmalleft claim to obedience. 'I his
do&rine, he fays, is moft obvioufy juft when taught of
democratical governments; but it is in faff equally true
of monarchies and ariftocracies: “ Nam quifquis fum-
mam habet poteftatem, five unus fit, five pauci, five de-
nique omnes, certum eft ei fummum jus quicquid velit
imperandi, competere: et preoterea quifquis poteftatem fe
defendendi, five fponte, five vi coaRus, in alium tranf-
tulit, eum fuo jure naturali plane cefliffe, et confequen-
ter eidem ad omnia abfolute parere decreviffe quod om¬
nia proeftare tenetur, quamdiu rex, five nobiles, five po-
*TraBa pulus fummara, quam acceperunt, poteftatem, quae juris
tvs, cap. transferendi fundamentum fuit, confervant*, nec his plu-
xvlp. iSi.ra addere opus eft*.” We heartily agree with him,
a
that to this precious coneiufion it is needlefs to add a Spinczl J
{ingle word.
Taking our leave therefore of his TraRatus Theolo-
gico-politicus, we {hall now give our readers a ftiort ac¬
count of his Opera Pqflhuma. Thefe confift of, 1. E-
THICA, more geometrico demonfrata; 2. Politica 5
3. D& Emendatione Inteleectus *, 4. Epistoue,
et ad eas Respqnsiones j 5. Compendium Gramma-
TICES LlNGUJE HEERiEiE.
The Ethica are divided into five parts, which treat
in order, de Deo j de natura et origine mentis 5 de ori¬
gin e et natura affectuum 5 de servitute humana,feu
de AFFECTUUM V1RIBUS *, de POTENT IA INTEELECTUS,
feu de libertate humana. As the author profcffcs to
tread in the foottleps of the geometers, and to deduce
all his conclufions by rigid demonftration from a few
felf-evident truths, he introduces, his work, after the
manner of Euclid, with a colleftion of definitions and
axioms. Thefe are couched in terms generally ambi¬
guous j and therefore the reader will do well to con-
fider attentively in what fenfe, if in any, they can be
admitted; for it will not be found eafy to grant his
premifes, and at the fame time refufe his conclufions.
His definition of fubftance, for inftanee, is fo expreffed
as to admit of two fenfes; in one of which it is juft,
whilft in the other it is the parent of the moft impious
abfurdity. We (hall give it in hb own words: “ Per
fubftantiam intelligoid, quod in fe eft, et per fecor.ei-
pitur: hoc eft id, cujus conceptus non indiget concep-
tu alterius rei, a quo formart d.ebeat.” If by this be
meant, that a fubftance is that which eve can conceive
by itfelf without attending to any thing elfe, or thinking
of its formation, the definition, we believe, will be ad¬
mitted by every refle£ling mind as fufticiently diftim-
guifhing the thing defined from an attribute, which, he
fays, is that which we perceive of a fubllance, and
which we certainly cannot conceive as exifting by it¬
felf. Thus the writer of this article can fliut his eyes
and contemplate in idea the fmall 4to volume now be¬
fore him, without attending to any thing elfe, or think¬
ing of its paradoxical author, or evenfef the Great Being
who created the matter both of him and of it; but he
cannot for an inftant contemplate the yellow* colour of
its vellum boards without thinking of. triple extenfion,
or, in other words, of body. The book therefore is a.
fiubfiance, becaufe conceivable by itfelf; the colour is an
attribute or quality, becaufe it cannot be conceived by
itfelf, but neeeflarily leads to the conception of fome-
thing elfe. But if Spinoza’s meaning be, that nothing
is a fubftance but what is conceived as exifting from
eternity, independent of every thing as a caufe, his de¬
finition cannot be admitted ; for. every man conceives
that which in himfelf thinks,, and wills, and is con-
feious, as a fubftanee; at the fame time that he has the
beft evidence poflible that he exifted not as a confeious,
thinking, and aftiye being, from eternity.
His fourth axiom is thus expreffed: “ Effe&us cog-
nitio h. cognition© caufse dependet, et eandem involvit;”'
and his fifth, “ Quse nihil commune cum fe invicem
habent, etiam per fe invicem ititelligi non poffunt, five
conceptus unius alterius conceptum non involvit.” I he
former of thefe propofitions, fo far from being felf-evi¬
dent, is not even true; and the latter is capable of two
fenfes very different from each other. T hat every of-
S P I
. uoza,
Her ’i
ues
'one ting
feft proceeds from a caufe, is indeed an axiom ; but
- furely we may know the effeft accurately, though we
be ignorant of the particular caufe from which it pro¬
ceeds (fee Philosophy, N° 36 ; and Physics, N° 91,
&c.) j nor does the knowledge of the one by any means
involve the knowledge of the other. If different things
have nothing in common, it is indeed true that the
knowledge of one of them will not give us an adequate
conception of the other ; but it will in many cafes com¬
pel ns to believe, that the other exijls or has exifled.
A parcel of gunpowder lying at reft has nothing in
common with the velocity of a cannon-ball j yet when
we know that a ball has been driven with velocity
from a cannon, we infer with certainty that there has
been a parcel of powder at reft in the chamber of that
cannon.
It is upon fuch ambiguous definitions and axioms as
thefe that Spinoza has raifed his pretended demonftra-
tions, that one fubftance cannot produce another ; that
every fubftance muft neceifarily be infinite ; that no
fubftance exifts or can be conceived befides God ; and
that extended fubftance or body is one of the infinite
attributes of God. We fhall not wafte our own time
or the reader’s with a formal confutation of thefe im¬
pious abfurdities. We truft they are fufficiently con¬
futed in other articles of this work (fee Metaphysics,
Part HI. Providence, and Theology, Part I.) 5 and
whoever willies for a more, particular examination of the
author’s principles, may find it in Dr Clarke’s Demon-
ftration of the Being and Attributes of God. The
truth, however, is, that no man will need the aftiftance
of that eminent metaphyfician to difeover the fallacy of
the reafuning by which they are attempted to be pro¬
ved, if he affix any one precife meaning to the definitions
and axioms, and adhere to that meaning fteadily through
the whole procefs of the pretended demonftrations.
By way of apology for this jargon, it has been late¬
ly laid, that u bpinoza takes the word fubjlance in its
moft limple and perfect fenfe •, which is neceflary, as he
writes mathematically,and propofes a fimple idea as the
foundation of his theory. What is the proper fignifi-
cation of a fubftance ? Is it not that which Hands alone,
which has the caufe of its exiftence within itfelf ? I
wi(h that this fimple meaning of the word could be uni-
verfally admitted in philofophy. Stri6Ily fpeaking, no
worldly thing is a fubftance •, fince all mutually depend
on each other, and finally on God, who, in this exalted
fenfe,.is the only fubjlance. The word modification founds
harffi and improper, and therefore it cannot be expedb-
ed to gain a place in philofophy ; but if the fchool of
Leibnitz may term matter the appearance of fubfancesy
why may not Spinoza be allowed a bolder term ? World¬
ly fubftances are kept in union by divine power, as it
was by divine power that they had exiftence. They
reprefent alfo, if you pleafe, modified appearances of di¬
vine power; each according to the ftation, the time,
and the organs, in and with which it appears. The
C 597 1
S P I
phrafe ufed.by Spinoza is concife, and it gives an unity Spinoza.
and fimplicity to his whole fyftem, however ftrange it ^
may found in our ears.”
From this account of Spinozifm, one who had never
looked into the works of the author would be led to
fuppofe that bis fyftem is the fame with that of Berke¬
ley ; which, denying the exiftence of material fubftance,
attributes all our perceptions of what we call the qua¬
lities of body to the immediate agency of the Deity On
our minds (fee Metaphysics, Part II. chap. 3.). But
Spinoza’s dodfrine is very different. According to him,
bodies are either attributes or affedlions of God 5 and as
he fays there is but one extended fubftanee, he affirms
that fubftance to be indivifible, and employs a long
fcholium f to prove that thofe are miftaken who fup-f See hi*
pofe it finite and not ejfential to the Deity. That we do f>roP- xv*
not mifreprefent his fentiments, the learned reader will&'c‘
be convinced by the two following definitions, with
which he introduces that part of his ethics which treats
of the nature and origin of mind. 1. “ Per corpus in-
telligo modum, qui Dei effentiam, quatenus, ut res ex-
tenfa confideratur, certo et determinato modo expri-
mit.” 2. “ Ad effentiam alicujus rei id pertinere dico
quo dato res neceffario ponitur, et quo fublato res necef-
fano tollitur 5 vel id, fine quo res, et vice verfa quod
fine re nec efle nec concipi poteft.” In conformity
ivith thefe definitions, he attempts to prove that God is
an extended as well as a thinking fubltance ; that as a
thinking fubftance he is the caufe of the idea of a circle, Prop. viL
and as an extended fubftance of the circle itfelf; and xi- Part ii.
that the minds of men are not fubftances, but certain
modifications of the divine attributes ; or, as he fi.me-
tiines expreffes it.. “ Quod humanse mentis aauale con-
ftituit, eft idea rei fingularis a&u exiftentis.” Hence,
he fays, it follows that the human mind is a part of the
intellect of the infinite God ; fo that when we fpeak of
the human mind perceiving this or that, we can only
mean that God, not as he is infinite, but as he appears
in the human mind or conrtitutes its offence, has this or
that idea j and when we fpeak of God’s having this or
that idea, we muft conceive of Him not only as confti-
tuting the human mind, but as, together with it, having
the idea of fomething elfe (a). In another place he
tells us, that the human mind is-nothing but the idea
which God has of the human body as actually cxiftino-;
that this idea of the body, and the body itfelf, are one
and the fame thing j and that thinking and extended
fubftances are in reality but one and the fame fubftance,
which is fometimes comprehended under one attribute
of the- Deity, and fometimes under another *. * Prop. vh.
If this impious jargon be not Atheifm, or as it has xiii-xxi-
been fometimes called Pantheifm, we know not what itPartii*
is (fee Pantheism). According to Spinoza, there is
but one fubftance, which is extended, infinite, and in¬
divifible. That fubftance indeed he calls God ; but he
labours to prove that it is corporeal ; that there is no
difference between mind and matter j that both are at¬
tributes
, < Hl"c fequ‘tur mentem humanam partem effe infir.iti intelledhis Dei; ac proinde cum dicimus mentem
numanam hoc vel illud percipere,. nihil aliud dicirous quam quod Deus, non quatenus infinitus eft, fed’ nuatenu-
per naturam humanse mentis explicatur, five quatenus humanae mentis effentiam conftituit, bane vel illam habe*-
et-cum dieimus Deum hanc vel illam ideam habere, non tantum, quatenus naturam humanse mentis con~
Utuit; led quatenus fimul cum mente humana alterius rei etiam kabet ideam. Carol, prop. xi. part 2.
Spinoza.
* Prop,
xxsiii.
Part i.
tributes of the Deity varioully conlidered ; that the hu¬
man foul is a part of the intelleft of God } that the
fame foul is nothing but the idea of the human body ;
that this idea of the body, and the body itfelf, are one
and the fame thing $ that God could not exilt, or be
conceived, were the vifible univerfe annihilated 5 and
therefore that the vifible univerfe is either the one fub-
Itance, or at leaft an effential attribute or modification
of that fubftance. He fometimes indeed fpeaks of the
power of this fubftance ; but when he comes to explain
himfelf, we find that by power he means nothing but
blind neceflity * ; and though he frequently talks of
the wifdom of God, he feems to make ufe of the word
without meaning. This we think evident from the
long appendix to his 36th propofition 5 in which he
labours to prove that the notion of final caufes is an idle
figment of the imagination, fince, according to him,
nothing but the prejudices of education could have led
men to fancy that there is any real diftin&ion between
good and evil, merit and demerit, praife and reproach, or¬
der and confufion ; that eyes were given them that they
might be enabled to fee; teeth for the purpofe of chew¬
ing their food; herbs and animals for the tnatter of that
food; that the fan was formed to give light, or the ocean
to nourifhfifhes. If this be true, it is impuftible to dif-
cover wifdom in the operations of his onefubflance; fince,
in common apprehenfion, it is the very charafteriftic of
folly to a£t without any end in view.
Such are the reveries of that writer, whofe works a
German philofopher of fome name has lately recom¬
mended te the public, as calculated to convey to the
mind more juft and fublime conceptions of God than
are to be found in moft other fyftems. The recommen¬
dation has had its effecl. A literary journalift of our
own, reviewing the volume in which it is given, feels a
peculiar fatisfadlion from the difcovery, that Spinoza,
inftead of a formidable enemy to the caufe of virtue and
religion, was indeed their warmeft friend 5 and ploufty
hopes that we {hall become more cautious not to fuffer
ourfelves to be deceived by empty names, which thofe
who cannot reafon (Sir Ifaac Newton and Dr Clarke
perhaps) give to thofe who can (Hobbes, we fuppofe,
and Spinoza). But though we have the honour to
think on this queftion with our illuftrious countrymen,
we have no defire to depict Spinoza as a reprobate, which
‘the critic fays has often been done by ignorance and
enthufiafm. We admit that his condu£l in aftive life
was irreproachable ; and for his fpeculative opinions, he
muft ftand or fall to his own Mafter. His Ethics ap¬
pear to us indeed a fyftem fhockingly impious; and in
the traft intitled POLITICA, power and right are con¬
founded as in the former volume ; but in the treatife
De Intellectus Emendations, are fcattered many
precepts of practical wifdom* as well as fome judicious
rules for conducing philofophical inveftigation; and we
only regret, that the reader muft wade to them through
pages of fatalifm, fcepticifm, and palpable contradic¬
tions. His Compendium Grammatices .Litigate Hebrcece,
though left imperfefl, appears to have fo much merit,
that it is to be wifhed he had fulfilled his intention of
writing a philofophical grammar of that language, in¬
ftead of wafting his time on abftrufe fpeculations, which
though they feem not to have been injurious to his own
virtue, are certainly not calculated to promote the vir-
I
tue of others, or to increafe the fum of human happi- Spinoz;
nefs. .11 '
SPIRAEA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs of
icofandria, and to the order of pentagynia; and in the > 4 s'li
natural fyftem arranged under the 26th order, Pomaces.
See Botany Index.
SPIRAL, in Geometry, a curve line of the circular
kind, which in its progrefs recedes from its centre.
SPIRE, in Architecture, was ufed by the ancients
for the bafe of a column, and fometimes for the aftragal
or tore ; but among the moderns it denotes a fteeple
that continually diminifties as it afcends, whether coni¬
cally or pyramidally.
SPIRIT, in Metapliyfics, an incorporeal being or
intelligence ; in which fenfe God is faid to be a fpirit, as
are angels and the human foul. See Metaphysics,
Part HI.
Spirit, in Chemiflry and Pharmacy, a name applied
to every volatile liquid which is not infipid like phlegm
or "water ; and hence the diftindlion into acid, alkaline,
and vinous fpirits.
Spirit of Wine. See Alcohol, Chemistry Index ;
Distillation, and Materia Medica Index.
SPIRITS, or Animal Spirits. See Anatomy,
Part V. N° 136.
SPIRITUAL, in general fomething belonging to
or partaking of the nature of fpirit. See Spirit.
SPIRITUOUS liouors hj.ve in all nations been
confidered as a proper fubjeft of heavy taxation for the
fupport of the ftate. This has naturally occafioned a
nice examination of their ftrength. It having been at
laft found that this was intimately connedled with the
fpecific gravity, this has been examined with the moft
fcrupulous attention to every circumftance which could
affedft it, fo that the duties might be exa6lly proportion¬
ed to the quantity of fpirit in any ftrong liquor, inde¬
pendent on every other circumftance of flavour or tafte,
or other valued quality. The chemift at laft found
that the bafis of all ftrong liquors is the fame, produced
by the vinous fermentation of pure faccharine matter
diflblved in w7ater. He alfo found, that whether this
vegetable fait be taken as it is fpontaneoufly formed in
the juices of plants and fruits, or as it may be formed
or extricated from farinaceous fruits and roots by a cer¬
tain part of the procefs of vegetation, it produces the
fame ardent fpirit, which has always the fame denfity
in every mixture with water. The minute portions of
aromatic oils, which are in fome degree infeparable from
it, and give it a different flavour according to the fub¬
ftance from which it was obtained, are not found to
have any fenfible effeft on its denfity or fpecific gravity.
This feems very completely eftablifhed in confequence
of the unwearied attempts of the manufa&urers to leflen
the duties payable on their goods by mixtures of other
fubftances, which would increafe their denfity without
making them lefs palatable. The vigilance of the re¬
venue officers was no lefs employed to deteft every fuch
contrivance. In ftiort, it is now an acknowledged point,
that the fpecific gravity is an accurate teft of the
ftrength.
But though this is true in general, we cannot derive
much benefit from it, unlefs we know the precife rela¬
tion between the ftrength and the denfity of a Ipiritu-
ous liquor. Do they increafe pan paffu, or by what
law
S P I
I rituous law are they conneded > It was natural to exped that
liquors- equal additions of ardent fpirits or alcohol to a given
quantity of water would produce equal diminutions of
denfity. Areometers were accordingly made on this
principle above 200 years ago, as may be feen in the
works of Gafpar Schottus, Sturmius, Agricola, and
other old authors. But when mathematical phyfics be¬
came more generally known, this was eafily difcovered
to be erroneous ; and it was fliown (we think firft by
Mr Boyle) that equal additions to the fpecific gravity
would be produced by fucceflively taking out of any
veffel a certain meafure of alcohol and replacing it with
an equal meafure of water. This was the molt conve¬
nient difcovery for all parties, becaufe then the duties
payable on a calk of fpirits would be in the exad pro¬
portion of the diminution of its denfity. But it was
foon found by thofe who were appointed guardians of
the revenue that this conclufion was erroneous, and
that a mixture which appeared by this rule to contain
35 gallons of alcohol, did really contain 354. This they
found by a&ually making fuch a mixture : 18 gallons
of alcohol mixed with 18 of water produced only 35
gallons of fpirits. The revenue officers, finding that
this condenfation was moft remarkable in mixtures of
equal parts of water and the ftrongeft fpirits which could
then be procured, determined to levy the duties by this
mixture 3 becaufe, whether the fpirituous liquor was
dronger or weaker than this, it would appear, by its
fpecific gravity, rather ftronger than it really was. This
fagacious obfervation, and the fimplicity of the compo--*
fition, which could at all times be made for comparifon,
feem to be the reafons for our excife offices fele&ing
this mode of eftimating the llrength and levying the
duties. A mixture of nearly equal meafures of water
and alcohol is called proof spirit, and pays a certain
duty per gallon 3 and the ftrength of a fpirituous liquor
is eftimated by the gallons, not of alcohol, but of proof
fpirit, which the calk contains. But becaufe it might
be difficult to procure at all times this proof fpirit for
comparifon, fuch a mixture was made by order of the
board of excife : and it ivas found, that when fix gallons
[ 599 1
S P 1
of it -was mixed with one gallon of water, a wine gal- Spirituous
Ion of the mixture weighed 7 pounds 13 ounces avoir- Liquors,
dupois. The board therefore declared, that the fpirituous ""Y——'
liquor of which the gallon weighed 7 pounds 1 3 ounces
ffiould be reckoned 1 to 6 or 1 in 7 under proof. This
is but an awkward and complex formula 5 it was in
order to fuit matters to a mode of examination which
had by time obtained the fandtion of the board. Mr
Clarke, an ingenious artift of that time, had made a
hydrometer incomparably more exadt than any other,
and conllrudled on mathematical principles fit for com¬
putation. This had a fet of weights correfponding to
the additions of water or proof fpirit, and the mixture
1 to 6 or 1 in 7 was the only one which weighed an ex-
adt number of ounces per gallon without a fradfion.
I hus Hands the excife law 3 and Clarke’s hydrometer
is Hill the inflrument of authority, although others have
been fince conltrudled by Dicas, (£uin, and others,
which are much more ingenious and convenient. The
mathematician who examines Dicas’s hydrometer, with
its Hiding fcale, by which it is adjufled to the different
temperatures, and points out the eondenfations, will
perceive a beautiful and fagacious combination of quan¬
tities, which he will find it difficult to bring under any
analytical formula. Perhaps Quin’s may have fome
preference in refpedl of conveniency 3 but facile inventis
udi/ere. Mr Dicas’s was original (a).
As naturaliHs became more accuHomed to exadt ob-
fervations in every topic of inquiry, the condenfation
which obtains in the mixture of different fubHances be¬
came more familiarly known. This evidently affcdls
the prefent quefton ; and both the excife and the diltil-
lers are interefled in its accurate decifion. This occa¬
sioned an application to the Royal Society 3 and a moff
fcrupulous examination of the flrength of fpirituous li¬
quors was made by Sir Charles Blagden and Mr Gil¬
pin, of which they have given a very particular account
in the Philofophical Tranfadlions for 1790 and 1792.
We have taken notice of this in the article Specific
Gravity, mentioning fuch circumdances of the refults
as fuited our purpofes of phyfical difcuffion. At pre¬
fent
(a) Among the various contrivances which have been thought of, among manufadlurers and dealers, as well as
for the purpofes of revenue, for afcertaining the fpecific gravity, and confequently the real flrength and value of
high-priced and high-taxed liquids, we are perfuaded there is none equal, in point of accuracy, fimplicitv, and fa¬
cility of application, to the areometrica) beads lately announced to the public by Mrs Lovi of Edinburgh, under
the privilege of a patent ; and with this perfuafion we have no hefitation in recommending them to thofe to whom
tne ufe of a Ample and accurate inflrument is of great importance in determining the value of high-priced fpirituous
liquors. Our recommendation refts not folely on our own opinion, but is fupported by that of others who are well
acquainted with fuch fubjedls. We know, too, that the beads have been examined and compared by feveral intel¬
ligent manufacturers and dealers with fome of the moft accurate hydrometrical inftruments, and after a fair trial a
decided preference has been given to the beads. The whole apparatus confifls of 100 beads, a Hiding rule, a ther¬
mometer, a glafs jar and brafs hook, which are packed in a neat fmall box 3 and it is accompanied with directions
which pomt out, 1. In what manner the real ftrength of fpirits may be afcertained at any given temperature be¬
tween 4(D0 and 8o°. 2. How much per cent, the fpirit to be tried is over or under proof according to the prac¬
tice of fpirit-dealers 3 and, 3. The proportion ef water and the ftrongeft fpirits or alcohol, according to the views
and language of excifemen. The advantages of thefe beads are, that being made of a fubftance which is little
aded on by chemical agents, they are lefs liable to be injured by ufe, than inftruments compofed of metal ; and
when a bead happens to be broken, it can be eafily replaced. They poffefs this farther advantage, that with the
application of the thermometer, and the calculation of the Hiding-role, the real ftrength of the fpirits may betaken
at all temperatures. It has been fuggefted, that thefe beads, from their being lefs liable to change than other in-
uni nents, might be ufefully employed in checking the errors and variations of other hydrometers. Beads ara
prepared by Mrs Lovi on the fame principle for afcertaining the ftrength of worts, acids, &c.
S P I
[ 600 ]
S P I
Spirituous fent we give tlie general refult in the table of fpecinc
, ^1(luars> _ gravity, as peculiarly belonging to fpirituous liquors,
affording the mod exa£t account of their denfity in
every date of dilution of alcohol with water. And
as tire relation between the proportion of ingredients
and the denfity is peculiar to every fubdance, fo that
fearcely any inference can be made from one to another,
the reader will confider the tables here given as charac-
teridic with refpect to alcohol. In all lolutions of falts
we found that the condenfation increafes continually with
the dilution, whereas it is greated when equal bulks of
water and alcohol are mixed •, yet we do not confider
this as an exception ", for it is certain, that in the drong-
ed brine the faline ingredient bears but a fmall propor¬
tion to the water—and when we mix two folutions, the
condenfation is greated when they are nearly equal in
bulk. But we think ourfelves entitled to infer, that al¬
cohol is not a dilution of a fubdance in a quantity of
water ; but that water, in a certain proportion, not very
didant from what we can produce by flow didillation, is
an ingredient of alcohol, or is one of its component parts,
and not merely a vehicle or mendruum. We therefore
imagine that proof fpirit contains nearly equal bulks of
water and ardent fpirits.
The great difficulty in this examination arofe from
the very diffimilar expanfions of water and alcohol by
-heat. This determined Sir Charles Blagden to edimate
the proportions of ingredients by weight, and made it
abfolutely neceffary to give a fcale of fpecific gravity and
drength for every temperature. For it mud be remark¬
ed, that the quedion (whether in commerce or philofo-
phy) always is, “ How many gallons of alcohol and of
water, taken jud now and mixed together, will pro¬
duce a hundred gallons of the fpirit we are examin¬
ing ?” The proportion of thefe two will be different
according to the temperature of both. As many mix¬
tures therefore mud have been made in each proportion
as there were temperatures confidered •, but by taking
the ingredients by weight, and examining the denfity
of the compound in one temperature, it is then heated
and cooled, and its change of denfity obferved. Calcu¬
lation then can tell us the change in the proportion of
the bulks or numbers of gallons in the mixture, by
means of a previous table fhowing the expanfions of wa¬
ter and of alcohol.
The alcohol fele&ed for this examination had the
fpecific gravity 0.825. This is not the pured that can
be procured*, fome was produced of 0.816, of 0.814,
and 0.813, both obtained from rum, from brandy, and
from malt fpirit. We are informed that Dr Black has
obtained it of the fpecific gravity 0.8 by digeding al¬
cohol with fixed ammoniac (muriatic acid united with
lime) made very dry. It dephlegmates alcohol very
powerfully without decompofing it, which always hap¬
pens when we ufe caudic alkali. Alcohol of 0.825 was
chofen becaufe expreffed by a number of eafy manage¬
ment in computation.
The examination commenced by afcertaining the ex¬
panfions of water and alcohol. The temperature 6q°
of Fahrenheit’s fcale was fele&ed for the general tem¬
perature of comparifon, being eafy attainable even in
cold weather, and allowing the examinator to operate
at eafe. The fird and lad compartments of the tables
contain the weights and fpecific gravities of alcohol and
water for every fifth degree ot heat from 3°° 1° too°.
From thefe we have conftru&ed the two following little Spiritoji
tables of expanfion. The bulk of rooo ounces, pounds, L>qun!
or other weight of water and of alcohol of the tempera-
ture 6o°, occupies the bulks expreffed in the tables for
every other temperature. Water could not be eafily or
ulefully examined when of the temperature 30°, beeaufe
it is with great difficulty kept fiuiu in that temperature.
It is very remarkable, that when it can be fo kept, it
expands indead of contracding $ while cooling down
from 350 or thereabouts, and as it approaches to 3 2°,
it expands rapidly. We obferve the fame thing in the
crydallization of Glauber fait, martial vitriol, and fome
others, which contain much water in their crydals. We
obferve, on the other hand, a remarkable contradlion
in the zeolite jud before its beginning to fwell into
bubbles by a red heat.
Heat.
3°
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Bulk of 1 co,ooo ounces.
Of Water.
99910
99906
99914
99932
99962
100000
100050
100106
100170
100241
100320
100404
100500
100608
Diff.
— 4
+ 8
18
3°
38
50
56
64
71
79
84
96
108
Of Alcohol.
II9I95
1I95I4
1x9839
120172
1205x4
120868
121122
i2'565
121919
x 22279
122645
123017
123393
I23773
124157
Diff.
3T9
325
332
342
348
35°
353
354
360
366
372
376
380
384
This being premifed, the examination was condu&ed
in the following manner. It was determined to mix
100 parts by weight of pure alcohol with five, ten, fif¬
teen, twenty, parts of didilled water, till they were
compounded in equal quantities, and then to mix 100
parts of didilled water with, 95, 90, 85, 80, Sec. parts
of alcohol, till they were mixed in the proportion of 100
to 5. Thus a feries of mixtures would be obtained, ex¬
tending from pure alcohol to pure water. This feries
would be fuch, that the examinations would be mod
frequent in the cafes mod ufual in the commerce of
drong liquors. A fet of phials, fitted with ground
doppers, were provided, of fizes fit to hold the intended
mixtures. Thefe mixtures were made by fufpending
the phial to the arm of a very nice balance, in the op-
pofite fcale of which (befides the counterpoife. of the
phial) there was placed the weight 100. Spirit was
then poured into the phial till it exaftly balanced the
weight 100. The weight for the water to be added
was then put into the oppofite fcale, and water was
poured into the phial by means of a (lender glafs funnel,
by fmall quantities at a time, and the phial frequently
agitated to promote the mixture. When the additional
weight was exa&ly balanced, the phial was taken oft, its
dopper put in, and leather tied over it, and it was fet by,
for at lead a month, that the mixture and the whole
procefs of condenfation might be completed. The lame
* method
S P I [ 601 ] S P 1
•ritaous method was followed in the mixtures where the water
iquors. was predominant.
When the ingredients of thefe mixtures were judged
to have completely incorporated, their fpecific gravity
was examined by weighing with the moil fcrupulous pre-
ciilon the contents of a veflel which held 292 c troy
grains of water, of the temperature 6o°. The balance
was fo exceedingly fenfible, that the 50th part of a grain
greatly deranged its polition when loaded with the
fcales and their contents. It was conftrueted by Mr
Ramfden, and fame account of its exquilite fenlibility
may be feen in the Journal de PhyJ'tquc, vol. xxxiii.
This quantity of materials was therefore thought abun¬
dantly fufficient for afcertaining the denfity of the li¬
quor. It is needlefs to detail the precautions which
were taken for having the contents of the weighing
bottle brought to the precife temperature proper for
the experiment. They were fuch as every perfon con-
verfant with fueh things is accuftomed to take.—The
bottle had a flender neck, and being put on a lathe,
a mark was made round it with a diamond. The bot¬
tle was filled till the bottom of the hollow furface of
the fluid was in the plane of this mark $ and to judge
of the accuracy attainable in filling the bottle, the ope¬
ration was feveral times repeated and the contents weigh¬
ed, without the difference of ^th of a grain in 2925.
The only fource of error which was to be guarded
■againft was air-bubbles adhering to the infide of the
bottle, or moiftufe eondenling (in the experiments with
low temperatures) on the outfide. Both of theie were
attended to as much as poflible.
This method of determining the fpecific gravity was
preferred to the ufual method, obferving the weight loft
by a lump of giafs when fufpended in water •, for Mr
Gilpin had been enabled, by means of this nice ba¬
lance, to difcover, even in pure water and in alcohol,
a want of perfect fluidity. Something like vifcidity
rendered the motion of a lump of giafs through the
liquor fenfibly fluggifh, fo that when the balance was Spirttuoos
brought to a level, there was not a perfedt equilibrium , lfluors-
of weight: (See what ave have faid of this matter
in Specific Gravity). Mr Gilpin alfo tried the
ingenious inftrument propofed for fuch experiments
by Mr Ramfden, and defcribed by him in a pamphlet
on this very fubjedt; and he found the anomalies
of experiment much greater than in this method by
weighing.—Indeed the regular progreflion of weights
to be feen in the annexed tables is an unqueftionable
proof of the fufficiency of the method ; and it has the.
evident advantage of all other methods in point of fim~
plicity and pradiicability without any uncommon ap¬
paratus. Any perfon poflefied of a good ordinary ba¬
lance and a fet of exadt weights may examine all quef-
tions of this kind, by weighing pure water and the li¬
quor which he may have occafion to examine in a com¬
mon 6 or 8 ounce phial. For this reafon, it is recom¬
mended (in preference to all hydrometers) to the board
of excife to provide this Ample apparatus in every prin¬
cipal office.
Every experiment was made at leaft three times ; and
the mean refult (which never differed one grain from
the extreme) was taken.
From thefe experiments the annexed tables were
conttrudled. The firft is the Ample abffradl of the ex¬
periments, containing the weights of the contents of
the bottle of every mixture. The fecond contains the
fpeciAc gravities deduced from them.
We have faid that the experiments appear furprifiug¬
ly accurate. This we faid on the authority of the re¬
gular progreffion of the fpecific gravity in any of the
horizontal rows. In the feries, for inftance, for the
temperature 6o°, the greateff anomaly is in the mixture
of 50 parts of fpirit with ICC of water. The fpecific
gravity is 95804, wanting 3 or 4 of the regular pro-
greffion. This does not amount to 1 in i8ooo»
S P 1
s p i [ 602 3
Table I. Weights at the different Degrees of Temperature.
Heat.
3°
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
00
The pure
Spirit
Grains.
2487*35
2480.87
2474.3°
2467.62
2460.75
2453.80
2447.OO
244O.I 2
2433*23
2426.23
2419.02
2411.92
2404.90
2397.68
2390.60
100 grams
jf fpirit U
5 grains
of water.
100 gram*
jf I'pirit to
o grams
of water.
Heat.
100 grain
if Ipirit t(
70 grains
of water.
deg.
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
7°
75
80
85
90
95
100
Grams
2519.92
25I3*43
2506.75
2500.14
2493*33
2486.37
2479.56
2472.75
2465.88
2458.78
2451.67
2444.63
2437.62
2430*33
2423.22
tuo grams
H fpirit
75 g*aiirs
of water.
Grains.
2744.20
2738-i3
2732.24
2726.09
2719.93
2713.60
2707.40
2701.05
2694.76
2688.14
2681.50
2674.95
2668.29
2661.51
2654.76
Heat.
Grains.
548.42
54i*84
2535-4I
>28.75
2521.96
2515*°3
2508.27
2501*53
2494.56
2487.62
2480.45
2473*33
2466.32
2459*13
2452.13
to of
Grains.
2753*75
47*74
2741.86
2735-77
2729.64
2723*51
271-7.30
2710.96
2704.64
2698.07
2691.50
2684.98
2678.49
2671.82
2664.99
o grains
of Ipirit to
100 grains
of water,
3°
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
73
75
80
85
90
95
100
55 grams
it fpiri
100 gram
of water
100 grains
of fpirit to
t j grains
of water.
too grains
>{ fpirit to
;o grains
of water.
Grains.
2573.80
2567.26
(2560.74
2554*09
2547-47
2540.60
2533*83
2526.99
2520.03
2513.08
2506.08
2499.ox
2491.99
484.74
2477.64
00 grain:
fpirit
So grains
of water.
to of
Grains.
2762.72
2756*91
2750.96
2744.82
2738.74
2732.64
2726.52
2720.25
2713.87
2707.49
2700.94
2694-53
2687.99
2681.34
2674.62
to of
50 grains
' fpirit t
too grain-
of water.
Grains.
2852103-
284,7.45
2842.62
2837.64
2832.7-6
827.68
2822.65
2817.49
8l 2.16
2806.7 5
2801.25
2795.69
2790.13
2784.36
2778.64
Grains. Grains
2859.71 12867.
2^5*32 U863,
2850.88 12859,
2846.1612854.
2841.52 {2850,
2836.6912845
2831.90 2841,
2826'.9o 2836
2821.7-8 2831.01
2816.63 2826.56
2811.23 28-’ -Q
2805.85 28
2800.40 28
2794.91 2805.79
2789.32 2800.25
,12
.16
.06
.67
•29
•72
.10
3°
,6i
-.56
1.38
6.32
i*°5
2805.79
100 grains
of fpirit to
25 grains
of water.
Grains.
2596.66
2590.16
2585.66
2577.1°
2570-42
2563.64
2556.9°
2550.22
2543*32
2536.39
2529.24
2522.29
2515.28
2508.IO
25OO.91
00 grains
fpirit to
85 grains
of water.
100 grains
of fpirit to i
90 grains
of water
Grains.
2771.08
2765.32
2759*5°
2753*36
2747.27
2741.24
2735*I7
2728.98
2722.75
2716.35
2709.76
27°3*33
2696.91
2690.33
2683.63
100 grains
of fpirit to
30 grains
of water.
Grains.
2617.30
2610.87
2604.50
2597.98
259i.38
2584.65
2577*95
2571.24
2564.47
2557*61
2550*5°
2543*54
2536-63
2529.46
2522*30
100 grams
of fpirit to
35 ^-ins
ot water.
100 grams
of fpirit to
95 grains
of water.
Grains.
2778.99
2773.22
2767.48
2761.42
2755*37
2749*27
;2745.28
2737*°9
2730.94
2724.64
2718.12
2711.86
27°5*37
2098.86
2692.25
Grains.
2636.23
2629.92
2623.56
2617.03
2610.54
2603.80
2 597.22
2590.55
2583.88
2576-93
2569.86
2563.01
25 56.II
2549*13
2541.92
too grains
of fpirit
00 grains
of water,
Grains.
2786.36
2780.59
2774.90
2768.85
2762.95
2756.83
2750.93
2744.86
2738-73
2732.39
2726.06
2719.74
2713.32
2706.88
2700.33
45 grains 40 grains
of fpirit to of fpirit to
100 grams
of water
100 grains
of water.
Grains
2874*43
2870.87
2867.08
2863.04
58.96
2854*75
28 50.50
2845.97
2841.42
2836.80
2831.92
2827.12
2822.15
2817.08
2811.80
35 gram
of Ipirit to
ico grains
of water.
Grains.
2881.34
2878.21
2874.81
2871.22
2867.52
2863.75
28 59.87
2855*65
285I-53
2847.14
2842.56
2838.07
2833.38
2828.46
2823.55
Grains.
2653*73
2647.47
2641.08
2634.64
2628.21
2621.50
2615.03
2608.37
2601.67
2594.80
2587*93
2580.93
2574.02
2567.03
2559*96
too grains
if fpirit
40 grains
of water.
to of
100 grains 1
“ fpirit to
45 grams
of water.
Grains.
27Q3.22
2787.54
2781.84
2775*94
2770.14
2764.09
2758.17
2752.21
2746.06
2739.89
2733*53
2727.25
2721.OI
2714.61
2708.04
Grains.
2669.83
2663.64
2657.23
2650.87
2644.43
2637.86
2631.37
2624.75
2617.96
2611.19
2604.29
2597*45
2590.60
2583*65
2576*56
95 graini
>f i'pirit to
too grain
oi water.
Grains.
2799.85
2794.19
2788.69
2782.99
2777.19
2771.29
2765.40
2759*47
2753*4l
2747.23
2740.93
2734.80
2728.59
2722.23
7I5*73
Grains.
2684.74
2678.60
2072.30
2666.04
2659.55
2653.04
2646.53
264O.OI
2633.32
2626.55
2619.72
2613.02
2606.16
2599.24
2592.14
90 grains
>f fpirit
100 grains;
of water.
to of
30 grams
if fpirit t-
100 grains
of water.
Grains.
2887.77
2885.06
I2882.30
I2879.22
,2875.98
128 72.6 7
! 2869.15
1286 3.4?
12861.63
!28c7.70
: 28.53 *3 8
2849.28
2844.81
2840.26
(2835.30
Grains.
2806.61
2801.14
2795.70
2789.99
2784.30
2778.54
2772.70
2766.73
2760.75
2754*73
2748.42
2742.3X
2736.23
2729.89
2723*35
0 a!
grams
fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
ao grains
of fpirit
ioo grams
of water,
00 grains
of fpirit to
50 grains
of water.
100 grams
ot fpirit tc
55 Erains
of water.
Grains.
2698.51
2692.43
2686.32
2679.99
2673.64
2667.14
2660.62
2654.04
2647.52
2640.81
2633.99
2627.39
2620.52
2613.57
2606.50
85 grains
’ fpint t
00 grains
of water.
o of
Grains.
2813.85
2808.52
2803.17
2797*45
2791.72
2785.96
2780.26
2774*43
2768.45
2762.58
2756.43
27 50.22
2744.24
2737*98
2731*55
Grains.
2711.14
2705.14
2698.94
2692.77
2686.54
2679.98
2673*55
2667.07
2660.63
2653*99
2647.12
2640.60
2633.74
2626.94
2619.75
ioo grains
of fpirit to
60 grains
of water.
100 grains
of fpirit to
65 grains
of water.
So grams
fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
Grains.
2722.89
2716.92
2710.81
2704.57
2698.42
2691.83
2685.52
2679.15
2672.74
2666.06
2659.36
2652.78
2646.OO
2639.25
632.17
78 grams
of fpirit tc
too grains
of water.
Grains.
2733*87
2727.87
2721.83
2715.62I
2709.481
2702.98;
2696.73 j
2690.321
2684.021
2677*341!
2670.69
2664.16
2657.41
2650.62
2643.75
too
70 grams
of fpirit
too grains
of water.
65 grains
f (pirit tot
100 grains
of water.
Grams.
2821.35
2816.07
2810.73
2805.08
2799.58
2793.82
2788.25
2782.62
2776.72
2770.93
2764.87
2758.80
2752.76
2746.57
2740*43
to of
15 Erains
fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
Grains.
2894.22
2892.07
2889.78
2887.33
2884.57
2881.69
2878.72
2875.49
2872.06
2868.49
2864.54
'2860.86
2856.80
2852.47
2848.18
Grains.
2900.85
2899.31
^897.61
2895.67
2893.58
289I.I I
2888.62
2885.85
2882.90
2879.67
2876.22
2872.88
2869.16
2865.15
2861.12
Grains.
2908.21
2907.45
2906.39
2904.98
29°3*39
2901.42
2899*35
2897.09
2894.56
2891.79
2888.73
2885.56
2882.25
2878.71
2875.07
Grains.
2828.90
2823.68
2818.36
2812.93
2807.56
2801.89
2796.45
2790.81
278 5.06
2779.26
2773*33
2767.44
2761.51
2755*34
2749.28
10 grains
of fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
Grains.
2917.19
2916.95
2916.41
2915*55
2914.42
2913.02
2911.32
2909.43
29°7*33
2905.04
2902.35
2899.55
2896.58
2898.44
2890.04
Grains
2928.80
2928.99
2928.93
2928.49
2927.81
926.73
2925.50
2923.90
2922.24
2920.17
2917.83
2915.46
291 2.84
2910.02
2906.97
Grains.
2836.39
2831.36
2826.31
282I.OO
2815.71
2810.23
2804.85
2799.38
2793.80
2788.OO
2782.14
2776.33
277°*59
2764.57
2758.48
Grains,
2844.16
2839.26
2834.40
2829.28
2824.12
2818.80
2813.65
2808.31
2802.88
2797.21
2791.52
2785.81
2780.II
2774.25
2768.43
5 grams
of fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
Water.
Grains.
2944*53
294 5.02
2945*25
2945.20
2944*73
2943.98
2942.98
2941.69
2940.13
2938*33
2936.31
2934.14
2931.77
2929.15
2926.28
Grains.
2967.14
2967.45
2967.40
2967.05
2966.34
2965.39
2964.II
2962.66
2960.97
2959.07
2956.94
2954*7°
2952.08
2949*34
0 P I
[ 603 ]
S P I
Table II. Real Specific Gravities at the different Temperatures.
Heat
deg.
3°
35
40
45
5°
55.
60
65
70
75
80
85
9°
95
:oo
^eat
100 grains
of fpirit t
70 grains
of water.
leat
The pure
fpirit.
.83896
.83672
•83445
.83214
.82977
.82736
.82500
.82262
.82023
.81780
.81283
.81039
.80788
.80543
.92563
•92355
.92151
•91937
•9I723
.91502
.91287
.91066
.90847
.90617
•90385
.90157
.89925
.89688
•89453
60 grain.
of fpirit t
ico grain*
of water.
.96209
.96048
.95878
•957°J
•95534
•95357
.95181
.93000
.94813
.94623
•94431
•942.36
.94042
•93839
•93638
too grams 100 grains
6t i'pint toof fpirit to
5 8rains
of water.
.84995
.84769
•84539
.843 to
.84076
•83834
•83599
.82362
.83124
.82878
.8263 l
.82386
.82142
.81888
.81643
too grain;
of fpirit t<
75 grains
of water.
10 grams
of water.
too grains 100 grains
of fpirit topf fpirit to
15 grains 20 grains
of water, ‘-of water.
•85957
•85729
•85507
•85277
.85042
.84802
.84568
•84334
.84092
.83851
.83603
•83355
.831 11
.82860
.82618
.92889
.92680
.92476
.92264
.92050
.91837
.91622
.91400
.91181
.9095 2
•90723
.90496
.90270
.90037
.89798
55 grams
if fpirit t(
i 00 grain:
of water.
.96470
•96315
.961 59
•95993
•95831
.95662
•95493
•953 *8
•95I39
•94.957
.94768
•94579
•94389
.94196
•93999
100 grains
of fpirit to
So grains
of water.
‘93'9*
.92986
.92783
.92570
•92358
.92145
•9I933
•9l7l5
■9im
.91270
.91042
.90818
•90590
•90358
.90123
too grains
of fpirit to
25 grains
of water.
.86825
.86587
.86361
.86131
.85902
.85664
•85430
•85I93
.84951
.84710
.84467
.84221
•83977
.83724
.83478
too gram
of fpirit to
S5 grains
of water.
50 grams
of fpint t<
100 grain
of water.
.96719
•96579
•96434
.96280
.96126
.95966
.95804
•95635
.95469
.95292
•95111
.94932
•94748
•94563
.94368
•93474
•93274
.93072
•92859
.92647
.92436
.92225
.92010
•91793
.91569
.9*340
.91119
.90891
.90662
.90428
45 grams
of fpirit to<
100 grains
of water.
.96967
.96840
.96706
•96563
.96420
.96272
.96122
.95962
195802
.95638
.95467
•9 3297
•95123
.94944
•94759!
•87585
•87357
•87134
.86907
.86676
.86441
.86208
.85976
•85736
.85493
.85248
.85006
.84762
.84511
.84262
100 grains
of fpirit to
90 grains
of water.
•93741
•93541
•93341
-93'3'
.92919
.92707
•92499
.92283
.92069
•9l839
.91622
.91403
•91177
.90949
.90718
.88282
.88059
.87838
.87613
•87384
.87150
.86918
.86686
.86451
.86212
.85966
•85723
•85483
•85232
.84984
100 grain
of fpirit ti
oof
30 grains
of water.
ico gram
of fpirit t
95 grains
of water.
40 grams
if fpirit t<
100 grain
of water.
.97200
.97086
.96967
.96840
.96708
•96575
•96437
.96288
*<>6l43
•95987
.95826
• Q C667
•95502
•95328
•95152
•93991
.9379O
•9359
•93382
•93 *77
.92963
.92758
.92546
•92333
.92111
.91891
.91670
.91446
.91221
.90992
35 grains
:>f fpirit to
(00 grains
of water.
.97418
•973I9
.97220
.97116
.96995
.96877
.96752
.96620
.96484
•96344
.96192
.96046
.95889
•953 27
•95556
.88921
.88701
.88481
.88255
.88030
.87796
.87568
•87337
.8710 5
.86864
.86623
.86380
•86139
.85896
.85646
100 grain
of fpirk t
too grain
of water.
oof
.94222
,94025
.93827
.93621
•93419
.93208
.93002
.92794
.92580
.92364
.92142
.91923
•9l7°5
.91481
.91252
30 grains
if fpirit n
100 grain,
of water
•9763 5
*97556
.97472
•97384
.97284
.97181
.97074
•96959
.96836
.96708
.96568
•96437
.96293
.96139
•95983
100 grams
" fpirit to
35 grains
of water.
roo gram
of fpirit tc
40 grains
of water.
.89511
.89294
.89073
.88849
.88626
•88393
.88169
.87938
.87705
.87466
.87228
.86984
.86743
.86499
.86254
95 grams
fpirit t
100 grains
of water.
oof
•94447
.94249
.94058
.93860
•93658
•9345 2
•93247
.93040
.92828
.92613
•92393
.92179
.91962
.91740
•91513
25 grams
of 1'pirit to
ico grains
of water
oof
.90054
.89839
.89617
.89396
.89174
.88945
.88720
.88490
.88254
.88018
.87776
•87541
.87302
.87060
.86813
90 grains
fpirit t
100 grain
of water.
•94675
.94484
•94295
.94096
•93897
.93696
•93493
*93285
.93076
.92865
.92646
.92432
.92220
.91998
.91769
.97860
9,8" 1
•97737
.97666
•97589
•97500
.97469
.97309
*97203
.97086
.96963
.96843
.9671 i
.96568
.96424
20 grain;
of fpirit te
too grain;
of water
.98108
.98076
.98033
.97980
97847
.97771
.97688
•97596
.'97495
•97385
.97271
•97153
•97625 j
.96895
100 grams
fpirit to
45 grains
of water.
100 grains
of Ipirit to
50 grains
of water.
•96558
•9°345
.90127
.89909
.89684
.89458
.89232
.89006
.88773
.88^38
.88301
.88067
.87827
.87586
.87340
:o of
85 grains
" fpirit t
100 grain
of water.
.94920
•94734
•94547
.94348
.94149
•93948
•93749
•93546
•93337
‘93'3*
.92917
.92700
.92491
.92272
.92047
15 grams
of fpirit tc
too grains
of fpiiit t
55 grains
of water.
.91023
.90811
.90596
.90380
.9016c
•89933
.89707
•89479
.89252
.89018
.88781
.88551
.8831 2
.88069
.87824
oof
So grain-
* fpirit ti
100 grain:
of water.
•95I73
.94988
.94802
.94605
.94414
.94213
.94018
.93822
.93616
•93413
.93201
.92989
.92779
.92562
•92346
otaf
.91449
.9(241
.91026
.90812
.90596
.90367
.90144
.89920
.89695
.89464
.89225
.88998
.88758
.88521
.8827 1
75 grams
of fpirit tc
100 grains
of water
ro grains
of fpirit to
100 grainsltco grams
of water of water.
.98412
■9S397
•98373
.98338
.98293
.98239
.98178
.98106
.98028
•97943
•978-»v
•97744
•97637
•97523
.97401
,98804
.98804
•98795
.98774
•98745
.98702
.98654
*98594
•98527
.98454
.98367
.98281
.98082
.97969
•95429
.95246
.95060
.94871
.94683
.94486
.94296
.94099
.93898
•93695
.93488
.93282
•93° 75
•92858
.92646
5 grams
of Ipirit tc
roo grain*
of water.
roo grains
’ fpirit to
60 grains
of water,
•9l847
.91640
.91428
.91211
.90997
.90768
.90549
.90328
.9c 104
.89872
.89639
.89409
•89173
.88937
.88691
70 grams
of fpirit to
too grain:
of water.
65 grains
of ipirit tc
100 grains
oi water.
.95681
•95502
•95328
•95I43
.94958
.94767
•94579
•94388
•94I93
.93989
•93785
•93582
•9338i
•93J7°
•92957
Water.
•99334
•99344
•99345
•$9338
.99316
.99284
.99244
.99194
•99154
.99066
.98091
•c, S91 2
•98824
.98729
.98625
i.cocpo
1.00604
1.00086
1.C006S
1.00038
I .QCOOO
.9995c
.99894
.99830
•99759
.9968 (
.99 ^98
•99502
.99402
tco grams
of fpint to
65 grains
of water.
92217
9 2CO9
91799,
91584
9137O
91144
90927
90707
90484
90252
9C0 2I
89793
89558
89322
89082
*95944
•95772
.9 i;6o2
•95423
•95243
•95057
.94876
.94689
.94500
.94301
.94102
.93902
•93703
•93497
•93293
4 G 2
Spirituous
Liquors.
S P I [ 6c
We formerly obferved, that the feries of mixtures
^ chofen by Sir Charles Blagden, for the advantages at¬
tending it. in making the experiment, was not fuited for
folving the queftions which commonly occur in the
fpirit bulinefs. He accordingly fuggells the propriety
of forming tables in a convenient feries from the data
furnilhed by thefe experiments, indicating the propor¬
tion of ingredients contained in feme conllant weight or
bulk.
To facilitate the conftru&ion of fuch tables, it is ne-
ceffary to confider the iubjeft in the molt general man¬
ner. Therefore let a reprefent the conllant number
100. Let vj and s reprefent the quantities of water and
fpirit by weight in any mixture } that is, the pounds,
ounces, or grains of each. Let x reprefent the quantity
per cent, of fpirits alfo by weight; that is, the number
of pounds of i'pirits contained in 100 pounds of the mix¬
ture •, and let 7/ be its quantity per cent, in gallons, or
the number ol gallons contained in loo gallons of the
unmixed ingredients. Let m be the bulk of a pound of
fpirit of any given temperature, the bulk of a pound of
water of the fame temperature being accounted i.
Then 'm-j-J is the weight of any mixture, and u> +
ms is its bulk.
We have the following proportions: i.u,-f-.r : s—a : .v,
and = ■■<l ■- (Equation ill) j and hence s may be
found when x the per centage in weight is given, for
(Equation 2d).
m r
2. ’w-l-ms : ms—a : y, and y—a ;  (Equation
and r may be found when y, the per centage in
3d)
gallons, is given
for rrr
m y
a—y
(Equation 4th).
The ufual queftions which can be folved from thefe
experiments are,
I. To afeertain the quantity of fpirits per cent, in
bulk from obfervation of the fpedfic gravity, or to tell
how many gallons of fpirit are xn 100 gallons of mix¬
ture.
Look for the fpecific gravity in the table, and at the
head of the column will be found the w and s corre-
fponding. If the precife fpecific gravity obferyed is not
in the tables, the j muft be found by interpolation. And
here it is proper to remark, that taking the fimple pro¬
portional parts of fpecific gravity will not be fufficiently
exaft, efpecially near the beginning or the end of the
table, becaufe the denfities correfponding to the feries
of mixtures does not change uniformly. We muft have
recourfe to the general rules of interpolation, by means
of fir ft and fecund differences, or be provided with a
fubfidiary table of differences. A good deal of praftice
in computations of this kind fuggefted the following me¬
thod of making fuch interpolations with great difpatch
Plate and abundant accuracy. On a plate of wood or metal,
ccccxcix or ftiff card-paper, draw a line EF (fig. 1.), as a fcale
% I* of equal parts, reprefenting the leading or equable arith¬
metical feries of any table. (In the prefent cafe EF is
the fcale on which s is computed).—-Through every
point of divifion draw the perpendiculars BA, EC, ED,
&c. Make one of them AB more confpicuous than
the reft, and diftinguiftx the others alfo in fuch fort, that
the eye ftiall readily catch their diftance from the prin-
5
4 3 s p 1 .
cipal line AB. Let GPL be a thin flip of whalebone,
of uniform breadth and tbicknefs, alfo divided into ^
equal parts properly diftinguithable. Laftly, let there
be a pin P fixed near the middle of the principal line
AB.
Now fuppofe that a value of s is to be interpolated
by means of an obferved fpecific gravity not in the ta¬
ble. Look for the neareft to it, and note its diftance
from the preceding and the following. Let thefe be
PH and PK on the flexible fcale. Alfo take notice of
the lines K 10 and PI IO, wholediftances.from AB are
equal to the conftant difference between the fucceflive
values of S, or to any eafily eftimated multiple of it (as
in the prefent cafe we have taken 10 and 10, inftead of
5 and 5, the running difference of Sir Charles Blag-
den’s table). Then, leaning the middle point P of the
whalebone on the pin P in the board, bend it, and place
it flantwife till the points K and H fall fomewhere on
the two parallels K 10 and H 10. No matter how
oblique the pofition of the whalebone is. It will bend
in fuch a manner that its different points of aivxfion (re-
prefenting different fpecifie gravities) will fall on the
parallels which reprefent the correfponding values of s.
We can fay that all this may be done in lefs than half
a minute, and lefs time than is neceffary for infpe&ing a
table of proportional parts, and not the tenth part of
that neceffary for interpolating by fecor.d differences.
Yet it is exa£l enough (if of the fize of a duodecimo
page) for interpolating three decimal places. . This is
ten times more exafl: than the prefent cafe requires. 1 o
return from this digreflion.
Having thus found s in the table, we get .v or y by
as , ms
the equations—— =x, and " ~7TL77
1 w-\-ms
But here a material circumftance occurs. The weight
of alcohol x, and its per centage x, was rightly deter¬
mined by the fpecific gravity, becaufe it was interpolated
between two values, which were experimentally con-
nedled with this fpecific gravity. But in making the
tranfition from * to y, we only give the per centage in
gallons before mixture, but not the number of gallons
of alcohol contained in an hundred gallons of mixed li¬
quor. For when we have taken a—y and y inftead of
w and s, they will indeed make a fimilar compound
when mixed, becaufe the proportion cf their ingredients
is the fame. But they will not make 100 gallons oi
this compound, becaufe there is a (hrinking or conden-
fation by mixture, and the fpeeific gravity by which we
interpolated x is the phyfical or real fpecific gravity cor-
refponding to w and x ; while PeciPL 8ra'
vity implied in the value of y, is the mathematical den-
fity independent on this condenfation. Since therefore y,
together with a—y, make lefs than 100 gallons of the
compound, there muft in 100 gallons of it be more alco¬
hol than is expreffed by y.
Let G be the mathematical fpecific gravity (_
and ^ the phyfical or real obferved fpeci-
w-{-ms/ .
fic gravity (which we cannot exprefs algebraically) j
and let « be the gallons of alcohol really contained m
100 gallons of the compound. The bulk being inverfe-
ly as the denfity or fpecific gravity, it is evident that
the bulk of the compound muft be to ico gallons asg
Spirituoui
Liquors.
S P I - [ Go
to G. And fince we want to make it flill up to too
gallons, we muft increafe it in the proportion of G to
g. And becaufe this augmentation mutt be of the
fame ftrength with this contrafted liquor, both ingredi¬
ents muft be increafed in the proportion of G to g, and
we
muft have G : g—y
• r
mftead of y, write a —
J ' an _
s, and z=gx-^r- Now,
-, and inftead of Avrite
s G
zv-j-m s
which are refpectively equal to them. This
gives us X'zzg a X
w-]-ms ms
X —, =? «X—r—
All this wall be illuftrated by an example.
Suppofe that w7e have obferved the fpeciftc gravity of
a fpirituous liquor of the temperature 6q° to be 0.94128.
Looking into Sir Charles Blagden’s table, wre find the
gravities 0.94018 and 0.94296, and the s correfpond-
ing to them is 80 and 75, the water in each mixture
being 100. By interpolation we obtain the j- corre-
fponding to 0.94128, viz-. 78. At this temperature
=1.212x2, and m ^=94.54545. Therefore
£=0.94128 X 100 X ^4'~^~^-,=49,997,orveryncar-
194.54545
ly 50.
We have feen even perfons not unacquainted with
fubjedis of this kind puzzled by this fort of paradox,
a is faid to be the per centage of fpirit in the com¬
pound. The compound has the fame proportion of in¬
gredients when made up to 100 gallons as before, when
y was faid to be its per centage, and yet y and £ are not
the fame. The fa£l is, that although % is the number
of gallons of alcohol really contained in xco gallons of
the compound, and this alcohol is in the fame propor¬
tion as before to the water, this proportion is not that
of 50 to 50 : for if the ingredients were feparated again,
there would be 50 gallons of alcohol and 52,876 of
water.
The proportion of the ingredients in their feparate
ftate is had by the 3d equation y~a—^ , which
is equivalent to G «•
j1’
For the prefent example
y will be found 48.599* and a—y, or the water per
cent. 51.401, making 100 gallons of unmixed ingre¬
dients. We fee then that there, has been added 1.398
gallons of alcohol j and fince both ingredients are aug¬
mented in the proportion of G to g, there have alfo
been added 1.478 of water, and the whole addition for
making up the 100 gallons of compound is 2.876
gallons -y and if the ingredients of the compound were
feparate, they would amount to 102,876 gallons. This
might have been found at the firft, by the proportion,
G : g—G=ioo : {The addition)*
The next queftion which ufually occurs in bufinefs is
to find what denfity will refult from any propofed mix¬
ture per gallon. This queftion is folved by means of .
the equation—In this examination it will
m («—y)
be moft convenient to make w—a. If the value of j*
found in this manner falls on a value in the tables, wre
Si . . s p I
have the fpecific gravity by infpeftion. If not, we muft Spuftnous
interpolate. Liquors. ^
N. B. The value of which is employed in thefe
reductions, varies with the temperature. It is always
obtained by dividing the fpecific gravity of alcohol of
that temperature by the fpecific gravity of water of the
fame temperature. The quotient is the real fpecific
gravity of alcohol for that temperature. Both of thefe
are to be had in the firft and lafi: compartments of Sir
Charles Blagdenrs table.
Thefe operations for particular cafes give the anfwers
to particular occafional queftions. By applying them
to all the numbers in the table, tables may be conftruCt-
ed for folving every queftion by infpeCtion.
There is another queftion which occurs moft fre¬
quently in the excife tranfaftions, and alfo in all com-
pofitions of fpirituous liquors, viz. What ftrength wnl
refult from a mixture of two compounds of known
ftrength, or mixing any compound with water ? To
folve queftions of this kind by the table fo often quo¬
ted, we muft add into one fum the water per gallon of
the different liquors. In like manner, take the fum of
the fpirits, and fay, as the fum of the waters is to that
of the alcohols, fo is # to s ; and operate with a and s
as before.
Analogous to this is the queftion of the duties.
Thefe are levied on proof fpirit ; that is, a certain duty
is charged on a gallon of proof fpirit; and the gauger’s
bufinefs is to difcover how many gallons of proof fpirit
there is in any compound. The fpecification of proof
fpirxtin our excife laws is exceedingly obfeure and com¬
plex. A gallon weighing 7 pounds 13 ounces (at 550)
is accounted 1 to 6 under proof. The gallon of water
contains 58476 grains, and this fpirit is 54688. Its
denfity therefore is 0.93523 at 550, or (as may be in¬
ferred from the table) 0.9335 at 6o°. This denfity
correfponds to a mixture of xoo grains of water with
93.457 of alcohol. If this be fuppofed to refult from
the mixture of 6 gallons of alcohol with 1 of water (as
is fuppofed by the defignatkm of 1 to 6 under proof),
the gallon of proof fpirits confifts of 100 parts of fpirits
by weight, mixed with 75 parts of xvater. Such a fpirit
will have the denfity 0.9162 nearly.
This being premifed, in order to find the gallons of
proof fpirits in any mixture, find the quantity of alco¬
hol by weight, and then fay, as 100 to 175, fo is the
alcohol in the compound to the proof fpirit that may be
made of it, and for which the duties muft be paid.
We have confidered this fubjecf at feme length, be¬
caufe it is of great importance in the fpirit-trade to have
thefe circumftances afeertained with precifion ; and be¬
caufe the fpecific gravity is the only lure criterion that
can be had of the ftrength. Firing of gunpowder, or
producing a certain bubble by lhaking, are very vague
tells •, whereas, by the fpecific gravity, we can very fe-
curely afeertain the ftrength within one part in 500, as
will prefently appear.
Sir Charles Blagden, or Mr Gilpin, has publilhed * * Philo/.
a moft copious fet of tables, calculated from thefe valu- Tranfac.
able experiments. In thefe, computations are made for1?^*
every unit of the hundred, and for every degree of the
thermometer. But thefe tables are ftill not in the moft
commodious fortn for bufinefs. Mr John Wilfon, an
ingenious gentleman refiding at Dundee, has juft pub¬
lilhed
S P I [ 606 ] S P I
Spirituous Hfhcd at Edinburgh tables fomewhat fitnilar, founded
( 'quors. on tjie fame experiments. Both of thefe tables (how
—V—'the quantities by meafure correfponding to every unit
by weight of Sir Charles Blagden’s experiments, and
for every degree of temperature. They alto Ihovv the
per centage of alcohol, and the condenfation or the
quantity loft by mixture. But as they both retain the
original feries of parts by weight, which is very unufual,
the fpirit traders will find confiderable difficulty in
making ufe of them. Retaining this feries alfo caufes
all the per centage numbers (which are the only inte-
refting ones to the trader) to be fractional, and no an-
fwer can be had without a double interpolation.
We have therefore calculated a table in the form in
which it mult be moft ufeful and acceptable to thofe
who are engaged in the fpirit trade, (bowing at once
the fpecific gravity which refults from any proportion of
admixture in hundredth parts of the whole. This an-
' fwers immediately the chief queitions in the terms in
which they are ufually conceived and propofed. T he
two firft or leading columns*(how the proportion in gal¬
lons, pints, or other cubic meafures, of the mixture, the
whole quantity being always too. The fecond column
(hows the correfponding fpecific gravity : fo that we
can either find the proportion of the ingredients by the
obferved fpecific gravity, or find the gravity refulting SphiidJ
from any proportion of the ingredients, A third co- Liqwl
lumn {hows how much the hundred meafureS of the two "““V'1'
ingredients fall (hurt of making an hundred meafures of
the compound. A fimple proportion, which can be
done without the pen, will determine what part of this
deficiency mult be made up by fpirit. The ufe of this
table muff now be fo familiar to the reader’s mind,
that We need not give further inftruftions about it.
This is followed by another fimilar table, giving an
immediate anfwer to the mod ufual quell ion, “ How-
many meafures of alcohol are there really contained in
100 meafures ? This is alfo accompanied by a column
of condenfation. It would have been famewhat mofe
elegant, had the fpecific gravities in this table made thd
equable feries and leading column. But we did not ad¬
vert to this till we had computed the table, and the la¬
bour was too great to be repeated for flight reafons.
The tables are only for the temperature 6o°. To this
the fpirituous liquors can always be brought in thefe cli¬
mates j and in cafes where we cannot, a moment’s in-
fpeftion of Sir Charles Blagden’s table will point out
very nearly (or exactly, by a fliort computation) the
necefiary corrections.
Compound.
S. W
too
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
91
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
73
7i
70
69
68
67
66
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*3
14
*5
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
Specific
Gravity.
Cond.
per
cent.
O.825O
O.8278
O.8306
0-8333
O.836Q
O.8387
O.8413
O.8439
O.8465
O.849I
O.8516
O.8542
O.8567
O.8592
O.8617
O.864I
0.8666
0.8690
0.8713
0.8737
0.8760
0,8764
0.8807
0.8830
0.8853
0.8876
0,8899
0.8921
0.8944
0.8966
0.8988
0.9010
0.9031
0.9053
0.9073
0.19
o-33
0.4
o-5
0.6
0.7
0.8
3-9
1.
1.1
1.2
I-3
1.4
3-5
J-5
1.6
3-7
1- 7
3-7
1.8
1.9
2.
2,
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.2
2- 3
2-3
2.4
2.5
2-5
2-5
2-5
Compound.
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
w.
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
Specific
Gravity.
°-9073
0.9095
0.9116
°-9137
°-9I57
0.9177
0.9198
0.9218
0.9238
0.9257
0.9277
0.9296
0.9316
0-9335
0-9353
0.9371
0.9388
0.9406
0.9423
0.9446
0.9456
0.9473
0.9489
0-9505
0.9 c 20
0-9535
0.9549
0.9563
0-9577
0.9590
0.9603
0.9616
0.9628
0.9640
Cond.
per
Cent.
2-5
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.6
2-5
2.5
2.4
2.4
2-3
2-3
Compound.
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
39
18
37
16
x5
J4
l3
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
o
w.
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
Specific
Gravity
0.9640
O.9651
O.9662
O.9673
O.9683
O.9693
O.9704
o-97I3
0.9724
0-9734
0.9744
0.9754
0.9763
0-9773
0.9783
0-9793
0.9802
0.9812
0.9822
0.9832
0.9842
0.9 B 53
0.9863
0.9874
0.9886
0.9897
0.9909
0.9921
0-9933
0.9946
0-9959
0.9972
0.9981
1.0000
Ccnd.
per
2-3
2- 3
2.2
2.1
2.
I.9
1-9
1.8
J-7
1.6
1.6
I-5
3- 4
3-3
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0-5
0.4
0.3
o-3
0.2
0.1
0.07
0.03
0.01
0.00
S P I
[ 607 ]
S P I
Spir.
per
cent.
IOO
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
91
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
69
68
67
66
Specific
Gravity.
0.82500
O.82629
0.83142
0.83449
0.83750
o 84048
0-84339
0.84621
0.84900
0.85172
^•85443
0.8 C704
o.8597«
0.86228
0.86483
0.86737
0.86987
0.8723;
0.87481
0.87726
0.87969
0.88207
0.88445
0.88676
0.88909
0.89140
0.89367
°-89593
0.89815
0.90035
0.90241
0.90464
0.90675
0.90885
0.91095
Contr.
O.18
0.34
0.46
o*57
0.68
0.8
0.9
1.01
1.11
1.21
I-3I
1-39
1.47
I,54
1.61
1.67
1- 74
1.81
1.88
1.94
2.
2.05
2.11
2.17
2.22
2.26
2.31
2.36
2.41
2.49
2.47
2- 51
2-55
2-59
Spin
per
cent.
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5°
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
Specific
Gravity,
Contr.
o*9I095
0.91306
0.91511
0.91714
o.91914
0.92112
0.92308
0.92501
0.92692
0.92883
0,93072
0.93258
0*9343^
0.93612
0.93786
0-93958
0.94128
0.94293
°-94455
0.94610
0.94768
0.94923
0*95°74
0.9 9219
°-95364
0.95502
0.95636
0.95766
0.95894
0.96019
0.96141
0.96258
0.9637!
0.96481
2-59
2.62
2.64
2.66
2.68
2.70
2.72
2.74
2.76
2.77
2.78
2.80
2.81
2.8 r
2.82
2.81
2.79
2.78
2.76
2-73
2.71
2.70
2.68
2.66
2.63
2.60
2.58
2-54
2.49
2.46
2-43
2.38
2-33
2.27
Spir.
per
cent.
33
32
3i
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
l9
18
x7
16
»5
M
I3
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
o
Specific
Gravity.
0.96481
O.96587
O.9669I
O.96793
O.96894
O.96992
O.97089
°-97185
0.97280
o-97374
0.97468
0.97561
0.97654
0.97747
0.97841
0.97936
0.98032
0.98129
0.98228
0.98328
0.98430
0.98634
0.98640
0.98748
0.98858
0.98973
0.99091
0.99211
°-99334
0.99461
0.99591
0.99725
0.99861
1.00000
Contr.
2.27
2.21
2.15
2.08
2.00
I-93
1.86
i-79
1.71
1.63
1.56
1.48
1.4
1.32
1.24
1.17
1.08
1.00
•93
.85
.78
•71
.66
.61
•51
•43
•34
•25
.18
.12
•7
•3
.1
.0
Spirrtuoua
Liquors.
‘‘ In the firfl: table, of which the foie intention is to
point out the proportion of ingredients, the fpecific gra¬
vities are computed only to four places, which will al¬
ways give the anfwer true to ^^crth l)art- tlie lalt,
which is more immediately interefting to the merchant
in his tranfa&ions with the excife office, the coffiputa-
tien is carried one place further.”
J he confideration of the firfl of thefe two tables will
furnifh fome ufeful information to the reader who is in-
terefted in the philofophy of chemical mixture, and who
endeavours to inveftigate the nature of thofe forces which
conned! the particles of tangible matter. Thefe vary
wjth the diftance of the particle; and therefore the law
or their adfion, like that of univerfal gravitation, is to
be ditcovered by meafuring their fenfible effedfs at their
various diftances. Their change of diflance is feen in
the change of dcnfitv or fpecific gravity.
Did the individual denfities of the water and fpirit re¬
main unchanged by mixture, the fpecific gravity would
change by equal differences in the feries of mixtures on
which this table b conlfrudted; for the bulk being al¬
ways the fame, the change of fpecific gravity muft be
the difference between the weight of the gallon of wa¬
ter which is added and that of the gallon of fpirit which
4
is taken out. The whole difference of the fpecific grai.-
vities of fpirits and water being 1.750 parts in lo.coo;,
the augmentation by each fucceffive change of a mea-
fure of fpirit for a meafure of water would be the loodth
part of this, or 17*5.- But, by taking the fucceffive
differences of denfity as they occur in the table, we fee
that they are vaftly greater in the firfl additions of wa¬
ter, being then about 10; after which they gradually
diminiffi to the medium quantity 174, when water and
fpirits are mixed in nearly equal bulks. . The differences
of fpecific gravity ilill diminiffi, and are reduced to 9,
when about 7$ parts of water are mixed with 25 of fpi¬
rit. The differences now inert afe again ; and the laft,
when 99 parts of water are mixed with one part of fpi¬
rit, the difference from the fpecific gravity of pure wa¬
ter is above 14,
The mechanical eff £1, therefore, of the addition of
a meafure of water to a great quantity of fpirit is great¬
er than the fimilar effe£l of tfce add'don of a meafure of
fpirits to a great quantity of water. What we call me¬
chanical effefl is the local motion, the change of dillance
of the particles, that the corpufcular forces may again
be in equilibrio. Obferve, too, that this change is
greater than in the proportion of the diftance of the
particles ;
S P I [ 60!
Spirituous- particles j for the denfity of water is to that of fpirits
Liquors. ^early as 6 to 5? an(j the changes of fpecific gravity are
*v nearly as 6 to 3.
We alfo fee that the changing caufe, which produces
the abfolute condenfation of each ingredient,, ceafes.to
operate when 75 parts of water have been mixed with
25 of alcohol: for the variation of fpecific gravity, from
diminilhing comes now to increafe ; and therefore., in
this particular it ate of compofition, is equable.. Things
are now in the fame ftate as if we were mixing two
fluids which did not aft on each other, but were mutually
diffeminated, and whofe fpecific gravities are nearly as
9 to 10 *, for the variation 9 of fpecific gravity may be
confidered as the 100th part of the whole difference, m
the fame manner as 17.7 would have been had water
rand alcohol fuftained no contraftion.
The imagination is greatly aflifled in the contempla¬
tion of geometrical quantity, by exhibiting it in its own
form. Specific gravity, being an expreflion of .denfity
(a notion purely geometrical), admits of this illuffra-
Plate tion. , , ,1 r
,.ecccxcix. Therefore let AB (fig. 2.) reprefent the bulk 01 any
2- mixture of water and alcohol. The fpecific gravity of
water may be reprefented by a line of fuch a length,
that AB fliall be the difference between the gravities
of alcohol and water. Suppofe it extended upwards, to¬
wards a, till B a is to A a as 10,coo to 8250. It will
fuit our purpofe better to reprefent it by a parallelogram
a BF e, of any breadth BF. In this cafe the difference
of the fpecific gravities of alcohol and water will be ex-
preffed by the parallelogram ABFE. If there were no
change produced.in the denfity of one or both ingredi¬
ents, the fpecific gravity of the compound would increafe
as this parallelogram drtes, and AGHE would be the
augmentation correfponiding to the mixture of the quan¬
tity AG of alcohol with the quantity GB of water, and
fo of other mixtures. But, to exprefs the augmentation
of denfity as it really obtains, we. muff do it by fume
curvilineal area DABCHD, which varies at the race
determined by Sir Charles Blagden’s experiments. This
area muff be precifely equal to the reftangle ABFE.
It muff therefore fall w'lthout it in fome places, and be
deficient in others. Let DMHKC be the curve which
correfponds with thefe experiments. It is evident to the
mathematical reader, that the ordinates LM, GH,. IK,
&c. of this curve are in the ultimate ratio of the differ¬
ences of the obferved fpecific gravities. If A » /3, &c.
are each = the little fpaces A £ D, a (& b'b, &o.
will be precifely equal to the differences of the fpeeific
gravities 0.8250 ; 0.8387 ; 0.8516 *, &c. correfponding
to the different mixtures of water and alcohol. The
curve cuts the fide of the parallelogram in K, where the
ordinate GK expreffes the mean variation of denfity
0.0017.5. IK is the fmalleft variation. The conden-
fation may be expreffed by drawing a curve dm G fh
parallel to DMGKF, making D </= AE. The conden¬
fation is now reprefented by the fpaces comprehended
between this laft curve and the abfeiffa AGB, reckoning
thofe negative which lie on the other fide of it. . I his
{hows, not only that the condenfation.is. greateft in the
mixture AG GB, but alfo that in mixing fuch a com¬
pound with another AIxIB, there is a rarefaftion.
Another curve ANOPB may be drawn, of which the
ordinates LN, GP, 10, &c. are proportional to the
f 1 S P 0
areas ALmd, AG/nD, AlkGmd (—AGmd—Glh), Spirituor
&c. This curve {hows the whole condenfation. Liquor,:
This manner of reprefenting the .fpecific gravities of N
mixtures will fuggeft many curious inferences to fuch as
will confider them in the manner of Bofcovich, with a
view to afcertain the nature of the forces of cohefion
and chemical affinities : And this manner of viewing
the fubjeft becomes ^every day more promifing, in con-
fequence of our improvements in chemical knowledge j
for we now fee, that mechanifm, or motive forces, are
the caufes of chemical aftion. We fee in almoft every
cafe, that chemical affinities are comparable with, me¬
chanical preffures } becaufe the converfion of a. liquid
into a vapour or gas is prevented by atmofpheric pref-
fure, and produced by the great chemical agent heat.
The aftion of heat, therefore, or of the caufe of heat,
is a mechanical aftion, and the forces are common me*
chanical forces, with which we are familiarly ac¬
quainted.
“It may be alfo remarked in the column of contrac¬
tions, that in the beginning the contraftions augment
nearly in the proportion of the quantity of fpirits (but
more llowly) ^ whereas, in the end, the contraftions are
nearly in the duplicate proportion of the quantity of
water. This circumffance deferves the confideration of
the philofopher. We have reprefented it to the eye by
the curve etg h </.”
We fhould here take fome notice of the attempt made
to elude ffcrae part of the duties, by adding fome ingre¬
dient to the fpirits. But our information on thisiubjeft
is not very exaft j and befidcs it would be doing no fer-
vice to the trader to put fraud more in his power. There
are fome /alts which make a very great augmentation
of denfity, but they render the liquor unpalatable. Sugar
is frequently ufed with this view ; 16 grains of refined
fugar diffolved in icco grains of proof fpirits gave it no
fufpicious tafte, and inerealed its fpecific gravity from
0.920 to 0.92^ which is a very great change,, equiva¬
lent to the addition of 9 grains of watet to a mixture of
ico grains of alcohol and 80 of wTater.
SPIRTING, a fpecies of fiffi. See Salmo, Ichthy¬
ology, p. 99- v. r , J L
SPITHEAD, a road between Portfmouth and the
ifle of Wight, where the royal navy of Great Britain
frequently rendezvous.
SPITTLE, in Physiology. See Saliva.
SPITSBERGEN. See Greenland, N0 10.
SPLACHNUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of cryptogatnia, and order of roufei. See Botany
Index.
SPLEEN. See Anatomy Index.
SPIFFN-JVort. See Asplenium, Botany Index.
SPLENETIC, a perfon afflifted with an obftruftion
of the fpleen. .
SPLENT, or Splint, among famefs, a callous w-
fenfible excrefcence, breeding on the fhank-bone ot
horfes. See Farriery. #
SPLICING, in the fea-language, is the untwiitmg
the ends of two cables or ropes, and working the feveral
ftrands into one another by a fidd, fo that they become
as llrong as if they were but one rope. . .
SPOILS, whatever is taken from the enemy m time
of war. Among the ancient Greeks, the fpoils were
divided among the whole army *, only the general s mart
S P o
was large ft : but among the Romans, the fpoils belong
ed to the republic.
SPOLETTO, a duchy of Italy, bounded on the north
by the marquifate of Ancona and duchy of Urbino, on
'the eaft by Farther Abruzzo, on the fouth by Sabina
and the patrimony of St Peter, and on the weft by Or-
vieto and Perugino. It is about 55 miles in length and
40 in breadth. It was anciently'a part of Umbria, and
now belongs to the pope.—The name of the capital city
is alfo Spoletto. It was formerly a large place, but in
1703 was ruined by an earthquake ; from whence it has
never recovered itfelf.
SPOLIATION, in eccleftaftical law, is an injury
done by one clerk or incumbent to another, in taking
the fruits of his benefice without any right thereunto,
but under a pretended title. It is remedied by a decree
to account for the profits fo taken. This injury, when
the jus patr'onatus, or right of advowfon, doth not come
in debate, is cognizable in the fpiritual court : as if a
patron firft prefents A to a benefice, who is inftituted
and induced thereto ; and then, upon pretence of a va¬
cancy, the fame patron prefents B to the fame living,
and he alfo obtains inftitution and induction. Now if A
difputes the faft of the vacancy, then that clerk who is
kept out of the profits of the living, whichever it be,
may fue the other in the fpiritual court for the fpoliation,
or taking the profits of his benefice. And it ftiall there
be tried, whether the living were or were not vacant j
upon which the validity of the fecond clerk’s pretenfions
muft depend. But if the right of patronage comes at all
into difpute, as if one patron prefented A, and another
patron prefented B, there the ecclefiaftical court hath no
cognizance, provided the tithes fued for amount to a
fourth part of the value of the living, but may be pro¬
hibited at the inftance of the patron by the king’s writ
of mdicavit. So alfo if a clerk, without any colour of
title, ejefts another from his parfonage, this injury muft
be redreffed in the temporal courts : for it depends upon
no queftion determinable by the fpiritual law (as plura¬
lity of benefices or no plurality, vacancy or no vacancy),
but is merely a civil injury.
SPONDEE, in ancient poetry, a foot confifting of
two long fyllables, as omnes.
SPONDI AS, Brasilian or Jamaica Plum, a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the clafs of decandria. See
Botany Index.
SPONGIA, Sponge*, a genus of animals belonging
to the clafs of vermes, and order of zoophyta. It is fix¬
ed, flexible, and very torpid, growing in a variety of
forms, compofed either of reticulated fibres, or mafles of
fmall fpines interwoven together, and clothed with a
living gelatinous flefh, full of fmall mouths or holes on
its furface, by which it fucks in and throws out the wa¬
ter. Fifty fpecies have already been difeovered, of
which 10 belong to the Britilh coafts. See Helmin¬
thology Index.
So early as the days of Ariftotle fponges were fuppo-
fed to poflefs animal life ; the perfons employed in col-
lefling them having obferved them fhrink when torn
from the rocks, thus exhibiting fymptoms of fenfation.
The fame opinion prevailed in the time of Pliny : But
no attention was paid to this fubjeft till Count Marfigli
examined them, and declared them vegetables. Dr Pey-
fonell, in a paper which he fent to the Royal Society in
the year 1752, and in a fecond in 17 ?7, affirmed they
V-ol. XIX. Part II,
[ 609 ]
S P o
were not vegetables, but the production of animals ; and Spongia
has accordingly defenbed the animals, and the procefs H .
which they performed in making the fponges, Mr El- ^Pot ^voi,< °
lis, in the year 1762, was at great pains to difeover
thefe animals. For this purpofe he diflected the fpongia
urens, and was furprifed to find a great number of fmall
worms ol the genus of nereis or fea fcolopendra, which
had pierced their Way through the foft fubftance of the
fponge in queft of a fafe retreat. That this was really
the cafe, he was fully affured of, by infpedting a num¬
ber of ipecimens of the fame fort of fponge, juft frelh
from the fea. Fie put them into a glafs filled with fea-
water 5 and then, inftead of feeing any of the little ani¬
mals which Dr Peyfonell deferibed, he obferved the pa-
pillse or fmall holes with which the papillae are furround-
ed contrast and dilate themfelves. He examined another
variety of the fame fpecies of fponge, and plainly per¬
ceived the fmall tubes infpire and expire the water. He
therefore concluded that the fponge is an animal, and
that the ends or openings of the branched tubes are the
mouths by which it receives its nouriftiment, and dif-
charges its excrements.
SPONSORS, among Chriftians, are thole perfons
who, in the office of baptifm, anfwer or are fureties for
the perfons baptized.
SPONTANEOUS, a term applied to fuch motions
of the body and operations of the mind as we perform of
ourfelves without any eonftraint.
SPOON-bill. See Platalea, Ornithology
Index.
SPOONING, in the lea-language, is faid of a fhip,
which being under fail in a ftorm at fea, is unable to
bear it, and confequently forced to go right before the
wind.
SPORADES, among ancient aftronomers, a name
given to fuch ftars as were not included in any conftel-
lation.
SPORADIC diseases, among phyficians, are fuch
as feize particular perfons at any time or feafon, and in
any place ; in which fenfe they are diftinguilhed from
epidemical and endemical difeafes.
SPOTS, in Ajlronomy, certain places of the fun’s or
moon’s dilk, obferved to be either more bright or dark
than the reft 5 and accordingly called faculce et maculce.
See Astronomy Index.
SPOTS WOOD, John, archbifhop of St Andrew’s
in Scotland, was defeended from the lairds of Spotfwood
in the Merfe, and was born in the year 1565. He was
educated in the univerfity of Glafgow, and fucceeded his
father in the parfonage of Calder when but 18 years of
age. In 1601 he attended Lodowick duke of Lennox
as his chaplain, in an embafly to the court of France for
confirming the ancient amity between the two nations,
and returned in the ambaflador’s retinue through Eng¬
land. When he entered into the archbilhopric of Glaf¬
gow, he found there was not look fterling of yearly re¬
venue left j yet fuch was his care for his fucceflbrs, that
he greatly improved it, and much to the fatisfaftion of
his diocefe. After having filled this fee 11 years, he
was raifed to that of St Andrew’s in 1615, and made
primate and metropolitan of all Scotland. He prefided
in feveral aflemblies for reftoring the ancient difeipline,
and bringing the church of Scotland to fome degree of
uniformity with that of England. He continued in high
efteem with King James I. nor was he lefs valued by
4 H King
S P R [ 610 ] S P R
Spotfwood Kiivg Charles I. who was crowned by him in 1633, in
II the abbey-church of Holyroodhoufe. In 1635, upon
■ ■ the death of the earl of Kinnoul chancellor of Scotland,
our primate was advanced to that poll •, but had fcarcely
held it four years, when the confufions beginning in
Scotland, he was obliged to retire into England ; and
being broken with age, grief, and ficknefs, died at Lon¬
don in 1639, anc^ was ir^erred in Weltminfter-abbey.
He wrote A Hiftory of the Church of Scotland from the
year 203 to the reign of King James VI. in folio.
SPOUT, or Water-SPOUT. See WATER-Spout.
SPOUT-Fijh. See Solen, Conchology Index.
SPRAT, Dr Thomas, bifhop of Rochefter, was born
in 1636. He had his education at Oxford, and after
the Reiteration entered into holy orders. He became
fellow of the Royal Society, chaplain to George duke
of Buckingham, and chaplain in ordinary to King
Charles II. In 1667 he publilhed the Hiltory of the
Royal Society, and a Life of Mr Cowley; who, by his
laft will, left to his care his printed works and MSS.
which were accordingly publilhed by him. In 1668 he
■was inltalled prebendary of Weftminfter; in 1680, wras
appointed canon ofWindfor; in 1683, dean of Welt-
minfter •, and in 1684, confecrated to the biOropric of
Rochefter. He w^as clerk of the clofet to King James II. 5
in 1683, was made dean of the chapel royal j and the
year following, was appointed one of the commiffioners
for ecclefiaftical affairs. In 1692 his lordlhip, with fe~
veral other perfons, was charged with treafon by two
men, who drew up an affociation, in which they whofe
names were fubfcribed declared their refolution to reftore
King James *, to feize the princefs of Orange, dead or
alive 5 and to be ready with 30,000 men to meet King
James when he Ihould land. To this they put the
names of Bancroft, Sprat, Marlborough, Salilhury, and
others. The bilhop was arrefted, and kept at a meflen-
ger’s, under a ftrift guard, for eleven days. His houfe
was fearched, and his papers feized, among w'hich no¬
thing was found of treafonable appearance, except one
memorandum, in the following wnrds : Thorough-paced
doBrine. Being alked at his examination the meaning
of the words, he faid that, about 20 years before, curi-
ofity had led him to hear Daniel Burgefs preach ; and
that being ftruck with his account of a certain kind of
doclrine, which he faid entered at one ear, and pacing
through the head went out at the other, he had inferted
the memorandum in his table-book, that he might not
lofe the fubftance of fo ftrange a fermon. His innocence
being proved, he was fet at liberty, when he publilhed
an account of his examination and deliverance ; which
made fuch an impreflion upon him, that he commemo¬
rated it through life by an yearly day of thankfgiving.
He lived to the 79th year of his age, and died May 20.
1713. His works, belides a few poems of little value,
are, “ The Hiftory of the Royal Society “ The Life
of Cowley “ The Anfwer to Sorbiere “ The Hi¬
ftory of the Rye-houfe Plot “ The Relation of his
own Examination and a volume of “ Sermons.” Dr
Johnfon fays, “ I have heard it obferved with great juft-
nefs, that every book is of a different kind, and that each
has its diftimft and charafteriftical excellence.”
Sprat. See ^eupea, Ichthyology///rfer.
SPRAY, the fprinkling of the fea, which is driven
from the top of a wave in ftormy weather. It differs
from fpoon-drift, as being only blown occafionally from
the broken furface of a high wave j whereas the latter Sp»ay(
continues to fly horizontally along the fea, without V>ng.
intermiftion, during the excefs of a tempeft or hurri-
cane.
SPRING, in Natural Hi/fonj, a fountain or fource
of water rifing out of the ground.
Many have been the conjectures of philofophers con¬
cerning the origin of fountains, and great pains have
been taken both by the members of the Royal Society
and thofe of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, in or¬
der to afcertain the true caufe of it. It wras Ariftotle’s
opinion, and held by molt of the ancient philofophers
after him, that the air contained in the caverns of the
earth, being condenfed by cold near its furface, was
thereby changed into water •, and that it made its way
through, where it could find a paffage. But we have-
no experience of any fuch tranfmutation of air into wa¬
ter.
Thofe who imagine that fountains owe their origin
to waters brought from thd fea by fubterraneous duds,
give a tolerable account how they lofe their faltnefs
by percolation as they pals through the earth : but they
find great difficulty in explaining by what power the
water rifes above the level of the fea to near the tops
of mountains, where fprings generally abound 5 it be¬
ing contrary to the laws of hydroftatics, that a fluid
ffiould rife in a tube above the level of its fource. How¬
ever, they have found two ways whereby they endea¬
vour to extricate themfelvcs from this difficulty. The
one is that of Des Cartes, who imagines, that after
the water is become freffi by percolation, it is railed
out of the caverns' of the earth in vapour towards its
furface ; where meeting with rocks near the tops of
mountains in the form of arches or vaults, it flicks to
them, and runs down their fides, (like water in an
alembic), till it meets with proper receptacles, from
■which it fupplies the fountains. Now this is a mere
hypothefis, without foundation or probability : for, in
the firft place, we know of no interral heat of the earth
to caufe fuch evaporation } or if that were allowed, yet
it is quite incredible that there ftiould be any caverns fo
fmooth and void of protuberances as to anfwer the ends
of an alembic, in colleding and condenfing the vapours
together in every place where fountains arife. 1 here
are others (as Varenius, &c.) who fuppofe that the wa¬
ter may rife through the pores of the earth, as through
capillary tubes, by atiradion. But hereby they Ihow,
that they are quite unacquainted with what relates to
the motion of a fluid through fuch tubes : for when a
capillary tube opens into a cavity at its upper end, or
grows larger and larger, lo as to ceafe to be capillary .
at that end, the water will not afeend through that tube
into the cavity, or beyond where the tube is capillary j
becaufe that part of the periphery of the cavity, which
is partly above the furface of the wrater and partly be¬
low it, is not of the capillary kind. Nay, if the ca¬
vity is continually fupplied with water, it will be at¬
tracted into the capillary tube, and run down it as
through a funnel, if the lower end is immerged in the
fame fluid, as in this cafe it is fuppofed to be.
It has been a generally received opinion, and much
efpoufed by Mariotte (a diligent obferver of nature),
that the rife of fprings is owing to the rains and. melted
fnow. According to him, the rain-water which falls
upon the hills and mountains, penetrating the furface,;
s p R [ 61
meets with clay or rocks contiguous to each other;
along which it runs, without being able to penetrate
them, till, being got to the bottom of the mountain, or
to a confiderable diftance from the top, it breaks out of
the ground, and forms fprings.
In order to examine this opinion, Mr Perrault De
la Hire, and D. Sideleau, endeavoured to make an
eftimate of the quantity of rain and fnow that falls in
the fpace of a year, to fee whether it would be fuffici-
ent to afford a quantity of water equal to that which is
annually difcharged into the fea by the rivers. The re-
fult of their inquiries was, that the quantity of rain and
fnow which fell in a year into a cylindrical veffel would
fill it (if fecured from evaporating) to the height of
about nineteen inches. Which quantity I). Sideleau
lliowed, was not fufficient to fupply the rivers.; for that
thofe of England, Ireland, and Spain, difcharge a great¬
er quantity of water annually, than the rain, according
to that experiment, is able to fupply. Befides which,
another oblervation was made by them at the fame time,
viz. that the quantity of water railed in vapour, one
year with another, amounted to about thirty-two inches,
which is thirteen more than falls in rain : a plain indi¬
cation that the water of fountains is not fupplied by rain
'and melted fnow.
Thus the true caufe of the origin of fountains re¬
mained undifeovered, till Dr Halley, in making his ce-
leftial obfervations upon the tops of the mountains at
St Helena, about 800 yards above the level of the fea,
found, that the quantity of vapour which fell there (even
when the Iky was clear) was fo great, that it very much
impeded bis obfervations, by covering his glaffes with
water every half quarter of an hour; and upon that he
“attempted to determine by experiment the quantity of
wapour exhaled from the furface of the fea, as far as it
rifes from heat, in order to try whether that might be
a fufficient fupply for the water continually difcharged
by fountains. The procefs of his experiment was as
follows : He took a veffel of water faked to the fame
degree with that of fea water, in which he placed a ther¬
mometer ; and by means of a pan of coals brought the
water to the fame degree of heat, which is obferved to
be that of the air in our hotteft fummer ; this done, he
fixed the veffel of water with the thermometer in it to
one end of a pair of feales, and exaftly counterpoifed it
-with weights on the other : then, at the end of two
hours, he found, by the alteration made in the weight
of the veffel, that about a fixtieth part of an inch of
the depth of the water was gone off in vapour ; and
therefore, in twelve hours, one tenth of an inch would
-have gone off. Now this accurate obferver allows the
Mediterranean fea to be forty degrees long ; and four
broad, (the broader parts compenfating for the narrow-
«r, fo that its whole furface is J 60 fquare degrees) ;
■which, according to the experiment, mult yield at leak
5,280,000,000 tons of water : In which account no re¬
gard is had to the wind and the agitation of the furface
of the fea, both which undoubtedly promote the evapo¬
ration.
It remained now to compare this quantity of water
with that which is daily conveyed into the fame fea by
the rivers. The only way to do which was to compare
them with fome known river ; and accordingly he takes
lus computation from the river Thames; and, to avoid
1 1 s p R
all objections, makes allowances, probably greater than
what were abfolutely neceffary.
The Mediterranean receives the following confider¬
able rivers, viz. the Iberus, the Rhone, the Tyber, the
Po, the Danube, the Nieiier, the Borylthenes, the Ta-
nais, and the Nile. Each of thefe he fuppofes to bring
down ten times as much water as the Thames, whereby
he allows for fmaller rivers which fall into the fame fea.
ihe Thames, then, he finds by meafuration to difcharge
about 20,300,000 tons of water a-day. If therefore
the above-laid nine rivers yield ten times as much water
as the Thames doth, it will follow, that all of them to¬
gether yield but 1827 millions of tons in a day, which
is but little more than one-third of what is proved to be
railed in vapour out of the Mediterranean in the fame
time. We have therefore from hence a fouree abun¬
dantly fuflicient for the fupply of fountains.
Now having found that the vapour exhaled from the
fea is a fufficient fupply for the fountains, he proceeds
in the next place to confider the manner in which they
are raifed ; and how they are condenfed into water
again, and conveyed to the fources of fprings.
In order to this he confiders, that if an atom of
water was expanded into a du ll or bubble, fo as to be
ten times as big in diameter as when it was water, that
atom would become fpecifically lighter than air ; and
therefore would rife fo long as the warmth which firll
feparated it from the furface of the water ffiould conti¬
nue to diftend it to the fame degree ; and confequently,
that vapours may be raifed from the furface of the fea
in that manner, till they arrive at a certain height in the
atmofphere, at which they find air of equal fpecific gra¬
vity with themfelves. Here they will float till, being
condenfed by cold, they become fpecifieally heavier than
the air, and fall down in -dew ; or being driven by the
winds againrt the fides of mountains (many of which
far furpafs the ufual height to which the vapours would
of themfelves alcend), are compelled by the fiream of
the air to mount up with it to the tops of them ; where
being condenfed into water, they prefently precipitate,
and gleeting down by the crannies of the ftones, part
-of them enters into the caverns of the hills ; which be¬
ing once filled, all the overplus of water that comes thi¬
ther runs over by the lowelt place, and breaking out by
the fides of the hills forms fingle fprings. Many of thefe
running down by the valleys between the ridges of the
hills, find coming to unite, form little rivulets or brooks;
many of thefe again meeting in one common valley, and
gaining the plain ground, being grown lefs rapid, be¬
come a river ; and many of thefe being united in one
common channel, make fuch ftreams as the Rhine and
the Danube ; which latter, he obferves, one would
•hardly think to be a colle&ion of water condenfed out
of vapour, unlefs we confider how vaft a traff of ground
that river drains, and that it is the fum of all thofe fprings
which . break out on the fouth fide of the Carpathian
mountains, and on the north fide of the immenfe ridge
of the Alps, which is one continued chain of mountains
from Switzerland to the Black fea.
Thus one part of the vapours which are blown on
the land is returned by the rivers into the fea from
whence it came. Another part falls into the fea before
it readies the land ; and this is the reafon why the ri¬
vers do not return fo much water into the Mediterra-
4 H 2
Spr
nean
\
S P R
t 612 ]
P R
Spring, nean as is raifed in vapour. A third part falls on the
low lands, -where it affords nourilhment to plants j yet
it does not reft there, but is again exhaled in vapour by
the aftion of the fun, and is either carried by the winds
to the fea to fall in rain or dew there, or elfe to the
mountains to become the fources of fprings.
However, it is not to be fuppofed that all fountains
are owing to one and the fame caufe } but that fome
proceed from rain and melted fnow, which, fubfiding
through the furface of the earth, makes its way into cer¬
tain cavities, and thence iffues out in the torm of fprings}
becaufe the waters of feveral are found to increale and
dimmifh in proportion to the ram which falls . that
others again, efpecially fuch as are fait, and fpring near
the fea-fhore, owe their origin to fea-water percolated
through the earth •, and fome to both thefe caufes :
though without doubt mod of them, and efpeciall/ fuch
as fpring near the tops of high mountains, receive their
-praters from vapours, as before explained.
This reafoning of Hr Halley’s is confirmed by more
recent obfervations and difcoveries. It is now found,
that though water is a tolerable conductor of the electric
fluid, dry earth is an ele&ric per/e, confequently the
dry land muft always be in an eledtrified ftate compared
with the ocean, unlefs in fuch particular cafes as are
mentioned under the article Earthquake, N° 82. It
is alfo well known, that fuch bodies as are in an electri¬
fied ftate, whether p/us or minus, will attradl vapour,
or other light fubftances that come near them. Hence
the vapours that are raifed from the ocean muft neceffa-
fily have a tendency to approach the land in great quan¬
tity, even without the affiftance of the wind, though
this laft muft undoubtedly contribute greatly towards the
fame purpofe, as Dr Halley juftly oblerres. In like
manner, the higher grounds are always in a more elec¬
trified ftate than the lower ones : and hence the vapours
having once left the ocean and approached the ibore,
are attradled by the high mountains *, of which Mr Pen¬
nant gives an inftance in Snowdon. Hence we may fee
the reafon why fprings are fo common in the neighbour¬
hood of mountains, they being fo advantageoufly formed
in every refpedt for colledling and condenfing the va¬
pours into water.
The heat of fprings is generally the fame with the
mean temperature of the atmofphere. The mean tem¬
perature of the fouth of England is 48° ; in Scotland,
near Edinburgh, it is 450 •, in the north of Ireland it is
48°, and on the fouth coaft about 510. At Upfal, in
Sweden, it is 430, and in Paris 530. According to ac¬
curate experiments made by eminent philofophers, the
heat of the fprings in thefe different countries corre-
fponds with the medium temperature. We have not
heard that fimilar ex-periments have been made in other
countries, or we fliould have been careful to colleft
them. We do not, however, doubt but they have been
made in moft countries of Europe ; yet we fufped little
attention has been paid to this fubjed within the tropi¬
cal regions.
Though this coincidence of the heat of fprings with
the mean temperature of the climate where they flow,
feems to be a general fad, yet it admits of many excep¬
tions. In many parts of the world there are fprings
which not only exceed the mean temperature, but even
the ftrongeft meridian heat ever known in the torrid re¬
gions. The following table will give a diftind notion
of the degrees of heat which different fprings have been Sprinj:
found to poffefs, according to the experiments of philo- '■“■"y'jl
fophers. It is neceffary to remark that experiments
made upon the fame Iprings, made by different perfons,
vary a little from one another, which may be owing to
many accidents eafily accounted for. Where this is the
cafe, we ihall mention both the lowed and higheft de¬
gree of heat which has been aferibed to the fame fpring,
according to Fahrenheit’s thermometer.
Places.
Briftol,
„ Higheft de- Loweft d®.
P’ mSs" gree of heat, gree of heat.
St Vincent’s or'
the hot well, 84 7^
Buxton, Gentleman’s bath, 82
Matlock, 69
Bath, King’s bath, 1x9 113
Aix-la-Chapelle. 146 136
Barege, 122
Pifa, 104
Caoline baths in Prudel or furi-
Bohemia, ous, 165
Iceland, Geyzer, 2x2
In cold countries where congelation takes place, the
heat of the earth is confiderably above the freezing point,
and continues fo through the whole year. From experi¬
ments that have been made in mines and deep pits, it
appears that this heat is uniform and ftationary at a cer¬
tain depth. But as the heat of thefe fprings far exceeds
the common heat of the internal parts of the earth, it
muft be occafioned by caufes peculiar to certain places j
but what thefe caufes are it is no ealy matter to deter¬
mine. We are certain, indeed, that hot fprings receive
their heat from fome fubterranean caule •, but it is a mat¬
ter of difficulty to inveftigate how this heat is produced
and preferved. "I heories, however, have been formed
on this fubjeft. The fubterranean heat has been afenbed
to the electrical fluid, and to a great body of fire in the
centre of the earth : But we fufpedt that the nature of
the eledtrical fluid and its effeCts are not fufficiently un-
derftood. As to the fuppofition that the heat of fprings
is owing to a central fire, it is too hypothetical to re¬
quire any refutation. From what then does this heat
originate, and whence is the fuel which has produced it
for io many ages ? lo enable us to anfwer thefe quef-
tions with precifion, more information is neceffary than
we have hitherto obtained refpeCting the ftruCture of the
internal parts of the earth. It is peculiarly requifite
that we fhould be made acquainted with the foflils which,
are moft common in thofe places where hot fprings a-
bound. We fhould then perhaps difeover that hot
fprings always pafs through bodies of a combuftible na¬
ture. It is well known to chemifts, that when water is
mixed with the vitriolic acid, a degree of heat is produ¬
ced fuperior to that of boiling water. It is alfo an efta-
blifhed faCl, that when water meets with pyrites, that is,
a mixture of fulphur and iron, a violent inflammation,
takes place- If, therefore, we could prove that thefe
materials exift in the ftrata from which hot fprings are
derived, we ftiould be enabled to give a fatisfaClory ac¬
count of this curious phenomenon. As fome apology
for this fuppofition, we may add, that moft of the hot
fprings mentioned above have been found by analyfis to
be impregnated with fulphur, and fome of them with
S P R [ 61
pring iron. It muft, however, be acknowledged, that the
II hot fprings of Iceland, which ai-e 21 2°, the heat of boil-
' Fl‘cre_ ing water, according to an accurate analylis of their
I eyer‘ j mntents by the ingenious Dr Black, were neither found
IL’j Let-to contain iron nor fulphur. It will therefore, perhaps,
Sfli/row be neceflary that we Ihould wait with patience, and con-
([many tjnue to Colle6t facts, till the fciences of chemiftry and
t mineralogy (hall be fo far advanced as to enable us to
form a permanent theory on this fubje£t.
Springs are of different kinds. Some are perennial,
or continue to flow during the whole year 5 others flow
only during the rainy feafon ; fome ebb and flow. At
Torbay there is one of this kind, which ebbs and flows
five or fix inches every hour. There is another near Co-
rifo in Italy, which ebbed and flowed three times a-day
in the time of Pliny, and continues to do fo flill. A
fpring near Henly fometimes flows for two years toge¬
ther, and then dries up for an equal period. For the
ingredients found in fprings, fee MINERAL-Wat'ers.
Spring, in Mechanics, denotes a thin piece of tem¬
pered fleel, or other elaftic fubftance, which being
wound up ferves to put machines in motion by its elafti-
city, or endeavours to unbend itfelf j fuch is the fpring
of a watch, clock, or the like.
Spring, Ver, in cofmography, denotes one of the
feafons of the year ; commencing, in the northern parts
of the wmrld, on the day the fun enters the firft degree
of Aries, which is about the 10th day of March, and
ending when the fun leaves Gemini j or, more ftriclly
and generally, the fpring begins on the day when the
diftance of the fun’s meridian altitude from the zenith,
being on the increafe, is at a medium between the great-
eft and leaft. The end of the fpring coincides with the
beginning of fummer. See Summer.
Elater SPRING, in Physics, denotes a natural faculty
or endeavour of certain bodies, to return to their firft
ftate, after having been violently put out of it by com-
prefling or bending them. This faculty is, by philo-
fophers, ufually denominated ela ftic force, or elafticity.
Spring-Tide. See Astronomy Index, and Tide.
Burning SPRINGS. See BURNING Springs.
Springer, or Spring-BoI. See Capra, Mamma¬
lia Index.
SPRIT, a fmall boom or pole which crofles the fail
of a boat diagonally, from the maft to the upper hind-
moft corner of the fail, which it is ufed to extend and
elevate ; the lower end of the fprit refts in a fort of
wreath or collar called the fmotter, which encircles the
maft in that place.
SPRITSAIL. See Sail and Ship.
SpritsAiL-Topfail. See Sail and Ship.
SPRUCE-tree. See Pinus, Botany Index.
SPRUCE Beer, a cheap and wholefome liquor, which
is thus made : Take of water 16 gallons, and boil the
half of it. Put the water thus boiled, while in full heat,
to the referved cold part, which ftiould be previoufly put
into a barrel or other veflel ; then add 16 pounds of
treacle or molaffes, with a few table fpoonfills of the
effence offpruce, ftirring the w'hole well together ; add
half a pint of yeaft, and keep it in a temperate fitua-
tion, with the bung hole open, for two days, till the
fermentation be abated. Then clofe it up or bottle it
off, and it will be fit for being drunk in a few days af¬
terwards. In North America, and perhaps in other
3 ] s q u
countries, where the black and white fpruce firs abound, Spruce-
inftead of adding the effence of the fpruce at the fame Bsj®r
time wfith the molaffes, they make a deeo£Hon of Square.
the leaves and fmall branches of thefe trees, and find >v—
the liquor equally good. It is a powerful anti-
fcorbutic, and may prove very ufeful in long fea voy¬
ages.
SPUNGE, or Sponge. See Spongia.
SPUNGING, in Gunnery, the cleaning of the infide
of a gun with a fponge, in order to prevent any fparks
of fire from remaining in it, which would endanger the
life of him that ftiould load it again.
SPUN-yarn, among failors, is a kind of line made
from rope yarn, and ufed for feizing or faftening things
together.
SPUNK. See Boletus, Botany Index.
SPUR, a piece of metal confifting of two branches
encompafling a horfeman’s heel, and a rowel in form of
a ftar, advancing out behind to prick the horfe.
SpuR-WingedlVater-Hen. See Parra, Ornitho¬
logy Index.
SPURGE. See Euphorbia, "1
Spurge-Laurel. See Daphne, > Botany Index.
SPURREY. See Spergula, J
SPY, a perfon hired to watch the aftions, motions,
&.c. of another ; particularly what paffes in a camp.
When a fpy is difcovered, he is hanged immediately.
SQUADRON, in military affairs, denotes a body of
horfe whofe number of men is not fixed j but is ufually
from 100 to 200.
SQUADRON of Ships, either implies a detachment of
fliips employed on any particular expedition, or the third
part of a naval armament.
SQUADS, in a military fenfe, are certain divifions
of a company into fo many fquads, generally into three
or four. The ufe of forming companies into as many
fquads of infpeftion as it has ferjeants and corporals, is
proved by thofe regiments who have praftifed that me¬
thod ; as by it the irregularity of the ibldiers is confider-
ably reftrained, their drefs improved, and the difcipline
of the regiment in general moft remarkably forwarded.
Every officer ftiould have a roll of his company by
fquads.
SQUALL, a hidden and violent blaft of wind ufu¬
ally occafioned by the interruption and reverberation of
the wind from high mountains. Thefe are very frequent
in the Mediterranean, particularly that part of it which
is known by the name of the Levant, as produced by
the repulfion and new dire61ion which the wind meets
with in its paffage between the various iflands of the
Archipelago.
SQLJALUS, the Shark ; a genus of fifties arranged
by Linnaeus under the clafs of amphibia, and the order
of nantes, but by Gmelin referred to the clafs of pifces,
and order of chondropteryii. See ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
SQUAMARIA. See Lathra:a, Botany Index.
SQUAMOUS, in Anatomy, a name given to the
fpurious or falfe futures of the Ikull, becaufe compofed
of fquamae or fcales like thofe of fifties.
SQUARE, in Geometry, a quadrilateral figure both
equilateral and equiangular. See Geometry.
Square Root. See Algebra and Arithmetic,
N° 33. and 34.
Hollow SQUARE, in the military art, a body of foot
drawa
S Q U
[ 6t4 ]
S Q U
IStiurrrfe, 3rawn up with an empty fpace in the middle, for the co-
•Sguaring. ^ours^ (jrums> an(j baggage, faced and covered by the
pikes every way to keep off the horfe.
Square, among mechanics, an inftrument confiffing
of two rules or branches, faftened perpendicularly at one
end of their extremities, fo as to forma right angle. It
is of great ufe in the defcription and menfuration of
right angles, and laying down perpendiculars.
T. SQUARE, or Tee Square, an inftrument ufed in
drawing, fo called from its refemblance to the capital
letter T.
SQUARE-Rigged, an epithet applied to a fliip whofe
yards are very long. It is alfo ufed in contradiftinc-
tion to all veffels whofe fails are extended by ftays or
lateen-yards, or by booms and gaffs ; the ufual litua-
tion of which is nearly in the plane of the keel ; and
hence,
SQUARE-Sai/, is a fail extended to a yard which
hangs parallel to the horizon, as diftinguiftied from the
other fails which are extended by booms and ftays placed
obliquely. This fail is only ufed in fair winds, or to feud
under in a tempeft. In the former cafe, it is furnifhed
with a large additional part called the bonnet, which is
then attached to its bottom, and removed when it is ne-
ceffary to scud. See SCUDDING.
_ . SQUARING or Quadrature of the Circle, fig-
nifies the finding a fquare exadtly equal to the area of a
given circle. This problem howrever has not been, and
probably cannot be, ftriftly refolved by the commonly
admitted principles of geometry; mathematicians having
hitherto been unable to do more than to find a fquare
that fhall differ from the area of any propofed circle by
as fmall a quantity as they pleafe. The quadrature of
the circle is a problem of the fame degree of difficulty,
and indeed may be regarded as identical with another
geometrical problem, namely, the ReBif cation of the
circle, or the finding a ftraight lino equal to its circum¬
ference for the area of a circle is equal to that of a
reftangle contained by the radius and a ftraight line
equal to half the circumference (Geometry, Soft VI.
Prop. 3.) : therefore, if a ftraight line exadlly equal to
the circumference could be found, a reftilineal fpace
precifely equal to the area might alfo be found, and the
contrary. But although no perfectly accurate refolu-
tion of the problem has been obtained under either form,
we can always find approximate values of the area and
circumference 5 and therefore it is now cuftomary to
apply the terms quadrature and reElif cation of the circle
alfo to thefe.
The problem of the quadrature of the circle appears
to have engaged the attention of geometers at a very
early period ; for w’e are told that Anaxagoras, who
lived about 500 years before Chrift, attempted its folu-
tion while confined in prifon on account of his philofo-
phical opinions. We are ignorant of the refuit of his
rcfearchesbut although we cannot fuppofe they were
attended with any fuccefs, we may reafonably conclude
that we are indebted to them for the difeovery of fome
of the properties of the figure, which are now known as
■elementary propofitions in geometry.
Hippocrates of Chios waslikewife engaged in trying
to refolve the fame problem, and it was no doubt in the
courfe of his inquiries into this fubjeft that he difeovered
the quadrature of the curvilineal fpace, which is now
known by the name of the Lune of Hippocrates. The
nature of this difeovery may be briefly explained as SquariJ
follows. Let ABCD be a circle (Plate JL). fig. 1.), ^
H its centre, AC its diameter, A1)C a triangle in-
feribed in the femicircle, having its lides AD, DC
equal to one another. On D as a centre, with DA or
DC as a radius, let the quadrantal arch AEC be de~
feribed, then ffiall the curvilineal fpace bounded by the
femicircle ABC and the quadrantal arch AEC (which
is the Lune of Plippocrates) be equal to the redtilineal
triangle ADC. For beeaufe circles are to one another
as the fquaresof the radii (Geometry, Sedt. VI. Prop.
4.) •, the circle having DA for its radius will be to the
circle having HA for its radius as the Iquare of DA to
the fquare of HA, that is, as 2 to 1 j hence the former
of thele circles will be double the latter, and confe-
quently one fourth of the former will be equal to one
half of the latter j that is, the quadrant AECD will be
equal to the femicircle ABC j from thefe equals take
away the common fpace bounded by the diameter AC
and the arch AEC, and there will remain the triangle
ADC equal to the lunular ipace AECBA.
Although Hippocrates’s difeovery has led to no im¬
portant eonelufion either relating to the quadrature of
the circle or that of any othtr curve, yet at the time it
was made it might be regarded as of fome confequence,
chiefly becaufe it {hewed the poflibility of exhibiting a
redlilineal figure equal to a fpace bounded by curve
lines, a thing which we have reafon to fuppofe was then
done for the firft time, and might have been fairly
doubted, confidering the irifuperable difficulty that was
found to attend the quadrature of the circle or its recti¬
fication.
Ariftotle fpeaks of two perfons, viz. Bryfon and An¬
tiphon, who about his time, or a little earlier, were oc¬
cupied with the quadrature of the circle. The former
appears, according to the teftimony of Alexander Apro-
difeus, to have erred moft egregioufly 5 he having con¬
cluded that the circumference was exaftly 3|- times the
diameter. And the latter feems to have proceeded
pretty much in the fame manner as Archimedes after¬
wards did in fquaring the parabola, that is, by firft in-
fcribing a fquare in the circle, then an ifofceles triangle
in each of the fegments of the curve, having for its bafe
a fide of the fquare •, and next again a feries of triangles
in the fegments, having for their bales the fides of the
former feries, and fo on : this mode of procedure, how¬
ever, could not be attended with any fuccefs, as it is
well known that the fpaces thus formed do not, as in
the cafe of the parabola, admit of being abfolutely
fummed.
It may naturally be fuppofed that Archimedes exerted
his utmoft efforts to refolve this problem *, and probably
it was only after long meditation on the fubjedt that he
loft all hopes of fuccefs, and contented himfelf with that
approximation to the ratio of the diameter to the cir¬
cumference which is contained in his treatife De Circuit
Dimenfone, which has been preserved from the period in
which he wrote, about 250 years before Chrift, to the
prefent times. He found his approximation to the ratio,
by fuppofing a regular polygon of 96 fides to be de-
feribed about the circle, and another of the fame num¬
ber of fides to be inferibed in it, and by {hewing that
the perimeter of the circumfcribing polygon was lefs
than 3^-§ or 3-^ times the diameter, but that the peri¬
meter of the inferibed figure was greater than 3^§ times
the
SQlTARINGr or Quadrature of (lie Circle. T^Z^ATE
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
STA.RCH. Manufacture of.
Fig. 1. Fig. &. Fig. >
/J.
-E Afile/i r//^/?u/ju
aring.
Mv '
S Q u [6!
the diameter ; now the circumference of the circle being-
lefs than the perimeter of the one polygon but greater
than that of the other, it follows that the circumference
mult be lefs than 3^ times the diameter, but greater
than Stt times ; fo that, taking the firft of thefe limits
as being expreffed by the fmalleft numbers, the circum¬
ference will be to the diameter as 34. to 1, or as 22 to
7 nearly.
Although the approximate ratio inveftigated by Ar¬
chimedes be the oloeft known to have been found in the
weftern world, yet one more accurate feems to have
been known at a much earlier period in India. This
we learn from the Injiitutes of Akbar {Ayeen Ahberry)
where it is faid that the Hindoos fuppofe the diameter
of a circle to be to its circumference as 1250 to 3927.
Now this ratio, which is the fame as that of 1 to 3.1416,
-when found in the fimpleft and moft elementary man¬
ner mud have required the infcription of a polygon of
768 fides in the circle, and muft have been attended
with nine extractions of the Iquare root, each carried as
far as ten places of figures.
We learn from Simplicius that Nlcomedes and Apol¬
lonius both attempted to fquare the circle, the former
by means of a curve which he called the ^uadratriss j
the> invention of which, however, is afcribed to Dino-
ftratus, and the latter alfo by the help of a curve deno¬
minated the fitter to the tortuous line or fpiral, and
which was probably no other than the quadratrix of
Dinoftratus j the nature of which, and the manner of
its application to the fubjedt in quettion, we tliall briefly
explain.
Let AFB be a quadrant of a circle (fig. 2.) and C
its centre 5 and conceive the radius CF to revolve uni¬
formly about C from the petition CA until at laft it
coincide with CB 5 while at the fame time a line DG
is carried with an uniform motion from A towards CB ;
the former line continuing always parallel to the latter,
until at lad they coincide 3 both motions being fuppofed
to begin and end at the fame inftant. Then the point
E in which the revolving radius CF and the moveable
line DG interfedf one another will generate a certain
curve line AEH, which is the ^uadratrix of Dino-
ftratus.
Draw EK, FL both perpendicular to CB 3 then be-
caufe the radius AC and the quadrantal arch AFB are
uniformly generated in the fame time by the points D
and F, the contemporaneous fpaces deferibed will have
to one another the fame ratio as the whole fpaces; that
is, AD : Ah :: AC : AB3 hence we have AC : AB ::
DC, or EK : FB. Now as the moveable point F ap¬
proaches to B, the ratio of the ftraight line EK to the
arch FB will approach to, and will manifellly be ulti¬
mately the fame as the ratio of the ftraight line EK to
the ftraight line FL, which again is equal to the ratio
°l i therefore the ratio of the radius AC to
the quadrantal arch AFB is the limit of the ratio of
CE to CF, and confequently equal to the ratio of CH
^ th® point in which the quadratrix meets
CB. Since therefore CH : CB :: CA or CB : quad,
arch AFB, if by any means we could determine the
point H, we might then find a ftraight line equal to the,
S^rantal arch, (by finding a third proportional to CH
an CB) and confequently a ftraight line equal to the
circumference. Ihe point H, however, cannot be de¬
termined by a geometrical conftru&ion, and therefore
5 ] S Q U
all the ingenuity evinced by the perfon who firft thought Squaring,
of this method of redlifying the circle (which certainly •—y'—
is confiderable) has been unavailing.
The Arabs, who fucceeded the Greeks in the culti¬
vation of the fciences, Avould no doubt have their pre¬
tended fquares of the circle. We however know no¬
thing more than that fome one of them believed he had
difeovered that the diameter being unity, the circum¬
ference was the fquare root of 103 a very grofs miftakej
for the fquare root of 10 exceeds 3.162 3 but Archime¬
des had demonftrated that the circumference was lefs-
than 3.143.
It appears that, even during the dark ages, fome
attempts were made at the refolution of this famous
problem, which hoivever have always remained in
manuferipts buried in the dull of old libraries. But
upon the revival of learning the problem was again
agitated by different writers, and particularly by the
celebrated Cardinal De Cufa, wTho diftinguifhed himfelf
by his unfortunate attempt to refolve it. His mode of
inveftigation, which had no folid foundation in geome¬
try, led him to conclude, that if a line equal to the fum
of the radius of a circle and the fide of its inferibed
fquare were made the diameter of another circle, and
an equilateral triangle were inferibed in this laft, the
perimeter of this triangle would be equal to the circum¬
ference of the other circle. This pretended quadrature
of the cardinal’s ivas refuted by Regiomontanus 3 and
indeed the talk was not difficult 3 for, according to his-
conftru&ion, the diameter being 1, the circumference.
Avas greater than 34 ; a conclufion which muft be abfurd,
feeing that Archimedes had demonftrated that it muff
be lels than that number.
It Avould be trefpaffing too much upon the patience of
our readers, Avere avc to mention all the abfurd and er¬
roneous attempts Avhich have been made during the laft
three centuries to fquare the circle. In a fupplement to
Montucla’s excellent Avork, Hifioire des Mathcmatiques,
Ave find upAvards of forty pretenders to the honour of
this difeovery enumerated. Thefe were almoft all very
ignorant of geometry 3 and many of them Avere Avild vi- f
fionaries, pretending to difeover inexplicable relations
between the plain truths of- mathematics -and the moft
myfterious dodfrines of religion. If thofe Avho have
fought the quadrature of the circle had been previoufly
initiated in the dodlrines of geometry, although they
miffed attaining the objedt they had in vieAV, yet they
could not have failed to have extended the boundaries
of the fcience by the difeovery of many nerv propofitions.
From fuch perfons, however, as have generally purfued
this inquiry, no improvement whatever of the fcience
was to be expedted 3 although, indeed, in fome inftances,
it has derived advantage from the labours of fuch as have
undertaken to expofe the abfurdity of their conclufions 3
as in the cafe of Metius, Avho in refuting the quadrature
of one Smon a ^uercu, found a much nearer approxi¬
mation to the ratio of the diameter to the circumference
than had been previoufly known, at leaft in Europe, viz.
that of 113 to 355, which reduced to decimals* is the
fame as the ratio of 1 to 3.1415929, differing from the
truth only in the feventh place of decimals.
Among the moft remarkable of thofe who have re¬
corded their own folly by publiftiing erroneous refolu-
tions of the problem, avc may reckon the celebrated Jo-
feph Scaliger. Full of felf-conceit, he believed that, en¬
tering
S Q U [ 616 ]
-Squaring, entering upon the ftudy of geometry, he could not tail to
v ' furmount by the force of his genius thofe obitacles which
had completely ftopt the progrefs of all preceding inqui¬
rers. He gave the refult of his meditations to the world
in 1592, under the title Nova Cyelometna ; but he was
refuted by Clavius, by Vieta, and others, who (hewed
that the magnitude he had affigned to the circumference
was a little lefs than the perimeter of the infcribed poly¬
gon of 192 hides, which proved beyond a doubt that he
was wrrong. Scaliger, however, was not to be convinced
of the abfurdity of his conclufiion •, and indeed, in almoft
every inftance, pretenders to this difcovery have not
been more remarkable for their folly in committing ab-
furd blunders, than for their obftinacy in maintaining
that they were in the right, and all who held a contrary
opinion in an error.
The famous Hobbes came alfo upon the field about the
year 1650, with pretenfions not only to the quadrature
of the circle, but alfo to the trife&ion of an angle, the
re£Hfication of the parabola, &.c. •, but his pretended fo-
lutions were refuted by Dr Wallis. And this circum-
ftance afforded him occafion to write not only againft
geometers, but even againft the fcience of geometry it-
felf.
We find it recorded by Montucla, as a fort of pheno¬
menon, that one Richard White, an Englifti Jefuit,
having happened upon what he conceived to be a qua¬
drature of the circle, which he publifhed under the title,
Chryfaefpu feu ^uadratura Circuit, fuffered himfelf at
laft to be convinced by fome of his friends that he was
wrong both in his quadrature of the circle, and in his
re&ification of the fpiral. But a folution of the fame
problem found out by one Mathulen of Lyons, did not
produce in the end fo much advantage to its author.
This man in 1728 announued to the learned world that
he had difcovered both the quadrature of the circle and
a perpetual motion 5 and he was fo certain of the truth
of thefe difcoveries, that he configned 1000 ecus (about
125I.) to be paid to any one who ftiould demonftrate
that he was deceived in either. The talk was not dif¬
ficult. Nicole of the Academy of Sciences demon-
ftrated that he wras wrong, and he himfelf allowed it;
but he hefitated to pay the money, which Nicole had re-
linquilhed in favour of the Hotel Dieu of Lyons. The
affair went before a court of juftice, which adjudged the
money to be paid, as Nicole had deftined it, to the poor.
At a later period, viz. in 1753, the Chevalier de Cau-
fans, a French officer, and a man who was never ex¬
pected to be a mathematician, fuddenly found a qua¬
drature of the circle in procuring a circular piece of
turf to be cut 5 and riling from one truth to another,
he explained by his quadrature the doftrine of original
fin, and the Trinity. He engaged himfelf by a public
writing to depofit with a notary the fum of 300,000
francs, to be wagered againft fuch as Ihould oppofe him,
and he aftually lodged 10,000, which were to devolve
to him who (hould demonftrate his error. This was
eafiiy done, as it refulted from his difcovery that a circle
was equal to its circumfcribing fquare, that is, a part to
the whole ! Some pevfons came forward to anfwer his
challenge, and in particular a young lady fued him at
one of the courts of law ■, but the French king judged
that the Chevalier’s fortune ought not to fuffer on ac¬
count of his whim ■, for, felting afide this piece of follv,
in every other refpect he was a worthy man. The pro-
S Q u
cedure was therefore ftopt, and the wager declared Squaring,
void. 1 » ^
We (hall not enter farther into the hiftory of thefe
vain and abfurd attempts to refolve this important pro¬
blem, but proceed to ftate what has a&ually been done
by men of found minds and real mathematical acquire¬
ments towards its folution. And in the firft place it
may be obferved that the problem admits of being pro-
pofed under two different forms: for it may be required
to find either the area of the whole circle, or, which is
the fame thing, the length of the whole circumference ;
or elfe to find the area of any propofed feftor or feg-
ment, or, which is equivalent, the length of the arch
of the feftor or fegment. The former is termed the
definite and the latter the indefinite quadrature of the
circle. The latter evidently is more general than the
former, and includes it as a particular cafe. Now if
we could find by any means a finite algebraic equation
that Ihould exprefs the relation between any propofed
arch of a circle, and fome known ftraight line, or lines,
the magnitude of one or more of which depended on
that arch, then we would have an abfolute rectification
of the arch, and confequently a rectification or quadra¬
ture alfo of the whole circle. We here fpeak of an
analytical folution of the problem *, the ancients, how¬
ever, who were almoft entirely ignorant of this branch
of mathematical fcience, muft have endeavoured to treat
it entirely upon geometrical principles. It is now well
known, however, that all geometrical problems may be
fubjeCted to analyfis j and that it is only by fuch a mode
of proceeding they have in many cafes been refolved.
With refpeCt to the definite quadrature of the circle,
it is commonly underftood that no unexcepti«nable de-
monftration of its impoflibility has hitherto been pub-
lilhed. It is true that James Gregory, in his vera circuit
et Hyberbolce quadratura, has given what he confidered
as fuch a demonftration ; but it has been objeCted to,
particularly by Huygens, one of the beft geometers of
his time. We are, however, certain that the ratio of the
diameter to the circumference, as alfo, that the ratio of
the fquare of the diameter to the fquare of a ftraight line
equal to the circumference, cannot be expreffed by ra¬
tional numbers, for this has been ftri£tly demonftrated
by Lambert in the Berlin Memoirs for 17 61. A demon¬
ftration is alfo given in Legendre’s Geometric. As to
the indefinite quadrature, if Newton’s demonftration of
the 28th lemma of the firft book of his Principia be cor-
reft, the thing ought to be abfolutely impoffftfte. For .
the objeft of that propofition is to prove that in no oval
figure whatever, that returns into itfelf, can the area cut
off by ftraight lines at pleafure be univerfally found by
an equation of a finite dimenfion, and compofed of a
finite number of terms. If this be true, then it will
be impoffible to exprefs any feftor of a circle taken at
pleafure in finite terms. It is however to be remarked,
that the accuracy of the reafoning by which Newton
has attempted to eftablilh the truth of the general pro¬
pofition has been queftioned by no lefs a geometer than
D’Alembert ; and indeed we know one oval curve,
which returns into itfelf, and which according to New¬
ton’s propofition ought therefore not to admit of an in¬
definite quadrature ; yet this is by no means the cale, for
it does really admit of fuch a quadrature. The curve
W’e mean is the lemnifeata, the equation of which is
(V4-!/*>*=a*C*2—if), where # and y denote its co-
\ ^rj j \ 3 ordinates,
S Q, U
[ 61
Squaring, ordinates, and a is put for a given line. The figure of
-‘—V^the curve is nearly that of the numeral character 8.
Upon the whole then we may infer that an unexcep¬
tionable demonftration of the impoffibility of expreffing
either the whole circle, or any propofed fedtor of it, by a
finite equation, is Hill among the dejiderata of mathe¬
matics.
We come now to fpeak of the different methods
which have been found for approximating to the area
or to the circumference. We have already noticed the
approximation to the ratio of the diameter to the cir¬
cumference found by Archimedes, and the earlier and
more accurate approximation of the Indian mathemati¬
cians. Archimedes’s ratio is the only one found by the
ancients in the weftern world that has defcended to mo¬
dern times, and it appears to have been the moft accu¬
rate known, until about the year 1585, when Metius,
in refuting a pretended quadrature, found the more
accurate ratio of 113 10355, as avc have already no¬
ticed. About the fame time Vieta and Adrianus Ro-
manus publifhed their ratios expreffed in decimals, the
former can-ying the approximation to ten decimals in-
ftead of fix, (Avhich was the number of accurate figures
expreffed by Metius’s ratio), and the latter extending it
to 17 figures. Vieta alfo gave a kind of feries, Avhich
being continued to infinity, gave the value of the
circle.
Thefe approximations, however, were far exceeded
by that of Ludolph Van Ceulen, who in a work pub-
lifhed in Dutch hr 1610, carried it as far as 36 figures,
fhowing that if the diameter were unity, the circumfe¬
rence Avould be greater than 3-14159,26535,89793,
23846,26433,83279,50288, but lefs than the fame num¬
ber Avith the lafl figure increafed by an unit. This
Avork was tranflated into Latin by Snellius, and pub¬
lifhed under the title, De Circulo et Adfcriptis. In
finding this approximation, Van Ceulen followed the
method of Archimedes, doubling continually the num¬
ber of tides of the infcribed and eircumfcribed polygons,
until at length he found two Avhich differed only by an
unit in the 36th place of decimals in the numbers ex¬
preffing their perimeters. This, hoAvever, muft have
been rather a work of patience than of genius ; and in¬
deed the labour muft have been prodigious. He feems
to have valued highly this fingular effort, for in imita¬
tion of Archimedes, Avhofe tomb Avas adorned with a
fphere and cylinder, in commemoration of his difcoA'cry
of the proportion Avhich thefe folids bear to one another,
he requefted that the ratio he had found might be in¬
fcribed on his tomb •, Avhich was accordingly done.
Snellius found means to abridge greatly the labour
of calculation by fome very ingenious theorems 5 and al¬
though he did not go beyond Van Ceulen, yet he veri-
, fied his refult. His difcoveries on this fubjedl are con¬
tained in a work called WillebrordiSnelliiCyclometricus
de Circuli Dimenjione, &c. Lugd. Bat. 1621.
Defcartes found alfo a geometrical conftrudtion, Avhieh
being repeated continually, gave the circumference, and
from Avhich he might eafily have deduced an expreffion
in the form of a feries.
Gregory of St Vincent diftinguifhed himfelf alfo on
this fuSjedft, It is true he committed a great error in
fuppofing he had difeovered the quadrature of both the
circle and hyperbola ; but he had previoufty made fo
many beautiful geometrical difco\Teries, deduced with
Vol. XIX. Part II.
7 1 s q u
much elegance after the manner of the ancients, that Squaring-,
it would be wrong to number him with thofe abfurd v
pretenders Avhich Ave have already noticed. Gregory’s
miftake Avas the caufe of a fliarp controverfy carried on
between his difciples on the one fide, and by Huygens>
Merfennus, and Leftaud, on the other ; and it Avas this
that gave Huygens occafion to confider particularly the
quadrature of the circle, and to inveftigate various
neAV and curious theorems relating to it, which are con¬
tained in his Theoremata de ^uadratura Hyperboles, El-
lipjis et Circuli, 16515 and in bis work De Circuli Mag-
nitudine Inventa, 1654. In particular he fhovved, that
if c denote the chord of an arch, and r its fine, then the
arch itfelf Avill be greater than c-{-f (c—J-), but lefs
than —-t— Xh —■0 : he alfo fhoxved that the
2C-+3J- 3 v
arch is lefs than the fum of y of its fine and -f- of its tan¬
gent. Thefe theorems greatly fhorten the labour of
approximating to the ratio of the diameter to the cir¬
cumference, by means of inferibed and circumfcribed
figures, infomuch that by the infcribed polygons of 6
and 12 fides, avc may obtain it to the fame degree of
accuracy as Archimedes did by the infcribed and cir¬
cumfcribed polygons of 96 fides.
James Gregory, in his Vera Circuli et Hijperbolce
dratura, gave feveral curious theorems upon the relation
of the circle to its infcribed and circumfcribed polygons,
and their ratios to one another ; and by means of thefe
he found with infinitely lefs trouble than by the ordi¬
nary methods, and even by thofe of Snellius, the mea-
fure of the circle as far as 20 places of figures. He
gave alfo, after the example of Huygens, conftru&ions
for finding ftraight lines nearly equal to arches of a
circle, and of Avhich the degree of accuracy was greater.
For example, he found that if A be put for the chord
of an arch of a circle, and B for twice the chord of
half the arch, and C be taken fuch that A-|-B : B
2 B : C, then the arch itfelf is nearly equal to
8 C + 8 B—A , , r ,
   , but a little lels, the error m the cafe of
a complete fe'micircle being lefs than its part 5
and ivhen the ascii does not exceed 1 20°, it is lefs than
its Too00^ part \ and finally, for a quadrant the error is
not greater than its part. And farther, that
if D be fuch that A : B :: B : D, then the arch is
, . 12C4-4B—D ,
nearly equal to   , but a little greater, the
error in the femieircle being lefs than its T-0-T5y part, and
in a quadrant lefs than its part*
The difcoveries of Dr Wallis, delivered in his Arith-
metica Infimtorum publiftied in 1655, led him to a fin¬
gular expreffion for the ratio of the circle to the fquare
of its diameter. He found that the former Avas to th©
latter as I to the produft
3 X 3 X 5 X 5 X 7 X 7 X 9 X 9 X 11 X 11 &c.
2x4x4x6x6x8x8x10x10x12
the fractions 4, •§» &c* being fuppofed infinite in
number. The products being fuppofed continued to in¬
finity, avb have the ratio exa£lly ; but if we flop at any
finite number of terms, as muft neceffarily be the cafe
in its application, the refult will be alternately too great
and too fmall, according as avc take an odd or an even
number of terms of the numerator and denominator,
4 I Thus
S Q, U [ 61
Squaring. Thus the fra&ion ^ is too great; on the other hand,
' " 3J<3 _ 9 is t00 fmall and SX3XS _ 45 too great,
2X4 2X4X4 .
and fo on. But to approach as near as poflible in each
cafe, Wallis dire£ts to multiply the product by the fquare
root of a fradion formed by adding to unity the reci¬
procal of the laft fa&or in either its numerator or deno¬
minator 5 then the refult, although much nearer, will
be too great if the number whofe reciprocal is taken be
the latl in the numerator, but too fmall if it be the
number in the denominator. Thus the following feries
of expreffions will give approximate values of the infinite
produd 1 ^AX_5.>< i X 7 x2&£- which are alternately
t 2X4X4X6x6xbx8
too great and too fmall.
8] s Q, U
and the third at § 137, of the article Fluxions : the
fecond is eafily obtained from the firll by coniidering
that fmce the fine of an arch is half the chord of twice
the arch, that is, half of a mean proportional between
the diameter and verfed fine of twice the arch j we have
therefore only to multiply the firft feries by 2, and to
fubftitute i 2V inflead of s, and we get the fecond
feries.
By taking J'rri? then, becaufe in this cafe the arch
contains 30°, we have half the circumference to the ra¬
dius 1, or the whole circumference to the diameter I,
expreffed by the infinite feries
3(1+Ly?
+ J &c.).
+
2.4.5.24 ' 2.4.6.7.2a ^ 2.4.6.8.9.2s
3-3 5-5
2.4-4.6
V C1 +f) j
3-3-5-5
2.4-4-6
VC1 +-5-) i
3-3-5-5-7-7
2.4.4.6.6.8
\/(i +4) ?
3‘3-5-5-7-7
2.4.4.6.6.8
V (x+i)
&c.
thefe values, alternately too great and too fmall, fall
between the knowm limits.
An expreflion of another kind for the ratio of the
circle to the fquare of the diameter was found by Lord
Brounker. He fhowed that the circle being unity, the
fquare of the diameter is expreffed by the continued
fra&ion
1
2-f
49 
2-f-, &C.
which is fuppofed to go on to infinity, the numerators
I, 9, 25, 49, &c. being the fquares of the odd numbers
I? 3> 7? &-c* By taking two, three, four, &c. terms
of this fra&ion, we fhall have a feries of approximate
values which are alternately greater and lefs than its ac¬
curate value.
Such were the chief difcoveries relating to the qua¬
drature of the circle made before the time of Newton :
many others, however, wTere quickly added by that truly
great man, as well as by his contemporaries. In parti¬
cular, Newton himfelf fhowed that if s denote the line,
and v the verfed fine of an arch, then the radius being-
unity, the arch is equal to either of the following fe¬
ries,
2-3
i.3-5-7-f9
2.4.5
*/2V X (l-f
2.4.6.7
i.v
+, &c.
2.3.2
i-d-5-7
2.4.6.8-9.24
‘ 2.4.6.8.9
4-3^ , i-3-5^3_ ,
2.4.5.2*"*"
f, &c.^.
And James Gregory found that t being put for the tan¬
gent, the arch is expreffed by the very Ample feries
3+5
/> ;»
— -) —, &c.
7 9
We have inveftigated the firft of thefe feries at § 140,
1
And by fuppofing that in the third feries t~l, in which
cafe the arch is one-eighth of the circumference, wc
have the fame things exprefled by the feries
, 1 1 1 1 1 „ .
4(1——|———( f-> Scc0’
35 79 11
which wras given by Leibnitz as a quadrature of the
circle in the Leipfic A£ts in the year 16825 but wras
difcovered by him 1673. Gregory, however, had
found the feries under its general form feveral years
before. By the firft of thefe two numeral feries we can
readily compute the circumference of the circle to a to¬
lerable degree of accuracy 5 but the fecond is altogether
inapplicable in its prefent form on account of the flow-
nefs of its convergency 5 for Newton has obferved that
to exhibit its value exadt to twenty places of figures,
there would be occafion for no lefs than five thoufand
millions of its terms, to compute which would take up
above a thoufand years.
The flownefs of the convergency has arifen from our
fuppofing / — 1. If we had fuppofed ( greater than I,
then the feries would not have converged at all, but on
the contrary diverged. But by giving to / a value lefs
than 1, then the rate of convergency will be increafed,
and that fo much the more, as t is Imaller.
If we fuppofe the arch of which / is the tangent to
be 30°, then t will be v/f::=fv/35 ancl therefore half
the circumference to radius unity, or the circumference
t*
to the diameter unity, which in this cafe is bt (1 — ~
3
/4 t6 /8
-) 1 , &c.) will be
5 7 9
>^12 (1 — -f——, ^3-f —4—, &c.).
^ v 3.3 5.3* 7.3s 9-34
By means of this feries, in an hour’s time the circum¬
ference may be found to be nearly 1592^53.,'90r
which is true to 11 decimal places, and is a veiy confi-
derable degree of accuracy, confidering the imallneis of
the labour. But Mr Machin, enticed by the eafinefs of
the procefs, was induced, about the beginning ot ihe
laft century, to continue the approximation as far as
100 places of figures, thus finding the diameter to be
to the circumference as f to 3.14159’2^535»^9793>
23846,26433,83279.50288,41971,69399,37510,582 9
74944,59230,78164,06286,20899 86280,34825,34-1 J
70680/ After him, De Lagny continued it as far as
X28
S Q U
[ 619 ]
S Q U
; qusring'
128 figures. But he has alfo been outdone *, for in Rad-
J cliffe’s library at Oxford, there is a manufcript in which
it is carried as far as 150 figures !
Although this laft feries, which was firft propofed by
Dr Halley, gives the ratio of the diameter to the cir¬
cumference with wonderful facility when compared with
the operofe method employed by Van Ceulen, yet others
have been fince found which accompliih it with dill
greater eafe. In Halley’s feries we have to compute the
irrational quantity \/i 2, becaufe of the irrational value
which it was neceffary to give to t in order to render it
fuffici irly fraall. and at the fame time an exa£l part of
the whole circumference $ but Mr Machin contrived,
by a very ingenious artifice, to reduce the computation
of an arch of 45®, and confequently the length of the
whole circumference, to two feries which contain only
rational quantities, and which at the fame time con¬
verge with great rapidity. The nature of this artifice,
and the manner in which it occurred to its author, is
explained by Dr Hutton in his very excellent treatife
on Menfuration, as follows : “ Since the chief advan¬
tage (in the application of Gregory’s feries to the redli-
fication of the circle) confifts in taking fmall arches,
whofe tangents fhall be numbers eafy to manage, Mr
Machin very properly confidered, that fince the tangent
of 450 is 1, and that the tangent of any arch being
given, the tangent of the double of that arch can eafily
be had 5 if there be alfumed fome fmall fimple number
as the tangent of an arch, and then the tangent of the
double arch be continually taken, until a tangent be
found nearly equal to 1, which is the tangent of 4 (j°,
by taking the tangent anfwering to the fmall difference
of 4 and this multiple, there would be found two very
fmall tangents, viz. the tangent firft affumed, and the
tangent of the difference between 450 and the multiple
arch ; and that therefore the lengths of the arches cor-
refponding to thefe two tangents being calculated, and
the arch belonging to the tangent firft affumed being fo
often doubled as the multiple directs, the refult, in-
creafed or diminifhed by the other arch, according as
the multiple fhould be below or above it, would be the
arch of 450.
“ Having thus thought of his method, by a few trials
he was lucky enough to find a number (and perhaps the
only one) proper for his purpofe ; viz. knowing that the
tangent of of 45° is nearly =^-, he affumed \ as the tan¬
gent of an arch. Then, fince if t be the tangent of an arch,
2 t
the tangent of the double arch will be —-, the radius
being 1 ; the tangent of the double arch to that of
which f is the tangent will be TST, and the tangent of the
double of this arch will be-f4f, which being very near¬
ly equal to 1, Ihews, that the arch which is equal to
four times the firft arch is very near 450. Then, fince
the tangent of the difference between an arch of 450,
and an arch greater than 450, whofe tangent is T, is
we have the tangent of the difference be¬
tween 4 50, and the arch whofe tangent is 4~r§ equal to
Now, by calculating from the general feries the
arches whofe tangents are and -g-y-y, (which may be
quickly done by reafon of the fmallnefs and fimplicity
of the numbers), and taking the latter arch from four
times the former, the remainder will be the arch of Squaring.
45°” . . . r
If we fubftitute J- inftead of t in the general feries,
we {hall have the arch whofe tangent is expreffed by
the feries  ; ;4-, &c. ; and, in like
5 3-S\ 5:Ss 7-5’
manner, by fubftituting yy-g- for t, we get the arch
whofe tangent is y-j-g- expreffed by the feries —»
—^—-j ^—  1—-_i_ &.C. Now, fince four
3.2393 5.239s 7-2397
times the arch to tan. y diminifhed by the arch to tan.
yy-g- is equal to the arch to tan. 1, that is, to the arch
of 4$°, orof the femicircumference 5 therefore, half
the circumference of a circle to rad. = I, or the whole
circumference, the diameter being 1, is equal to
11 II n \
\5 3-5J 50s 7-57^9-59 '
f 1 * 1 1 1 0\
—4[ H Y 54 5—, &c. }
\239 3-239J 5-239* 7-23 97 9-2399 /
and this is Machin’s feries for the redtification of the
circle.
The happy idea which Machin had conceived of re¬
ducing the reftification of the arch whofe tangent is
unity to that of trvo arches whofe tangents are fmall ra¬
tional fractions, having each unitv for a numerator, ap¬
pears alfo to have occurred to Euler ; and the fame
thought has, fince his time, been purfued by other ma¬
thematicians, who have contrived to refolve an arch of
45° into three or more fuch arches. We (hall (hew how
this may be done, beginning with the inveftigation of
the following problem.
Problem. Suppofing «, x, and y, to denote three
W'hole numbers, fuch, that the arch whofe tangent is
^ is equal to the fum of two arches whofe tangents are
— and -, radius being unity, it is required to determine
x y
all poflible values of the numbers x and y in terms of the
number «.
Solution. It is manifeft from the formula for the tan¬
gent of the fum of two arches (Algebra, § 368.) that
- + 1
-=——hence w'e have , and n x-f-n y
n 1 n xy—1 1 ^
^xy
—xy—1, and y {x—»)=r«A; + ij and, laftly, y—
nx-i-i n1-!.!
  . Now, as by hypothefis, y is a
x—n X"m' n
fl2 Jl. i
whole number, it is manifeft that —be a whole
x—n
number 5 therefore, x—n muft be a divifor of/z*-}-i.
Let p be any divifor of «*+!, and q the quotient, that
is, lety y=n*-j-i, thenar—/;=:/>, and x=r//-}-y : And
“f* I P Q
fince ———=z-~-—q, therefore y =:«-{-y ; thus the va¬
lues of x and y are determined in terms of n as required ;
and by giving to p and q all poflible values, we {hall
4 I 2 have
S Q U
Squaring. ]iave all tlie values of x and ?/ that can exift.
lution affords us the following theorem.
[ 620 ] s
This fo- get, by exterminating A-J-,
lions for Ai, an arch of 43°,
Q, u
the two following expref- Squaring
Theorem. Let n denote any whole number, and
let «l-f-1 be refolved into any t^vo faftorsp and y, (one
of which may be unity), that is, lety?y rr: w*-}-1 1 ^ie
arch wdiofe tangent is — is equal to the fum of the arches
0 n
whofe tangents are —;—, and —;— refne&ively.
6 n+p TlJpq
For the fake of brevity, let A — be put to denote the
arch, having for its tangent — j then, according to this
notation, our theorem will be exprefied thus, A^=:
A—+A—^—. Let us now fuppofe « =r 1, then
n+p^ n + q 11
«* -j-1 — 2 ~ I X 2, therefore, the only values which we
can give in this cafe to p and ^ arep—l, and
thefe being fubftituted, we have
A i=:A4-f Af.
From which it appears, that the arch whofe tangent is
unity (that is, of the circumference), is the fum.of
the arches whofe tangents are \ and This is Euler’s
theorem, and by means of it, putting \ and y for t in
the general feries y-f-f + > &c* we get
half the circumference to radius 1 equal to
I I
5-2S
1 1
7-27 "^"p.a9
&c.
1 1 A
+T— +
I I
Ts ~ ~7+;
3 3-3i ' 5-3* 7-37 ‘ 9-39
—, Sec.
Let us now fuppofe n=2, then 5= I X
hence the only values which p and y can have are 1 and 5 *,
and in this cafe our general formula gives A^m: Ay + Ay.
If now from the two equations
Al=rA4-{-Af J AyZrAy, -j-Ay,
Ai = 2Ad-f Af+iAr’y j Ai=2Af-j-A-* -f-2Ai.
Thefe give each an expreffion for the circumference
compofed of three feries. The labour, however, o£
computing by either of them, particularly the latter,
will probably be lefs than by any of the formulas com¬
pofed of turn feries, on account of the greater degree of
quicknefs with which the feries. will converge. All the
preceding formulas have been inveftigated in different
ways by different mathematicians. That, however,
which we are about to inveftigate, we believe, is new.
Let n in the general formula be taken equal to 5 ^ there
/Z1-f-i —26=: 1 X 26=2 X 13, therefore p~ 1, y~26, al-
{o p=z2, y=zi3, hence we find Afzz A^-f-AyV? and al-
fo A-^rzA^ + Ayy. From this laft equation, and the-
equation A i~2 Af-f-A-|-h 2A|, let A| be elimina¬
ted, and the refult is
A 1 = 3 A^ 2Af -f- 2ATy.
This appears to be the mod convenient expreffion of
any we have yet found, becaufe the fractions are fmall-
er, while at the fame time two of the denominators con-
fid of only one figure, and the third, which confids of
two, admits of being refolved into factors. By the
fame mode of reafoning we have found this expreffioa
Al —2A| +3 A f -{- 2 Ayy -j- 3 Ayy,
which eonfids of four terms 5 but for the fake of brevity
we omit its invedigation.
We fhall now apply the formula Ai = 3 A^--{-2Af
4- 2 ATy to the adlual calculation of the arch of 450,
the radius of the circle being unity.
I. Calculation of the length of the arch whofe tan¬
gent is 4*
In this cafe, becaufe we have
A-= - —
7 7
1 1
1
7-/
+ &C'
we eliminate fucceffively Ay and Ay, we drall obtain
the two following:
A 1 = 2 Ay+Ay •, A 1~2 Ay Ay.
From the fird of thefe it appears that f of the circum¬
ference is equal to the fum of twice the arch to tan. y,
and once the arch to tan., f j and from the fecond, that
the fame quantity is equal to the excefs of twice the
arch to tan. ~ above the arch to tan. y •, and from each
of thefe, an expreffion for the whole circumference may
be obtained analogous to that which we have found
above from Euler’s formula, but which wdll converge
fader, and therefore is better.
The refolution of an arch of 430 into three other
arches, may be effe61ed by means of our general for¬
mula, as follows: Put n=z^ then -f-l=:iO=l X 10
=r2X5» hence we have p=i, and qzzio, and alfo
p—2, and therefore, fubdituting, we get two
different values of Ay, viz.
Ay—Ay-j-ATy J Ay=rAy4-Ay.
From thefe, and the equation AirrzAf-{-A^, we
1 =.1428571428571
7
1
3-75
1
=.0009718172983
=.0000118998037 —=.0000001734665
=.0000000027534 -^-^=.0000000000460
T
.0009719908108
13-7
:.oooooooooooo8
4--I428690454i50 amount of pofitive terms.
—.0009719908108 amount of negative terms.
Ay =.1418970546042
II. Calculation of the length of the arch whofe tan¬
gent is -|.
Here /=y, therefore,
.1 1 1 1 1 _
A8-8”“pj+fdP"”'
1
S Q U
- =.1250000000000
5.8s
=.0000061035156
=.0000000008278
1
P“3
1
7X7
1
[ 621
=.0006510416667
=.0000000681196
u
11.81
=.0000000000106
13.8^
=.0000000000001
+.1250061043435
—.0006511097969
.0006511097969 a tan. a
=.1243549945466
III. Calculation of the arch ivhofe tangent is
Here t therefore,
A_1 - _L
Ai8 - 18
+
3.i8s ' 5.18s
+, &c.
^-=•0555555555556
5-i8s
1
97i89
=.0000001058443
=.0000000000006
+•0555556614005
—.0000571561547
3.183
1
7.187
7.187
r .0000571559214
:.0000000002333
.0000571561547
AF8 =,05549?5052458
] s Q
reciprocal, or the powers of that reciprocal j it is how- Squaring
ever evident, that any one of thefe being known, the " v
arch itfelf becomes immediately known. The firft
feries is as follows. Let a denote any arch of a circle,
and let its tangent, the tangents of its half, &c. be
briefly denoted by tan. a, tan. ~ a, &c. Then (hall
-f. i tan. tan* i fl+i tan. i a
+ tan. ^ a .... . + T + T' + S.
Here the arches a, f «, 4®, f&c. conftitute a geome¬
trical progreffion, having the number of its terms in¬
finite, and their common ratio + The letters T and T*
are put for any two adjoining terms (after the firft) of
the feries, and S is put for the fum of all the terms fol¬
lowing thefe ; and this fum is always contained between
two limits, one of which is j of the latter of the two
terms T T', and the other is a third proportional to
their difference *, and the laft of the two being always
lefs than the firfl: of thefe limits, but greater than the
fecondi As a fpechnen of the way of applying this
feries, we fliall give the calculation of the length of an
arch of go0 to fix decimal places. In this cafe —-—
^ 1 tan. a-
= cotan. c=o, tan.-f-a=l, the remaining quantities
tan. tan. fo, &c. are to be computed from tan. i a
by this formula, tan. ^ A=y/'^
tan.* A
tan. A
Accordingly we find
tan. \a~l.
tan. \a~ .4142136
tan, |a= .1989123
tan. •xTtf«=.09849i4
tan. T1,Jfl=.0491268
tan. ^n=.o245486
3 A f =.4256911638126
2A i =.248709989093.2
2ArI/=.1109970104916
f of the circum. or Ai =.785398163397
Thus by a very eafy calculation we have obtained one-
fourth of the circumference true to 12 decimal places j
and indeed by this method we may find an approxi¬
mate value of the ratio of the diameter to the circum¬
ference to 200 places of figures with, perhaps, as much
eafe as Vieta or Romanus found it to 10 or 15 figures.
We have already obferved that Van ^Ceulen defired
that his quadrature, which extended only to 35. deci¬
mals, might be infcribed on his tomb ; from which we
may reafonably infer that the time and labour he had
bellowed in the calculation mull have been very great j
but by an artifice of the kind we have been explaining,
Euler in 18 hours verified Lagny’s quadrature of 128
figures.
In concluding this article we {hall briefly notice
Tome feries for the indefinite re&ifiuation of the circle,,
which have juft appeared in the fixth volume of the
Edinburgh Philofophical Tranfaftions. They are given
by Mr W. Wallace of the Royal Military College, in,
a paper entitled, New Series for the Quadrature of the
Conic SeBions, and the Computation of Logarithms.
Thefe feries do not give the arch direflly, but only its
5
l tan. f «=.5ocoooo
t tan. i «=• 1035534
f, tan. f a=.0248640
ts tan. tV= -00615 5 7
T =TI-T tan.
S^.0001278,7
S-^.0001277
T‘T tan.TVrt= .0015352
T' =^ITtan.-g-I^«=.0003 836
’71
Hence S=.0001278
^=.6366197
Arch of 90°=a=i.570796
The fecond feries given in this paper is exprefled
as follows. Let cof. a, cof. -fa, &c. denote the co¬
fine of the arch, the cofine of its half, &c. Th?n
1
I
4
I -f-cof. a 1
I—cof. a * 6
I I—cof. -{a
4* 1 +cof. -a
I I—cof.
4^ I +cof. ^ *
I—cof.
I +cof.
+T+T'+SJ.
Here, as before, the letters T, T' denote any two ad¬
jacent terms of the feries in the parenthefis, and S is
put for the fum of all the following terms, which in this
cafe is always lefs than tttT', but greater than a third
proportional to T—T' aod J'. This fecond feries con¬
verges
S T A [6.
Squaring verges quicker than the firft, and is befides better adapt-
,'j. ed to calculation, becaule the cofines of the fenes of
, t:iL)i:’‘ng- arches -Ja, &c. are more eafiiy deduced from the
cofine of a and one another than the tangents. I .ie
/t-fcof. A\
formula in this cafe being cof. 4 A=vf ^ “ )•
There are various other feries for the redlihcation of
any arch of a circle given in the fame paper, fome of
which converge falter than either of the two we have
here fpecified, and all have the property of being appli¬
cable to every pofiible cafe, and of having very limple
limits, between which the fum of ail their terms fol¬
lowing any propofed term are always contained. It
may alfo be obferved that the principles from which they
are deduced are of the molt fimple and elementary kind,
infomuch that the author has dated it as his opinion,
that their inveftigation might even be admitted into
and form a part of the elements of geometry.
SOUATINA. See Squalus, Ichthyology In¬
dex.
SQUILL. See Scilla, Botany and Materia
Medic a Index.
SQUILLA, the name of a fpecies of cancer. See
Cancer, Entomology Index.
SQUINTING. See Medicine, N° 383.
SQUIRREL. See Sciurus, Mammalia Index.
STABBING, in Law. The offence of mortally
'dabbing another, though done upon hidden provoca¬
tion, is punilhed as murder j the benefit of clergy be¬
ing taken away from it by datute. (See Murder).
For by Ja. I. c. 8. when one thruds or dabs another,
not then having a weapon drawn, or who hath not then
fird dricken the party dabbing, fo that he dies thereof
within fix months after, the offender fhall not have the
benefit of clergy, though he did it not of malice afore¬
thought. This datute was made on account of the fre¬
quent quarrels and dabbings with diort daggers between
the Scotch and the Englifii, at the acceflion of James I.;
and being therefore of a temporary nature, ought to
have expired with the mifehief which it meant to remedy.
For, in point of folid and fubdantial judice, it cannot
be find that the mode of killing, whether by dabbing,
drangling, or (hooting, can either extenuate or enhance
the guilt •, unlefs where, as in the cafe of poifoning, it
carries with it internal evidence of cool and deliberate
malice. But the benignity of the law hath condrued
the datute fo favourably in behalf of the fubje6I, and
fo flriflly when againd him, that the offence of dab¬
bing now dands almod upon the fame footing as it did
at the common law. Thus, (not to repeat the cafes
mentioned under Manslaughter, of dabbing an adul-
terefs, &c. which are barely manflaughter, as at com¬
mon law), in the condruddion of this datute it hath been
doubted, whether, if the deeeafed had druek at all be¬
fore the mortal blow given, this does not take it out of
the datute, though in the preceding quarrel the dabber
had given the fird blow ; and it feems to be the better
opinion, that this is not within the datute. Alfo it hath
been refolved, that the killing -a man, by throwing a
hammer or other weapon, is not within the datute ; and
whether a fhot with a pidol be fo or not is doubted.
But it the party flam had a cudgel in his hand, or had
thrown a pot or a bottle, or difeharged a pidol at the
party dabbing, this itf a fuffxient reafon for having a
Hlachfl,
Comment.
vol. iv
P- 193.
22 ] S T A
weapon drawn on his fide within the words of the da- Stabbinu
tute.
ST ACHYS, Hedge-nettle,or All-heal, agenus
of plants belonging to the clafs of didynamia, and order
of gvmnnfpermia ; and in the natural fydem arranged
under the 4 2d order, Verticillatte. See Botany Index.
STADIUM, an ancient Greek long meafure, con¬
taining 125 geometrical paces, or 625 Roman feet, cor-
refponding to our furlong. The word is faid to be
formed from the Greek word ccc<uf, “ a Ration,” or
“ to dand,” becaule it is reported that Hercules having
run a dadium at one breath, flood dill at the end of it.
The Greeks ufually meafured didanees by dadia, which
they called rxehacrftcs. Stadium alfo fignified the courfe
on which their races were run.
ST ADTHOLDER, formerly the principal magi-
drate or governor of the Seven United Provinces. Al¬
though this office is now abolidied by the ufurped influ¬
ence of France, our readers will probably not be ill
pleafed with a fhort account of the feveral powers and
claims connefted with it. To render that account the
more intelligible, we (hall trace the odice of a dadt-
holder from its origin.
The Seven Provinces of the Low Countries were
long governed by princes inveded with the fovereignty,
though limited in their powers, and under various titles j
as Counts of Holland, Dukes of Guelder, Bifhop of
Utrecht, &c. When thefe countries fell to the princes
of the houfe of Burgundy, and afterwards to thofe of
Aullria, who had many other dominions, the abfence
of the fovereign was fupplied by a dadtholder or gover¬
nor, veded with very ample powers. Thefe dadthol-
ders or lieutenants had the adminillration of the govern¬
ment, and prefided in the courts of judice, whofe jurif-
diftion was not at that time confined merely to the trial
of caufes, but extended to affairs of ftates The fladt-
hoiders fwore allegiance to the princes at their inaugu¬
ration, jointly with the ftates of the provinces they go¬
verned. They likewife took an oath to the dates, by
which they promifed to maintain their fundamental laws
and privileges.
It was upon this footing that William the Fird,
prince of Orange, was made governor and lieutenant-
general of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, by Philip
the Second, upon his leaving the Low Countries to go
into Spain The troubles beginning foon after, this
prince found means to bring about an union, in 1576,
between Holland and Zealand } the dates of which two
provinces put into his hands, as far as was in their
power, the fovereign authority (for fo long time as they
Ihould remain in war and under arms), upon the fame
footing as Holland had intruded him with it the year
before. In 1 ^81 the fame authority was again renew¬
ed to him by Holland, as it was foon after by Zealand
likewife •, and in 1 ^84, being already defied count of
Holland, upon certain conditions he would have been
formally invefied with the fovereignty, had not a wretch,
hired and employed by the court of Spain, put an.end
to his life by a horrid affaffmation.
In the preamble of the indruments by which the
dates in 1581 conferred the fovereign authority upon
Prince William the Fird, we find thefe remarkable
words, which are there fet down as fundamental rules:
“ That all republics and communities ought to pre-
ferve
S T A
itadthold-ferre, maintain, and fortify them (elves by unanimity j
which being rrnpoffible to be kept up always among Vo
many members, often differing in inclinations and Senti¬
ments, it is consequently neceltary that the government
ihould be placed in the hands of one lingle chief magi-
ffrate.” Many good politicians, and the greateft part
of the inhabitants of .thefe provinces, fince the eltablilh-
ment of the republic, looked upon the ftadtholderian
government as an effentiai part of her con dilution; nor
has (he been without a fiadtholder but twice, that is to
fay, from the end of 1650 to 1672, and again from
March 1702 till April 1747. The provinces of Frief-
land and Groningen, with Ommelands, had always a
iladtholder without interruption : their inftrudlions may
be feen in Aitzema; but formerly the powers of the
iladtholder of thefe provinces were confined within nar¬
rower bounds, and till William the Fourth there was
no ftadtholder of the feven provinces together.
The ftadtholder could not declare war or make peace,
but he had, in quality of captain-general of the union,
the command in chief of all the forces of the ftate (a) j
and military perfons were obliged to obey him in every
thing that concerned the fervice. He was not limited
by inftrudlions; but he had the important power of gi¬
ving out orders for the march of troops, and the dif-
polition of all matters relative to them. He not only
directed their marches, but provided for the garrifons,
and changed them at pleafure. All military edidts and
regulations came from him alone; he conftituted and
authorized the high council of war of the United Pro-
vices, and, as captain-general of every province, dif-
pofed of all military offices, as far as the rank of colonel
inclufively. The higher ports, fuch as thofe of velt-
marffials, generals, lieutenant-generals, major-generals,
Were given by the ftates-general, who chofe the perfons
recommended by his highnefs. • He made the governors,
commandants, &c. of towjis and ftrong places of the re¬
public, and of the barrier. The perfons nominated pre-
•fented their inftruments of appointment to their high
mightineffes, who provided them with commiffions. The
ftates-general had likewife great regard to the recom¬
mendation of the prince ftadtholder in the difpofition of
thofe civil employments which were in their gift.
The power of the rtadtholder as high-admiral, ex¬
tended to every thing that concerned the naval force of
the republic, and to all the other affairs that Were here
within the jurifdiftion of the admiralty. He prefided
at thefe boards either in perfon or by his reprefentatives;
and as chief of them all in general, and of every one in
particular, he had power to make their orders and in-
itru&ions be obferved by themfelves and others. He
beftowed the polls of lieutenant-admiral, vice-admiral,
and rear-admiral, who commanded under him ; and he
made likewife port-captains.
T he ftadtholder granted likewife letters of grace, par-
r 623 ]
S T A
don, and abolition, as well for the crimes called Com- Stadthold-
munia Delicia, as for military offences. In Holland and «*•
Zealand thefe letters were made out for crimes of the
firlt iort, in the name of the dates, with the advice of
his highnefs. In military offences he confulred the high
council of war ; and upon the communia deilEia he took
the advice of the courts of jurtice, of the counfeliors,
committees of the provinces, of the council of date, and
the tribunals ot jurtice in the reipedlive towns, accord¬
ing to the nature of the cafe.
In the provinces of Holland and Zealand, the rtadt¬
holder eledted the magiftrates of the towns annually,
out of a double number that were returned to him by
the towns themfelves.
W hen any of thefe offices became vacant, which, at
the time there was no governor, Were in the difpofal of
the dates of Holland, or as formerly in that of the
chamber of accounts, the ftadtholdcr had his choice of
two, or, in fome cafes, of three candidates, named by
their noble and great mightineffes. He chofe likewife
the coumellors, inipedtors of the dykes of Kynland,
Delfland, and Scheeland, out of three perfons preiented
to him by the'boards of the counfeliors infpedlors;
which boards were of very ancient eftablifbment in Hol¬
land.
His highnefs prefided in the courts of Holland, and
in the courts of juftice of the other provinces; and his
name was placed at the head of the proclamations and
adfs, called in Dutch Mandamenten, or Provijion van
JuJHlie. In Overyffel and in the province ot Utrecht
the poffeffors of fiefs held of the prince ftadtholder. Fie
was lupreme curator of the univeruties of Guelder,
Friefland, and Groningen; grand forerter and grand
veneur in Guelder, in Holland, and other places. In
the province of Utrecht, his highnefs, by virtue of the
regulation of 1 674, dilpofed of the provolifhips and other
benefices which remained to the chapters, as alio of the
canonical prebends that fell in the months which were
formerly the papal months.
By the firft article of the council of ftate of the Unit¬
ed Provinces, die rtadtholder was the firft member of
it, and had a right of voting there, with an appointment
oi 25,000 guilders a year. He afbfted alfo, as often as
he thought it for the fervice of the ftate, at the delibe¬
rations of the ftates-general, to make propofitions to
theng and fometimes alfo at the conferences which the
deputies of their high mightineffes held in their differ¬
ent committees, in confequence of their Handing orders.
He likewife affifted at the aflemblies of the dates of each
particular province, and at that of the counfeliors com¬
mittees. In Guelder, Holland, and Utrecht, his high¬
nefs had a fhare of the fovereignty, as chief or prefident
of the body of nobles; and in Zealand, where hepoffef-
fed the marquifate of Veer and Flufhing, as firft noble,
and reprefenting the whole nobility. In his abfence he
had
- (a) In times of war, however, the ftates had always named deputies for the army, to accompany the ftadthol-
ders m the field, and to ferve them as counfellors in all their enterprifes, particularly in the moft important affairs
fuch as gtvmg battle, or undertaking a fiege, &c. This was always praftifed till the acceffion of King William
the Ibird to the crown of Great Britain, and after his death was continued with regard to the general in chief of
the army of the republic. In 1747 and 1748 there were likewife deputies with the army, but with more limited
Staffa.
S T A [ 624 ]
‘•Stadthold- had in Zealand his reprefentatives, who had the fir ft
cr place and the firft voice in all the councils, and the tint
" of whom was always firft deputy from the province to
j the aflembly of their high mightineffes.
In 1749 the prince ftadtholder was created by the
• ftates-general, governor-general and fupreme director of
,-the Eaft and Weft India companies j dignities which
- gave him a great deal of authority and power, and which
had never been conferred upon any of his predeceffors,
nor had they hitherto been made hereditary. He had
his reprefentatives in the feveral chambers of the com-
pany, and chofe their direftors out of a nomination of
1 three qualified perfons. The prince enjoyed this prero¬
gative in Zealand from the time of his elevation to the
‘ftadtholderate.
The revenues of the ftadtholderate of the feven Unit¬
ed Provinces were reckoned (including the 25,000
guilders which the prince enjoyed annually as the firft
member of the council of ftate, and what he had from
the India company’s dividends) to amount to 300,000
guilders a-year. As captain-general of the union, his
ferene highnefs had 120,000 guilders per annum *, be-
•fides 24,000 from Friefland, and 12,000 from Gronin¬
gen, in quality of captain-general of thofe provinces.
In times of rvar the ftate allowed extraordinary fums to
the captain-general for the expence of every campaign.
All thefe powers and privileges were^ held by the
prince of Orange previous to the revolutionary Avar of
France. The influence of the ufurper of that kingdom
has extended to the ftates of Holland, and attached them
as a province to h ranee under the name of a kingdom,
at the head of which is a brother of Bonaparte.
STALHELINA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of fyngenefia, and order of polygamia gequalis :
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 49th or¬
der, Compojitce. See Botany Index.
STAFF, an inftrument ordinarily ufed to reft on in
Avalking. The ftaff is alfo frequently ufed as a kind of
natural Aveapon both of offence and defence j and for
feveral other purpofes.
Staff, a light pole erefted in different parts of a (hip,
whereon to hoift and difplay the colours.
The principal of thefe is reared immediately over the
ftern, to difplay the enfign ; another is fixed on the
boAvfprit, to extend the jack*, three more are erefted at
the three maft heads, or formed by their upper ends, to
fhoAv the flag or pendant of the refpecliA'e fquadron or
divifion to which the ftiip is appropriated. See En-
sigv, Mast, Jack, and Pendant.
Staff, in military matters, confifts of a quarter-
mafter-general, adjutant-general, and majors of brigade.
The ftaff properly exifts only in time of Avar. See
^UARTEU-Mnjler General, &c.
Regimental STAFF, confifts in the adjutant, quarter-
mafter, chaplain, furgeon, &c.
Staff, in Mujic, five lines, on Avhich, with the inter¬
mediate fpaces, the notes of a fong or piece of mufic are
marked.
Fore-STAFF. See FORE-Stqf.
STAFFA, one of the Hebrides or Weftern Iflands
of Scotland, remarkable for its bafaltic pillars. It Avas
ATifited by Sir Jofeph Banks, who communicated the
following account of it to Mr Pennant.
“ The little ifland of Staffa lies on the tveft coaft of
Mull, about three leagues north-eaft from Iona, or Ico-
s T A
lumbkill : its greateft length is about an Englifli mile, Stafo,
and its breadth about half a one. On the eaft fide of *'■■■ y~»
the ifland is a fmall bay where boats generally land ; a
little to the fouthward of Avhich the firft appearance of
pillars is to be obferved ; they are fmall ; and inftead
of being placed upright, lie doAvn on their fide, each
forming a fegment of a circle. From thence you pa6
a fmall cave, above Avhich the pillars, norv grown a lit¬
tle larger, are inclining in all direftions : in one place
in particular, a fmall mafs of them very much refembles
the ribs of a ftiip. From hence having paffed the cave,
which, if it is not loAV-water, you muft do in a boat, you
come to the firft ranges of pillars, Avhich are flill not
above half as large as thofe a little beyond. Over
again ft this place is a fmall ifland, called in Erie Boo-
Jha-la, feparated from the main by a channel not many
fathoms Avide. This whole ifland is compofed ol pillars
without any ftratum above them j they are ftill fmall,
but by much the neateft formed of any about the place.
“ The firft: divifion of the ifland, for at high water it
is divided into two, makes a kind of a cone, the pil¬
lars converging together toAvards the centre : on the
other they are in general laid doAvn flat : and in the
front next to the main, you fee how beautifully they
are packed together, their ends coming out fquare Avith
the bank which they form. All thefe have their tranf-
verfe fettions exaft, and their furfaces fmooth ; Avhith
is by no means the cafe Avith the large ones, which are
cracked in all diredions. I muft queftion, however,
if any part of this whole liland of Boo-flia-la is two feet
in diameter.
“ The main ifland oppofite to Boo-lha la, and farther
towards the north-weft, is fupported by ranges of pil¬
lars pretty eredt, and, though not tall (as they are not
uncovered to the bafe), of large diameters \ and at
their feet is an irregular pavement, made by the upper
fides of fuch as have been broken off, which extends as
far under w?ater as the eye can reach. Here the forms
of the pillars are apparent} thefe are of three, four, five,
fix, and feven fides 5 but the numbers of five and fix are
by much the moft prevalent. 1 he largeft I meafured
was of feven ; it Avas four feet five inches in diameter.
“ The furfaces of thefe large pillars, in general, are
rough and uneven, full of cracks in all diretlions j the
tranfverfe figures in the upright ones never fail to run
in their true^ direclions. The furfaces upon which A\e
walked Avere often flat, having neither concavity nor
convexity ; the larger number, hoAvever, was concave,
though fome were very evidently convex. In fome places,
the interftices within the perpendicular figures Avere
filled up Avith a yelloAv ipar : in one place, a A'ein paffed
in among the mafs of pillars, carrying here and there
fmall threads of Ipar. Though they were broken and
cracked through in all diredlions, yet their perpendicu¬
lar figures might eafily be traced : from whence it is
eafy to infer, that whatever the accident might have
been that eaufed the diflocation, it happened after the
formation of the pillars.
“ From hence proceeding along fltore, you arrive at
Fin gal’s cave. Its dimenfions I have given in the form
of a table a
Feet.
Length of the 'cave from the rock Avithout,
From the pitch of the arch,
In.
6
371
250 o
Breadth
S T A
t 625 ]
Staffa. Breadth of ditto at the mouth, - 53 7
At the farther end, - - - 20 o
Height of the arch at the mouth, - 6
At the end, - - - 70 o
Height of an outfide pillar, - 39 6
Of one at the north-weft corner, » 54 0
Depth of water at the mouth, - 180
At the bottom, - . 90
“ The cave runs into the rock in the direclion of
Horth-eaft by eaft by the compafs.
“ Proceeding farther to the north-weft, you meet with
the higheft ranges of pillars ; the magnificent appear¬
ance of which is paft all defcription. Here they are
bare to their very balls, and the ftratum below them is
alfo vifible : in a ftiort time, it rifes many feet above
the water, and gives an opportunity of examining its
quality. Its furface is rough, and has often large lumps
of ftone flicking in it as if half immerfed : itfelf, when
broken, is compofed of a thoufand heterogeneous parts,
which together have very much the appearance of a
lava ; and the more fo, as many of the lumps appear
to be of the very fame ftone of which the pillars are
formed. I his whole ftratum lies in an inclined pofi-
tion, dipping gradually towards the fouth-eaft. As
hereabouts is the fituation of the higheft pillars, I {hall
mention my meafurements of them, and the different
ftrata in this place, premifing, that the meafurements
were made with a line held in the hand of a perfon
wno flood at the top of the cliff, and reaching to the
bottom *, to the lower end of which was tied a white
mark, which was obferved by one who ftaid below for
the purpofe : when this mark was fet off" from the wa¬
ter, the perfon below noted it down, and made fignal to
him above, who made then a mark in his rope: when¬
ever this mark paffed a notable place, the fame fignal
was made, and the name of the place noted down as
before : the line being all hauled up, and the diftances
between the marks meafured and noted down, gave,
when compared with the book kept below, the diftances,
as for inftance in the cave :
“ N° 1. in the book below, was called from the wra-
ter to the foot of the firft pillar in the book above
N° 1. gave 36 feet eight inches, the higheft of that af-
cent, which was compofed of broken pillars.
“ N° I. Pillar at the weft corner of Fingal’s cave.
Feet. In.
1 From the wrater to the foot of the pillar, 12 10
2 Height of the pillar, - - 37 3
3 Stratum above the pillar, - - 66 9
“ N° 2. Fingal’s cave.
3 From the water to the foot of the pillar, 36 8
2 Height of the pillar - - 39 6
3 From the top of the pillar to the top of the
arch, , - - . - 31 4
4 Thicknefs of the ftratum above, - 34 4
By adding together the three firft meafure¬
ments, we got the height of the arch from
the water, - - . 1176
“ N° 3. Corner pillar to the wreftward of
Fingal’s cave.
VoL. XIX. Part II.
S T A
Stratum below the pillar of lava-like matter, 11 o
Length of pillar, - - 54 0
Stratum above the pillar, - - 61 6
“ N° 5. Another part to the weftward.
Stratum below the pillar, - - 17 1
Height of the pillar, - - 50 o
Stratum above, - - - 51 1
“ N° 5. Another pillar farther to the weft-
ward.
Stratum below the pillar, - - 19 8
Height of the pillar, - - 55 1
Stratum above, - - - 54 7
“ The ftratum above the pillars, which is here men¬
tioned, is uniformly the fame, confifting of numberlels
fmall pillars, bending and inclining in all direftions,
fometimes fb irregular that the ftones can only be faid
to have an inclination to affume a columnar form ; in
others more regular, but never breaking into or dilturb-
ing the ftratum of large pillars, whofe tops everywhere
keep an uniform and regular line.
“ Proceeding now along the fhore round the north
end of the iftand, you arrive at Ot/a na /carve, or the
Corvorant’s Cave. Here the ftratum under the pillars
is lifted up very high ; the pillars above it are confider-
ably lefs than thofe at the north-weft end of the illand,
but ftill very confiderable. Beyond is a bay, which
cuts deep into the iftand, rendering it in that place not
more than a quarter of a mile over. On the fides of
this bay, efpecially beyond a little valley, which almoft
cuts the ifland into two, are two ftages of pillars, but
fmall \ however, having a ftratum between them exactly
the fame as that above them, formed of innumerable
little pillars, fhaken out of their places, and leaning in
all directions.
“ Having paffed this bay, the pillars totally ceafe ; the
rock is of a dark brown ftone, and no figns of regularity
occur till you have paffed round the fouth-eaft end of
the ifland (a fpace almoft as large as that occupied by
the pillars), which you meet again on the weft fide, be¬
ginning to form themfelves irregularly, as if the ftratum
had an inclination to that form, and foon arrive at the
bending pillars where I began.
“ The ftone of which the pillars are formed, is a
coarfe kind of bafaltes, very much refembling the Giant’s
Caufeway in Ireland, though none of them are near fo
neat as the fpecimens of the latter which I have feen at
the Britifti Mufeum ; owing chiefly to the colour, which
in ours is a dirty brown, in the Irilh a fine black ; in¬
deed the whole production feems very much to referable
the Giant’s Caufeway.”
STAFFORD, the county town of Staffordfliire, in
W. Long. 2. 8. N. Lat. 53. o. It Hands on the river
Sow, has twro parilh-churches, a fine fquare market-place,
and a flouriftiing cloth-manufacture. It fends twm mem¬
bers to parliament, and is 135 miles from London. The
population is nearly 4000.
STAFFORDSHIRE, a county of England, bound¬
ed on the fouth by Worcefterfnire, by Chelhire and Der-
bylhire on the north, by Warwickftiire and Derbyihire
on the eaft, and Shropfliire and Chefhire on the w^eft.
The length is reckoned 62 miles, the breadth 33,
and the circumference 180. It contains five hundreds’
I5° parilhes, 810,000 acres, 18 market-towns, and
4 K 239,153
Staff*
StafFortJ-
Ihire.
S T A [ 626 ] S T A
Stafford- 239,153 inhabitants. The air, except in thofe parts that
• are called the Moorlands and Woodlands, and about the
 W . mines, is good, efpecially upon the hills, where it is ac¬
counted very fine. The foil in the northern mountain¬
ous parts is not fertile 5 but in the middle, where it is
watered by the Trent, the third river in England, it is
both fruitful and pleafant, being a mixture of arable and
meadow grounds. In the fouth, it abounds not only
with corn, but with mines of iron and pits of coal.
The principal rivers of this county, befides the Trent,
which runs almoft through the middle of it, and abounds
with falmon, are the Dove and Tame, both of which
are well ftored with fifh. In this county are alfo a great
many lakes, and meres or pools, as they are called *,
which, having dreams either running into them or from
them, cannot be fuppofed to be of any great prejudice
to the air ; they yield plenty of fifii. In divers parts of
the county are medicinal waters, impregnated with dif¬
ferent forts of minerals, and confequently of different
qualities and virtues ; as thofe at Hints and Brefsford-
houfe, which are mixed with bitumen ; thofe at In-
geftre, Codfalwood, and Willoughbridge park, which
are fulphureous. Of the faline kind are the Brine-pits
at Chertley, Epfom, Penfnet-clofe, of which very good
fait is made. There is a well at Newcaftle-under-Line
that is faid to cure the king’s evil 5 another called Elder-
well near Blemhill, faid to be good for fore eyes ; and
a third called the Spa, near Wolverhampton.
Great flocks of fheep are bred in this county, efpe¬
cially in the moorlands, or mountains of the northern
part of it ; but the wool is faid to be fomewhat coarfer
than that of many other counties. Of this wool, howr-
ever, they make a variety of manufactures, particularly
felts. In the low grounds along the rivers are rich paf-
tures for black cattle ; and vaft quantities of butter and
cheefe are made. In the middle and fouthern parts
not only grain of all kinds, but a great deal of hemp
and flax, are raifed. This county produces alfo lead,
copper, iron ; marble, alabafter, millftones, liraeflone $
coal, fait, and marks of feveral forts and colours ; brick-
earth, fullers earth, and potters clay, particularly a fort
ufed in the glafs manufacture at Ambieeot, and fold at
feven-pence a buftiel 5 tobacco pipe clay ; a fort of red-
difli earth called flip, ufed in painting divers veflels j red
and yellow ochres ; fire-ftones for hearths of iron fur¬
naces, ovens, &c. •, iron-ftones of feveral forts; blood-
ftones, or haematites, found in the brook Tent, which,
when wet a little, will draw red lines like ruddle ; quar-
ry-ftones, and grind-ftones. For fuel the country is well
fupplied with turf, peat, and coal of feveral forts, as
cannel-coal, peacock-coal, and pit-coal. The peacock-
coal is fo called, becaufe, when turned to the light, it
difplays all the colours of the peacock’s tail ; but it is
fitter for the forge than the kitchen. Of the pit-coal
there is an inexhauftible flore : it burns into white
allies, and leaves no fuch cinder as that of the New-
caftle coal. It is not ufed for malting till it is charred,
and in that ftate it makes admirable winter-fuel for a
chamber.
This county is in the diocefe of Litchfield and Co¬
ventry, and the Oxford circuit. It fends ten members
to parliament •, namely,.two for the county, two for the
sity of Litchfield, two for Stafford, two for Newcaflle-
under-Line, and two for Tam worth.
STAG. See Cervus, Mammalia Index,
3
STJG-Beetle. See Lucanus, Entomology Index. Stag
STAGE, in the modern drama, the place of aftion I!
and reprefentation, included between the pit and the a a8m^!
feenes, and anfwering to the profeenium or pulpitum of !
the ancients. See Playhouse and Theatre.
STAGGERS. See Farriery Index.
STAHL, George Ernest, an eminent German
chemiff, was born at Onold in Franconia in 1660, and
chofen profeffor of medicine at Hall, when a univerfity
was founded in that city in 1694. The excellency of
his lectures whilft he filled that chair, the importance of
his various publications, and his extenfive practice, foon
raifed his reputation to a very great height. He receiv¬
ed an invitation to Berlin in 1716, which having accept¬
ed, he was made counfellor of ftate and phyfician to the
king. He died in 1734, in the 75th year of his age.
Stahl is without doubt one of the greateft men of which
the annals of medicine can boaft : his name marks the
commencement of a new and more illuftrious era in
chemiftry. He was the author of the doctrine of phlo-
gifton, which, though now completely overturned by
the difeoveries of Lavoifier and others, was not without
its ufe ; as it ferved to combine the fcattered fragments
of former chemifts into a fyftem, and as it gave rife to
more accurate experiments and a more fcientific view of
the fubject, to which many of the fubfequent difeoveries
were owing. This theory maintained its ground for
more than half a centuryq and was received and fup-
ported by fome of the moft eminent men which Europe
has produced ; a fufficient proof of the ingenuity and
the abilities of its author. He was the author alfo of
A Theory of Medicine, founded upon the notions whicli
he entertained of the abfolute dominion of mind over
body 5 in confequence of which, he affirmed, that every
mufcular aftion is a voluntary abt of the mind, whether
attended with confcioufnefs or not. This theory he
and his followers carried a great deal too tar, but the
advices at leaft which he gives to attend to the ftate of
the mind of the patient are worthy of the attention of
phyfieians.
His principal works are, r. Experimenta et Obferva-
tiones Chemic a; et Vhyjicce, Berlin, 1731, 8vo. 2. Di/Jer-
tationes Medico:, Hall, 2 vols 410. This is a collection
of thefes. 3. Theoria Medica vera, 1737, 4to. 4. 0-
pufculum Chymico-phyjico-medicnm, 1740, 4to. 5. A
Treatife on Sulphur, both Inflammable and Fixed, writ¬
ten in German. 6. Negotium Oiiofum, Hall, 1720, 4to.
It is in this treatife chiefly that he eftablifties his fyftem
concerning the action of the foul upon the body.
7 Fundamenta Chymice Dogmatic# et Experimentalis,
Nuremberg, 1747, 3 vols 410. 8. A Treatiie on Salts,
written in German. 9. Commenturium in Metallurgiam
Beecher i, 1723.
STAINING or Colouring o/'Bone, Horn,Mar¬
ble, Paper, Wood, &c. See thefe articles.
STAIRCASE, in ArchiteBure, an afeent inclofed
between walls, or a baluftrade confifting of flairs or fteps,
with landing places and rails, ferving to make a com¬
munication between the feveral ftories of a houfe. See
Architecture, N° 89, &c.
STALACTITES, in Mineralogy, cryftalline fpars-
formed into oblong, conical, round, or irregular bodies,
compofed of various crufts, and ufually found hanging
in form of ificles from the roofs of grottoes, &c.
STALAGMITIS, a genus of the monoecia order,
belonging
S T A [ 627 ] ST A
•alagmltis belonging to tbe polygamia clafs of plants ; and in the
II natural method ranking under the 38th order, Tricoccce.
1 Duties" See Botany and Materia Medic a Index.
y——/ STALE, among fportfmen, a living fowl put in a
place to allure and bring others where they may be ta¬
ken. For want of thefe, a bird Ihot, his entrails taken
out, and dried in an oven in his feathers, with a flick
thruft through to keep it in a convenient poflure, may
ferve as rvell as a live one.
Stale is alfo a name for the urine of cattle.
Animated S CALK. This remarkable animal was
found by Mr Ives at Cuddalore : and he mentions
feveral kinds of it ; feme appearing like dry ftraws tied
together, others like grafs 5 fome have bodies much lar¬
ger than others, with the addition of two fcaly imper-
feft wings $ their neck is no bigger than a pin, but
twice as long as their bodies 5 their heads are like thofe
of an hare, and their eyes vertical and very brilk. They
live upon flies, and catch thefe infedls very dexteroufly
with the two fore-feet, which they keep doubled up in
three parts clofe to their head, and dart out very quick
on the approach of their prey 5 and when they have caught
it, they eat it very voracioufly, holding it in the fame
manner as a fquirrel does its food. On the outer joints
of the fore-feet are feveral very (harp hooks for the ea-
fler catching and holding of their prey •, while, with the
other feet, which are four in number, they take hold of
trees or any other thing, the better to Furprife whatever
they lie in wait for. They drink like a horfe, putting
their mouths into the water. Their excrements, which
are very white, are almoft as large as the body of the
animal, and as the natives fay, dangerous to the eyes.
STALLION, or STONE-HORSE, in the manege, a
horfe defigned for the covering of mares, in order to
propagate the fpecies. See Eouus, Mammalia Index.
STAMFORD, an ancient town of Lincolnfhire in
England ; feated on the river Welland, on the edge of
Northamptonihire. It contains fix parilh-churches, fe¬
veral good ftreets, and fine buildings. It had formerly
a college, the rtudents of which removed to Brazen Nofe
college in Oxford. The population in 1801 exceeded
4000. It has no confiderable manufa&ories, but deals
•chiefly in malt. W. Long. 1. 27. N. Lat. 52. 40.
STAMINA, in Botany, are thofe upright filaments
which, on opening a flower, ive find within the corolla
furrounding the piftillum. According to Linnaeus, they
are the male organs of generation, whofe office it is
to prepare the pollen. Each flamen confifts of two di-
flindt parts, viz. the FILAMENTUM and the ANTHERA.
Stamina, in the animal body, are defined to be thofe
Ample original parts which exifted firft in the embryo
or even in the feed ) and by whofe diftindlion, augmen¬
tation, and accretion by additional juices, the animal
body at its utmoft bulk is fuppofed to be formed.
ST AMP-duties, a branch of the perpetual revenue.
See Revenue.
In Great Britain there is a tax impofed upon all
parchment and paper, whereon any legal proceedings or
private inftruments of almofl any nature wdiatfoever are
written ; and alfo upon licenfes for retailing wines, of
all denominations ; upon all almanacs, newfpapcrs, ad-
vertifements, cards, dice, &c. Thefe imports are very
various; being higher or lower, not fo much according
to the value of the property transferred, as according to
the nature of the deed. The higheft do not exceed
fix pounds upon every fheet of paper or Ikin of phrch- Stamp-
ment; and thefe high duties fall chiefly upon grants ^jlcs
from the crown, and upon certain law proceedings, stanhope,
without any regard to the value of the fubjedl. There e——v-l- „
are in Great Britain no duties on the regiftration of Smith's
deeds or writings, except the fees of the officers who Wealth of
keep the regitter 5 and thefe are feldom more than
reafonable recompenfe for their labour. The crown
derives no revenue from them.
The ftamp-duties conftitute a tax which, though in
fome inftances it may be heavily felt, by greatly increa-
fing the expence of all mercantile as well as legal pro¬
ceedings, yet (if moderately impofed) is of fervice to
the public in general, by authenticating inftruments,
and rendering it much more difficult than formerly to
forge deeds of any Handing ; fince, as the officers of
this branch of the revenue vary their flamps frequently,
by marks perceptible to none but themfelves, a man that
would forge a deed of King William’s time, muft know
and be able to counterfeit the ftamp of that date alio.
In France and fome other countries the duty is laid on
the contrail itfelf, not on the inftrument in which it is
contained ; as, with us too in England (befides the ftamps
on the indentures), a tax is laid, by ftatute 8 Ann. c. 9.
on every apprentice-fee 5 of 6d. in the pound if it be 50I.
or under, and is. in the pound if a greater fum : but
this tends to draw the fubjtft into a thoufand nice dif-
quifitions and difputes concerning the nature of his e m-
trafr, and whether taxable or not ; in which the far¬
mers of the revenue are fure to have the advantage.
Our general method anfwers the purpofes of the ftate
as well, and confults the eafe of the fubjeft much better.
The firft inftitution of the ftamp-duties Was by ftatute
5 and 6 W. and M. c. 21. and they have fince, in many
ihfiances, been increafed to five times their original
amount.
STANCHION, or Stanchions, a fort of fmall pil¬
lars of wood or iron ufed for various purpofes in a fhip j
as to fupport the decks, the quarter-rails, the nettings’
the awnings, &c. The firft of thofe are two ranges of
fmall columns fixed under the beams, throughout the
Aup’s length between decks ; one range being on the
ftarboard and the other on the larboard fide of the hatch¬
ways. They are chiefly intended to fupport the weieht
of the artillery.
STAND, in commerce, a weight from two hundred
and an half to three hundred of pitch.
STANDARD, in War, a fort of banner or flag
borne as a fignal for the joining together of the fevend
troops belonging to the fame body.
Standard, in commerce, the original of a weio-ht
meafure, or coin, committed to the keeping of a magif-
trate, or depofited in fome public place, to regulate, ad-
juft, and try the weights ufed by particular perfons in
traffic. See Money.
STANHOPE, Philip Dormer, earl of Ches¬
terfield, was born in 1695, and educated in Trinity-
hall^ Cambridge ; which place he left in 1714, when,
by his own account, he was an abfolute pedant. ’ In this
character he went abroad, where a familiarity with good
company foon convinced him he was totally miftaken in
almoft all his notions : and an attentive ftudy of the air
manner, and addrefs of people of fafhion, foon polifhed a
man whofe predominant defire was to pleafe 5 and who
as -it afterwards appeared, valued exterior accomplifh-
4 K 2 ments
S T A [ 628 ] S T A
Stanhope, merits beyond any other human acquirement. W hile
v"-"-1 Lord Stanhope, he got an early feat in parliament j and
in J722, fucceeded to his father’s eftate and titles. In
1728, and in 1745, he was appointed ambaflfador ex¬
traordinary and plenipotentiary to Holland : which
high charafter he fupported with the greateft dignity j
ferving his own country, and gaining the efteem of the
ftates-general. Upon his return from Holland, he was
fent lord-lieutenant of Ireland ; and during his admini-
ftration there, gave general fatisfaftion to all parties.
He left Dublin in 1746, and in Oflober fucceeded the
carl of Harrington as fecretary of flate, in which poll
he officiated until February 6th 1748. Being leized
with a deafnefs in 1752 that incapacitated him for the
pleafures of fociety, he from that time led a private
and retired life, amuiing himfelf with books and his
pen ; in particular, be engaged largely as a volunteer
in a periodical mifcellaneous paper called The World,
in which his contributions have a diftinguilhed degree
of excellence. He died in 1773, leaving a charafter
for wit and abilities that had few equals. He diilin-
guiffied himfelf by his eloquence in parliament on many
important occafions ; of which we have a characlerittic
inilance, of his own relating. He was an aftive pro¬
moter of the bill for altering the llyle ; on which oc-
cation, as he himfelf writes in one of his letters to his
fon, he made fo eloquent a fpeech in the houfe, that
every one was pleafed, and faid lie had made the whole
very clear to them ; “ when (fays he), God knows, I
had not even attempted it. I could juft as fuon have
talked Celtic or Sclavonian to them, a1- aftronomy; and
they would have underftood me full as well.” Lord
Macclesfield, one of the greateft mathematicians in Eu¬
rope, and w'ho had a principal hand in framing the bill,
fpoke afterwards, with all the clearnefs that a thorough
knoAvledge of the fubjeft could di<ftate ; but not having
a flow of words equal to Lord Chefterfield, the latter
gained the applaufe from the former, to the equal credit
elf the fpeaker and the auditors. The high character
Lord Chefterfield fupported during life, received no
fmall injury foon after his death, from a fuller difplay
of it by his own hand. He left no iflue by his lady,
but had a natural fon, Philip Stanhope, Efq. whofe edu¬
cation was for many years a clofe obiect of his attention,
and who was afterward envoy extraordinary at the court
of Drefden, but died before him. When Lord Chefter¬
field died, Mr Stanhope’s widow publiihed a courfe of
letters, writen by the father to the fon, filled with in-
ftruflions fuitable to the different gradations of the
young man’s life to whom they were addreffed. Thefe
letters contain many fine obfervations on mankind, and
rules of conduct: but it is obfervable that he lays a great¬
er ftrefs on exterior accompli fitments and addrefs, than
on intelleflual qualifications and finceritv ■, and allows
greater latitude to fafhionable pleafures than good morals
^ will juftify, efpecially in paternal inftruftions. Hence
r^r it is that a celebrated writer *, and of manners fome-
what different from thofe of the polite earl of Chefter¬
field, is faid to have obferved of *hefe letters, that “ they
inculcate only the morals of a whore, with the manners
of a dancing-mafter.”
Stanfofe, Dr Geoj'ge, an eminent divine, was born
at Hertifhorn in Derby (lire, in the vear 1660. His
father was reflor of that place, vicar of St Margaret’s
church in Leicefter, and chaplain to the earls of Chef¬
terfield and Clare. His grandfather, Dr George Stan- Stanhope;
hope, was chaplain to James I. and Charles I. \ had the —“T—^
chancellorffiip of York, where he was alfo a canon-rdi-
dentiary, held a prebend, and was rettor of Weldrake
in that county. He was tor his loyalty driven from his
home with eleven children 5 and died m 1644. Our
author was fent to fchool, firit at Uppingham in Hut-
land, then at Leicefter 5 afterwards removed to Eaton ,
and thence chofen to King’s college in Cambridge, in
the place of W. Cleaver. He took the degree of B. A.
in 1681 '•) M. A. 1665 ; rvas elected one ot the fyndics
for the univerfity of Cambridge, in the bufinefs of Al¬
ban Francis, 1687 5 minifter of (ftuoi near Cambridge,
and vice-proftor, 1688 ; Avas that year preferred to the
redory of Tring in Hertfordfhire, which after fome
time he quitted. He Ava‘ in 1689 prefented to the vi¬
carage of Lewiffiam in Kent, by i.ord Dartmouth, to
whom he had been chaplain, and tutor to his fon. He
was alfo appointed chaplain to King William and Queen
Mary, and continued to enjoy that honour under ^ueen
Anne. He commenced D. D. July 5th 1697, per¬
forming all the offices required to that degree publicly
and with great applaufe. He Avas made vicar of Dept¬
ford in 1 703 ; fucceeded Dr Hooper as dean of Canter¬
bury the fame year 5 and Avas thrice chofen prolocutor
of the lower houfe of convocation. His uncommon di¬
ligence and induftry, affifted by his excellent parts, en¬
riched him with a large ftoek of polite, lolid, and uletnl
learning. His difeourfes from the pulpit Avere equally
pleafing and profitable ; a beautiful intermixture or the
cleareft reafoning with the pureft diftion, attended Avith
all the graces of a juft elocution. The good Chriftian,
the folid divine, and the fine gentleman, in him were
happily united. His converfation Avas polite and deli¬
cate, grave without precifenefs, facetious without levity.
His piety was real and rational, his charity great and
univerfal, fruitful in a6ts of mercy, and in all good
Avorks. He died March 18th 1728, aged 68 years j
and Avas buried in the chancel of the church at LeAvif-
ham. The dean was twice married : firft to Olivia
Cotton, by Avhom he had one fon and lour daughters.
His fecond lady, avIio Avas lifter to Sir Charles Wager,
furvived him, dying October ill 1730, aged about 54.
One of the dean’s daughters aa as married to a fon of
Biffiop Burnet. Bilhop Moore of Eiy died the day be¬
fore Queen Anne j Avho, it has been laid, defigned our
dean for that fee when it ffiould become vacant. Dr
Felton fays, “ 'The late dean of Canterbury is excellent
in the Avhole. His thoughts and realoning are bright
and folid. His ftyle is juft, both for the purity of the
language and for the ftrength and beauty of exprtffion y
but the periods are formed in fo peculiar an order of
the Avords, that it was an obfervation, nobody could pro¬
nounce them Avith the fame grace and advantage as him¬
felf.” His Avritings, which are an ineftimable trealure
of piety and devotion are, A Paraphrafe and Comment
upon the Epiftles and Golpels, 4 vols, i7°5» ^vo-
mons at Boyle’s Lectures. 1706. 4to. Fifteen Sermons,
1700, 8vo. Twelve Sermons on Several Occafions,
1727, 8vo. Thomas a Kempis, 1696, 8vo. Epictetus’s
Morals, with Simplicius’s Comment, and the Life of
EpiCletus, 1700, 8vo. Parfon’s Chriftian Directory,
1716, 8vo. Rochefoucault’s Maxims, !7C6, 8vo. A
Funeral Sermon on Mr Richard Sare bookleller, 17 4?
two editions 4to. Twenty Sermons, publilheci fingly
beftweeK;
s T A [ 629 ] S T A
;;tanhope, between' the years 1692 and T724. Private Prayers
tanidaus. for every Day in the Week, and for the feveral Parts
* of each Day } tranliated from the Greek Devotions of
Bifhop Andrews, with Additions, 1730. In his tranf-
lations, it is well known, Dr Stanhope did not confine
himfelf to a ftrkd and literal veriion : he took the liber¬
ty of paraphrafmg, explaining, and improving upon his
author 5 as will evidently appear (not to mention any
other work) by the flighted: perufal of St Augufline’s
Meditations, and the Devotions of Bifhop Andrews.
STANISLAUS Leczinski, king of Poland, w’as
born at Leopold the 20th of October 1677. His father
was a Poliih nobleman, diflinguifhed by his rank and the
important offices which he held, but dill more by his
firmnefs and courage. Stanillaus was fent ambafiador
in 1704 by the aflembly of Warfaw to Charles XII of
Sweden, who had conquered Poland. He was at that
time 27 years old, was general of Great Poland, and
had been ambaffador extraordinary to the Grand Sig-
nior in 1699. Charles was fo delighted with the frank-
nefs and lincerity of his deportment, and with the firm¬
nefs and fweetnefs which appeared in his countenance,
that he offered him the crown of Poland, and ordered
him to be crowned at Warfaw in 170^. He accom¬
panied Charles XIL into Saxony, where a treaty was
concluded with King Auguftus in 1705, by which that
prince refigned the crown, and acknowledged Staniflans
king of Poland. The new monarch remained in Saxony
with Charles till I7°7> when they returned into Poland
and attacked the Ruffians, who were obliged to eva¬
cuate that kingdom in 170S. But Charles being de¬
feated by Peter the Great in 1709, Auguflus returned
into Poland, and being affifted by a Ruffian army,
obliged Staniflaus to retire find into Sweden, and after¬
wards into Turkey. Soon after he took up his refidcnce
at Weiffenburg, a town in Aiface. Auguftus difpatched
Sum bis envoy to France to complain of ibis 5 but the
duke of Orleans, who was then regent, returned this
anfwer : “ Tell your king, that France has always been
the afylum of unhappy princes.” Stanifiaus lived in ob-
xcurity till 1725, when Louis XV. efpoufed the princefs
Mary his daughter. Upon the death of King Auguftus
in 1733, he returned to Poland in hopes of remounting
the throne of that kingdom. A large party declared
for him ; but his competitor the young elector of Saxony,
being fupported by the emperor Charles VI. and the
emprefs of Ruffia, was chofen king, though the majority
was againft him. Dantzic, to which Staniflaus had re¬
tired, was quickly taken, and the unfortunate prince
made his efcape in difguife with great difficulty, after
hearing that a price was fet upon his head by the Ruf¬
fians. When peace was concluded in 1736 between
the emperor and France, it was agreed that Staniflaus
fhould abdicate the throne, but that he fhould be ac¬
knowledged king of Poland and grand duke of Lithu¬
ania, and continue to bear thefe titles during life ; that
all his efforts and thole of ihe queen his fpoufe fhould be
reftored ; that an amneffy fhould be declared in Poland
for all that was part, and that every perfon fhould be
reftored to his pofft ffions, rights, and privileges : that
the elertor of Saxony ffiould be acknowledged king of
Poland by all the powers who acceded to the treaty :
that Staniflaus ffiould be put in peaceable poffeffion of
the duchies of Lorraine and Bar ; but that immediately
after his death thefe duchies fhould be united for ever to
the crown of France. Staniflaus fucceeded a race of Stanitfaus.
princes in Lorraine, who were beloved and regretted: 1 ■'
and his fubjerts found their ancient fovereigns revived in
him. He tailed then the pleafure which he had fo long
delired, the pleafure of making men happy. He affift¬
ed his new fubjerts; he embellifhed Nancy and Lune-
ville ; he made ufeful eftabiifhments; he founded col¬
leges and built hofpitals. He was engaged in thefe
noble employments, when an accident occaftoned his
death. His night-gown caught fire, and burnt him fo
feverely before it could be extinguifhed, that he was
feized with a fever, and died the 23d of February 1766.
His death occafioned a public mourning : the tears of
his fubjerts indeed are the belt eulogiumupon this prince.
In his youth he had accuftomed himfelf to fatigue, and
had thereby ftrengthened his mind as well as his confii-
tution. He lay always upon a kind of mattrefs, and
feldoin required any fervice from his domeftics. He was
temperate, liberal, adored by his vaffais, and perhaps
the only nobleman in Poland who had any friends. lie
was in Lorraine what he had been in his otvn country,
gentle, affable, compaflionate, treating his fubjerts like
equals, participating their forrows and alleviating their
misfortunes. He rafembled completely the pirture of a
philofopher which he himfelf has drawn. “ The true
philofopber (faid he) ought to be free from prejudices,
and to know the value of reafon . he ought neither to
think the higher ranks of life of more value than they
are, nor to treat the lower orders of mankind with
greater contempt than they deferve: he ought to enjoy
pleafures without being a Have to them, riches without
being attached to them, honours without pride or vani¬
ty : he ought to fupport difgrac^s without either fearing
or courting them : he ought to reckon what lie poffelfes
fufficient tor him, and to regard what he has not as ufe-
lefs : he ought to be equal in every fortune, always tran¬
quil, always gay : he ought to love order, and to ob-
ierve it in all his artions : he ought to be fevere to him-
felf, but indulgent to others : he ought to be frank
and ingenuous without rudenAs, polite without falfe-
hood, complaifant without bafenefs: he ought to have
the courage to difregard every kind of glory, and to
reckon as nothing even philofophy itielf.” Such was
Staniflaus in every fituation. His temper was affec¬
tionate. Fie told his treafurer one day to put a certain
officer on his lift, to whom he was very much attached:
“ In what quality (laid the treafurer) ftiall 1 mark him
down ?” “ As my friend” (replied the monarch). A
young painter conceiving hopes of making his fortune if
his talents were made known to Staniilaus, prefented
him with a pirture, which the courtiers criticifed fevere-
ly. Ihe prince praifed the performance, and paid the
painter very generoufly : then turning to his courtiers,
he faid, “ Do ye not fee, gentlemen, that thispoor man
muft provide for his family by his abilities ? if you dif-
courage him by your cenfures, lie is undone. We ought
always to affift men ; we never gain any thing by hurt¬
ing them.” His revenues were fmall 5 but were we to
judge of him by what he did, we ffiould probably rec¬
kon him the richeft potentate in Europe. A Angle in-
ftance will he fufficient to ffiow the well-judged economy
with which hh benevolent plans were condurted. He
gave 18.000 crowns to the magiftrates of Bar to be em¬
ployed in purchafing grain, when at a low price, to
be fold out again to the poor at a moderate rate when
the
S T A [ 630 ]
S T A
Statiifiaus price fliould rife above a certain fura. By this
c II arrangement (fay the authors of DiElionaire llijlo-
» •"tape ia‘ , rique), the money increafes continually, and its good
effefts may in a fhort time be extended over the whole
province.
He was a prote&or of the arts and fciences: he wrote
feveral works of philofophy, politics, and morality, which
were collefted and publifhed in France in 1765, in 4
vols, 8vo, under the title of Oeuvres de 'PhilofoL/he Bien-
faifant, “ the works of the Benevolent Philofopher.”
STANITZAS, villages or fmall diftridtsof the banks
of the Don, inhabited by Coflacs.
STANLEY, Thomas, a learned Englifh writer in
the 17th century, was the Ton of Sir Thomas Stanley of
Cumberlow-Green in Herefordihire, knight. He was
born at Cumberlow about 1644, and educated in his
father’s houfe, whence he removed to the univerfity of
Cambridge. He afterwards travelled; and, upon his
return to England, profecuted his ftudies in the Middle
Temple. He married, when young, Dorothy, the eldeit
daughter of Sir James Engan of Flower, in Northamp-
tonfhire. He wrote, 1. A volume of Poems. 2. Hif-
tory of Philofophy, and Lives of the Philefophers. 3.
A Tranflation of Efchylus, with a Commentary; and
feveral other works. He died in 1678.
STANNARIES, the mines and works where tin is
dug and purified *, as in Cornwall, Devon (hire, &c.
STANNARY courts, in Devonfhire and Corn¬
wall, for the adminiftration of juftice among the tinners
therein. They are held before the lord-warden and his
fubftitutes, in virtue of a privilege granted to the work¬
ers in the tin-mines there, to fue and be fued only fh
their own courts, that they may not be drawn from their
bufinefs, which is highly profitable to the public, by at¬
tending their law-fuits in other courts. The privileges
of the tinners are confirmed by a charter, 33 Edw. I.
and fully expounded by a private ftatute, 50 Edw. III.
which has fince been explained by a public att, 16
^Blackjl. Car. I. c. 1 5. What relates to our prefent purpofe is
Comment. orgy ^5 ; That all tinners and labourers in and about
P°7^U'and t*ie ftannaries ^iaBj during the time of their working
So. ' " therein, bona fide, be privileged from fuits of other
courts, and be only pleaded in the ftannary court in all
matters, excepting pleas of land, life, and member. No
writ of error lies from hence to any court in Weftmin-
fter hall ; as was agreed by all the judges, in 4 .lac. I.
But an appeal lies from the Reward of the court to the
under warden •, and from him to the lord warden j and
thence to the privy-council of the prince of Wales, as
duke of Cornwall, when he hath had livery or invefti-
ture of the fame. And from thence the appeal lies to
the king himfelf, in the laft refort.
STANNUM, Tin. See Tin, Chemistry and
Mineralogy Index.
STANZA, in Poetry, a number of lines regularly
adjufted to each other ; fo much of a poem ks contains
every variation of meafure or relation of rhime ufed in
that poem.
STAPELIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs pentandria and order digynia, and in the natural
orders arranged under the Succulentce. See Botany
Index.— 1. his lingular tribe of plants is peculiar to the
fandy deferts of Africa and Arabia. They are extreme¬
ly fucculent. From this peculiarity of ftrudlure, the
power of retaining water to fupport and nourilh them,
they are enabled to live during the prevalent droughts
of thofe arid regions. On this account the ftapelia
has been compared to the camelj and we are told that,
by a very apt limilitude, it has been denominated “ the
camel of the vegetable kingdom.” We mull confefs
ourfelves quite at a lofs to fee the propriety or aptitude
of this comparifon. In many parts of the animal and
vegetable economy there is doubtlefs a very obvious and
linking analogy : but this analogy has been often car¬
ried too far $ much farther than fair experiment and
accurate obfervation will in any degree fupport. It is
perhaps owing to this inaccuracy in obferving the pe¬
culiarity of Rrudture and diverlity of fundlions, that a
refemblance is fuppofed to exift, as in the prefent cafe,
where in reality there is none. The camel is provided
with a bag or fifth ftomach, in addition to the four
with which ruminant animals are furnilhed. This fifth
Itomach is deftined as a refervoir to contain water } and
it is fufficiently capacious to receive a quantity of that
necelfary fluid, equal to the wants of the animal, for
many days : and this water, as long as it remains in
the fifth ftomach, is faid to be perfe&iy pure and un¬
changed. The fapelia, and other fucculent plants,
have no fuch refervoir. The water is equally, or near¬
ly fo, diffufed through the whole plant. Every veffel
and 'every cell is fully diftended. But belides, this
water, whether it be received by the roots, or abforbed
from the atmofphere, has probably undergone a com¬
plete change, and become, after it has been a fliort time
within the plant, a fluid poffeifed of very different qua¬
lities.
Stapell
The peculiar economy in the ftapelia, and other fuc¬
culent plants, feems to exift in the abforbent and exha-
lant fyftems. The power of abforption is as much in-
creafed as the power of the exhalant or perfpiratory
veffels is diminifned. In thefe plants, a fmall quantity
of nourifhment is required. There is no folid part to
be formed, no large fruit to be produced. They gene¬
rally have very fmall leaves, often are entirely naked ;
fo that taking the whole plant, a fmall furface only is
expofed to the addion of light and heat, and conftquent-
ly a much fmaller proportion of water is decompofed
than in plants which are much branched and furnifhed
with leaves.
Two fpecies of ftapelia only were known at the be¬
ginning of the century. The unfortunate Forfkal, the
companion of Niebuhr, who was fent out by the king
of Denmark to explore the interior of Arabia, and who
fell a facrifice to the peftilential difeafes of thofe inhof-
pitable regions, difcovered two new fpecies. Thun-
berg, in his Predromus, has mentioned five more. For¬
ty new fpecies have been difcovered by Mr Mafion of
Kew Gardens, who was fent out by his prefent Ma-
jefty for the purpofe of colledting plants round the
Gape of Good Hope. Deferiptions of thefe, with ele¬
gant and highly finilhed coloured engravings, have late¬
ly been publifhed. They are chiefly natives of the ex-
tenflve deferts called Karro, on the weftern fide of the
Cape.
STAPHYLEA, Bladder-nut, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of pentandria and order of trigy-
nia ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 23d
order, Trihi/atce. See Botany Index.
STAPHYLINUS, a genus of infefts belonging to
the order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
STAPLE,
S T A
lone
Ci 1’iei/t.
V-v.
.»• -J.
STAPLE, primarily fignifies a public place or mar¬
ket, whither merchants, &c. are obliged to bring their
goods to be bought by the people ; as the Greve, or
the places along the Seine, for fale of wines and corn,
at Paris, whither the merchants of other parts are obli¬
ged to bring thofe commodities.
Formerly, the merchants of England were obliged to
carry their wool, cloth, lead, and other like ftaple com¬
modities of this realm, in order to expofe them by
wholefale ; and thefe Itaples were appointed to be con-
ftantly kept at York, Lincoln, Newcaftle-upon-Tyne,
Norwich, Weftminfter, Canterbury, Chicheiter, Win-
chefter, Exeter, and Briftol; in each whereof a public
mart was appointed to be kept, and each of them had a
court of the mayor of the ftaple, for deciding differ¬
ences, held according to the law-merchant, in a fumma-
ry way.
STAR, in Aj}rojiot?nj, a general name for all the
heavenly bodies, which, like fo many brilliant ffuds,
are difperfed throughout the whole heavens. The ftars
are diftinguifhed, from the phenomena of their motion,
&c. into fixed, and erratic or wandering ftars : thefe laft
are again diftinguilhed into the greater luminaries, viz.
the fun and moon ; the planets, or wandering ftars, pro¬
perly fo called, and the comets •, which have been all
lully confidered and explained under the article Astro
NOMY. As to the fixed ftars, they are fo called, be-
caufe they feem to be fixed, or perfeftly at reft, and
confequently appear always at the fame diftance from
each other.
Falling STARS, in Meteorology, fiery meteors which
dart through the Iky in form of a ftar. See Meteor.
Twinkling of the Stars. See Optics.
Star, is alfo a badge of honour, worn by the knights
of the Garter, Bath, and Thiftle. See Garter.
Star of Bethlehem. See Ornithogalum, Botany
Index.
Star, in Fortification, denotes a fmall fort, having
five or more points, or faliant and re-entering angles,
flanking one another, and their faces 90 or 100 feet
long.
Court of STAR-CHAMBER, {camera flellata), a fa¬
mous, or rather infamous, Engliih tribunal, faid to have
been fo called either from a Saxon word fignifying to
f.eer or govern •, or from its punilhing the crimen Jlellio-
natus, or cofenage ; or becaufe the room wherein it fat,
the old council-chamber of the palace of Weftminfter,
(Lamb. 148.) which is now converted into the lottery-
office, and forms the eaftern fide of New-Palace yard,
was full of windows ; or, (to which Sir Edward Coke,
4 Inft. 66. accedes), becaufe haply the roof thereof was
at the firft garniffied with gilded Jlars. As all thefe are
merely conjectures, (for no ftars are now in the roof,
nor are any faid to have remained there fo late as the
reign of Queen Elizabeth), it may be allowable to pro-
pofe another conjectural etymology, as plaufible perhaps
as any of them. It is well known, that, before the ba-
jnifhment of the Jews under Edward I. their contracts
and obligations were denominated in our ancient records
Jlarra ox Jlarrs, from a corruption of the Hebrew word,
Jhetar, a covenant. (Tovey’s Angl. Judaic. 3 2. Selden.
tit. of hon. ii. 34. Uxor Ebraic, i. 14.). Thefe flarrs,
by an ordinance of Richard I. preferved by Hoveden,
were commanded to be enrolled and depofited in chefts
1 631 J
s t A
under three keys in certain places j one, and the moft
confiderable, of which was in the king’s exchequer at
Weftminfter : and no ftarr was allowed to be valid, un-
lefs it were found in fome of the laid repofitories. (Me-
morand. in Scac'’ P. 6. Edw. I. prefixed to Maynard’s
year-book of Edw. II. fob 8. Madox hift. exch. c. vii.
§ 4> 5> 6.). _ The room at the exchequer, where the
cherts containing thefe ftarrs were kept, was probably
called the Jlar-chamber ; and, when the Jews were ex¬
pelled the kingdom, was applied to the ule of the king’s
council, fitting in their judicial capacity. To confirm
this, the firft time the ftar-chamber is mentioned in any
record, it is faid to have been fituated near the receipt
of the exchequer at Weftminfter : (the king’s council,
his chancellor, treafurer, juftices, and other fages, were
affernbled en la chaumbre des ejleilles pres la receipt al
Wejlminfier. Clauf. 41 Edw. III. m. 13.). For in pro-
cels of time, when the meaning of the Jewith Jlarrs was
forgotten, the word Jlar-chamber was naturally rendered,
in law French, la chaumbre des ejleilles, and in law La¬
tin camera Jlel/ata; which continued to be the flyle in
Latin till the diffolution of that court.
This was a court of very ancient original ; but new-
modelled by ftatutes 3 Hen. VII. e. 1. and 21 Hen¬
ry VIII. c. 20. confifting of divers lords fpiritual and.
temporal, being privy-counfellors, together with two
judges of the courts of common law, without the inter¬
vention of any jury. Their jurifdidlion extended legally
over riots, perjury, mifbehaviour of ffieriffs, and other
notorious mifdemeanors, contrary to the laws of the
land. \ et this was afterwards (as Lord Clarendon in¬
forms us) ftretched “ to the afferting of all proclama¬
tions and orders of ftate ; to the vindicating of illegal
commiffions and grants of monopolies j holding for ho¬
nourable that which pleafed, and for juft that which,
profited ; and becoming both a court of law to determine
civil rights, and a court of revenue to enrich the trea-
fury : the council-table by proclamations enjoining to
the people that which was not enjoined by the laws, and
prohibiting that which was not prohibited ; and the ftar-
chamber, which confifted of the fame perfons in different
rooms, cenfuring the breach and difobedience to thofe
proclamations by very great fines, imprifonments, and
corporal feverities : fo that any difrefpeift to any ads of
ftate, or to the perfons of ftatefmen, was in no time
more penal, and the foundations of right never more in-
danger to be deftroyed.” For which reafons, it was fi¬
nally aboliffied by ftatute 16 Car. I. c. 10. to the gene¬
ral joy of the whole nation. See KlNG'S-Bench. There
is in the Britiffi Mufeum (Hail. MSS. vol. i. N° 126.)
a very full, methodical, and accurate account of the
conftitution and courfe of this court, compiled by Wil¬
liam Hudfon of Gray’s Inn, an eminent practitioner
therein. A ffiort account of the fame, with copies of
all its procefs, may alfo be found in 18 Rym. Feed. 192,
&c.
STAR-Board, the right fide of the ffiip when the eye
of the fpeftator is directed forward.
STAR-FiJh. See Asterias, Helminthology In¬
dex.
S’TAR-Jhot, a gelatinous fubftance frequently found
in fields, and fuppofed by the vulgar to have been
produced from the meteor called a fallingJlar: but,
in reality, is the half-digefted food of herons, fea-mews*
and
Star,
Starch.
S T A [63
and the like birds •, for thefe birds have been found
when newly {hot, to difgorge a fubftance of the fame
kind.
STJR-Stone, in 'Natural Hijlory, a name given to cer¬
tain extraneous foflil {tones, in form of fliort, and com¬
monly fomewhat crooked columns, compofed of feveral
ioints, each refembling the figure of a radiated ftar, with
a greater or fmaller number of rays in the different fpe-
cies : they are ufually found of about an inch in length,
and of the thicknefs of a goofe quill. Some of them
have five angles or rays, and others only four ; and m
fome the angles are equidiftant, while in others they are
irregularly fo : in fome alfo they are {hort and blunt,
white in others they are long, narrow, and pointed ; and
fome have their angles very fiiort and obtufe. The fe¬
veral joints in the fame fpecimen are ufually all of the
fame thicknefs; this, however, is not always the cafe :
but in fome they are larger at one end, and in others at
the middle, than in any other part of the body •, and
fome fpecies have one of the rays bifid, fo as to emulate
the appearance of a fix-rayed kind.
Star-Tlujlle. See Ckktaurea, 1 BotaNY jnd£Xt
STAR-Wort See ASTER, . j
STARCH, a fecula or fediment, found at the bot¬
tom of veffels wherein wheat has been flee pc d in water,
of which fecula, after feparating the bran from it, by
paffing it through fieves, they form a kind of loaves,
which being dried in the fun or an oven, is afterwards
cut into little pieces, and fo fold. The bed ftarch is
white, foft, and friable, and eafily broken into powder.
Such as require fine ftarch, do not content themfelves,
like the ftarch men, with refufe wheat, but ufe the fineft
grain. The procefs is as follows : The grain, being
well cleaned, is put to ferment in veffels full of water,
which they expofe to the fun while in its greateft heat;
changing the water tvrice a-day, for the fpace of eight
or twelve days, according to the feafon. When the
grain burfts eafily under the finger, they judge it fuffi-
ciently fermented. The fermentation perfefted, and
the grain thus foftened, it is put, handful by handful,
into a canvas-bag, to feparate the flour from the hulks;
which is done by rubbing and beating it on a plank
laid acrofs the mouth of an empty veiTel that is to re¬
ceive the flour.
As the vefifels are filled with this liquid flour, there
is feen fwimming at top a reddifh water, which is to be
carefully fcummed off from time to time, and clean wra-
ter is to be put in its place, which, after ftirring the
whole together, is alfo to be ftrained through a cloth
or fieve,,and what is left behind put into the veffel with
new water, and expofed to the fun for fome time. As
the fediment thickens at the bottom, they drain off the
water four or five times, by inclining the veflel, but
without pafiing it through the fieve. What remains at
bottom is the ftarch, which is cut in pieces to get out,
and left to dry in the fun. When dry, it is laid up
for ufe.
The following mill, was invented by M. Baume for
grinding potatoes, with a view to extraft ftarch from
them
S T A
Plate
D.
fig-1.
He had a grater made of plate iron, in a cylindrical
form (fig. i.) about feven inches in diameter, and about
eight inches high ; the burs made by flumping the holes
are on the infide. This grater is fupported upon three
feet AAA, made of flat iron bars, feven feet high,
2 ]
ftrongly rivetted to the grater ; the bottom of each Starch;
foot is bent horizontally, arid has a hole in it which re¬
ceives a fcrew, as at A, fig. 4. A little below the up¬
per end of the three feet is fixed a crofs piece B (fig. 1.
and 4.), divided into three branches, and rivetted to the
feet. This crofs piece not only ferves to keep the feet
at a proper diftance from each other, and to prevent
their bending *, but the centre of it having a hole cut in
it, ferves to fupport an axis or fpindle of iron, to be pre-
fently defcribed.
The upper end of this cylindrical grater has a diver¬
ging border of iron C (fig. 1. 4. and 7.), about 10 inches
in diameter at the top, and five inches in height.
Within this cylindrical grater is placed a fecond gra¬
ter (fig. 2. and 3.), in the form of a cone, the point of
which is cut off. The latter is made of thick plate iron,
and the burs cif the holes are on the outfide 5 it is fixed,
with the broad end at the bottom, as in fig. 4. At the.
upper end of the cone is rivetted a fmall triangle, or
crofs piece of iron, confifting of three branches D
(fig. 2.), in the middle of which is made a fquare hole,
to receive an axis or fpindle 5 to give more refiftance to
this part of the cone, it is ftrengthened by means of a
cap of iron E, which is fixed to the grater by means of
rivets, and has alfo a fquare hole made in it, to let the
axis pafs through.
Fig. 3. reprefents the fame cone feen in front j the
bafe F has alfo a crofs piece of three branches, rivetted
to a hoop of iron, which is fixed to the inner furface of
the cone ; the centre of this crofs piece has alfo a fquare
hole for the paffage of the axis.
Fig. 5. is a fpindle or axis itfelf 5 it is a fquare bar of
iron about 16 inches long, and more than half an inch
thick; round at the bottom, and alfo towards the top,
Avhere it fits into the crofs piece I, fig. 7. and B, fig. 1.
and 4.; in thefe pieces it turns round, and by them it is
kept in its place. It muft be fquare at its upper extre¬
mity, that it may have a handle, about nine inches long,
fixed to it, by means of which the conical grater is turn¬
ed round. At G, (fig. 5.), a fmall hole is made through
the axis, to receive a pin H, by means of which the co¬
nical grater is kept at its proper height within the cylin¬
drical one.
Fig. 6. is a bird’s-eye view, in which the mill is re-
prefented placed in an oval tub, like a bathing-tub. I
is the fore-mentioned triangular iron crofs, fixed with
fcrews to the fide of the tub j the centre of it has a
round hole, for the axis of the mill to move in when it
is ufed.
Fig. 7. reprefents the mill in the oval tub; it is pla¬
ced at one end of it, that the other end may be left free
for any operation to be performed in it which may be
neceffary. A part of the tub is cut off, that the infide
of it, and the manner of fixing the mill, may be feen.
That the bottom of the tub may not be worn by the
fcrews which pals through the feet of the mill, a deal
board, about an inch thick, and properly ftiaped, is pla¬
ced under the mill.
When we wifti to make ufe of this mill, it is to be
fixed by the feet, in the manner already defcribed ; it is
alfo fixed at the top, by means of the crofs piece I, fig. 6.
and 7. The tub is then to have water poured into it as
high as K, and the top of the mill is to be filled with
potatoes, properly wafhed and cut; the handle L ?s to
be turned round, and the potatoes, after being ground
between
sire
w
S T A
tiirch. between the two graters, go out gradually at the lower
"W part, being affifted by the motion produced in the water
by the adtion of the mill.
To prepare ftarch from potatoes, fays M. Baume, any
quantity of thefe roots may be taken, and foaked in a
tub of water for about an hour ; they are afterwards to
have their fibres and (hoots taken off, and then to be
rubbed with a pretty (trong brufh, that the earth, which
is apt to lodge in the inequalities of their furface, may
be entirely removed j as this is done, they are to be
walked, and thrown into another tub full of clean water.
When the quantity which we mean to make ufe of has
been thus treated, thofe which are too large are to be
cut into pieces about the fize of eggs, and thrown into
the mill j that being already fixed in the oval tub, with
the proper quantity of water : the handle is then turned
round, and as the potatoes are grated they pafs out at
the bottom of the mill. The pulp which colledts about
the mill muft be taken off from time to time with a
wooden fpoon, and put afide in water.
When all the potatoes are ground, the whole of the
pulp is to be collected in a tub, and mixed up with a
great quantity of clean water. At the fame time, an¬
other tub, very clean, is to be prepared, on the brim of
which are to be placed two wooden rails, to fupport a
hair fieve, which muft not be too fine. The pulp and
water are to be thrown into the fieve the flour paffes
through with the water, and frefh quantities of water
are fucceflively to be poured on the remaining pulp, till
the water runs through as clear as it is poured in. In
this way we are to proceed till all the potatoes that were
ground are ufed.
The pulp is commonly thrown away as ufelefs ; but it
(hould be boiled in Water, and ufed as food for animals i
for it is very nouriftiing, and is about -|ths of the whole
quantity of potatoes ufed.
It is farther to be obferved that the liquor which has
paffed through the fieve is turbid, and of a broWnith
colour, on account of the extrailive matter which
is diffolved in it ; it depofits, in the fpace of five or
fix hours, the flour which was fufpended in it. When
all the flour is fettled to the bottom, the liquor is to be
poured off and thrown away, being ufelefs ; a great
quantity of very clean Water is then to be poured upon
the flour remaining at the bottom of the tub, which is
to be ftirred up in the water, that it may be wafhed,
and the whole is to ftand quiet till the day following.
The flour will then be found to have fettled at the bot¬
tom of the tub 5 the water is again to be poured off as
ufelefs, the flour waflied in a frefh quantity of pure wa¬
ter, and the mixture paffed through a filk fieve pretty
fine, which will retain any fmall quantity of pulp which
may have paffed through the hair fieve. The whole
muft once more be fuffered to ftand quiet till the flour is
entirely fettled •, if the water above it is perfectly clear
and colourlefi, the flour has been fufficiently waflied ;
but if the water has any feiifible appearances either of
colour or of tafte, the flour muft be again waftied, as it
is abfolutely neceffary that none of the extradive matter
be fuffered to remain.
When the flour is fufficiently waflied, it may be ta¬
ken out of the tub with a wooden fpoon ; it is to be
placed upon wicker frames covered with paper, and
dried, properly defended from dull. When it is tho¬
roughly dry, it is to be pfeffed through a filk fieve, that
Vol, XIX. Part II.
$ T A-
if any clotted lumps ftiould have been formed they may
be divided. It is to be kept in glafs-veffels flopped with
paper only.
A patent was granted in 1796 to Lord William Mur¬
ray for his difcovery of a method by which ftarch may
be extraded from horfe-chefnuts. It is as follows :
Take the horfe-cheinuts out of the outward green
prickly hulks; and either by hand, with a knife, dr
other tool, or elfe with a mill adapted for that purpofe,
very carefully pare off the brown rind, being particular
not to leave the froalleft fpeck, and to entirely eradicate
the fprout or growth. Next take the nuts, and rafp,
grate, or grind them fine into water, either by hand, or
by a mill adapted for that purpofe. Wadi the pulp,
which is thereby formed in this water, as clean as poffi-
ble, through a coarfe horfe-hair fieve j this again wafh
through a finer fieve, and then again through a ftill
finer, conflantly adding clean water, to prevent any
ftarch from adhering to the pulp. The laft procefs is,
to put it with a large quantity of water (about four gal¬
lons to a pound of ftarch) through a fine gauze, mullirt,
or lawn, fo as entirely to clear it of all bran or other
impurities. As foon as it fettles, pour oft' the water ;
then mix it up with clean water, repeating this opera¬
tion till it no longer imparts any green, yellow, or other
colour to the water. Then drain it off till nearly dry,
and fet it to bake, either in the ufual mode of baking
ftarch, or elfe fpread out before a brilk fire ; being very
attentive toftir it frequently to prevent its horning, that
is to fay, turning to a pafte or jelly, which, on being
dried, turns hard like horn. The whole procefs Ihould
be conduced as quickly as pofliblek
Mention is here made of a mill which may be em¬
ployed to grind the horfe-chefnuts ; but it is not defcrib-
ed 5 perhaps the one deftribed above for grinding pota¬
toes might anfwer the purpofe.
STARK, Dr William, known to the public by
a volume containing Clinical and Anatomical Obferva-
tions, with feme curious Experiments on Diet, was born
at Manchefter in the month of July 1740 ■, but the fa¬
mily from which he fprang was Scotch, and refpeftable
for its antiquity. His grandfather John Stark ot Killer-
mont was a covenanter^ and having appeared in arms
again ft his fovereign at the battle of Bothwel bridge in
the year 1679, became obnoxious to the government,
and, to conceal himfelf, withdrew into Ireland. There
is reafon to believe that he had not imbibed either the
extravagant zeal or the favage manners of the political
and religious party to which he adhered : for after redd¬
ing a few years in the country which he had chofen for
the feene ofhisbaniftiment, he married Elizabeth daugli-
ter of Thomas Stewart, Efq. of Balydrone in the north
of Ireland •, who, being defeended of the noble family
of Galloway, would not probably have matched his
daughter to fuch an exile as a ruthlefs fanatic of the laft
century. By this lady Mr Stark had feveral children*
and his fecond fon Thomas, who fettled at Manchefter
as a wholefale linen-draper, and married Margaret Stir¬
ling, daughter of William Stirling, Efq. of Northwood-
fide, in the neighbourhood of Glafgow, was the father
of the fubjedt of this article. Another of his Tons, the
reverend John Stark, was minifter of Lecropt in Perth-
fliire ; and it was under the care of this gentleman that
our author received the rudiments of his education
which, when we confider the character of the mafter,
' 4 k / and
[ 635 ]
Starch,
Stark.
S T A [ 634- T S T A
Stark, and refleft on the relation between him and his pupil,
we may prefume was calculated to ftore the mind of Dr
Stark with thofe viriuous principles which influenced his
conduct through life.
From Lecropt young Stark was fent to the univerfity
of Glafgow, where, under the tuition of the doftors
Smith and Black, with other eminent rnafters, he learn¬
ed the rudiments of fcience, and acquired that mathe¬
matical accuracy, that logical precifion, and that con¬
tempt of hypothefes, with which he profecuted all his
future ftudies. Having chofen phyfic for his profeflion,
he removed from the univerfity of Glafgow to that of
Edinburgh, where he was foon diftinguifhed, and ho¬
noured with the friendfhip of the late Dr Cullen •, a man
who was not more eminently confpicuous for the fuperi-
ority of his own genius, than quick-fighted in perceiv¬
ing, and liberal in encouraging, genius in his pupils.
Having finifhed his ftudies at Edinburgh, though he
took there no degree, Mr Stark, in the year 1765, went
to London, and devoted himfelf entirely to the ftudy of
phyfic and the elements of furgery 5 and looking upon
anatomy as one of the principal pillars of both thefe
arts, he endeavoured to complete with Dr Hunter what
he had begun with Dr Monro ; and under thefe two
eminent profeflors he appears to have acquired a high
degree of anatomical knowledge. He likew’ife entered
himfelf about this time a pupil at St George’s hofpital j
for being difgufted, as he often confeffed, with the in¬
accuracy or want of candour obfervable in the genera¬
lity of practical writers, he determined to obtain an ac¬
quaintance with difeafes at a better fchool and from an
abler mafter; and to have from his own experience a
ftandard, by which he might judge of the experience of
others. With what induftry he profecuted this plan, and
with what fuccefs his labours were crowned, may be
feen in a feries of Clinical and Anatomical Obfervations,
which were made by him during his attendance at the
hofpital, and wore publiftied after his death by his friend
Dr Carmichael Smyth. Thefe obfervations give the pub¬
lic no caufe to complain of wrant of candour in their au¬
thor •, for whatever delicacy he may have obferved, when
relating the cafes of patients treated by other phyficians,
he has related thofe treated by himfelf with the utmoft
impartiality. Whilft attending the hofpital, he likewife
employed himfelf in making experiments on the blood,
and other animal fluids *, and alfo in a courfe of experi¬
ments in chemical pharmacy ; but though accounts of
thefe experiments were left behind him, we believe they
have not yet been given to the public.
In the year 1767 Mr Stark went abroad, and obtain¬
ed the degree of M. D. in the univerfity of Leyden,
publifhing an inaugural diflertation on the dyfentery.
On his return to London, he recommenced his ftudies
at the hofpital *, and when Dr Black was called to the
chemical chair in Edinburgh, which he has long filled
with fo much honour to himfelf and credit to the uni¬
verfity, Dr Stark was folicited by feveral members of
the univerfity of Glafgow to ftand a candidate for their
profeflbrfhip of the theory and pradlice of phyfic, ren¬
dered vacant by Dr Black’s removal to Edinburgh.
This however Dr Stark declined, being influenced by
the advice of his Englifh friends, who wilhed to detain
him in London, and having likewife fome profpe£ts of
an appointment in the hofpital.
In the mean time he had commenced (1769) a feries
I
of experiments on diet, which he was encouraged to un- Stark
dertake by Sir John Pringle and Dr Franklin, whofe r 11
friendlhip he enjoyed, and from whom he received many
hints refpefting both the plan and its execution. Thefe
experiments, or rather the imprudent zeal with which
he profecuted them, proved, in the opinion of his friends,
fatal to himfelf; for he began them on the 12th of July
1769 in perfect health and vigour, and from that day,
though his health varied, it was feldom if ever good,
till the 23d of February 1770, when he died, after
fuffering much uneafinefs. His friend and biographer
Dr Smyth thinks, that other caufes, particularly cha-.
grin and difappointment, had no fmall (hare in haftening
his death •, and as the Do&or was intimately acquaint¬
ed with his chara&er and difpofition, his opinion is pro¬
bably well-founded, though the pernicious effetfts of the
fexperiments are vifible in Dr Stark’s own journal. When
he entered upon them, the wTeight of his body was 12?
ftone 3 lb. avoirdupois, which in a very few days was
reduced to 11 ft.one 10 lb. 8 oz.: and though fome kinds
of food increafed it, by much the greater part of what
he ufed had a contrary effe£f, and it continued on the
whole to decreafe till the day of his death. This in¬
deed can excite no wonder. Though the profeffed ob-
jeift of his experiments was to prove that a p leaf ant and
varied diet is equally conducive to health with a more
ftr’nft; and Ample one, moft of the difties which be ate
during thefe experiments were neither pleafant nor
Ample, but compounds, fuch as every ftomach nmft
naufeate. He began wutb bread and water; from which
he proceeded to bread, water, and fugar ; then to bread,
water, and oil of olives ; then to bread and water with
milk ; afterwards he tried bread and water with roofed
goofe; bread and water with boiled beef; fewed lean of
beef with the gravy and water without bread ; fewed
lean of beef with the gravy, oil of fat or fuet and water ;
flour, oil offuet, water and fait ; flour, water, and fait;
and a number of others infinitely more difagreeable to
the ftomach than even thefe, fuch as bread, fat of bacon
ham, inf if on of tea with fugar ; and bread or four with
honey and the infufion of rofemary. But though we con-
fider Dr Stark’s experiments as whimfical, it cannot be
denied that they indicate eccentricity of genius in the
perfon who made them j and fuch of our readers as think,
genius hereditary, may perhaps be of opinion, that he
derived a ray from the celebrated Napier the inventor
of the logarithms, who was his anceftor by both pa¬
rents. At any rate, thefe experiments, of which a full
account is given in the fame volume with his clinical
and anatomical obfervations, difplay an uncommon de¬
gree of fortitude, perfeverance, felf-denial, and zeal for
the promoting of ufeful knowledge in their author ;
and with re.fpedl to his moral charafter, we believe it is
with great juftice that Dr Smyth compares him to Cato,
by applying to him what was faid of that virtuous Ro¬
man by Sahuft—“ Non divitiis cum divite, neque fac-
tione cum fadtiofo ; fed cum ftrenuo virtute, cum mo-
defto pudore, cum innocente abftinentia certabat; effe,
quam videri, bonus malebat * Bellsim
STARLING. See Sturnus, Ornithology In-CatiUnart-!
. um.
dex.
STARLINGS, or Sterlings, the name given to
the ftrong pieces of timber which were driven into the
bed of the river to proteff the piles, on the top of
which were laid the flat beams upon which were built
S T A [
Starlings the bafes of the ftone piers that fupport the arches of
II. London bridge. In general, darlings are large piles
Stal:ics , placed on the outfide of the foundation of the piers of
bridges, to break the force of the water, and to protect
the ftone work from injury by floating ice. They are
otherwife called jettes, and their place is often fupplied
by large ftones thrown at random round the piers of
bridges, as may be feen at Stirling bridge when the ri¬
ver is low, and as was done by Mr Smeaton’s direftion
round the piers of the centre arch of London bridge,
when it was thought in danger of being undermined by
the current.
S TATE of a Controversy. See Oratory, Part
I. N° 14.
STATES, or Estates, a term applied to feveral or¬
ders or claffes of people affembled to confult of matters
for the public good.
Thus ftates-generals, in the old government of Hol¬
land, is the name of an aflembly confiding of the depu¬
ties of the feven United Provinces. Thefe were ufual
ly 30 in number, fome provinces fending two, others
more; and whatever refolution the dates-general took
was confirmed by every province, and by every city and
republic in that province, before it had the force of a
law. The deputies of each province, of what number
foever they were, had only one voice, and were edeem-
ed as but one perfon, the votes being given by provin¬
ces. Each province predded in the aifembly in its turn,
according to the order fettled among them. Guelder-
land preflded fird, then Holland, &c.
States of Holland were the deputies of eighteen cities,
and one reprefentative of the nobility, condituting the
dates of the province of Holland : the other provinces
had likewife their dates, reprefenting their fovereigntyj
deputies from which made what was called the dates-ge-
neral. In an aflembly of the dates of a particular pro¬
vince, one diffenting voice prevented their coming to
any refolution.
STATICE, Thrift, a genus of plants belongingto
the clafs of pentandria, and order of pentagynia j and in
the natural fydem ranging under the 48th order, Aggre~
gates. See Botany hidex.
STATICS, a term which the modern improvements
in knowledge have made it neceffary to introduce into
phyflco-mathematical fcience. It was found convenient
to didribute the doftrines of univerfal mechanics into
two claffes, which required both a different mode of con-
fideration and different principles of reafoning.
Till the time of Archimedes little fcience of this
kind was poffeffed by the ancients, from whom we
have received the fird rudiments. His invedigation of
the centre of gravity, and his theory of the lever, are
the foundations of our knowledge of common mecha¬
nics; and his theory of the equilibrium of floating bodies
contains the greated part of our hydrodatical know¬
ledge. But it was as yet limited to the fimpled cafes;
and there were fome in which Archimedes was igno¬
rant, or was midaken. The marquis Guido Ubaldi, in
1578, publilhed his theory of mechanics, in which the
doftrines of Archimedes were well explained and confi-
derably augmented. Stevinus, the celebrated Dutch
engineer, publiflied about 20 years after an excellent
fydem of mechanics, containing the chief principles
which now form the fcience of equlibrium among folid
feodies. In particular, he gave the theory of inclined
635 1 sat
planes, which was unknown to the ancients, though it
is of the very fird importance in almod every machine.
He even dates in the mod exprefs terms the principle
afterwards made the foundation of the whole of mecha¬
nics, and publilhed as a valuable difeovery by Varig-
non, viz. that three forces, whofe directions and inten-
fities are as the fides of a triangle, balance each other.
His theory of the preffure of fluids, or hydrodatics, is
no lefs ediraable, including every thing that is now re¬
ceived as a leading principle in the fcience. When we
confider the ignorance, even of the mod learned, of
that age, in mechanical or phyfico-mathematical know¬
ledge, we mud confider thefe performances as the works
of a great genius; and we regret that they are fo little
known, being lod in a crowd of good writings on thofe
fubjedts which appeared foon after.
Hitherto the attention had been turned entirely to
equilibrium, and the circumtiances neceffary for produ¬
cing it. Mechanicians indeed faw, that the energy of a
machine might be fomehow meafured by the force
which could be oppofed or overcome by its interven¬
tion: but they did not remark, that the force which
prevented its motion, but did no more than prevent it,
was an exact meafure of its energy, becaufe it was in
immediate equilibrio with the preffure exerted by that
part of the machine with which it was conne£Ied. If
this oppofed force was leL, or the force aiding at the
other extremity of the machine was greater, the me¬
chanicians knew that the machine would move, and
that work would be performed ; but what would be
the rate of its motion or its performance, they hardly
pretended to conjefture. They had not ftudied the ac¬
tion of moving forces, nor conceived what was done
when motion was communicated.
The great Galileo opened a new field of fpeculation
in his work on Local Motion. He there confiders
a change of motion as the indication and exa<d and ade¬
quate meafure of a moving force; and he confiders every
kind of preffure as competent to the produ6fion of fuch
changes.—He contented himfelfwith the application of
this principle to the motion of bodies by the adlion of
gravity, and gave the theory of projectiles, which re¬
mains to this day without change, and only improved
by confidering the changes which are produced in it by
the refiftance of the air.
Sir Ifaac Newton took up this fubjeCl nearly as Ga¬
lileo had left it, For, if we except the theory of the
centrifugal forces arifing from rotation, and the theory
of pendulums, publiflied by Huygens, hardly any thing
had been added to the fcience of motion. Newton con-
fidered the fubjeft in its utmoft extent; and in his ma¬
thematical principles of natural philofophy he confiders
every conceivable variation of moving force, and deter¬
mines the motion refulting from its adlion.—His firft
application of thefe doClrines was to explain the celefti-
al motions; and the magnificence of this fubjeCI caufed
it to occupy for a while the whole attention of the ma¬
thematicians. But the fame work contained propofi-
tions equally conducive to the improvement of common
mechanics, and to the complete underftanding of the me¬
chanical a&ions of bodies. Philofophers began to make
thefe applications alfo. They faw that every kind of work
which is to be performed by a machine may be confider-
ed abftra61edly as a retarding force; that the impulfe of
water or wind, which are employed as moving powers,
4 L 2 a&
S T A [
Statics. a& by means of preflures which they exert on the im-
pelled point of the machine ; and that the machine it-
felf may be confidered as an aflemblage of bodies move-
able in certain limited cireumftances, with determined
direftions and proportions of velocity. From all thefe
coniiderations refulted a general abllrafl condition of a
body aided on by known powers. And they found,
that after all conditions of equilibrium were fatisfied,
there remains a furplus of moving force. They could
now dale the motion which will enfue, the new refillance
which this will excite, the additional power which this
will abforb 5 and they at lad determined a new kind of
equilibrium, not thought of by the ancient mechanici¬
ans, between the refillance to the machine performing
work and the moving power, which exactly balance
each other, and is indicated, not by the rejl, but by the
uniform motion of the machine.—In like manner, the
mathematician was enabled to calculate that precife
motion of water which would completely abforb, or, in
the new language, balance the fuperiority of preffure
by which water is forced through a fluice, a pipe, or
canal, wdth a conflant velocity.
Thus the general dodlrines of motion came to be eon-
fidered in two points of view, according as they balan¬
ced each other in a Hate of reft or of uniform motion.
Thefe two ways of confidering the fame fubjeft requi¬
red both different principles and a different manner of
reafoning. The firft has been named Jlaticsy as expref-
ftng that reft which is the tell of this kind of equi¬
librium. The fecond has been called Dynamics or
Universal Mechanics, becaufe the different kinds
of motion are charafteriftic of the powers or forces
which produce them. A knowledge of both is indi-
fpenfably neceffary for acquiring any ufeful practical
knowledge of machines j aud it was ignorance of the
do&rines of accelerated and retarded motions which
made the progrefs of pradlical mechanical knowledge
fo very flow' and imperfedt. The mechanics, even of
the moderns, before Galileo, wrent no further than to
ftate the proportion of the power and reftftance which
would be balanced by the intervention of a given ma¬
chine, or the proportion of the parts of a machine by
which two known forces may balance each other.
This view of the matter introduced a principle, which
even Galileo confidered as a mechanical axiom, viz.
that what is gained in force by means of a machine is ex-
a&ly compenfated by the additional time which it obliges
us to employ. This is falfe in every inftance, and not
only prevents improvement in the conftrudlion of ma¬
chines, but leads us into Erroneous maxims of conftruc-
tion. The true principles of dynamics teach us, that
there is a certain proportion of the machine, dependent
on the kind and proportion of the power and refiftance,
which enables the machine to perform the greatefl pof-
fible work.
It is highly proper therefore to keep feparate thefe
two ways of confidering machines, that both may be
improved to the utmoft, and then to blend them toge¬
ther in every practical difcuffion.
Statics therefore is preparatory to the proper ftudy
of mechanics ; but it does not hence derive all its im¬
portance. It is the foie foundation of many ufeful parts
of knowledge. This will be bell feen by a brief enu¬
meration.
j. It comprehends all the dodlrines of the excitement
636 ] S T A
and propagation of preffure through the parts of folid
bodies, by which the energies of machines are pro¬
duced. A preffure is exerted on the impelled point of t
a machine, fuch as the float-boards or buckets of a mill¬
wheel. This excites a preffure at the pivots of its axle,
which adf on the points of fupport. This muft be un-
derftood, both as to diredlion and intenfity, that it may
be effedlually refilled. A preffure is alfo excited at the
adting tooth of the cog-wheel on the fame axle, by
which it urges round another wheel, exciting fimilar
preffures on its pivots and on the adling tooth perhaps
of a third wheel.—Thus a preffure is ultimately excited
in the working point of the machine, perhaps a wiper,
which lifts a heavy Hamper, to let it fall again on fome
matter to be pounded. Now ftatics teaches us the in-
tenfities and diredlion of all thofe preffures, and there¬
fore how much remains at the working point of the ma¬
chine unbalanced by refiftance.
2. It comprehends every circumftance which influ¬
ences the liability of heavy bodies 5 the inveftigation
and properties of the centre of gravity ; the theory of
the conllrudlion of arches, vaults, and domes ; the atti¬
tudes of animals.
3. The llrength of materials, and the principles of
conllrudlion, fo as to make the proper adjuftment of
llrength and ftrain in every part of a machine, edifice,
or ftrudlure of any kind. Statics therefore furnilhes
us with what may be called a theory of carpentry, and
gives us proper inilrudlions for framing floors, roofs,
centres, &c.
4. Statics comprehends the whole doctrine of the
preflure of fluids, whether liquid or aeriform, whether
arifing from their weight or from any external adlion.
Hence therefore W’e derive our knowledge of the liabili¬
ty of fhips, or their power of maintaining themfelves in
a pofition nearly upright, in oppofition to the adlion of
the wind on the fails. We learn on w'hat circumftances
of figure and llow'age this quality depends, and what
will augment or diminilh it.
Very complete examples will be given in the remain¬
ing part of this wmrk of the advantages of this feparate
confideration .of the condition of a machine at reft and
in working motion ; and in what yet remains to be
delivered of the hydraulic dcclrines in our account of
WATER-Works in general, will be perceived the pro¬
priety of Hating apart the equilibrium which is indica¬
ted by the uniform motion of the fluid. The obferva-
tions too which we have to make on the ftrength of the
materials employed in our edifices or mechanical llruc-
tures, will be examples of the invelligation of thofe
powers, preffures, or ftrains, which are excited in all
their parts.
STATIONARY, in AJlronomy, the ftate of a pla¬
net when, to an obferver on the earth, it appears for
fome time to ftand ftill, or remain immoveable in the
fame place in the heavens. For as the planets, to fuch
an obferver, have fometimes a progreflive motion, and
fometimes a retrograde one, there muft be fome point
between the two where they rouft appear ftationary.
STATISTICS, a word lately introduced to exprefs
a view or furvey of any kingdom, county, or parilh.
A Statiftical view of Germany was publifhed in 1790
by Mr B. Clarke : giving an account of the imperial and
territorial conftitutions, forms of government, legifla-
tion, adminiftration of juftice, and of the ecclefiaftical
ftate j.
Statics
11
Statifticy
S T A [ 637 3 s T A
iS'tatiftics. ftate j with a fketch of the character and genius of the
v—Germans ; a (hort inquiry into the ftate of their trade
and commerce ; and giving a diftinft view of the domi¬
nions, extent, number of inhabitants to a fquare mile j
chief towns, with their fize and population ; revenues,
expences, debts, and military ftrength of each ftate.
In Pruffia, in Saxony, Sardinia, and Tufcany, attempts
have alfo been made to draw up ftatiftical accounts $
but they were done rather with a view of afcertaining
the prefent ftate of thefe countries, than as the means
of future improvement.
A grand and extenlive work of this kind, founded
on a judicious plan, condufted by the moft patriotic
and enlightened mo\ives, and drawn up from the com¬
munications of the whole body of the clergy, was
undertaken in Scotland in the year 1790 by Sir John
Sinclair of Ulbfter, one of the moft ufeful members of
his country. Many praifes are heaped upon genius and
learning ; but to genius and learning no applaufe is due,
except when exerted for the benefit of mankind: but
gratitude and praife is due to him whole talents fhine
only in great undertakings, whofe happinefs feems to
confift in patriotic exertions, and whole judgment is
uniformly approved by his fuccefs. A work of this
kind, fo important in its objedl, fo comprehenlive in its
range, fo judicious in its plan, and drawn up by more
than 900 men of literary education, many of them men
of great genius and learning, muft be of immenfe value.
It was completed about 1799, in 21 volumes 8vo.
The great objedl of this work is to give an accurate
view of the ftate of the country, its agriculture, its
manufactures, and its commerce : the means of improve¬
ment, of which they are refpeCtively capable; the amount
of the population of a ftate, and the caufes of its increafe
or decreafe *, the manner in which the territory of a coun¬
try is pofleffed and cultivated ; the nature and amount
of the various productions of the foil; the value of the
perfonal wealth or ftock of the inhabitants, and how it
can be augmented; the difeafes to which the people are
fubjeCt, their caufes and their cure •, the occupations of
the people $ where they are entitled to encouragement,
and where they ought to be fuppreffed; the condition
of the poor, the beft mode of maintaining them, and of
giving them employment; the ftate of fchools, and other
inftitutions, foriped for purpofes of public utility ; the
ftate of the villages and towns, and the regulations beft
calculated for their police and good government j the
ftate of the manners, the morals, and the religious prin¬
ciples of the people, and the means by which their tem¬
poral and eternal interefts can beft be promoted.
To fuch of our readers as have not an opportunity
of perufing this national wmrk, or of examining its plan,
We will prefent the fcheme for the ftatiftical account of
a parochial diftriCl which Sir John Sinclair publifhed
for the confideration of the clergy, and which has been
generally followed by them, though often with great
improvements.
The name of the parifti and its origin ; fituation and
extent of the parilh 5 number of acres; defcription of
the foil and furface ; nature and extent of the fea coaft •,
lakes, rivers, iflands, hills, rocks, caves, wood, orchards,
&c.; climate and difeafes ; inftances of longevity ; ftate
of property j number of proprietors; number of refiding
proprietors ; mode of cultivation ; implements of huf-
bandry; manures; feedtime and harveft ; remarkable
inftances of good and bad feafons ; quantity and value of SKatiftics
each fpecies of crop; total value of the whole produce H
of the diftridl; total quantity of grain and other articles < ^
confumed in the parilh ; wages and price of labour ; fer-
vices, whether exadled or abolilhed ; commerce ; manu-
fadlures; manufacture of kelp, its amount, and the
number of people employed in it; filheries ; towns and
villages ; police ; inns and alehoufes; roads and bridges ;
harbours, ferries, and their ftate ; number of ftiips and
veffels; number of feamen ; ftate of the church ; ftipend,
manfe, glebe, and patron ; number of poor ; parochial
funds, and the management of them; ftate of the
fchools, and number of fcholars; ancient ftate of po¬
pulation ; caufes of its increafe or decreafe; number
of families; exadt amount of the number of fouls now
living; divifion of the inhabitants; x. By the place of
their birth; 2. By their ages; 3. By their religious
perfuafions; 4. By their occupations and fituation in
life ; 5. By their refidence ; whether in town, village,
or in the country ; number of houfes; number of unin¬
habited houfes; number of dove-cots, and to what extent
they are deftruftive to the crops; number of horfes,
their nature and value; number of cattle, their nature
and value; number of Iheep, their nature and value ;
number of fwine, their nature and value ; minerals in
general; mineral fprings ; coal and fuel; eminent men ;
antiquities; parochial records; mifcellaneous obferva-
tions ; character of the people ; their manners, cuftoms,
ftature, &e.; advantages and difadvantages ; means by
which their fituation could be meliorated.
If fimilar furveys (fays the public-fpirited editor of
this work) were inftituted in the other kingdoms of
Europe, it might be the means of eftabliftiing, on fure
foundations, the principles of that moft important of all
fciences, viz. political or ftatiftical philofophy ; that is,
the Icience, which, in preference to every other, ought
to be held in reverence. No fcience can furniih, to any
mind capable of receiving ufeful information, fo much
real entertainment; none can yield fuch important hints
for the improvement of agriculture, for the extenfion of
commercial induftry, for regulating the conduct of in¬
dividuals, or for extending the profperity of the ftate ;
none can tend fo much to promote the general happinels
of the fpecies.
STATIUS, Publius Papinius, a celebrated Latin
poet of the firft century, was born at Naples, and was
the fon of Statius, a native of Epirus, who w7ent to
Rome to teach poetry and eloquence, and had Domitian
for his feholar. Statius the poet alfo obtained the favour
and friendihip of that prince ; and dedicated to him his
Thebais and Achilleis; the firft in twelve books, and
the laft in two. He died at Naples about the year 100.
Befides the above poems, there are alfo fiill extant his
Syhce, in five books; the ftyle of which is purer, more
agreeable, and more natural, than that of his Thebais
and Achilleis.
STATUARY, a branch of fculpture, employed in
the making of ftatues. See Sculpture and the next
article.
Statuary is one of thofe arts wherein the ancients
furpalfed the moderns; and indeed it w7as much more
popular, and more cultivated, among the former than
the latter. It is difputed between ftatuary and paint¬
ing, which of the two is the moft difficult and the moft
artful..
Statuary,
S T A '[ 63B ] S T E
Statuary, Statuary is alfo ufed for the artificer who makes
Sutue- ftatues. Phidias was the greateft ftatuary among the
v ancients, and Michael Angelo among the moderns.
STATUE, is defined to be a piece of fculpture in
full relievo, reprefenting a human figure. Daviler more
fcientifieally defines ftatue a reprefentation, in high re¬
lievo and infulate, of fome perfon dillinguilhed by his
birth, merit, or great aft ions, placed as an ornament in
a fine building, or expofed in a public place, to preferve
the memory of his worth. In Greece one ofthehighelt
honours to which a citizen could afpire was to obtain a
ftatue.
Statues are formed with the chifel, of feveral matters,
as ftone, marble, platter, &c. They are alfo catl of
various kinds of metal, particularly gold, filver, brafs,
and lead. For the method of catting ttatues, fee the
article FOUNDERT of Statues.
Statues are ufually diftinguithed into four general
kinds. The firtl are thofe lefs than the life 5 of which
kind we have feveral ttatues of great men, of kings, and
of gods themfelves. The fecond are thofe equal to the
life •, in which manner it was that the ancients, at the
public expence, ufed to make ttatues of per-fons emi¬
nent for virtue, learning, or the fervices they had done.
The third -are thofe that exceed the life 5 among which
thofe that furpatfed the . life once and a half were for
kings and emperors; and thofe double the life, for he¬
roes. The fourth kind were thofe that exceeded the
life twice, thrice, and even more, and were called
fufes. See Colossus.
Every ftatue refembling the perfon whom it is intend¬
ed to reprefent, is called fatua iconica. Statues acquire
various other denominations. 1. Thus, allegorical tta-
tue is that which, under a human figure, or other fym-
bol, reprefents fomething of another kind; as a part of
the earth, a feafon, age, element, temperament, hour,
&c. 2. Curule ttatues, are thofe which are reprefented
in chariots drawn by bigse or quadrigse, that is, by two
or four horfes ; of which kind there were feveral in the
circufes, hippodromes, &c. or in cars, as we fee fome,
with triumphal arches on antique medals. 3. Equettri-
an ttatue, that which reprefents fome illuttrious perfon
on horfeback, as that famous one of Marcus Aurelius
at Rome ; that of King Charles I. at Charing-crofs ;
King George II. in Leicetter-Square, &c. 4. Greek
fiatue, demotes a figure that is naked and antique ; it
being in this manner the Greeks reprefented their deities,
athletae of the Olympic games, and heroes ; the ftatues
of heroes were particularly called Achillean Jlatues, by
reafon of the great number of figures of Achilles in
moft of the cities of Greece. 5. Hydraulic ttatue, is
any figure placed as an ornament of a fountain or grot¬
to, or that does the office of a jet d'eau, a cock, fpout,
or the like, by any of its parts, or by any attribute it
holds: the like is to be undertlood of any animal fer-
ving for the fame ufe. 6. Pedeftrian ttatue, a ftatue
Handing on foot; as that of King Charles II. in the
Royal Exchange, and of King James II. in the Privy-
Gardens. 7. Roman ftatue, is an appellation given to
fuch as are Clothed, and which receive various names
from their various dreffes. 1 hofe of emperors, with
long gowns over their armour, were called fatuce pa-
ludatce : thofe of captains and cavaliers, with coats of
arms, thoracatez ; thofe of foldiers with cuirafies, lori-
catce j thofe of fenators and augurs, traheatce ; thole of
magittrates with long robes, tozatce ; thofe of the people
with a plain tunica, tunicatee ; and, laftly, thofe of wo¬
men with long trains,
In repairing a ftatue call in a mould, they touch it
up with a chifel, graver, or other inftrument, to finifh
the places which have not come well off: they alfo
clear off the barb, and what is redundant in the joints
and projeftures.
STATURE. See Dwarf and Giant.
STATUTE, in its general fenfe, fignifies a law,
ordinance, decree, &c. See Law', &c.
Statute, in our laws and cuftoms, more immedi¬
ately fignifies an aft of parliament made by the three
eftates of the realm ; and fuch ftatutes are either gene¬
ral, of which the courts at Weftminfter muft take notice
without pleading them ; or they are fpecial and private,
which laft muft be pleaded.
S TAVESACRE, a fpeeies of Delphinium, which
fee, Botany Index.
STAY, a large ftrong rope employed to fupport the
maft on the fore part, by extending from its upper end
towards the fore part of the (hip, as the ftirouds are ex¬
tended to the right and left, and behind it. See Mast,
Rigging, and Shroud.
The ftay of the fore-maft, which is called the fore-
fay, reaches from the maft-head towards the bowfprit
end : the main ftay extends over the forecaftle to the
{hip’s ftem ; and the mizen-ftay is ftretched down to
that part of the main-maft which lies immediately above
the quarter-deck : the fore-top-maft-ftay comes alfo to
the end of the bowfprit, a little beyond the fore-ftay :
the main top-maft ftay is attached to the head or hounds
of the fore-maft ; and the mizen-top-maft ftay comes al¬
fo to the hounds of the main-maft : the fore-top-gallant
ftay comes to the outer end of the jib-boom ; and the
main-top-gallant ftay is extended to the head of the fore-
top-maft.
STAT-Sail, a fort of triangular fail extended upon a
ftay. See Sail. r |
STEAM, is the name given in our language to the Definition
vifihle moift vapour which arifes from all bodies which
contain juices eafily expelled from them by heats not
fufficient for their combuftion. Thus we fay, the fleam
of boiling water, of malt, of a tan-bed, &.c. It is dif-
tinguiftied from fmoke by its not having been produced
by eombuftion, by not containing any foot, and by its
being condenfible by cold into water, oil, inflammable
fpirits, or liquids compofed of thefe. a
We fee it rife in great abundance from bodies when Appears
they are heated, forming a white cloud, which diffufesh^a
itfelf and difappears at no very great diftance from the^d
body from which it was produced. In this cafe the
furrounding air is found loaded with the water or other
juices which feem to have produced it, and the fleam
feems to be completely foluble in air, as fait is in water,
compofing while thus united a tranfparent elaftic fluid. 5
But in order to its appearance in the form of an when ^ |
opaque white cloud, the mixture with or diffemiaation r™1"3 ^
in air feems abfolutely neceffary. If a tea-kettle boils
violently, fo that the fleam is formed at the fpout in
great abundance, it may be obferved, that the vifible
cloud is not formed at the very mouth of the fpou^,
but at a fmall diftance before it, and that the vapour is
perfeftly tranfparent at its firft emiffion. 1 his is ren¬
dered ftill more evident by fitting to the fpout of the
tea-kettle
S T E
[ 639 ]
S T E
Steam.
4
again
inverted
to water
?cold.
J
:appear-
ces ex-
! lined,
tea-kettle a glafs pipe of any length, and of as large a
diameter as we pleafe. The fleam is produced as co-
pioufly as without this pipe, but the vapour is tranfpa-
rent through the whole length of the pipe. Nay, if
this pipe communicate with a glafs veffel terminating
in another pipe, and if the vcfftl be kept fufficiently
hot, the fleam will be as abundantly produced at the
mouth of this fecond pipe as before, and the veffel will
be quite tranfparent. The vifibility therefore of the
matter which conftitutes the fleam is an accidental or
©xtraneous circumftance, and requires the admixture
with air $ yet this quality again leaves it when united
with air by folution. It appears therefore to require a
diffemination in the air. The appearances are quite
agreeable to this notion : for we know that one per-
feTly tranfparent body, when minutely divided and
diffufed among the parts of another tranfparent body,
but not diffolved in it, makes a mafs which is vifible.
Thus oil beaten up with water makes a white opaque
mafs.
In the mean time, as fleam is produced, the water
gradually wafles in the tea-kettle, and will foon be to¬
tally expended, if we continue it on the fire. It is rea-
fonable therefore to fuppofe, that this fleam is nothing
but water changed by heat into an aerial or elaftic
form. If fo, we fhould expeft that the privation of
this heat would leave it in the form of water again.
Accordingly this is fully verified by experiment *, for if
the pipe fitted to the fpout of the tea-kettle be furround-
ed with cold water, no fleam will iffue, but water will
continually trickle from it in drops : and if the procefs
be condufled with the proper precautions, the water
which we thus obtain from the pipe will be found
equal in quantity to that which difappears from the tea¬
kettle.
This is evidently the common procefs for diftilling *,
and the whole appearances mav be explained by faying,
that the water is conVerted by heat into an elaflic va¬
pour, and that this, meeting with colder air, imparts to
it the heat which it carried off as it arofe from the heat¬
ed w’ater, and being deprived of its heat it is again wra-
ter. The particles of this water being vaftly more re¬
mote from each other than when they wrere in the tea¬
kettle, and thus being diffeminated in the air, become
vifible, by reflefling light from their anterior and pofte
rior furfaces, in the fame manner as a tranfparent fait
becomes vifible when reduced to a fine powder. This
diffeminated water being prefented to the air in a very
extended furface, is quickly diffolved by it, as pounded
fait is in water, and again becomes a tranfparent fluid,
but of a different nature from what it was before, be¬
ing no longer convertible into water by depriving it of
its heat.
Accordingly this opinion, or fomethirrg very like it,
has been long entertained. Mufchenbroeck exprefsly
Steam.
before it be all melted, remaining all the while of the
temperature 3 2°, and therefore continually abforbing v"'"1-'
heat from the furrounding air. By comparing the time
in which the ice had its temperature changed from 28°
to 3 20 with the fubfequent time of its complete lique¬
faction, he found that it abforbed about 130 or 140
times as much heat as would raife its temperature one
degree •, and he found that one pound of ice, when
mixed with one pound of water 140 degrees warmer,
was juft melted, but without rifing in its temperature
above 320. Hence he juftly concluded, that water dif¬
fered from ice of the fame temperature by containing,
as a conflituent ingredient, a great quantity of fire, or
of the caufe of heat, united with it in fuch a way as
not to quit it for another colder body, and therefore fo
as not to go into the liquor of the thermometer and ex¬
pand it. Confidertd therefore as the poffible caufe of
heat, it was latent, which Dr Black expreffed by the
abbreviated term latent heat. If any more heat was
added to the water it was not latent, but would readily
quit it for the thermometer, and, by expanding the ther¬
mometer, would fhow what is the degree of this re¬
dundant heat, while fluidity alone is the indication of
the combined and latent heat.
Dr Black, in like manner, concluded, that in order to
convert water into an elaftic vapour, it was neceffary,
not only to increafe its uncombined heat till its tempe¬
rature is 2! 2°, in which ftate it is juft ready to become
elaftic ; but alfo to pour into it a great quantity of fire,
or the caufe of heat, which combines with every par¬
ticle of it, fo as to make it repel, or to recede from, its
adjoining particles, and thus to make it a particle of an
elaftic fluid. He fuppofed that this additional heat
might be combined with it fo as not to quit it for the
thermometer •, and therefore fo as to be in a latent ftate,
having elaftic fluidity for its foie indication. ^
This opinion w'as very confiftent with the phenome-The tem-
non of boiling off a quantity of w7ater. The applica-Feature at
tion of heat to it caufes it gradually to rife in its tern- wl”ch 11 is
perature till it reaches the temperature 212°. It then^^J^ ’
begins to fend off elaftic vapour, and is flowly expend-quantity of
ed in this way, continuing all the while of the fame beat which
temperature. The fleam alfo is of no higher tempera-*1 abiorbs.
ture, as appears by holding a thermometer in it. We
muft conclude that this fleam contains all the heat
which is expended in its formation. Accordingly the
fealding power of fleam is well known ; but it is ex¬
tremely difficult to obtain precife meafures of the quan¬
tity of heat abforbed bv water during its converfion in¬
to fleam. Dr Black endeavoured to afeertain this point,
by comparing the time of raifing its temperature a cer¬
tain number of degrees with the time of boiling it off
by the fame external heat •, and he found that the heat
latent in (team, which balanced the preffure of the. at-
mofphere, was not lefs than 800 degrees. He alfo di¬
fays, that the water in the form of vapour carries oft' reeled Dr Irvine of Glafgow to the form of an experi
6
1 the
ife of its
werfion,
Or
kk’s dif-
:ery of
' 3at heat.
with it all the heat which is continually thrown in by
the fuel. But Dr Black was the firft who attended
minutely to the whole phenomena, and enabled us to
form diftinfl notions of the fubjeft. He had difeover-
ed that it was not fufficient for converting ice into wa¬
ter that it be raifed to that temperature in which it can
no longer remain in the form of ice. A piece of ice of
the , tern perature 32? of Fahrenheit’s thermometer will
reptain a very long while in air of the temperature 50°
ment for meafuring the heat aftually extricated from
fuch fleam during its condenfation in the refrigeratory
of a ftill, which was found to be not lefs than 774 de¬
grees. Dr Black was afterwards informed by Mr
Watt, that a courfe of experiments, which he had made
in each of thefe ways with great precifion, determined
the latent heat of fleam under the ordinary preffure of
the atmofphere to be about 948 or 950 degrees. Mr
Watt alfo found that water would diftil with great eafe
Steam.
8
Steam, by
being com¬
bined with
heat, be¬
comes ela-
ftic and
light,
S T E [ 640 ] • S T E
and that in tins happens that water will not boil till its whole mafs be Steam.
heated up to 212° ; for if the upper part be colder, it ''"“"v—-
robs the riling bubble of that heat which is neceffary
for its elafticity, fo that it immediately collapfes again,
and the furface of the water remains ftill. This may
be perceived by holding water in a Florence ilalk over
a lamp or choffer. It will be obferved, fome time be¬
fore the real ebullition, that fome bubbles are formed
at the bottom, and get up a very little way, and then
difappear. The diftances which they reach before col-
lapfing increafe as the water continues to warm farther
up the mafs, till at laft it breaks out into boiling. If
the handle of a tea-kettle be grafped with the hand,
a tremor will be felt for fome little time before boiling,
arifing from the little fuccuflions which are produced by
the collapfing of the bubbles of vapour. This is much
more violent, and is really a remarkable phenomenon, if
we fuddenly plunge a lump of red hot iron into a veffel
of cold water, taking care that no red part be near the
furface. If the hand be now applied to the fide of the
veffel, a moft violent tremor is felt, and fometimes flrong
thumps : thefe arife from the collapfing of very large
bubbles. If the upper part of the iron be too hot, it
warms the furrounding water fo much, that the bubbles
from below come up through it uncondenfed, and pro¬
duce ebullition without this fuccuffion. The great re-
femblance of this tremor to the feeling which we have
during the {hock of an earthquake has led many to fup-
pofe that thefe laft are produced in the fame way, and
their hypothefis, notwithftanding the objeftions which
we have elfewhere ftated to it, is by no means unfea-
fible. I
It is owing to a fimilar caufe that violent thumps are
fometimes felt on the bottom of a tea kettle, efpecially obferved ii
one which has been long in ufe. Such are frequently the bojlin;'
crufted on the bottom with a ftony concretion. ThisP^a,tea"
9
and pro¬
duces the
phenome¬
non of boil¬
ing.
in vacuo when of the temperature 70'
cafe the latent heat of the fleam is not lefs than 1 200
or 1300 degrees 5 and a train of experiments, which he
had made by diftilling in different temperatures, made
him conclude that the fum of the fenfible and latent
heats is a conftant quantity. This is a curious and not
an improbable circumftance } but we have no informa¬
tion of the particulars of thefe experiments. The con-
clufion evidently prefuppofes a knowledge of that parti¬
cular temperature in which the water has no heat; but
this is a point which is ftill fub judice.
This converfion of liquids (for it is not confined to
water, but obtains alfo in ardent fpirits, oils, mercury,
&c.) is the caufe of their boiling. The heat is applied
to the bottom and fides of the veffel, and gradually ac¬
cumulates in the fluid, in a fenfible ftate, uncombined,
and ready to quit it and to enter into any body that is
colder, and to diffufe itfelf between them. Thus it en¬
ters into the fluid of a thermometer, expands it, and
thus gives us the indication of the degree in which it
has been accumulated in the water ; for the thermome¬
ter fwells as long as it continues to abforb fenfible heat
from the water : and when the fenfible heat in both is
in equilibrio, in a proportion depending on the nature
of the two fluids, the thermometer rifes no more, becaufe
it abforbs no more heat or fire from the water ; for the
particles of water which are in immediate contact with
the bottom, are now (by this gradual expanfion of liqui¬
dity) at fuch diftance from each other, that their laws
of attra&ion for each other and for heat are totally
changed. Each particle either no longer attradls, or
perhaps it repels its adjoining particle, and now accu¬
mulates round itfelf a great number of the particles of
heat, and forms a particle of elaftic fluid, fo related to
the adjoining new formed particles, as to repel them
to a diftance at leaft a hundred times greater than their
diftances in the ftate of water. Thus a mafs of elaftic
vapour of fenfible magnitude is formed. Being at leaft
ten thoufand times lighter than an equal bulk of wa¬
ter, it muft rife up through it, as a cork would do, in
form of a tranfparent ball or bubble, and getting to
the top, it diffipates, filling the upper part of the veffel
with vapour or fleam. Thus, by tofting the liquid in¬
to bubbles, which are produced all over the bottom and
fides of the veffel, it produces the phenomenon of ebul¬
lition or boiling. Obferve, that during its paffage up
through the water, it is not changed or condenfed ; for
the furrounding water is already fo hot that the fenfible
or uncombined heat in it, is in equilibrio with that in the
vapour, and therefore it is not difpofed to abforb any
of that heat which is combined as an ingredient of this
vapour, and gives it its elafticity. For this reafon, it
kettle ex
plained.
fometimes is detached in little fcales. When one of
thefe is adhering by one end to the bottom, the wa¬
ter gets between them in a thin film. Hence it may be
heated confiderably above the boiling temperature, and
it fuddenly rifes up in a large bubble, which collapfes
immediately. A fmooth {hilling lying on the bottom
will produce this appearance very violently, or a thimble
with the mouth down. „
In order to make water boil, the fire muft be ap-Water
plied to the bottom or fides of the veffel. If the not boil m
heat be applied at the top of the water, it will waftej615^1®.^
away without boiling ; for the very fuperficial particles ^ tj|e i,ot,
are firft fupplied with the heat neceffary for rendering tom or fidf
them elaftic, and they fly off without agitating the of the vet-'
reft (a). f'd'
Since this difengagement of vapour is the effe£t of
its
(a) We explained the opaque and cloudy appearance of fleam, by faying that the vapour is condenfed by com¬
ing into contafl with the cooler air. There is fomething in the form of this cloud which is very inexplicable.
The particles of it are fometimes very diftinguilhable by the eye •, but they have not the fmart ftar-like brilliancy
of very fmall drops of water, but give the fainter refledlion of a very thin film or veficle like a foap bubble. If we
attend aifo to their motion, we fee them defeending very {lowly in companion with the defeent of a lolid drop ; and
this veficular conftitution is eftablifhed beyond a doubt by looking at a candle through a cloud of fleam. It is feen
fltrrounded by a faint halo with prifmatical colours, precifely fuch as we can demonftrate by optical laws to belong
to a collection of veficles, but totally different from the halo which would be produced by a collection of folid
drops. It is very difficult to conceive how thefe veficles can be formed of v/atery particles, each of which xvas fur-
rounded
S T E
Stearii.
No fluid
cumbeut
iodies.
Plate
DI.
fig. r.
its elafticity, and fince this elafticity is a determined
force when the temperature is given, it follows, that
fluids cannot boil till the elafticity of the vapour over-
|l;:an boil till comes the preffure of the incumbent fluid and of the at-
Lhe elaftici- mofphere. Therefore, when this preflure is removed or
:tyofthe diminilhed, the fluids muft fooner overcome what re-
irapour o- majns anci at a lower temperature. Accordingly
thejpreflurelfc 1S oblerved that water will boil m an cxhaufted recei-
of the in- ver when of the heat of the human body. If two glafs
balls A and B (fig. I.) be connedted by a flender tube,
and one of them A be filled with water (a fmall open¬
ing or pipe b being left at top of the other), and this
be made to boil, the vapour produced from it will drive
all the air out of the other, and will at laft come out
itfelf, producing fteam at the mouth of the pipe. When
the ball B is obferved to be occupied by tran(parent va¬
pour, we may conclude that the air is completely ex¬
pelled. Now (hut the pipe by flicking it into a piece
of tallow or bees-w-ax ; the vapour in B will foon con-
denfe, and there will be a vacuum. The flame of a
lamp and blow-pipe being diredted to the little pipe,
will caufe it immediately to clofe and feal hermetically.
We now have a pretty inftrument or toy called a Pulse
Glass. Grafp the ball A in the hollow of the hand j
the heat of the hand will immediately expand the bub¬
ble of vapour which may be in it, and this vapour Avill
drive the water into B, and then will blow up through
it for a long while, keeping it in a date of violent ebul¬
lition, as long as there remains a drop or film of water
in A. But care muft be taken that B is all the while
kept cold, that it may condenfe the vapour as fail as it
rifes through the water. Touching B with the hand,
or breathing warm on it, will immediately flop the ebul¬
lition in it. When the water in A has thus been difli-
pated, grafp B in the hand j the water will be driven
into A, and the ebullition will take place there as it did
in B. Putting one of the balls into the mouth will
make the ebullition more violent in the other, and the
one in the mouth will feel very cold. This is a pretty
illuftration of the rapid abforption of the heat by the
particles of water which are thus converted into elaftic
vapour. We have feen this little toy fufpended by the
middle of the tube like a balance, and thus placed in
the infide of a window, having two holes a and b cut in
the pane, in fuch a fituation that when A is full of wa¬
ter and preponderates, B is oppofite to the hole b.
Whenever the room became fufficiently warm, the va¬
pour was formed in A, and immediately drove the wa¬
ter into B, which was kept cool by the air coming into
the room through the hole b. By this means B was
made to preponderate in its turn, and A was then op¬
pofite to the hole «, and the procefs was now repeated
in the oppofite direftion ; and this amufement continued
as long as the room was warm enough,
quors dif- We know that liquors differ exceedingly in the tem-
r much in peratures neceffary for their ebullition. This forms the
etempe- Vol. XIX. Part II.
ture ne-
flary for    ■    
1 1
S T E
Steam,
great chemical diftinftion between volatile and fix:ed bo¬
dies. But the difference of temperature in which they ~ ^
boil, or are converted into permanently elaftie vapour,
under the preflure of the atmofphere, is not a certain
meafure of their differences of volatility. The natural
boiling point of a body is that in which it will be con¬
verted into elaftic vapour under no preflure, or in vacuo.
The boiling point in the open air depends on the law of
the elafticity of the vapour in relation to its heat. A
fluid A may be lefis volatile, that is, may require more
heat to make it boil in vacuo, than a fluid B : But if
the elafticity of the vapour of A be more increaied by
an increafe of temperature than that of the vapour of
B, A may boil at as low, or even at a lower tempera¬
ture, in tne open air, than B does •, for the increafed
elafticity of the vapour of A may fooner overcome the
preffure of the atmofphere. Few experiments have been
made on the relation between the temperature and the
elafticity of different vapours. So long ago as the year
1765, we had occafion to examine the boiling points of
all fuch liquors as we could manage in an air pump j
that is, fuch as did not produce vappurs which deftroy-
ed the valves and the leathers of the piflons : and we
thought that the experiments gave us reafon to conclude,
that the elafticity of all the vapours wavaffefted by heat 14
nearly in the fame degree. For we found that the dif- Difference
ference between their boiling points in the air and between
vacuo was nearly the fame in all, namely, about 120 de-tP'e,‘ 'K)^~
p 1 1 • 1 1 /’• 1 • in? points
grees ol rahrenheit’s thermometer, it is exceedingly m air an(i
difficult to make experiments of this kind : The va- in vacuo a*,
pours are fo condenfible, and change their elafticity fobout 120°.
prodigioufly by a trifling change of temperature, that
it is almoft impoffible to examine this point with preci-
fion. It is, however, as we (hall fee by and bye, a fub-
je<ft of confiderabie practical importance in the mechanic
arts 5 and an accurate knowledge of the relation would
be of great ufe alfo to the diftiller : and it would be
no lefs important to difcover the relation of their elafti¬
city and denlity, by examining their compreffibility, in
the fame manner as we have afeertained the relation in
the cafe of what we call aerialfluids, that is, fuch as we
have never obferved in the form of liquids or folids, ex¬
cept in confequence of their union with each other or
with other bodies. In the article Pneumatics we
took notice of it as fomething like a natural law, that
all thefe airs, or gafes as they are now called, had their
elafticity very nearly, if not exactly proportional to their
denfity. This appears from the experiments of Achard,
of Fontana, and others, on vital air, inflammable air,
fixed air, and fome others. It gives us fome prefump-
tion to fuppofe that it holds in all elaftic vapours what¬
ever, and that it is connefled with their elafticity ; and
it renders it fomewhat probable that they are all elaftic,
only becaofe the caufe of heat (the matter of fire if you
will) is elaftic, and that their law of elafticity, in refpeft
of denfity, is the fame with that of fire. But it mull
4 M be
fcir ebul-
ion.
rounded with many particles of fire, now communicated to the air, and how each of thefe veficles (hall include
Avithin it a ball of air ; but AVe cannot refufe the fa£l. We knoAv, that if, Avhile linfeed oil is boiling or nearly
boiling, the furface be obliquely (truck Avith the ladle, it AA'ill be daffied into a prodigious number ot exceeding¬
ly fmall veficles, which Avill float about in the air for a long Avhile. M. Sauffure A\Tas (we think) the firft aa’Iio
diftin&ly obferved this veficular form of mills and clouds^ and he makes confiderabie ufe of it in explaining fe¬
deral phenomena of the atmofphere.
Steam.
S T E [ 64.
be obferved, that although we thus affign the elafticity
of fire as the immediate caufe of the elailicity of vapour
in the fame way, and on the fame grounds, that we
me eiaui- afcribe the fluidity of brine to the fluidity of the water
cityoffluids which holds the folid lalt in folution, it does not follow
may be ow-that this is owing, as is commonly fuppofed, to a repul-
fion or tendency to recede from eacli oilier exertea by
the particles of fire. We are as much entitled to infer
a repulfion of unlimited extent between the particles of
water ; for we fee that by its means a Angle particle oi
fea fait becomes difleminated through the whole of a
very large veilel. If water had not been a vitible and
palpable fubftance, and the fait only had been viiiole
and palpable, we might have formed a limilar notion of
chemical lolution. Hut we, on the contrary, have con-
fidered the qnaquaverfum motion or expanfion of the
fait as a diflemination among the particles of water ; and
we have aferibed it to the Ifrong attraction of the atoms
of fait for the atoms of water, and the attraction of
thefe laft for each other, thinking that each atom oi fait
accumulates round itfelf a multitude of watery atoms,
and by fo doing muft recede from the other ialine atoms.
Nay, we farther fee, that by forces which we naturally
confider as attractions, an expanfion may be produced of
the whole mafs, which will act agamlt external me¬
chanical forces. It is thus that wood iwells with al-
moft infuperable force by imbibing moiiture 5 it is thus
that a fponge immerfed in water becomes really an ela-
ftic compreflible body } refembling a blown bladder 5 and
there are appearances which warrant us to apply this
mode of conception to elaltic fluids.—When air is fud-
denly comprefled, a thermometer included in it fhows a
rife of temperature *, that is, an appearance of heat now
redundant which was formerly combined. The heat
r« feems to be fqueezed out as the water from the fponge.
Aferibed by Accordingly this opinion, that the elaftieily of fleam
tSdionat_ and other vapours is owing merely to the aUraCHon for
but impro- fire, and the confequent diitemination of their particles
perly. through the whole mafs of fire, has been entertained by
many naturalifts, and it has been aferibed entirely to
attra&ion. We by no means pretend to decide *, but
we think the analogy by far too flight to found any
confident opinion on it. The aim is to folve phenomena
by attraction only, as if it were of more eafy concep¬
tion than repulfion. Confidered merely as facts, they
are quite on a par. The appearances of nature in
which we obferve aCtual receffes of the parts of body
from each other, are as diftinCt, and as frequent and fa¬
miliar, as the appearances of aCtual reproach. And if
we attempt to go farther in our contemplation, and to
conceive the way and the forces by which either the
approximation or recefles of the atoms are produced,
we muft acknowledge that we have no conception of
the matter; and we can only fay, that there is a caufe
of thefe motions, and we call it a force, as in every cafe
of the production of motion. We call it attraction or
repulfion juft as we happen to contemplate an aecefs or
a recefs. But the analogy here is not only flight, but
imperfeCt, and fails thoft in thofe cafes which are mull
Ample, and where we (hould expeCt it to be molt com¬
plete. We cjm fqueeze water out of a fponge, it is
true, or out of a piece of green Wood; but when the
white of an egg, the tremella, or fome gums, fwell to
a hundred times their dry dimenfions by imbibing water,
we cannot fqueeze gut a particle, If fluidity ^for the
Steam.
17
2 ] S T E
reafoning muft equally apply to this as to vapourouf-
nefs) being owing to an accumulation of the extended
matter of fire, which gradually expanded the foiid by
its very minute additions; and if the accumulation round
a particle of ice, which is neceffary for making it a par¬
ticle of water, be fo great in comparifon of what gives
it the expanfion of one degree, as experiment obliges
us to conclude—it feems an inevitable confequence that
all fluids Ihould be many times rarer than the folids from
which they are produced. But we know that the dif¬
ference is trifling in all cafes, and in fome (water, for
inltance, and iron) the fidid is rarer than the fluid.
Many other arguments, (each of them perhaps of little More piv.
weight when taken alone, but which are all iyftemati-babl> ow-'
cally conneCled) concur in rendering it much more^J’?
probable that the matter of fire, in caufing elafticity, pU]flon y
aCts immediately by its own elafticity, which we cannot tween thq
conceive in any other way than as a mutual tendency mPartlc!es:j
its particles to receive from each other; and we doubtnrc'
not but that, if it could be obtained alone, we {hould
find it an elaftic fluid like air. We even think that
there are cafes in which it is obferved in this ftate. The
elaftic force of gunpowder is very much beyond the
elafticity of all the vapours which are produced in its
deflagration, each of them being expanded as much as
we can reafonably fuppofe by the great heat to which
they are expofed. The writer of this article exploded
fome gunpowder mixed with a confiderable portion of
finely powdered quartz, and another parcel mixed with
fine filings of copper. The elafticity was meafured by
the penetration of the ball which was difeharged, and
was great in the degree notv mentioned. 1 he experi¬
ment was fo conduced, that much of the quartz and
copper was colledled ; none of the quartz had been
melted, and fome of the copper was not melted. The
ht'at, therefore, could not be fuch as to explain the
elaiticity by expanfion of the vapours ; and it became
not improbable that fire was ailing here as a detached
chemical fluid by its own elafticity. But to return to
our fubjeft. iS
There is one circumftance in which we think our Probably
own experiments fliow a remarkable difference (at leaft a
in degree) between the condenfible and mcondenfible^®^ cor
vapours. It is well known, that when air is very fud-d*nfible
denly expanded, cold is produced, and heat when it isandincon-
fuddenly condenfed. When making experiments withdeniibk va
the hopes of difeovering the connexion between the1,0111:3 ’
elafticity and denfity of the vapours of boiling water,
and alfo of boiling fpirits of turpentine, we found the
change of denfity accompanied by a change of tempera¬
ture vaftly greater than in the cafe of incoercible gafes.
When the vapour of boiling water wasfuddenly allowed
to expand into five times its bulk, we obferved the de-
preffion of a large and fenfible air thermometer to be at
leail four or five times greater than in a fimilar expan¬
fion of common air of the fame temperature. The che¬
mical reader will readily fee reafons for expelling, on the
contrary, a fmaller alteration of temperature, both on
account of the much greater rarity of the fluid, and on
account of a partial condenfation of its -water and
confequent difengagement of combined heat. . fomedif- [
This difference in the quantity of fire which is com-fereriCe i»
bined in vapours and gafes is fo confiderable, as to au-thechemM
thorize us to fuppofe that there is fome difference in thecal/^n^
chemical conftitution of vapours and gafes, and that the vl‘ n
connexion
S T E [ 643 ] S T E
Steam, conne&iaii between the fpecific bafes of the vapour and
the fire which it contains is not the fame in air, for in-
ftance, as in the vapour of boiling water ; and this dif¬
ference may be the reafon why the one is eafily conden-
fible by cold, while the other has never been exhibited in
a liquid or folid form, except by means of its chemical
union with other fubftances. In this particular inftance
we know that there is an effential difference-—that in
vital or atmofpheric air there is not only a prodigious
quantity of fire which is not in the vapour of water, but
that it aifo contains light, or the caufe of light, in a
combined ftate. This is fully evinced by the great
difcovery of Mr Cavendilh of the compofition of water.
Here we are taught that water (and confequentiy its
vapour) confifts of air from which the light and greateft
part of the fire have been feparated. And the fubfe-
quent difcoveries of the celebrated Lavoifier (how, that
nlraoft all the condenfible gafes with which we are ac¬
quainted eonfilf either of airs which have already loft
much of their fire (and perhaps light too), or of matters
sn which we have no evidence of fire or light being com¬
bined in this manner.
This eonfideration may go far in explaining this dif¬
ference in the condenfibility of thefe different fpecies of
aerial fluids, the gafes and the vapours ; and it is with
this qualification only that we are difpofed to allow that
all bodies are condenfible into liquids or folids by ab-
flradting the heat. In order that vital air may become
liquid or folid, avc hold that it is not fufficient that a
body be prefented to it which (hall Amply abftraft its
heat. This would only abflraft its uncombined fire.
But another and much larger portion remains chemically
combined by means of light. A chemical affinity muff
I be brought into aftion which may abftra£l, not the
fire from the oxygen (to fpeak the language of Mr La¬
voifier), but the oxygen from the fire and light. And
our production is not the detached bafis of air, but de¬
tached heat and light, and the formation of an oxide of
fome kind.
Jenerai. To profecute the chemical confideration of Steams
)bserva- farther than thefe general obfervations, which are ap-
ions. plicable to all, would be almoft to write a treatife of
chemiftry, and would be a repetition of many things
which have been treated of in fufficient detail in other
articles of this work. We (hall therefore conclude this
article with fome other obfervations, which are alfo ge¬
neral, with refpefl to the different kinds of coercible
vapours, but which have a particular relation to the fol-
^ lowing article.
team rifes Steam or vapour is an elaffic fluid, Avhofe elafticity
t different balances the preflure of the atmofphere •, and it has been
empera- produced from a folid or liquid body raifed to a fufficient
ures, ac- temperature for giving it this elaflicity *, that is, for
he air is caufing the fluid to boil. This temperature mud vary
leavyor with the preffure of the air. Accordingly it is found,
!ght. that when the air is light (indicated by the barometer
being low), the fluid will boil fooner. When the ba¬
rometer (lands at 30 inches, water boils at the tempe¬
rature 212°. If it (lands fo low as 28 inches, water
will boil at 208^. In the plains of Quito, or at Gon-
dar in Abyffinia, where the barometer (lands at about
21 inches, water "will boil at 1950. Highly re£lified
alcohol will boil at 160°, and vitriolic ether will boil
at 88° or 89°. This is a temperature by no means un¬
common in thefe places 5 nay-, the air is frequently
warmer. Vitriolic ether, therefore, is a liquor which Steam,
can hardly be known in thofe countries. It is hardly ~“'v "
poflible to preferve it in that form. If a phial have not
its Hopper firmly tied down, it will be blown out, and
the liquor will boil and be diffipated in fleam. On the
top of Chimbora^ao, the human blood mull be difpofed
to give out air-bubbles. it
We laid fome time ago, that we had concluded, from As fluids
fome experiments made in the receiver of an air-pump,^311 under
.1 n • 1 1 -i • . . . , the preiturffi
that fluids boil in vacuo at a temperature nearly 120 0f the va_
degrees lower than that neceflary for their boiling inp()ur which
the open air. But we now fee that this muff have been attends
but a grofs approximation $ for in thefe experiments^001
the fluids were boiling under the preffure of the vapour;.on
which they produced, and which could not be abftrafted tion€C} in
by working the pump. It appears from the experi- N° 14. is
ments of Lord Charles Cavendiffi, mentioned in the ar-onb’ a grof*
tide Pneumatics, that water of the temperature 72°^PPr0Xluia*
was converted into elaflie vapour, which balanced a pref¬
fure of ^tbs of an inch of mercury, and in this (late it
occupied the receiver, and did not allow the mercury in
the gauge to fink to the level,. As faff as this was ab~
drafted by working the air-pump, more of it was pro¬
duced from the furface of the water, fo that the preffure
continued the fame, and the water did not boil. Had
it been poffible to produce a vacuum above this water,
it would have boiled for a moment, and would even have
continued to boil, if the receiver could have been kept
very cold. si
Upon reading thefe experiments, and fome very curi- Account of
ous ones of Mr Nairne, in the Phil. Tranf. vol. lxvii.CXI>eiI'
, . r 1 • . , • 1 1 ■ ments to
the writer of this article was induced to examine more
particularly the relation between the temperature of the the relation
vapour and its elafticity, in the following manner : between
ABCD (fig. 2.) is the left ion of a fmall digefter
made of copper. I^s lid, which is faftened to the body va[;our antj
with fcrews, is pierced with three holes, each of which its elattici-
had a fmall pipe foldered into it. The firft hole wasty-
furniffied with a brafs fafety-valve V, nicely fitted to itFl§- 2l
by grinding. The area of this valve was exaftly -£th of
an inch. There refted on the (talk at top of this valve
the arm of a fteelyard carrying a Aiding weight. This
arm had a fcale of equal parts, fo adjufted to the weight
that the number on the fcale correfponded to the inches
of mercury, whofe preffure on the under furface of tlxe
valve is equal to that of the fleelyard on its top j fo that
when the weight was at the divifion io, the preffure of
the fteelyard on the valve was juft equal to that of a
column of mercury 10 inches high, and ^th of an inch
bafe. The middle hole contained a thermometer T
firmly fixed into it, fo that no vapour could efcape by
its fides. The ball of this thermometer was but a little
way below the lid. The third hole received oecafion-
ally the end of a glafs-pipe SGF, whofe defcending leg
was about 36 inches long. When this fyphon was not
ufed, the hole was properly (liut with a plug.
The veffel was half filled with diftilled water which
had been purged of air by boiling. The lid was then
fixed on, having the third hole S plugged up. A lamp
being placed under the veffel, the water boiled, and the
fteam iffued copioufly by the fafety-valve. The ther¬
mometer flood at 213, and a barometer in the room at
29.9 inches. The weight was then put on the fifth di¬
vifion. The thermometer immediately began to rife j
and when it was at 220, the fteam iffued by the fides
4- M 2 of
Steam.
S T E
of the valve. The weight was removed to the 10th
divifion; but before the thermometer could be diftinftly
obferved, the fleam was ifluing at the valve. The lamp
was removed farther from the bottom of the veffel, that
the progrefs of heating might be more moderate j and
when the fleam ceafed to iffue from the valve, the ther¬
mometer was at 227 1 he weight was now fhifted to
15 ; and by gradually approaching the lamp, the fleam
again iffued, and the thermometer was at I32f. This
mode of trial was continued all the way to the 75^
divihon of the fcale. The experiments were then re¬
peated in the contrary order j that is, the weight being
fufpended at the 75th divifion, and the fleam ifluing
ilrongly at the valve, the lamp was withdrawn, and the
moment the fleam ceafed to come out, the thermome¬
ter va« obferved. The fame was done at the 70th, 65th,
divifion, &c. Thefe experiments were feveral times re¬
peated br>th ways 5 and the means of all the refults for
each divifion are expreffed in the following table, where
column iff expreflfes the elaflicity of the fleam, being
the fum of 29.9, and the divifion of the fleelyard j co¬
lumn 2d expreflfes the temperature of the fleam corre-
fponding to this elaflicity.
I. II.
35 inches. 2190
40 226
45 232
5° 237
55 242
60 247-
65 251
70 255
75 259
80 263
85 267
90 270-J
95 274-J
100 278
105 281
A very different procefs was neceflary for afcertaining
the elaflicity of the fleam in lower temperatures, and
confequently under fmaller preflfures than that of the
atmofphere. The glafs fyphon SGF was now fixed in¬
to its hole in the lid of the digefler. The water was
made to boil fm^rtly for fome time, and the fleam iffued
copioufly both at the valve and at the fyphon. The
lower end of the fyphon was now immerfed into a broad
faucer of mercury, and the lamp inflantly removed,
and every thing was allowed to grow cold. By this the
fleam was gradually condenfed, and the mercury rofe
in the fyphon, without fenfibly finking in the faucer.
The valve and all the joints were fmeared with a thick
clammy cement, compofed of oil, tallow, and rofin,
which effe&ually prevented all ingrefs of air. The wea¬
ther was clear and frofly, and the barometer Handing at
29.84, and the thermometer in the veffel at 4 2°. The
mercury in the fyphon flood at 29.7, or fomewhat
higher, thus fhowing a very complete condenfation.
The whole veffel ivas furrounded with pounded ice, of
the temperature 3 2°. This made no fenfible change
in the height of the mercury. A mark was now made
at the furface of the mercury. One obferver was fla-
tioned at the thermometer, ’with inflrudlions to call out
as the thermometer reached the divifions 42, 47, 52,
s T E .
(;7, and fo on by every five degrees till it fliould attain Steam,,
the boiling heat. Another obferver noted the corre- 'Tmc
fponding defcents of the mercury by a fcale of inches,
which had its beginning placed at 29.84 from the fur-
face of the mercury in the faucer.
The pounded ice Avas now removed, and the lamp
placed at a confiderable diflance below the veffel, fo as
to Avarm its contents very flowly. Thefe obfervatiens
being very eafily made, were feveral times repeated, and
their mean refults are fet dotvn in the folloAving table :
Only obferve, that it A\Tas found difficult to note doivn
the defcents for every fifth degree, becaufe they fuc-
ceeded each other fo fall. Every xcth was judged fuf-
ficient for ellabli&ing the Iuav of variation. The firft
column of the table contains the temperature, and the
fecond the defcent (in inches) of the mercury from ths
mark 29.84.
32° $
40 0.1
50 0.2
60 0.35
70 0.55
80 0.82
90 1.18
100 1.61
no 2.25
120 3.OO
13° 3*95
140 5.15
150 6.72
160 8.65
17O H-05
180 I4-°5
190 17.85
200 22.62
210 28.65
Four or five numbers at the top of the column of
elafticities are not fo accurate as the others, becaufe ths
mercury paffed pretty quickly through thefe points.
But the progrefs Avas extremely regular through the re¬
maining points ; fo that the elallicities correfponding to
temperatures above 70° may be confidered as very accu¬
rately afcertained.
Not being altogether fatisfied Avith the method em¬
ployed for meafuring the elafticity in temperatures abo\re
that of boiling water, a better form of experiment was
adopted. (Indeed it was the want of other apparatus
which made it neceffary to employ the former). A glafs
tube Avas procured of the form reprefented in fig. 3. hav-pig, 3,
ing a little ciftern L,from the top and bottom of which
proceeded the fyphons K and MN. The ciftern con¬
tained mercury, and the tube MN was of a flender bore,
and was about fix feet two inches long. The end K Avas
firmly fixed in the third hole of the lid, and the long
leg of the fyphon was furnifhed Avith a fcale of inches,
and firmly faftened to an upright port.
The lamp Avas now applied at fuch a diftanee from ;|
the veffel as to Avarra it floAvly, and make the Avater
boil, the ft earn efcaping for fome time through the fafe-
ty-valve. A heavy Aveight was then fufpended on the
fteelyard ; fuch as it Avas knoAvn that: the veffel Avould
fupport, and at the fame time, fuch as Avould not alloiv
the fleam to force the mercury out of the long tube.
The thermometer began immediately to rife, as alfo the
mercury
[ 644 ]
S T E
Sfewn. mercury in the tube MN. Their correfpondent ftations
■’"'V*-—' are marked in the following table :
Temperature.
212°
[ 645 ]
S T E
168°, and the al- Stem.
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
Elajlicity.
0.0
5-9
14.6
25.0
36.9
50-4
64.2
106.0
rich a-
well
:h thofe
Mr
hard.
This form of the experiment is much more fufceptible
of accuracy than the other, and the meafures of elallicity
are more to be depended on. In repeating the experi¬
ment, they were found much more conftant; whereas,
in the former method, differences occurred of two inches
and upwards.
We may now conneft the two fets of experiments in¬
to one table, by adding to the numbers in this laft table
the conftant height 29.9, which was the height of the
mercury in the barometer during the laft fet of obfer-
vations.
Temperature. Elajlicity.
3 2° 0.0
40 0.1
50 0.1
60 0.35
70 0.55
80 0.82
90 1.25
100 1.6
no 2.25
120 3.O
*3° 3-95
I4° 5-*5
150 6.72
160 8.65
170 11-05
180 I4-°5
19°
200 22.62
210 28.65
220 3 c.8
230 44.7
240 54.9
250 66.8
260 80.3
270 94.1
280 l®5'9
In the memoirs of the Royal Academy of Berlin for
1782, there is an account of fome experiments made by
Mr Achard on the elaftic force of fleam, from the tem¬
perature 3 2° to 2120. They agree extremely well with
thofe mentioned here, rarely differing more than two or
three tenths of an inch. He alfo examined the elafticity
of the vapour produced from alcohol, and found, that
when the elafticity was equal to that of the vapour of
water, the temperature was about 350 lower. Thus,
when the elafticity of both rvas meafured by 28.1 inches
of mercury, the temperature of the watery vapour was
209°, and that of the fpirituous vapour was 173°. When
the elafticity was 18.5, the temperature of the water
was 189.45, and that of the alcohol 154.6. When the
elafticity was II.05, the water was
cohol I34°.4. Obferving the difference between the
temperatures of equally elaftic vapours of water and al¬
cohol not to be conftant, but gradually to diminifh, in
Mr Achard’s experiments, along with the elafticity, it
became interefting to difeover whether and at what
temperature this difference would vaniih altogether.
Experiments were accordingly made by the writer of
this article, fimilar to thofe made with water. They were
not made with the fame fcrupulous care, nor repeated
as they deferv^d, but they furniftied rather an unexpe£t-
ed refult. The following table will give the reader a
diftintt notion of them :
Temperature.
32°
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
Elajlicity,
0.0
0.1
0.8
0.8*
3-9
6.9
12.2
21.3
34*
5M
?8-5
Hi-
We fay that the refult was unexpedfted; for as the natu- An mfex-
ral boiling point feemed by former experiments to be periled re¬
in all fluids about 120° or more below their boiling fuft in com~
point in the ordinary preffure of the atmofphere, it wasparing ^ie
reafonable to expedft that the temperature at which they tures 0f e_
ceafed to emit fenfibly elaftic fleam would have fome qually elaf.
relation to their temperatures when emitting fleam oftlc v.-pours
any determinate elafticity. Now as the vapour of alco-^^*^
hoi of elafticity 30 has its temperature about 36° lower ^0]
than the temperature of water equally elaftic, it was to
be expefted that the temperature at which it ceafed to
be fenfibly affefled would be feveral degrees lower than
3 2°. It is evident, however, that this is not the cafe.
But this is a point that deferves more attention, becaufe
it is clofely connected with the chemical relation be¬
tween the element (if fuch there be) of fire, and the
bodies into whofe compofition it feems to enter as a
conftituent part. What is the temperature 320, to
make it peculiarly connected with elafticity ? It is a
temperature affumed by us for our own conveniency,
on account of the familiarity of water in our experi¬
ments. Ether, we know, boils in a temperature far
below this, as appears from Dr Cullen’s experiments
narrated in the Effays Phyfical and Literary of Edin¬
burgh. On the faith of former experiments, we may
be pretty certain that it will boil in vacuo at the tem¬
perature — 140, becaufe in the air it boils at -}-io60.
Therefore we may be certain, that the fteam or vapour
of ether, when of the temperature 320, will be very fen¬
fibly elaftic. Indeed Mr Lavoifier fays, that if it be
expofed in an exhaufted receiver in winter, its vapour
will fupport mercury at the height of 10 inches. A
feries of experiments on this vapour fimilar to the above
would be very inftrucftive. We even wifh that thofe on
alcohol were more carefully repeated. If we draw a-
curve line, of which the abfciffa is the line of tempera¬
tures, and the ordinates are the correfponding heights of
the mercury in thefe experiments on water and alcohol,,
S T E
t 6+6 1
T E
Steam.
25
Thefe ex¬
periments
give rife to
important
reflections.
Vol. Ixx.
26
Spontane¬
ous evapo¬
ration pro¬
cured by
the diflbl-
ving power
of the air.
we fhall obferve, that although they both fenfibly coin¬
cide at 32°, and have the abfciffa for their common tan¬
gent, a very fmall error of oblervation may be the caufe
of this, and the curve which expreffes the elafticity of
fpirituous vapour may*really interfedl the other, and go
backwards confiderably beyond 32°.
This range of experiments gives rife to fome curious
and important reflections. We now fee that no parti¬
cular temperature is neceffary for water affuming the
form of permanently elaflic vapour j and that it is high¬
ly probable that it aflumes this form even at the tempe¬
rature 3 20} only its elaflicity is too fmall to afford us
any fenfible meafure. It is well known that even ice
evaporates (fee experiments to this purpofe by Mr Wil-
fon in the Philofophical Tranfa£lions, when a piece of
poliflied metal covered with hoar-froft became perfedlly
clear by expofing it to a dry frofly wind).
Even mercury evaporates, or is converted into elaftic
vapour, when all external preffure is removed. The dim
film which may frequently be obferved in the upper
part of a barometer which ftands near a ftream of air*
is found to be fmall globules of mercury flicking to the
infide of the tube. They may be feen by the help of
a magnifying glafs, and are the beft teft of a well made
barometer. They will be entirely removed by caufing
the mercury to rife along the tube. It will lick them
all up. They conflft of mercury which had evaporated
in the void fpace, and was afterwards condenfed by the
cold glafs. But the elafticity is too fmall to occafion a
fenfible depreflion of the column, even when confider¬
ably warmed by a candle.
Many philofophers accordingly imagine, that fponta-
neous evaporation in low temperatures is produced in
this way. But we cannot be of this opinion, and muft
ftill think that this kind of evaporation is produced by
the diffolving power of the air. When moift air is fud-
denly rarefied, there is always a precipitation of water.
This is mofl diftinftly feen when we work an air-pump
brifkly. A mift is produced, which we fee plainly fall
to the bottom of the receiver. But by this new doc¬
trine the very contrary (hould happen, becaufe the ten¬
dency of water to appear in the elaftic form is promo¬
ted by removing the external preffure j and we really
imagine that more of it now aftually becomes Ample
elaftic watery vapour. But the mift or precipitation
{hows incontrovertibly, that there had been a previous
folution. Solution is performed by forces which a£l: in
the way ofattraftion ", or, to exprefs it more fafely, fo-
lutions are accompanied by the mutual approaches of
the particles of the menftruum and folved : all fuch ten¬
dencies are obferved to increafe by a diminution of di-
ftance. Hence it muj} follow, that air of double denfi-
ty will diffolve more than twice as much water. There¬
fore when we fuddenly rarefy faturated air (even though
its heat ftiould not diminifti) fome water muft be let
go. What may be its quantity we know not j but it
mmj be more than what would now become elaftic by
this diminution of furrounding preffure ; and it is not the temperatures ito°, 140°, I7°0» 200°, 230°
1V xr Vm -i ^ A   IV,. TX Z.  } !    ! c E .. i ! 1 — ^ hotrinrr n 1 TTfJTf'HPI
was fo contrived, that the heat was applied above the Steaw
furface of the water in the alembic A. This was done 1
by inclofing it in another veffel CC, filled with hot wa¬
ter. In the receiver B there was a fort of barome¬
ter D, with an open ciftern, in order to fee what
preffure there was on the furface of the fluid. While
the receiver and alembic contained air, the heat applied
at A produced no fenfible diftillation during feveral
hours : But on opening a cock E in the receiver at
its bottom, and making the water in the alembic to boil,
fleam was produced which foon expelled all the air,
and followed it through the cock. The cock was now
{hut, and the whole allowed to grow cold by removing
the fire, and applying cold water to the alembic. The
barometer fell to a level nearly. Then warm water
was allowed to get into the outer veffel CC. The ba¬
rometer rofe a little, and the diftillation went on briMy
without the fmalleft ebullition in the alembic. The con-
clufion is obvious : while there was air in the receiver
and communicating pipe, the diftillation proceeded en¬
tirely by the diffolving power of this air. Above the
water in the alembic it was quickly faturated ", and this
Saturation proceeded flowly along the ftill air in the com¬
municating pipe, and at laft might take place through
the whole of the receiver. The Tides of the receiver
being kept cold, {hould condenfe part of the water dif-
folved in the air in contaft with them, and this {hould
trickle down the fides and be colledled. But any per-
fon who has obferved how long a cryftal of blue vi¬
triol will lie at the bottom of a glafs of ftill water be¬
fore the tinge will reach the furface, will fee that it
muft be next to impoffible for diftillation to go on in
thefe circumftances ; and accordingly none was obfer¬
ved. But when the upper part of the apparatus was
filled with pure watery vapour, it was fupplied from
the alembic as faft as it was condenfed in the receiver,
juft as in the pujfe glafs. ^
Another inference which may be drawn from thefe \ certai
experiments is, that Nature feems to affeft a certain law in tl
law in the dilatatjon of aeriform fluids by heat. They
feem to be dilatable nearly in proportion of their pre- by
fent dilatation. For if we fuppofe that the vapours heat,
referable air, in having their elafticity in any given tem¬
perature proportional to their denfity, we muft fuppofe
that if fleam of the elafticity 60, that is, fupporting 60
inches of mercury, were fubje&ed to a preffure of 30
inches, it -would expand into twice its prefent bulk.
The augmentation of elafticity therefore is the mea¬
fure of the bulk into which it would expand in order
to acquire its former elafticity. Taking the increafe
of elafticity therefore as a meafure of the bulk into
which it would expand under one conftant preffure,
we fee that equal increments of temperature produce
nearly equal multiplications of bulk. Ihus if a certain
diminution of temperature diminifties its bulk -jth, ano* ,
ther equal diminution of temperature will diminifti this
new bulk fth very nearly. Thus, in our experiments,
are ra
Tig. 4.
unlikely but this may have fome eft’eft in producing
the veficles which we found it fo difficult to explain,
dhefe may be filled with pure vratery vapour, and be
floating in a fluid compofed of water diffolved in air.
An experiment of Fontana’s feems to put this matter
out of doubt. A diftilling apparatus AB (fig. 4.)
arithmetical progreflion, having equal differences j and
we fee that the correfponding elafticities 2.25, 5-15»
H.05, 22.62, 44.7, are very nearly in the continued
proportion of I to 2. The elafticity correfponding to
the temperature 260 deviates confiderably from tins
law, which would give 88 or 89 inftead of 80 ", and the
ebmatioi*
S T E [ 647
Steam, deviation increafes in the higher temperatures. But
iHll vve fee that there is a conliderable approximation
to this law; and it will frequently aflift us to recoiled,
that whatever be the prefent temperature, an increafe
of 30 degrees doubles the elaflicity and the bulk of wa¬
tery vapour.
That 40 will increafe the elafticity from 1 to 1
8
10 - *
12-f - *•
18
22
24
26
Tar
to I 4
to
to 1
to I
to l
to 1
to I
4
] S T E
reftion ; becaufe air, like the vapour of water, does not Steam,
expand in the exaft proportion of its bulk.
We obferve this law eonfiderably approximated to inAn(] ^ con_
the augmentation of the bulk or elaftieity of elaftic va-fiderably
pours 5 that is, it is a fadt that a given increment ofappioxima-
temperature makes very nearly the kune proportionaltf1^ t0
augmentation of bulk and elatlicity. This gives us fomet 16 auf“
... . mentation
notion or the manner in which the iuppoted expanding0I the bulk
caufe produces the effedf. When vapour of the bulkor atatbcity
4 is expanded into a bulk 5 by an addition of 10 de-ol: e^altic
grees of fenfible heat, a certain quantity of fire goes in-valJOurs*
to it, and is accumulated round each particle, in fuch a
manner that the temperature of each, which formerly
was m, is now ot-J-io. Let it now receive another equal
augmentation of temperature. This is now m-j-20, and
This is fufficiently exadt for moft pradlical purpofes.
Thus an engineer finds that the injedfion cools the cy¬
linder of a fteam engine to 192°. It therefore leaves
a fteam whole elalticity is three-fifths of its full elafti¬
city, = 18 inches g . But it is better at all times to
have recourfe to the table. Obferve, too, that in the
lower temperatures, i. e. below 1 io°, this increment of
18 temperature does more than double the elafticity.
I itains This law obtains more remarkably in the incoereible
1fr®ie‘ vapours 5 fuch as vital air, attnofpheric air, fixed air,
t the irico- k-0, have a^!) their elafticity proportional
i able va- to their bulk inverfely : and perhaps the deviation from
ijurs. the law in fleams is connedled with their chemical dif¬
ference of conftitution. If the bulk were always aug-
mehted in the fame proportion by equal augmentations
of temperature, the elatiicities would be accurately re-
prefented by the ordinates of a logarithmic curve, of
which the temperatures are the correfponding abfciflte ;
and we might contrive fuch a feale for our thermome¬
ter, that the temperatures would be the common loga¬
rithms of the elafticities, or of the bulks having equal
elafticity j or, with our prefent fcale, we may find fueh
a multiplier m for the number .y of degrees of our ther-
) mometer (above that temperature where the elaftici¬
ty is equal to unity), that this multiple {hall be the
common logarithm of the elafticity y; fo that mx
=log. y.
But our experiments are not fufficiently accurate for
determining the temperature where the elafticity is raea-
fured by 1 inch •, becaufe in thefe temperatures the
elafticities vary by exceedingly fmall quantities. But
if we take 11.04 f°r the unit °f elafticity, and number
our temperature from 1700, and make 772:0:0.010035,
we (hall find the produdf m x to be very nearly the lo¬
garithm of the elafticity. The deviations, however,
from this law, are too great to make this equation of
any ufe. But it is very pradlicable to frame an equa¬
tion which fhall correfpond with the experiments to
any degree of accuracy ; and it has been done for air
in a tranflation of General Roy’s Meafurement of the
Bafe at Hounflow Heath into French by Mr Prony.
It is as follows : Let x be the degrees of Reaumur’s
thermometer ; let y be the exnanfion of 10,000 parts
of air ; let <? be — 10, m — 2.7979, n — 0.01768 :
then 2/=:l?m+"*—627.5. Now ^ being mo, it is plain
that em+,:x is the number, of which m-j-nx is the com¬
mon logarithm. This formula is very exaft as far as
the temperature 6o° : but beyond this it needs a cor-
? X 3
the bulk is -   or 64-, and the arithmetical increafe of
4
bulk is 1^. The abfolute quantity of fire which has
entered it is greater than the former, both on account
of the greater augmentation of Ipace and the greater
temperature. Confequenlly if this vapour be compref-
fed into the bulk 5, there muft be heat or fire in it
which is not necefiary for the temperature 7774-20, far
lefs for the temperature 772-f. 10. It muft therefore
emerge, and be difpofed to enter a thermometer which
has already the temperature 7724-20 : that is, the va¬
pour muft grow hotter by compreffioh ; not by fqueez-
ing out the heat, like water out of a fponge, but be¬
caufe the law of attraftion for heat is deranged. It
would be a very valuable acquifition to our knowledge
to learn with precifion the quantity of fenfible heat pro¬
duced in this way; but no fatisfadlory experiments have
yet been made. M. Lavoifier, with his chemical friends,
and colleagues, were bufily employed in this inqui-*
ry : but the wickednefs of their countrymen deprived
the world of this and many other important additions
which we might have expefted from this celebrated and
unfortunate philofopher. He had made, in conjunc¬
tion with M. de la Place, a numerous train of accurate
and expenfive experiments for meafuring the quantity
of latent or combined heat in elaftic vapours. This is
evidently a very important point to the diftiller and
praftical chemift. This heat muft all come from the
fuel ; and it is greatly worth while to know whether
any faving may be made of this article. Thus we know
that diftillation will go on either under the preffure of
the air, or in an alembic and receiver from which the
air has been expelled by fteam ; and we know that this
laft may be conduced in a very low temperature, even
not exceeding that of the human body. But it is un¬
certain whether this may not employ even a greater
quantity of fuel, as well as occafion a great expence of
time. We are difpofed to think, that when there is no
air in the apparatus, and when the condenfation can be
fpeedily performed, the proportion of fuel expended to
the fluid which comes over will diminiftr continually as
the heat, and confequentiy the denfity of the fteam, is
augmented ; becaufe in this cafe the quantity of com¬
bined heat muft be lefs. In the mean time, we earneft-
ly recommend the trial of this mode of diftillation in
veffels cleared of air. It is undoubtedly of great ad¬
vantage to be able to work with fmaller fires ; and it
would fecure us againft all accidents of blowing off
Steam.
Explana¬
tion of the
phenomena
of the r-ey-
ger fpring
in Iceland
by the
for c of
Hearn.
®V5-
S T E
the head of the ftill, often attended with terrible confe-
quences (b).
We mult not conclude this article without taking
notice of fome natural phenomena which feem to owe
their origin to the action of elaftic fleam.
We have already taken notice of the refemblance of
the tremor and fuccuffions obferved in the ftiocks of many
earthquakes to thofe which may be felt in a veffel where
water is made to boil internally, while the breaking out
of the ebullition is ftifled by the cold of the upper parts j
and we have likewife ftated the objeftions which are
ufually made to this theory of earthquakes. We may
perhaps refume the fubjedt under the article Volcano ;
but in the mean time we do not hefitate to fay, that the
Wonderful appearances of the Geyzer fpring in Iceland
(fee Huer j and Iceland, N° 3—5.) are undoubtedly
produced by the expanflon of fleam in ignited caverns.
Of thefe appearances we fuppofe the whole train to be
produced as follows.
A cavern may be fuppofed of a fhape analogous to
CBDEF (fig. 5.), having a perpendicular funnel AB
ilfuing from a deprefled part of the roof. X he part X
may be lower than the reft, remote, and red hot. Such
places we know to be frequent in Iceland. W'ater may
be continually trickling into the part CD. It will fill
it up to B, and even up to E c, and then trickle flowly
along into F. As foon as any gets into contadt with
an ignited part, it expands into elaftic fleam, and is
partly condenfed by the cold fides of the cavern, which
it gradually warms, till it condenfes no more. This
produdtion of fleam hinders not in the fmalleft degree
the trickling of more water into F, and the continual
produdlion of more fleam. This now prefles on the
furface of the water in CD, and caufes it to rife gra¬
dually in the funnel BA 5 but flowly, becaufe its cold
furface is condenfing an immenfe quantity of fleam. We
may eafily fuppofe that the water trickles fafter into F
than it is expended in the produdlion of fleam; fo that
it reaches farther into the ignited part, and may even
fall in a ftream into fome deeper pit highly ignited. It
will now produce fleam in vail abundance, and of pro¬
digious elafticity; and at once pufh up the water through
the funnel in a folid jet, and to a great height. This
muft continue till the furface of the wrater finks to BD.
If the lower end of the funnel have any inequalities or
•notches, as is moft likely, the fleam will get admiflion
S T E
along with the water, which in this particular place is Steamii
boiling hot, being fuperficial, and will get to the mouth Steam,
of the funnel, while water is ftill preffed in below. At. u^m"1
laft the fleam gets in at B on all fides 5 and as it is con- j
verging to B, along the furface of the water, with pro¬
digious velocity it fweeps along with it much water, and
blows it up through the funnel with great force. When
this is over, the remaining fleam blows out unmixed
with water, growing weaker as it is expended, till the
bottom of the funnel is again flopped by the wmter in-
creafing in the cavern CBD. All the phenomena above
ground" are perfedlly conformable to the neceffary con-
fequences of this very probable conftrudtion of the ca¬
vern. The feeling of being lifted up, immediately be¬
fore the jet, in all probability is owing to a real heaving
up of the whole roof of the cavern by the firft expanfion
of the great body of fleam. We had an accurate defcrip-
tion of the phenomena from perfons well qualified to
judge of thefe matters who vifited thefe celebrated
fprxngs in 1789*
STEAM-Etigine, is the name of a machine which de¬
rives its moving power from the elafticity and conden-
fibility of the fleam of boiling water. It is the moft
valuable prefent which the arts of life have ever received
from the philofopher. The mariner’s compafs, the te-
lefcope, gunpowder, and other moft ufeful fervants to
human weaknefs and ingenuity, were the produftions of
chance, and we do not exadlly know to whom we are
indebted for them *, but the fleam-engine was, in the
very beginning, the refult of refledtion, and the produc¬
tion of a very ingenious mind *, and every improvement
it has received, and every alteration in its conftrudtion
and principles, were alfo the refillts of philofophical
ftudy. _ 1
The fleam-engine was beyond all doubt invented by Steain-erji
the marquis of Worcefter during the reign of Charles II. I
This nobleman publilhed in 1663 a fmall book entitled ^.ar(Juis(
A Century of Inventions; giving fome obfiure and Worceftt;
enigmatical account of a hundred difcoveries or contri¬
vances of his own, which he extols as of great import¬
ance to the public. He appears to have been a perfon
of much knowledge and great ingenuity : but his de-
fcription or accounts of thefe inventions feem not fo
much intended to inftruct the public, as to raife won¬
der ; and his encomiums on their utility and import¬
ance
[ 648 ]
(b) We earneftly recommend this fubjeft to the confideration of the philofopher. The laws which regulate the
formation of elaftic vapour, or the general phenomena which it exhibits, give us that link which connects chemif-
try with mechanical philofophy. Here we fee chemical aflinities and mechanical forces fet in immediate oppofition
to each other, and the one made the indication, charadteriftic, and meafure of the other. We have not the leaft
doubt that they make but one fcienee, the Science of Univerfal Mechanics; nor do we defpair of feeing the phe¬
nomena of folution, precipitation, cryftallization, fermentation, nay animal and vegetable fecretion and affimilation,
fuccefsfully inveftigated, as cafes of local motion, and explained by the agency of central forces. ^ Some thing of
this kind, and that not inconfiderable, was done when Dr Cullen firft (bowed how the double affinities might be
illuftrated by the afliftance of numbers. Dr Black gave to this hint (for it was little more) that elegant precifion
which characterizes all his views. Mr Kinvan has greatly promoted this ftudy by his numerous and ingenious ex¬
amples of its application ; and the moft valuable paflages of the writings of Mr Lavoifier, are thofe where he traces
with logical precifion the balancings of force which appear In the chemical phenomena. It is from the fimilar
balancings and confequent meafurements, which may be obferved and obtained in the prefent cafe, that we are to
hope for admiflion into this almoft unbounded fcience of contemplation. We have another link equally interefting
■and promifing, viz. the production of heat by friClion. This alfo highly deferves the confide ration of the mathem*-
ifcical philofopher.
s T E l 649 ] S T E
Steam* ance are to a gt-eat degree extravagant, refembling more
, k*Zme- , the puff pf an advertifing tradefman than the patriotic
communications of a gentleman. I'he marquis of Wor-
ceffer was indeed a projector, and very importunate and
myfterious withal in his applications for public encou¬
ragement. His account, however, of the fteam-enginc,
although by no means fit to give us any diftinft notions
of its ftrufture and operation, is exa& as far as it goes,
agreeing precifely with what we now know of the fub-
jeiff. It is N° 68. of his inventions. His words are as
follow: “ This admirable method which I propole of
raifing water by the force of fire has no bounds if the
veffels be ftrong enough : for I have taken a cannon*
and having filled it three-fourths full of water, and {hut
up its muzzle and touch-hole, and expofed it to the fire
for 24 hours, it burft with a great expl'ofion. Having
afterwards difcovered a method of fortifying veffels in¬
ternally, and combined them in fuch a way that they
filled and afted alternately, I have made the water fpout
in an uninterrupted ftream 40 feet high 5 and one veffel
of rarefied water raifed 40 of cold water. The perfon
who conduced the operation had nothing to do but
turn two cocks j fo that one veffel of water being con-
fumed, another begins to force, and then to fill itfelf
j with cold water, and fo on in fucceffion.”
But firfl; re- It does not appear that the noble inventoncould ever
duced to intereff the public by thefe accounts. His character as
uracfticeby a p-ojefto^ anc[ the many failures which perfons of this
S-mry? turn'of mind daily experience, probably prejudiced peo¬
ple againft him, and prevented all attention to his pro-
jeffs. It w-as not till towards the end of the century,
when experimental philofophy was profeeuted all over
Europe with uncommon ardour, that thefe notions again
engaged attention. Captain Savary, a pe.rfon alfo of
great ingenuity and ardent mind, faw the reality and
practicability of the marquis of Worceiler’s projeCl. He
knew the great expanfive pou'er of {team, and had dif¬
covered the inconceivable rapidity with which it is re¬
converted into water by cold ; and he foon contrived a
machine for raifing crater, in which both of thefe pro¬
perties were employed. He fays, that it was entirely
his own invention. Dr Defaguiliers infifts that he only
copied the marquis’s invention, and Charges him with
grofs plagiarifm, and with having bought up and burned
the copies of the marquis’s book, in order to fecure the
honour of the difcovery to himfelf. This is a very griev¬
ous charge, and fhould have been fubftantiated by very
diftinCl evidence. Defaguiliers produces none filch ; and
he wras much too late to know what happened at that
time. The argument which he gives is a very foolifh
one, and gave him no title to confider Savary’s experi¬
ment as a falfehood ; for it might have happened pre¬
cifely as Savary relates, and not as it happened to De¬
faguiliers. The faft is, that Savary obtained his patent
of invention after a hearing of objections, among which
the difcovery of the marquis of Woreefter was not men¬
tioned : and it is certain that the account given in the
Century of Inventions could inltruCt no perfon who was
not fufficiently acquainted with the properties of fleam
2 to be able to invent the machine himfelf.
apinhas Captain Savary obtained his patent after having aElu-
1 claim to atlif erected feveral machines, of which he gave a de-
onasTh" fc'n"Pt*on in a book intitled The Miner’s Friend, pub-
rench pre-b^16^ in 1696, and in another work publifhed in 1699.
'nd. Much about this time Dr Papin, a Frenchman and fel-
V-QL. XIX. Part II.
low of the Royal Society, invented a method of diffolw- Steal¬
ing bones and other animal folids in water, by confining Eng«i«-
them in clofe veffels, which he called digesters, fo as 'r~m‘
to acquire a great degree of heat. For it mutt be ob-
ferved in this place, that it had been difcovered long
before (in 1684) by Dr Hooke, the molt inquifitive
experimental philofopher of that inquifitive age, that
water could not be made to acquire above a certain
temperature in the open air ; and that as foon as it be¬
gins to boil, its temperature remains fixed, and an in-
creafe of heat only produces a more violent ebullition,
and a more rapid wafte. Rut Papin’s experiments made
the elaftic power of fleam very familiar to him : and
when he left England and fettled as profeffor of mathe¬
matics at Marpurgh, he made many awkward attempts
to employ this io -ce in mechanics, and even for raifing
water. It appears that he had made experiments with
this view in 1698, by order of Charles, landgrave of
Heffe. For this reafon the French affect to confider
him as the inventor of the fleam-engine. He indeed
publithed fume account of his invention in 1707J but
he acknowledges that Captain Savary had alfo, and with¬
out any communication with him, invented the fame
thing. Whoever will take the trouble of looking at the
defeription which he has given of thefe inventions, which
are to be feen in the ABa Erudiiorum Lipfee, and in
Leopold’s Theatrum Machinarutn, will fee that they
are raoft awkward, abfurd, and impraclicable. His
conceptions of natural operations were always vague
and imperfeft, and he Was neither philofopher n.?r me¬
chanician.
We are thus anxious about the claim fcf thofe gentle¬
men, becaufe a moft refpe&able French author, Mr Bof-
fut, fays in his Hijdrodynamique, that the firft notion of
the fleam-engine was certahihj owing to Dr Papin, who
had not only invented the digefter, but had in 169 5 pub-
liflied a little performance deferibing a machine for raifc
ing water, in which the pifloris are moved by the vapour
of boiling water alternately dilated and condenfed. Now
the fad! is, that Papin’s firft publication was in 1707,
and his pifton is nothing more than a floater on the fur-
face of the water, to prevent the wafte of fleam by con-
denfation ; and the return of the pifton is not produced,
as in the fleam engirte, by the condenfation of the fleam',
but by admitting the air and a column of water to mefs
it back into its place. The whole contrivance is fo awk¬
ward, and fo unlike any dlftindl notions of the fubjedf,
that it cannot do credit to any perfon. W7e may add,
that much about the fame time Mr A montons contrived Vfr Amoa-
a very ingenious but intricate machine, which he call* d ton’s fire-
* fire-wheel. It confifted of a number of buckets placed Mieel.
in the circumference of a wheel, and communicatum
Avith each other by very intricate circuitous paffiges.
One part of this circumference was expofed to the heat
of a furnace, and another to a flream or ciftern of cold
water. The communications Were fo difpofed, that the
fleam produced in the buckets on one fide of the wheel
drove the Avater into buckets on the other fide, fo that
one fide of the Avheel AVas always much heavier than the
other •, and it muft therefore turn round, and may exe¬
cute feme AVofk. The death of the inventor, and the
intricacy of the machine, caufed it to be ne defied.
Another member of the Parifian academy of feiences
(Mr Deflandes) alfo prefented to the academy a projefl
of a fleam-wheel, where the impulfive force of theVa-
4 N pour
S T E [ 650 ] S T E
Steam- pour was employed ; but it met with no encouragement.
Engine, Englith engineers had by this time fo much im-
pr0Ved Savary’s firft invention that it fupplanted all
others. We have therefore no helitation in giving the
honour of the firft and complete invention to the mar¬
quis of Worcefter ; and we are not difpofed to refufe
Captain Savary’s claim to originality as to the conftruc-
tion of the machine, and even think it probable that
his own experiments made him fee the whole indepen¬
dent of the marquis’s account.
Captain Savary’s engine, as improved and Amplified
- by himfeif is as follows.
Captain Sa- * A (fig. 6.) reprefents a ftrong copper boiler proper-
vary’s \v built up in a furnace. There proceeds from its top
fteam-en- a' large fteam-pipe B, which enters into the top of ano-
feribed? t5ier ftrong veffel ft called tlie RECEIVER. This pipe
Fin-. 6.' has a cock at C called the steam cock. In the bot¬
tom of the receiver is a pipe F, which communicates
fidewife with the rifing pipe KGH. The lower end
H of this pipe is immerfed in the water of the pit or
well, and its upper part K opens into the ciftern into
which the water is to be delivered. Immediately be¬
low the pipe of communication F there is a valve G,
opening when prefled from below, and (hutting when
prefied" down wards. A fimilar valve is placed at I, im¬
mediately above the pipe of communication. Laftly,
there is a pipe ED which branches off from the rifing
pipe, and enters into the top of the receiver. This
pipe has a cock D called the injection-cock. The
mouth of the pipe ED has a nozzle /pierced with fmall
holes, pointing from a centre in every direftion. The
keys of the two cocks C and D are united, and the
handle g h is called the regulator.
Let the regulator be fo placed that the fteam-cock
C is open and the inje<ftion-cock D is (hut \ put ivater
into the boiler A, and make it boil ftrongly. The (team
•coming from it will enter the receiver, and gradually
warm it, much fleam being condenfed in producing this
effect. When it has been warmed fo as to condenfe no
more, the fleam proceeds into the rifing pipe ; the
valve G remains (hut by its weight ; the fleam lifts the
valve I, and gets into the rifing pipe, and gradually
warms it. When the workman feels this to be the cafe,
or hears the rattling of the valve I, he immediately turns
the fteam-cock fo as to (hut it, the injection-cock (fill
remaining (hut (at leaft we may fuppofe this for the
prefent). The apparatus muft now cool, and the fleam
in the receiver collapfes into water. There is nothing
now to balance the preffure of the atmofphere •, the
valve I remains (hut by its weight; but the air incum¬
bent on the water in the pit prefies up this water
through the finffion-pipe HG, and caufes it to lift the
valve G, and flow into the receiver R, and fill it to the
top, if not more than 20 or 25 feet above the furface of
the pit wrater.
The fleam cock is now opened. Thr fleam which,
during the cooling of the receiver, has been accumula¬
ting in the boiler, and acquiring a great elafticity by the
a£tion of the fire, now rufhes in with great violence, and,
prefling on the furface of the water in the receiver,
caufes it to (hut the valve G and open the valve I by
its weight alone, and it now (lows into the rifing pipe,
and would (land on a level if the elaflicity of the fleam
were no more than what would balance the atmofpherical
preffure. But it is much more than this, and therefore
I
it prejfes the water out of the receiver into the rifing Steam-
pipe, and will even caufe it to come out at K, if the
elafticity of the fleam is fufticiently great. In order to
enfure this, the boiler has another pipe in its top,
covered with a fafety-\a\ve V, which is kept down by
a weight W fufpended on a fteelyard LM. This weight
is fo adjufted that its preffure on the fafety-valve is fome-
what greater than the preffure of a column of water
V £ as high as the point of difeharge K. The fire is fo
regulated that the (team is always iffuing a little by the
the loaded valve V. The workman keeps the fleam-
valve open till he hears the valve I rattle. This tells him
that the ivater is all forced out of the receiver, and
that the fleam is now following it. He immediately
turns the regulator which turns the fleam-cock, and
now, for the firft time, opens the injedlion-cock. The
cold water trickles at firft through the holes of the noz¬
zle/ and falling down through the fleam, begins to
condenfe it •, and then its elaflicity being lefs than the
preffure of the water in the pipe KED/ the cold wa¬
ter fpouts in all direftiens through the nozzle, and*
quick as thought, produces a complete eondenfation-.
The valve G now opens again by the preffure of the
atmofphere on the water of the pit, and the receiver is
foon filled with cold water. The injeftion-cock is now
(hut, and the fteam-cock opened, and the whole opera¬
tion is now repeated ; and fo on continually.
This is the Ample account of the procefs, and will
ferve to give the reader an introduftory notion of the
operation •, but a more minute attention muft be paid
to many particulars before we can fee the properties and
defefts of this ingenious machine. ^
The water is driven along the rifing pipe by the Defe(fts of
elafticity of the fleam. This muft in the boiler, and this ma-
every part of the machine, exert a preffure on every chine fuch
fquare inch of the veffels equal to that of the upright
column of water. Suppofe. the water to be raifed ICO
feet, about 25 of this may be done in the fuftion-pipe j
that is, the upper part of the receiver may be about
25 feet above the furface of the pit-water. The re¬
maining 75 muft be done by forcing, and every fquare
inch of the boiler will be fqueezed out by a preffure of
more than 30 pounds. This very moderate height there¬
fore requires very ftrong veffels 5 and the marquis of
Worcefter was well aware of the danger of their burft-
ing. A copper boiler of fix feet diameter muft be nine-
tenths of an inch thick to be juft in equilibrio with
this preffure : and the foldered joint will not be able to
withftand it, efpecially in the high temperature to which
the water muft be heated in order to produce fleam of
fufficient elafticity. By confulting the table of the
elafticity of fleam deduced from our experiments men¬
tioned in the preceding article, we fee that this tem¬
perature muft be at leaft 280° of Fahrenheit’s thermo¬
meter. In this heat foft folder is juft ready to melt,
and has no tenacity •, even fpelter folder is eonfiderably
weakened by it. Accordingly, in a machine erefted
by Dr Defaguiliers, the workman having loaded the
fafety-valve a little more than ufual to make the engine
work more brifldy, the boiler burft with a dreadful ex-
plofion, and blew up the furnace and adjoining parts of
the building as if it had been gunpowder. Mr Savary
fuccecded pretty well in raifing moderate quantities
of water to fmall heights, but could make nothing of
deep mines. Many attempts were made, on the mar¬
quis’s
S T E
Steam- quis’s principle, to ftrengthen the veffels from within by
£ngllie- , radiated bars and by hoops, but in vain. Very imall
boilers or evaporators were then tried, kept red hot, or
nearly fo, and fupplied with a (lender dream of avater
trickling into them ; but this afforded no opportunity of
making a colletdion of deam during the refrigeration of
the receiver, fo as to have a magazine of (team in readi-
nefs for the next forcing operation ; and the working of
Inch machines was always an employment of great dan-
^ ger and anxiety.
that it can The only fituation in which this machine could be
he employ- employed with perfect fafety, and with fome effeit, was
edwith where the whole lift did not exceed 30 or 25 feet. In
ontyi^fer-tllis ca^e tlic grated part of it was performed by the
tain fitua- fu£tion-pipe, and a very manageable preffure was fuffi-
tions. cient for the red. Several machines of this kind were
erefted in England about the beginning of this cen¬
tury. A very large one was credit'd at a (alt-work in
the fouth of France. Here the water was to be raifed
no more than 18 feet. The receiver was capacious,
and it was oceafionally fupplied with (team from a fmall
falt-pan condrudted on purpofe with a cover. The
entry of the deam into the receiver merely allowed the
water to run out of it by a large valve, which was open¬
ed by the hand, and the condenfation was produced by
the help of a fmall forcing pump alfo worked by the hand.
In fo particular a lituation as this (and many fuch may
occur in the endlefs variety of human wants), this is a
very powerful engine j and having few moving and rub¬
bing parts, it mud be of great durability. This circum-
dance has occafioned much attention to be given to this
fird form of the engine, even long after it was fupplant-
ed by thofe of a much better condrudtion. A very in¬
genious attempt was made Very lately to adopt this con-
drudlion to the ufes of the miners. The whole depth
of the pit was divided into lifts of 15 feet, in the fame
manner as is frequently done in pump-machines. In
each of thefe was a fu6tion-pipe 14 feet long, having
above it a fmall receiver like R, about a foot high, and
its capacity fomewhat greater than that of the pipe.
This receiver had a valve at the head of the fuftion-
pipe, and another opening outwards into the little cif-
tern, into which the next fu£tion-pipe above dipped to
take in water. Each of tbefe receivers fent up a pipe
from its top, which all met in the cover of a large vef-
fel above ground, which was of double the capacity of
all the receivers and pipes. This veffel was clofe on all
(ides. Another veffel of equal capacity was placed im¬
mediately above it, with a pipe from its bottom palling
through the cover of the lower veffel and reaching near
to its bottom. This upper veffel communicates with
the boiler, and conditutes the receiver of the deam-en-
gine. The operation is as follows : The lower veffel
is full of water. Steam is admitted into the upper vef¬
fel, which expels the air by a valve, and fills the veffel.
It is then condenfed by cold water. - The preffure of
the atniofphere would caufe it to enter by all the fuc-
tion-pipes of the different lifts, and prefs on the furface
of the water in the lower receiver, and force it into the
upper one. But becaufe each fuddion-pipe dips in a
cidern of water, the air preffes this water before it,
raifes it into each of the little receivers which it fills,
and allows the fpring of the air (which was formerly
in them, but which now paffes up into the lower recei¬
ver) to force the water out of the lower receiver into the
S T E
upper one. When this has been completed, the deam is Ste?m-
again admitted into the upper receiver. This allows ,
the water to run back into the lower receiver, and the
air returns into the fmall receivers in the pit, and allows
the water to run out of each into its proper cidern.
By this means the water of each pipe has been raifed
15 feet. The operation may thus be repeated conti¬
nually.
The contrivance is ingenious, and firoilar to thofe
which are to be met with in the hydraulics of Schottus,
Sturmius, and other German writers. But the opera¬
tion mud be exceedingly (low 5 and we imagine that
the expence of deam mull be great, becaufe it mud fill
a vei-y large and very cold veffel, which mud wade a
great portion of it by condenfation. We fee by feme
late publications of the very ingenious Mr Blackey, that
he is dill attempting to maintain the reputation of this
machine by feme contrivances of this kind ; but w'e ima¬
gine that they will be ineffectual, except in fome very
particular fituations. «
For the great defeat of the machine, even when we Occafiorif'
can fecure it againd all rilk of burding, is the prodigi- great watte
ous wade of deam, and confequently of fuel. Daily ot
experience (bows, that a few feattered drops of cold wa-U'’
ter are fufficient for producing an aimed- indantaneous
condenfation of a great quantity of deam. Therefore
when the deam is admitted into the receiver of Savary’s
engine, and comes into contact with the cold top and
cold water, it is condenfed with great rapidity j and the
w'ater does not begin to fubfide till its furface has become
fo hot that it condenfes no more deam. It may now
begin to yield to the preffure of the incumbent fleam j
but as foon as it defeends a little, more of the cold fur¬
face of the receiver comes into contadl with the fleam,
and condenfes more of it, and the water can defeend no
farther till this addition of cold furface is heated up to
the (late of evaporation. This rapid condenfation goes
on all the while the water is defeending. By fome ex¬
periments frequently repeated by the writer of this arti¬
cle, it appears that no lefs than -i-^ths of the whole deam
is ufelefsly condenfed in this manner, and not more than
T??th is employed in allowing the Water to defeend by
its own weight; and he has reafon to think that the
portion thus waded will be condderably greater, if the
deam be employed to force the water out of the receiver
to any conliderable height.
Obferve, too, that all this wade mud be repeated in
every fucceeding droke ; for the whole receiver mud be
cooled again in order to fill itfelf with water. j>
Many attempts have been made to diminidi thisThe at'
wade •, but all to little purpofe, becaufe the very fill-
ing of the receiver with cold water occafions its fides diminifh
to condenfe a prodigious quantity of deam in the fuc- this wafte
ceeding droke. Mr Blackey has attempted to leffen unfuccef?-
this by ufing two receivers. In the fird was oil $ andflil*
into this only the deam was admitted. This oil paffed
to and fro between the two receivers, and never touch¬
ed the water except in a fmall furface. jBut this hardly
produced a fenfible diminution of the wade : for it mud
now be obferved, that there is a neceflity for the fird
cylinder’s being cooled to a confiderable degree below
the boiling point; otherwife, though it will condenfe
much deam, and allow the water to rife into the receiver,
there will be a great diminution of the height of fusion,
unlefs the veffel be much cooled. This appears plainly
4 N 2 by
[ 651 ]
it
Steam-
Entire
S T E [65
by InfpecHng tile table of elafticity. Tims, if the veflTel
be cooled no lower than 1800, we (hould lofe one half
' of the preffure of the atmofphere j if cooled to 120,
we fhould ftill lofe ^th. The infpeftion of this table
is of great ufe for underftanding and improving this
noble machine } and without a conftant recollection of
the elafticity of fleam correlponding to its aftual heat,
we (hall never have a notion of the niceties of its opera-
1© tion. . . .
Tli« afto- The rapidity with which the fleam is condenled is
mflim' ta~ reapy aftonifhing. Experiments have been made on
whichWith fteam-veffels of fix feet in diameter and feven feet high ;
fteam is and it has been found, that about four ounces of water,
condenfed. as warm as the human blood, will produce a complete
condenfation in lefs than a fecond} that is, will pro¬
duce all the condenfation that it is capable of producing,
leaving an elafticity about one-fifth of the elafticity of
the air. In another experiment with the fame fteam-
▼eflel, no cold water was allowed to get into it, but it
was made to communicate by a long pipe four inches in
diameter with another veffel imraerfed in cold water.
The condenfation was fo rapid that the time could not
be meafured 1 it certainly did not exceed half a fecond.
Now this condenfktion was performed by a very trifling
furface of contact. Perhaps we may. explain it a little
in this way : When a mafs of fleam, in immediate con-
ta£l with the cold water, is condenfed, it leaves a void,
into which the adjoining fleam inftantly expands ; and
by this very expanfion its capacity for heat is increafed,
or it grows cold, that is, abftra&s the heat from the
fleam fituated immediately beyond it. And in this ex¬
panfion and refrigeration it is itfelf partly condenfed or
converted into water, and leaves a void, into which the
circumjacent fleam immediately expands, and produces
the fame effefl on the (team beyond it. And thus it may
happen that the abftraaion of a fmall quantity of heat
from an inconfiderable mafs of fleam may produce a
condenfation which may be very extenfive. Did we
know the change made in the capacity of fleam for heat
by a given change of bulk, we {hould be able to tell ex¬
actly what would be the effefl of this local a£lual con¬
denfation. But experiment has not as yet given us any
precife notions on this fubjeft. We think that this ra¬
pid condenfation to a great diftance by a very moderate
a£tual abftra&ion of heat is a proof that the capacity of
fleam for heat is prodigioufly increafed by expanfion.
We fay a ven/ moderate a&ual abJlraEiion of heat, be-
eaufe very little heat is neceffary to raife four ounces of
blood-warm water to a boiling temperature, which will
unfit it for condenfing fleam. The remarkable phenome¬
non of fnow and ice produced in the Hungarian machine,
when the air condenfed in the receiver is allowed to
blow through the cock (fee Pneumatics), fhows thk
to be the cafe in moift air, that is-, in air holding water
in a ftate of chemical folution. We fee fomething very
like it in a thunder-ftorm. A fmall black cloud fome-
times appears in a particular fpot, and in a very few fe-
conds fpreads over many hundred acres of fky, that is,
a precipitation of water goes on with that rapid diffu-
fion. We imagine that this increafe of capacity or de-
2 ] s T E
mand for heat, and the condenfation that mull enfue if Steam,
this demand is not fupplied, is much more remarkable in , £n£ine-
pure watery vapours, and that this is a capital diflinftion v 1
of their conflitution from vapours diflolved in air (a).
The reader muft now be fo well acquainted with what
paffes in the fleam-veffel, and with the exterior refults
from it, as readily to comprehend the propriety of the
changes which we fliall now deferibe as having been
made in the conftru&ion and principle of the fleam engine. t x
Of all places in England the tin-mines of Cornwall Attempt
flood rnoft; in need of hydraulic afliftance 5 and Mr Sa-^^prov-
vary was much engaged in projects for draining them
by his fleam-engine. This made its conftru&ion and s
principles well known among the machinifls and engi¬
neers of that neighbourhood. Among thefe were a
Mr Newcomen, an ironmonger or blackfmith, and Mr
Cawley a glazier at Dartmouth in Devonfhire, who had
dabbled much with this machine. Newcomen was a
perfon of feme reading, and was in particular acquaint¬
ed with the perfon, writings, and projeils of his coun¬
tryman Dr Hooke. There are to be found among
Hooke’s papers, in the poffeflion of the Royal Society,
fome notes of obfervations, for the ufe of Newcomen his
countryman, on Papin’s boafted method of tranfmitting
to a great diftance the a6lion of a mill by means of pipes.
Papin’s project was to employ the mill to work two air-
pumps of great diameter. The cylinders of thefe pumps
were to communicate by means of pipes with equal cy¬
linders furnifhed with piftons, in the neighbourhood of
a diftant mine. Thefe piftons were to be connected,
by means of levers, with the piflon-rods of the mine.
Therefore, when the pifton of the air-pump at the mill
was drawn up by the mill, the correfponding pifton at
the fide of the mine would be preffed down by the at¬
mofphere, and thus would raife the pifton-rod in the
mine, and draw the water. It would appear from thefe
notes, that Dr Hooke had diffuaded Mr Newcomen
from erecting a machine off this principle, of which
he had expofed the fallacy in feveral difeourfes before
the Royal Society. One paffage is remarkable. “ Could
he (meaning Papin) make a fpeedy vacuum under your
fecond pifton, your work is done.”
It is highly probable that, in the courfe of this fpe-
culation, it occurred to Mr Newcomen that the va¬
cuum he fo much wanted might be produced by fleam,
and that this gave rife to his new principle and conflruc-
tion of the fleam-engine. The fpeeific defideratum was
in Newcomen’s mind j and therefore, when Savary’s en¬
gine appeared, and became known in his neighbourhood
many years after, he would readily catch at the help
which it promifed.
Savary, however, claims the invention as his own)
but Switzer, who was perfonally acquainted with both,
is pofitive that Newcomen was the inventor. By his
principles (as a Quaker) being averfe from contention,
he was contented to fhare the honour and the profits
with Savary, whofe acquaintance at court enabled him to
procure the patent in l iu which all the three weie
affociated. Poflerity has done juftice to the modeft in¬
ventor, and the machine is univerfally called Newco-
(a) But if it has been found that the condenfation requires more cold water than what is allowed above, and ifc
is fufpefted that the rapidity of condenfing a large volume of -fleam by the cold furface of a veffel is overrate
S T E [ 653 ] S T E
Steam- men’s ENGINE. Its principle and mode of operation
Engimv j^g cieariy conceived as follows.
n ^‘et A (%• 7*) rePrefent a great boiler properly
(efcription built in a furnace. At a fmall height above it is a
New- cylinder CBBC of metal, bored very truly and fmooth-
imen’s. \y% r£'iie boiler communicates with this cylinder by
^ means of the throat or fleam-pipe NQ^. The lower
aperture of this pipe is {hut by the plate N, which is
ground very flat, fo as to apply very accurately to the
whole circumference of the orifice. This plate is called
the regulator or fleam-cock, and it turns horizontally
round an axis b a which pafles through the top of the
boiler, and is nicely fitted to the focket, like the key of
a cock, by grinding. The upper end of this axis is fur-
nifhed with a handle b T.
A pifton P is fufpended in this cylinder, and made
air-tight by a packing of leather or foft rope, well filled
with tallow; and, for greater fecurity, a fmall quantity
of water is kept above the piflon. The piflon-rod PI3
is fufpended by a chain which is fixed to the upper ex¬
tremity F of the arched head FD of the great lever or
Working Beam HK, which turns on the gudgeon O.
There is a fimilar arched head EG at the other end of
the beam. To its upper extremity E is fixed a chain
carrying the pump-rod XL, which raifesthe water from
the mine. The load on this end of the beam is made
to exceed confiderably the weight of the pitlon P at the
other extremity.
At fome fmall height above the top of the cylinder is
a ciflern W, called the Injection Cistern. From
this defcends the Injection Pipe ZSR, which enters
the cylinder through its bottom, and terminates in a
fmall hole R, or fometimes in a nozzle pierced with
many fmaller holes diverging from a centre in all direc¬
tions. This pipe has at S a cock called the Injection
Cock, fitted with a handle V.
At the oppofite fide of the cylinder, a little above its
bottom, there is a lateral pfpe, turning upwards at the
extremity, and there covered by a clack-valve f called
the Snifting Valve, which has a little difh round it
to hold water for keeping it air-tight.
There proceeds alfo from the bottom of the cylinder
a pipe d eg h (paffing behind the boiler), of which the
lower end is turned upwards, and is covered with a valve
h. This part is immerfed in a ciflern of water Y, call¬
ed the Hot Well, and the pipe itfelf is called the
Eduction Pipe. Laflly, the boiler is furnifhed with
a fafety-valve called the Puppet Clack (which is not
reprefented in this fketch for want of room), in the fame
manner as Savary’s engine. This valve is generally
loaded with one or two pounds on the fquare inch, fo that
it allows the fleam to efcape when its elaflicity is one-
tenth greater than that of common air. Thus all rifk of
burfling the boiler is avoided, and the preflure outwards
is very moderate ; fo alfo is the heat. For, by infpeft-
ing the table of vaporous elaflicity, we fee that the heat
correfponding to 32 inches of elaflicity is only about
6° degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer.
Thefe are all the effential'parts of the engine, and are
here drawn in the moft Ample form, till our knowledge
of their particular offices fhall {how the propriety of the
peculiar forms which are given to them. Let us now
fee how the machine is put in motion, and what is the
mature of its work.
3- -
The water in the boiler being fuppofed to be in a Steanr-
ftate of ftrong ebullition, and the fleam ifluing by the, £ngine- t
fafety-valve, let us confider the machine in a ftate of ^
reft, having both the fleam-cock and injeftion cock How the
fhut. The refting pofition or attitude of the machine machine
muft be fuch as appears in fketch, the pump rods prepon-15 Pl.lt *n
derating, and the great pifton being drawn up to the top na
of the cylinder. Now open the fleam cock by turning ture of the
the handle T of the regulator. The fleam from the work,
boiler will immediately rufh in, and flying all over the
cylinder, will mix with the air. Much of it will be
condenfed by the cold furface of the cylinder and pifton,
and the water produced from it will trickle down the
fides, and run off by the edu6lion-pipe. This conden-
fation and wafte of fleam will continue till the whole
cylinder and pifton be made as hot as boiling water.
When this happens, the fleam will begin to open the
fnifting-valve f, and iffue through the pipe ; flowly at
firft and very cloudy, being mixed with much air. The
blaft aty* will grow ftronger by degrees, and more tranf-
parent, having already carried off the greateft part of
the common air which filled the cylinder. We fuppo¬
fed that the air was boiling brifkly, fo that the fleam
was iffuing by the fafety-valve which is in the top of
the boiler, and through every crevice. The opening of
the fleam-cock puts an end to this at once, and it has
fometimes happened that the cold cylinder abftra£ts ths
fleam from the boiler with fuch aftonifhing rapidity, that
the preffure of the atmofphere has burfl up the bottom
of the boiler. We may here mention an accident of
which we were witneffes, which alfo fhows the immenfe
rapidity of the condenfation. The boiler was in a frail
ffied at the fide of the engine-houfe ; a ffioot of fnow
from the top of the houfe fell down and broke through
the roof of the Hied, and was fcattered over the head of
the boiler, which was of an oblong or oval ffiape. In
an inftant the fides of it were fqueezed together by the
preffure of the atmofphere.
When the manager of the engine perceives that not
only the blaft at the fnifting valve is ftrong and fteady,
but that the boiler is now fully fupplied with fleam of
a proper ftrength, appearing by the renewal of the dif-
charge at the fafety-valve, he fliuts the fleam-cock, and
opens the inje£tion-cock S by turning its handle "V.
The preffure of the column of water in the injedion-
pipe ZS immediately forces fome water through the
fpout R. This coming in contad with the pure wa-
pour which now fills the cylinder, condenfes it, and thus
makes a partial void, into which the more diftant fleam
immediately expands, and by expanding collapfes (as has
been already obferved). What remains in the cylinder
no longer balances the atmofpherical preffure on the fur-
face of the water in the injedion ciftern, and therefore
the water fpouts rapidly through the hole R by the
joint adion of the column ZS, and the unbalanced pref¬
fure of the atmofphere *, at the fame time the fnifting*
valve f, and the edudion-valve //, are fhut by the unba¬
lanced preffure of the atmofphere. The velocity of the
injedion water muft therefore rapidly increafe, and the
jet will dafh (if Angle) againft the bottom of the pifton,
and be fcattered through the whole capacity of the cy¬
linder. In a very fliort fpace of time, therefore, the eon-
denfation of the fleam becomes univerfal, and the elafti-
city of what remains is almoft nothing. The whole
preffure
Steam-
Engine.
S T E [
mrelTure of the atmofphere is exerted in the upper fur-
face of the piiton, while there is hardly any on its under
fide. Therefore, if the load on the outer end E of the
working beam is inferior to this preffure, it mult yield
to it. The pifton P muft defcend, and the pump pilton
L mult afcend, bringing along with it the water of the
mine, and the motion muft continue till the great pifton
reaches the bottom of the cylinder for it js not like
the motion which would take place in a cylinder of air
rarefied to the fame degree. In this laft cafe, the im¬
pelling force would be continually diminifhed, becaule
the capacity of the cylinder is diminifhed by the defcent
of the pifton, and the air in it is continually becoming
more denfe and elaftic. i he pifton would flop at a cei-
tain height, where the elafticity of the included air, to¬
gether with the load at E, would balance the atmofphe-
rical preffure on the pifton. Put when the contents of
the cylinder are pure vapour, and the continued ftream
of injected cold water keeps down its temperature to
the fame pitch as at the beginning, the elafticity of the
remaining fleam can never increafe by the defcent of the
pifton, nor exceed what correfponds to this temperature.
The impelling or accelerating force therefore remains
the fame, and the defcent of the pifton will be uniform¬
ly accelerated, if there is not an increafe of refiftance
arifing from the nature of the work performed by the
other end of the beam. This circumftance will come
under confideration afterwards, and we need not attend
to it at prefent. It is enough for our prefent purpofe
to fee, that if the cylinder has been completely purged
of common air before the ft earn-cock was fliut, and if
none has entered fince, ttte pifton will defcend to the
very bottom of the cylinder. And this may be frequent¬
ly obferved in a good fteam-engine, where every part is
air-tight. It fometimes happens, by the pit-pump draw¬
ing air, or feme part of the communication between the
two drains giving way, that the pifton comes down wTith
fuch violence as to knock out the bottom of the cylin¬
der with the blow.
The only obfervation which remains to be made on
the motion of the pifton in defeending is, that it does
defcencTthe not begin at the inftant the injection is made. The
moment pifton was kept at the top by the preponderancy of the
outer end of the working beam, and it muft remain
there till the difference between the elafticity of the
fleam below it and the preffure of the atmofphere ex¬
ceeds this preponderancy. There muft therefore be a
fmall fpace of time between the beginning of the con-
denfation and the beginning of the motion. This is very
fmall, not exceeding the third or the fourth part of a
fecond; but it may be very diftin&ly obferved by an
attentive fpeftator. He will fee, that the inftant the
injeftion cock is opened, the cylinder will fenfibly rife
upwards a little by the preffure of the air on its bottom.
Its whole weight is not nearly equal to this preffure ;
and inftead of its being neceffary to fupport it by a ftrong
floor, we muft keep it down by ftrong joints loaded by
heavy walls. It is ufual to frame thefe joints into the
polls which carry the axis of the working-beam, and
are therefore loaded with the whole drain of the ma¬
chine. This rifing of the cylinder fhowTs the inftantane-
ous commencement of the condenfation ; and it is not
till after this has been diftin&ly obferved that the pifton
is feen to ftart, and begin to defcend.
When the manager fees the pifton as low as he thinks
14
The pifton
does not
begin to
the injec¬
tion is
made.
Steam. I
Engine
654 ] S T E
proper, he (huts the injeflion-cock, and opens the fleam-
cock. The fleam has been accumulating above the wa¬
ter in the boiler during the whole time of the pifton’s t
defeent, and is now rulhing violently through the pup-The or.
pet clack. The moment, therefore, that the fleam- ounftano
cock is opened, it rufties violently into the cylinder, ha-ft1111 ha¬
ving an elafticity greater than that of the air. It there-
fore immediately blows open the fnifting valve, and al-^ p^,,
lows (at leaft) the water which had come in by the for-
:5
mer injection, and what arofe from the condenfed fleam,,
to defcend by its own weight through the eduftion pipe
d eg h to open the valve //, and to run out into the hot
well. And we muft eafily fee that this water is boiling
hot; for while lying in the bottom of the cylinder, it
will condenfe fleam till it acquires this temperature, and
therefore cannot run down till it condenfes no more.
There is ftill a wafte of fleam at its firft admiflion, ia
order to beat the infide of the cylinder and the mjedled
water to the boiling temperature : but the fpace being
fmall, and the whole being already very warm, this is
very foon done ; and when things are properly eonftrue-
ted, little more fleam is wanted than what will warm
the cylinder ; for the edudlion pipe receives the injeftion
water even during the defcent of the pifton, and it is
therefore removed pretty much out of the way of the
fleam.
This firft puff of the entering fleam is of great fer- Effedts of
vice ; it drives out of the cylinder the vapour which itft>e M
finds there. This is feldom pure watery vapour: all en|
water contains a quantity of air in a ftate of chemical ^.eam
union. The union is but feeble, and a boiling heat is
fufficient for difengaging the greateft part of it by ift-
creafing its elafticity. It may alfo be difengaged by
fimply removing the external preffure of the atmofphere.
This is dearly feen when we expofe a glafs of water in
an exhaufled receiver. Therefore the fmall fpace below
the pifton contains watery vapour mixed with all the air
which had been difengaged from the water in the boilef
by ebullition, and all that was feparated from the in-
jeclion water by the diminution of external preffures.
All this is blown out of the cylinder by the firft puff of
fleam. We may obferve in this place, that waters dif¬
fer exceedingly in the quantity of air which they hold
in a ftate of folution. All fpritig water contains much
of it : and water newly brought up from deep mines
contains a great deal more, becaufe the folution was aid¬
ed in thefe fituations by great preffures. Such waters I?f
fparkle when poured into a glafs. It is therefore of of great
great confequence to the good performance of a fleam- conie- ^
engine to ufe water containing little air, both in the ^
boiler and in the injedion-ciftern. rIhe water of run-perforn,_
ning brooks is preferable to all others, and the freer itanceofa
is from any faline impregnation it generally contains fteam-en-
lefs air. Such engines as are fo unfortunately fituated
that they are obliged to employ the very water which eropj0ye(j
they have brought up from great depths, are found contain
greatly inferior in their performance to others. T. he little air-
air colle&ed below the pifton greatly diminifhes the ac¬
celerating force, and the expulfion of fuch a quantity
requires a long-continued blaft of the bell fleam at the
beginning of every ftroke. It is advifable to keep fuch
water in a large fhallow pond for a long while befoie
ufing it. . lS
Let us now confider the flate of the pifton. It wHowt
evident that it will ftart or begin to rife the momentpi«o»n '
the
3 T E [ 655 ] S T E
Iteam- the fteam'-cock is opened j for at that inftant the ex-
ngine- [ cefs of atmofpherical preffure, by ’which it was kept
lnr~J down in oppofition to the preponderancy of the outer
end of the beam, is diminifhed. The pilton is therefore
dragged upwards, and it will rife even although the
fteam which is admitted be not fo elaftic as common air.
Suppofe the mercury in the barometer to Hand at 30
inches, and that the preponderancy at the outer end of
the beam is -^th of the preffure of the air on the pifton,
the pifton will not rife if the elafticity of the fteam is not
equal to 30—3-^, that is, to 26.7 inches nearly ; but if
it is juft this quantity, the pifton will rife as fall as this
fteam can be fupplied through the fteam-pipe, and the
velocity of its afcent depends entirely on the velocity of
this fupply. This obfervation is of great importance ;
and it does not feem to have occurred to the mathema¬
ticians, who have paid moft attention to the mechanifm
of the motion of this engine. In the mean time, we
may clearly fee that the entry of the fteam depends
chiefly on the counter weight at E : for fuppofe there
Was none, fteam no ftronger than air would not enter
the cylinder at all; and if the fteam be ftronger, it will
enter only by the excefs of its ftrength. Writers on the
fteam-engine (and even fome of great reputation) fami¬
liarly fpeak of the fteam giving the pifton a pufh : But
this is fcarcely poflible. During the rife of the pifton
the fnifting valve is never obferved to blow 5 and we
have not heard any well-attefted accounts of the pifton-
chains ever being flackened by the upward preffure of
the fteam, even at the very beginning of the ftroke.
During the rifmg of the pifton the fteam is (according
to the common conception and manner of fpeaking)
fucked in, in the fame way that air is fucked into a com¬
mon fyringe or pump when we draw up the pifton ; for
in the fteam-engine the pifton is really drawn up by the
counter weight. But it is ftill more fucked in, and
requires a more copious fupply, for another reafon. As
the pifton defcended only in confequenee of the infide of
the cylinder’s being fufticiently cooled to condenfe the
fteam, this cooled furface muft again be prefented to
the fteam during the rife of the pifton, and muft con¬
denfe fteam a fecond time. The pifton cannot rife an¬
other inch till the part of the cylinder which the pifton
has already quitted has been warmed up to the boiling
point, and fteam muft be expended in this warming.
The inner furface of the cylinder is not only of the heat
of boiling water while the pifton rifes, but is alfo per¬
fectly dry j for the film of water left on it by the af-
cending pifton muft be completely evaporated, other-
wife it will be condenfing fteam. That the quantity
thus wafted is confiderable, appears by the experiments
of Mr Beighton. He found that five pints of water
were boiled off in a minute, and produced 16 ftrokes of
an engine whofe cylinder contained 113 gallons of 282
inches each j and he thence concluded that fteam was
2886 times rarer than water. But in no experiment
made with ferupulous care on the expanfion of boiling
water does it appear that the denfity of fteam exceeds
To ooo^1 den% water* Hefaguiliers fays that
it is above 14,000 times rarer than water. We have
frequently attempted to meafure the weight of fteam
which filled a very light veffel, which held 1 2,600 grains
of water, and found it always lefs than one grain ; fo
that we have no doubt of its being much more than
10,000 times rarer than water. This being the cafe, Stearn-
we may fafely fuppofe that the number of gallons of
fteam, inftead of being 16 times 113, were nearly five "v—“
times as much ; and that only fth was employed in al¬
lowing the pifton to rife, and the remaining -|ths were
employed to warm the cylinder. But no diftincl expe¬
riment fhews fo great an expanfion of water when con¬
verted into fteam at 2X2°. Mr Watt never found it
under the prelfure of the air more than 1800 times rarer
than water. ^
The moving force during the afcent of the pifton its afcent
muft be confidered as refulting chiefly, if not lolely, chiefly ow-
from the preponderating weight of the pit pifton-rods.‘nS t0 ^
The office of this is to return the fteam-pilton to the^1^
top of the cylinder, w here it may again be prelfed down ftorurods,
by the air, and make another working ftroke by raifing
the pump-rods. But the counter-weight at E has ano¬
ther fervice to perform in this ufe of the engine ; name¬
ly, to return the pump piftons into their places at the
bottom of their refpc£live working barrels, in order that
they alfo may make a working ftroke. This requires
force independent of the friftion and inertia of the mov~
ing parts; for each pifton muft be puffied down through
the water in the barrel, which muft rife through the
pifton with a velocity whofe proportion to the velocity
of the pifton is the fame with that of the bulk of the
pifton to the bulk of the perforation through which the
w'ater rifes through the pifton. It is enough at prefent
to mention this in general terms : we ffiall confider it
more particularly afterwards, when we come to calcu¬
late the performance of the engine, and to deduce from
our acquired knowledge maxims of conftruftion and im¬
provement. 20
From this general confideration of the afcent of the The afcent
pifton, we may fee that the motion differs greatly from the pi*
the defcent. It can hardly be fuppofed to accelerate,^011 |er&
even if the fteam in the cylinder w'ere in a moment an-
nihilated. For the refiftance to the defcent of the piftondefcent.
is the fame with the weight of the column of rvater,
which would caufe it to flow through the box of the
pump pifton with the velocity W'ith which it really rifes
through it, and muft therefore increafe as the fquare of
that velocity increafes ; that is, as the fquare of the ve¬
locity of the pifton increafes. Independent of fri&ion,
therefore, the velocity of defcent through the water
muft foon become a maximum, and the motion become
uniform. We ftiall fee by and by, that in fuch a pump
as is generally ufed this will happen in lefs than the
10th part of a fecond. The friflion of the pump will
diminiih this velocity a little, and retard the time of its
attaining uniformity. But, on the other hand, the fup¬
ply of fteam which is neeeffary for this motionj being
fufceptible of no acceleration. from its previous motion,
and depending entirely on the briiknels of the ebulli¬
tion, an almoft inftantaneous flop is put to accelera¬
tion.
Accordingly, any pcrfon who obferves with attention
the rvorking of a fteam-engine, wflll fee that the rife of
the pifton and defcent of the pump-rods is extremely
uniform, whereas-the working ftroke is very fenfibly ac-The co
celerated. Before quitting this part of the fubjeft, and ter-weigh*
left it ffiouid afterwards efcape our recollection, we mayis different
obferve, that the counter- weight is different during thetiunng the
two motions of the pump-rods. While the machine isj^s^f th
making a working ftroke, it is lifting not only the co-pump-rods?
lumn
‘‘Steam-
Eugin-s.
12
Difference
'between
SavaryN
and New¬
comen’s
•'machines.
Superiority
of New¬
comen’s.
s4
■^Gradually
improved
and limpii
■■fd.
S T E [
luinn of water in the pump, but the absolute weight of
the piftons and pifton-rods alfo : but ’while the pump-
rods are defcending, there is a diminution of the coun¬
ter-weight by the whole weight loft by the immerfion
of the rod in water. The wooden rods which are gene¬
rally ufed, foaked in water, and joined by iron ftraps,
are heavier, and but a little heavier, than water, and
they are generally about one-third of the bulk of the
wTater in the pumps.
Thefe two motions complete the period of the opera¬
tion ; and the whole may be repeated by (hutting the
fteam-cock and opening the xnjeftion-cock whenever the
pifton has attained the proper height. _ We have been
very minute in our attention to the different circum-
ftances, that the reader may have a diftindl notion of
the ft ate of the moving forces in every period of the
operation. It is by no means fufficient that we know
in general that the injeftion of cold water makes a void
which allows the air to prefs down the pifton, and that
the readraiflion of the (team allows the pifton to life
again. This lumping and flovenly way of viewing it
has long prevented even the philofopher from feeing the
defefts of the conftrmftion, and the methods of removing
them. # »
\Ve now fee the great difference between Savary s
and Newcomen’s engine in refpeft of principle. Sava-
ry’s was really an engine which railed water by the
force of fleam •, but Newcomen’s raifes water entirely by
the preffure of the atmofphere, and fleam is employed
merely as the moft expeditious method of producing a
void, into which the atmofpherical preffure may impel
the JlrJl mover of his machine. The elafticity of the
fleam is not the firft mover.
We fee alfo the great feperiority of this new machine.
We have no .need of fleam of great and dangerous ela¬
fticity ; and we operate by means of very moderate
heats, and confequently with much fmaller quantities of
fuel *, and there is no bounds to the power of this ma¬
chine. How deep foever a mine may be, a cylinder
may be employed of fuch dimenfions that the preflure of
the air on its pifton may exceed in any degree the weight
of the column of water to be raifed. And laftly, this
form of the machine renders it applicable to almoft
every mechanical purpofe •, becaufe a (kilful mechanic
can readily find a method of converting the reciprocat¬
ing motion of the working beam into a motion of any
kind which may fuit his purpofe. Savary’s engine could
hardly admit of fuch an immediate application, and feems
almoft reftrifled to railing water.
Inventions improve by degrees. This engine was
firft offered to the public in 1705. But many difficul¬
ties occurred in the execution, which were removed one
bv one ; and it was not till 1712 that the engine feem-
ed to give confidence in its efficacy. The moft exaft
and unremitting attention of the manager was required,
to the precife moment of opening and ftmtting the
cocks j and negleft might frequently be ruinous, by
beating out the bottom of the cylinder, or allowing the
pifton to be wholly drawn out of it. Stops were con¬
trived to prevent both of thefe accidents; then firings
were ufed to conneff the handles of the cocks with the
beam, fo that they fhould be turned whenever it was in
certain pofitions. Thefe were gradually changed and
improved into detents and catches of different fhapes •,
at laft, in 1717, Mr Beighton, a very ingenious and
656 ] . S. T E
well-informed artift, fimplified the whole of thefe fub-
ordinate movements, and brought the machine into
the form in which it has continued, without the fmall-
eft material change, to the prefent day. We fhall now
defcribe one of thefe improved engines, copying almoft
exaftly the drawings and defcription given by Boffut
in his Hydrodynamique; thefe being by far the moft
accurate and perfpicuous of any that have been pub-
lilhed.
Fig. 8. N° I. is a perfpeftive view of the boiler cy¬
linder, and all the parts neceffary for turning the cocks.
Fig. 8. N° 2. is a vertical fedlion of the fame 5 and the
fame pieces of both are marked with the fame letters of
reference.
The rod X of the pifton P is fufpended from the
arch of the working-beam, as was reprefented in the
preceding fketch (fig. 7.). An upright bar of timber
FG is alfo feen hanging by a chain. This is fufpended
from a concentric arch of the beam, as may be feen
alfo in the (ketch at <p The bar is called the plug-
beam; and it muft rife and fall with the pifton, but
with a flower motion. X he ufe of this plug-beam is
to give motion to the different pieces which turn the
cocks.
The fteam-pipe K is of one piece with the bottom
*of the cylinder, and rifes within it an inch or two, to
prevent any of the cold injection water from falling in¬
to the boiler. Idie lower extremity Z of the fteam-
pipe penetrates the head of the boiler, projetfting a
little way. A flat plate of brafs, in (hape refembling a
racket or battledore, called the regulator, applies itielf
exaflly to the whole circumference of the fteam-pipe,
and completely excludes the (team from the cylinder.
Being moveable round an upright axis, which is repre¬
fented by the dotted lines at the fide of the fteam-pipe
in the profile, it may be turned afide by the handle z,
N° 1. The profile (hows in the fe&ion of this plate a
protuberance in the middle. This refts on a ftrong
flat fpring, which is fixed below it athwart the mouth
of the fteam-pipe. This fpring preffes it ftrongly to¬
wards the fteam-pipe, caufmg it to apply very elofe j
and this knob Aides along the fpring, while the regula¬
tor turns to the right or left.
We have faid that the inje&ion-water is furnifhed
from a ciftern placed above the cylinder, vv hen the
cittern cannot be fupplied by pipes from feme more
elevated fource, its water is railed by the machine it-
felf. A fmall lifting pump ik (fig. 7.), called ihe jack-
head or jacquette, is worked by a rod y 1, iufpended from
a concentric arch t p near the outer end of the working
beam. X'his forces a fmall portion of the pit water
along the riling pipe 1 LM into the injedlion ciftern.
In fig. 8. N° x. and 2. the letters QM 3' reprefent
the pipe which brings down the water from the injtchon
ciftern. X'his pipe has a cock at R to open or (hut the
paffage of this water. It fpouts through the jet 3', and
dafliing againft the bottom of the piflon, it is dilperfed
into drops, and fcattered through the whole capacity of
the cylinder, fo as to produce a rapid condeni’ation of
the fleam.
An upright poft A may be obferved in the perfpec-
tive view of the cylinder, &c. X'his fupports one end
B of a horizontal iron axis BC. Xhe end C is uip-
ported by a iimilar poft, of which the place only is
marked by the dotted lines A, that the pieces connec-
Steam..1
Engine;
Defcrip.
tion of
Beightos'
It earn, er,
gine.
Plate
DIE
fig. S.
s T E [ 657 ] S T E
Steam- ted with this axis may not be hid by it. A kind of
Engine. ft;rrUp a b c d hangs from this axis, fupported by the
hooks a and d. This ftirrup is croffed near the bottom
by a round bolt or bar e, which pafles through the eyes
or rings that are at the ends of the horizontal fork hfg,
whofe long tail h is double, receiving between its
branches the handle 2 of the regulator. It is plain from
this conftruftion, that when the ftirrup is made to vi¬
brate round the horizontal axis BC, on which it hangs
freely by its hooks, the bolt e muft pull er pufh the
long fork hfg backwards and forwards horizontally,
and by fo doing will move the regulator round its axis
by means of the handle i. Both the tail of the fork and
\he handle of the regulator are pierced with feveral
holes, and a pin is put through them which unites them
by a joint. The motion of the handle may be increafed
or diminiftied by choofing for the joint a hole near to
the axis or remote from it ; and the exaft pofition at
which the regulator is to flop on both fides is determined
by pins ftuck in the horizontal bar on which the end of
the handle appears to reft.
This alternate motion of the regulator to the right
and left is produced as follows : There is fixed to the
axis BC a piece of iron o£/, called the Y, on account
of its refemblance to that letter of the alphabet invert¬
ed. The ftalk 0 carries a heavy lump/? of lead or iron j
and a long leather ftrap q p r is faftened to p by the
middle, and the two ends are faftened to the beam above
it, in fuch a manner that the lump may be alternately
catched and held up to the right and left of the per¬
pendicular. By adjufting the length of the two parts
of the ftrap, the Y may be flopped in any defired
pofition. The two claws k and / fpread out from each
other, and from the line of the ftalk, and they are of
fuch length as to reach the horizontal bolt e, which
crofies the ftirrup below, but not to reach the bottom
of the fork hfg. Now fuppofe the ftirrup hanging
perpendicularly, and the ftalk of the Y alfo held perpen¬
dicular ; carry it a little outward from the cylinder,
and then let it go. It will tumble farther out by its
weight, without affe&ing the ftirrup till the claw /
ftrikes on the horizontal bolt e, and then it pufhes the
ftirrup and the fork towards the cylinder, and opens
the regulator. It fets it in motion with a fmart jerk,
which is an effedtual way of overcoming the cohefion
and fri&ion of the regulator with the mouth of the
fleam-pipe. This pufh is adjufted to a proper length
by the ftrap q p, which flops the Y when it has gone
far enough. If we now take hold of the ftalk of the
Y, and move it up to the perpendicular, the width be¬
tween its claws is fuch as to permit this motion, and
fomething more, without affe&ing the ftirrup. But
when pufhed ftill nearer to the cylinder, it tumbles to¬
wards it by its own weight, and then the claw k ftrikes
the bolt e, and drives the ftirrup and fork in the oppo-
fite direftion, till the lump/? is catched by the ftrap r/?,
now ftretched to its full length, while q p hangs flack.
Thus by the motion of the Y the regulator is opened
and (hut. Let us now fee how the motion of the Y
is produced by the machine itfelf. To the horizontal
axis BC are attached two fpanners or handles m and n.
The fpanner m pafles through a long flit in the plug-
beam, and is at liberty to move upwards or down¬
wards by its motion round the axis BC. A pin x
which goes through the plug-beam catches hold of m
Vol. XIX. Part II,
when the beam rifes along with the pifton ; and the pin
is fo placed, that when the beam is within an inch or two
of its higheft rife, the pin has lifted m and thrown the
ftalk of the Y paft the perpendicular. It therefore
tumbles over with great force, and gives a fmart blow
to the fork, and immediately {huts the regulator. By
this motion the fpanner vi is removed out of the neigh¬
bourhood of the plug-beam. But the fpanner 2/, mo¬
ving along Avith it in the fame diredlion, noAV comes in¬
to the way of the pins of the plug-beam. Therefore,
when the pifton defcends again by the condenfation of
the fleam in the cylinder, a pin marked <b' in the fide of
the plug-beam catches hold of the tail of the fpan¬
ner «, and by prefling it down raifes the lump on the
ftalk of the Y till it pafles the perpendicular, and it
then falls down, outwards from the cylinder, and the
claw / again drives the fork in the diretf ion h i, and
opens the fleam valve. This opening and fhutting of
the fleam valve is executed in the precife moment that
is proper, by placing the pins x and (hr at a proper
height of the plug-beam. For this reafon, it is pierced,
through with a great number of holes, that the places
of thefe pins may be varied at pleafure. This, and a
proper curvature of the fpanners m and n, make the ad-
juft ment as nice as we pleafe.
1 he injedlion-cock B is managed in a fimilar man¬
ner. On its key may be obfeiwed a forked arm s t,
like a crab’s claw 5 at a little diftance above it is the
gudgeon or axis ^ of a piece y u %y called the hammer
or the F, from its refemblance to that letter. It has
a lump of metal y at one end, and a fpear as projedts
from its middle, and pafles betAveen the claws s and t
of the arm of the injedlion-coek. The hammer y is
held up by a notch in the under fide of a Avooden le\'er
BE, moveable round the centre B, and fupported at
a proper height by a firing r E, made faft to the joift
above it.
Suppofe the injedlion-cock fhut, and the hammer in
the pofition reprefented in the figure. A pin /3 of
the plug-frame rifes along with the pifton, and catch¬
ing hold of the detent BE, raifes it, and difengages
the hammer y from its notch. This immediately falls
down, and ftrikes a board L put in the Avay to flop it.
The fpear u s takes hold of the claw /, and forces it
afide towards x, and opens the inje6lion-cock. The
pifton immediately defcends, and along Avith it the
plug-frame. Bering its defcent the pin /3 meets Avith
the tail a z of the hammer, which is now railed confi-
derably above the level, and brings it doAvn along with
it, railing the lump y, and gradually Ihutting the injec¬
tion-cock, becaufe the fpear takes hold of the claAv j- of
its arm. When the beam has come to its loAveft fituation,
the hammer is again engaged in the notch of the detent
BE, and fupported by it till the pifton again reaches the
top of the cylinder.
In this manner the motions of the inje&ion-cock are
alfo adjufted to the precife moment that is proper for
them. The different pins are fo jjlaced in the plug-
frame, that the fleam-cock may be completely flint be¬
fore the inje£Hon-cock is opened. The inherent mo¬
tion of the machine Avill give a fmall addition to the
afcent of the pifton Avithout expending fleam all the
while ; and by leaving the fleam rather lefs elaftic than
before, the fubfequent defcent of the pifton is promoted.
There was a confiderable propriety in the gradual fhut-
Steam-
Engine.
—7—*
Steam-
Engine.
S T E [ 658 ] STB
tin^j of the inje6fion-cock. For after the firft dafli of
the cold water again!! the bottom o! the pifton, the con-
denfation is nearly complete, and very little more wa¬
ter is needed *, but a continual acceflion of fome is ab-
folutely neceffary for completing the condenfation, as
the capacity of the cylinder diminifties, and the water
warms which is already injected.
In this manner the motion of the machine will be
repeated as long as there is a fupply of fteam from the
boiler, and of water from the injedtion ciftern, and a
difeharge procured for what has been injedled. We pro¬
ceed to confider how far thefe conditions alfo are provi¬
ded by the machine itfelf.
T he in edlion ciftern is fupplied with water by the
jack head pump, as we have already obferved. From
this fource all the parts of the machine receive their re-
fpedlive fupplies. In the firft place, a fmall branch
13, 13, is taken off from the injedlion pipe immediately
below the ciftern, and condudled to the top of the cy¬
linder, where it is furniftied with a cock. 1 he fpout is
fo adjufted, that no more runs from it than what will
keep a conftant fupply of a foot of water above the pi¬
fton to keep it tight. Every time the pifton comes to
the top of the cylinder, it brings this water along with
it, and the furplus of its evaporation and leakage runs
off by a wafte pipe 14, 14. This water neceffarily be¬
comes aim oft boiling hot, and it was thought proper to
employ its overplus for fupplying the wafte of the boil¬
er. This was accordingly pradlifed for fome time.
But Mr Beighton improved this economical thought,
by fupplying the boiler from the edudlion-pipe, 2, 2,
the water of which muft be ftill hotter than that above
the pifton. This contrivance required attention to ma¬
ny circumftances, which the reader will underftand by
confidering the perfpedtive and profile. T he edudlion-
pipe comes out of the bottom of the cylinder at 1 with
a perpendicular part, which bends fidewife below, and
is (hut at the extremity i. A deep cup 5 communi¬
cates with it, holding a metal valve nicely fitted to
it by grinding, like the key of a cock. To fecure its
being always air-tight, a flender ftream of water trickles
into it from a branch 6 of the wafte-pipe from the top
of the cylinder. The edudlion-pipe branches off at 2,
and goes down to the hot well, where it turns up, and
is covered with a valve. In the perfpedfive view may be
obferved an upright pipe 4, 4, which goes through the
head of the boiler, and reaches to within a few inches
of its bottom. This pipe is called the feeder, and rifes
about three or four feet above the boiler. It is open
at both ends, and has a branch 3, 3, communicating
with the bottom of the cup 5, immediately above the
metal valve, and alfo a few inches below the level of
the entry 2 of the edudlion-pipe. This communicating
branch has a cock by which its paffage may be dimi-
nifhed at pleafure. Now fuppofe the fteam in the boil¬
er to be very ftrong, it will caufe the boiling water
to rife in the feeding-pipe above 3, and coming along
this branch, to rife alfo in the cup and run over.
Bnt the height of this cup above the furface of the wa¬
ter in the boiler is fuch, that the fteam is never ftrong
enough to produce this effedt. Therefore, on the con¬
trary, any water that may be in the cup 5 will run off
by the branch 3, 3, and go down into the boiler by the
feeding-pipe.
Thefe things being underftoodj let us fuppofe a
quantity of injedled water lying at the bottom of the Stem.
cylinder. It will run into the edudlion-pipe, fill the "ngir-e. 'I
crooked branch j, 1, and open the valve in the bottom j
of the cup (its weight being fupported by a wire hang- An irige- j
ing from a flender fpring), and it will fill the cup to the niouscon. 11
level of the entry 2 of the edudlion pipe, and will then trivari»e'
flow along 3, 3, and fupply the boiler by the feeder 4, 4.
What more water runs in at 1 will nowr go along tha
edudlion-pipe 2, 2, to the hot well. By properly adjuft-
ing the cock on the branch 3, 3, the boiler may be {up-
plied as fatl as the wafte in fteam requires. 'This is a
moft ingenious contrivance, and does great honour to
Mr Beighton. It is not, however, oi much impor¬
tance. The fmall quantity which the boiler requires
may be immediately taken even from a cold ciftern,
without fenfibly diminiftiing the produdlion of fteam :
for the quantity of heat neceffary for railing the fenfible
heat of cold water to the boiling temperature is fmall,
when compared with the quantity of heat which muft
then be combined with it in order to convert the water
into fteam. For the heat expended in boiling off a
cubic foot of water is about fix times as much as would *
bring it to a boiling heat from the temperature of 550,
No difference can be obferved in the performance of
fuch engines, and of thofe which have their boilers fup¬
plied from a brook. It has, however, the advantage of
being purged of air ; and when an engine muft derive
all its fupplies from pit water, the water from the educ¬
tion-pipe is vaftly preferable to that from the top of the
cylinder. \
We may here obferve, that many writers (among
them the Abbe Boffut), in their deferiptions of the
fteam engine, have drawn the branch of communication
3, 3, from the feeding-pipe to a part of the crooked pipe
1,1, lying below the valve in the cup 5. But this is
quite erroneous •, for, in this cafe, when the injedlion is
made into the cylinder, and a vacuum produced, the wa¬
ter from the boiler would immediately rulh up through
the pipes 4, 3, and fpout up into the cylinder : fo would
the external air coming in at the top of the feeder. 2g
This contrivance has alfo enabled us to form fome Which en-
judgment of the internal ftate of the engine during the ablcs^is to
performance. Mr Beighton paid a minute attention tof0!,nl^“®
the fituation of the water in the feeders and edudlion-jR_
pipe of an engine, which feems to have been one of the ternal ftate
bell which has yet been eredled. It was lifting a co- en;
lumn of water whofe weight was four-fevenths of the e^nn**
preffure of the air on its pifton, and made 16 ftrokes, of formancei
fix feet each, in a minute. This is acknowledged by all
to be a very great performance of an engine of this form.
He concluded that the elafticity of the fteam in the cy¬
linder was never more than one-tenth greater or lefs
than the elafticity of the air. The water in the feeder
never rofe more than three feet and a half above the fur-
face of the boiling water, even though it was now lighter
by -5TTth than cold water. The edudlion pipe was only
four feet and a half long (vertically), and yet it always
difeharged the injedlion water completely, and allowed
fome to pafs into the feeder. T his could not be if the
fteam was much more than one-tenth weaker than air.
By grafping this pipe in his hand during the rife of the
pifton, he could guefs very well whereabouts the furface
of the hot water in it relied during the motion, and he
never found it fupported fo high as four feet. There-
fqxe the fteam in the cylinder had at leaft eight-ninths
of
Steam-
Endne.
'S T
of the elafticity of the air.
tion of an engine which is erefted at Montrelaix, in
' France, by an Englith engineer, and has always been
confidered as the pattern in that country, finds it necef-
fary to fuppofe a much greater variation in the ftrength
of the fleam, and fays, that it mult have been one-fifth
flronger and one-fifth weaker than common air. But
this engine has not been nearly fo perfedt. Its lift was
not more than one-half the preffure of the atmofphere,
and it made but nine ftrokes in a minute.—At W is a
Valve covering the mouth of a fmall pipe, and furround-
ed with a cup containing water to keep it air-tight. This
allows the air to efcape which had been extricated from
the water of laft injection. It is driven out by the firfl
ftrong puff of fleam which is admitted into the cylinder,
and makes a noife in its exit. The valve is therefore
called the fnifting-valve.
To finifti our defcription, we obferve, that befides the
fafety valve 9 (called the puppet clack), which is
loaded with about 3 pounds on the fqnare inch (though
the engine will work very well with a load of x or 2
pounds), there is another discharger 10,10, having a
clack at its extremity fupported by a cord. Its ufe is
to difcharge the fleam without doors, when the ma¬
chine gives over working. There is alfo a pipe SI near
the bottom of the boiler, by which it may be emptied
when it needs repairs or cleanfing.
There are two fmall pipes n,ir, and 12,12, with
cocks called gage pipes. The firfl: defcends to within
txvo inches of the furface of the water in the boiler, and
the fecond goes about 2 inches below that furface. If
both cocks emit fleam, the water is too low, and re¬
quires a recruit. If neither give fleam, it is too high,
and there is not fufficient room above it for a colle&ion
of fleam. Laitly, there is a filling pipe by which
the boiler may be filled when the machine is to be fet
to work.
Ins form of The engine has continued in this form for many years,
e engine The only remarkable change introduced has been the
manner of placing the boiler. It is no longer placed
below the cylinder, but at one fide, and the fleam is
introduced by a pipe from the top of the boiler into a
SteaBi
Engine.
29
5 been
ntinued
: many
ars, the
fition of
e boiler.
ly change flat box immediately below the cylinder. The ufe of
mg the this box is merely to lodge the regulator, and give room
for its motions. This has been a very confiderable im¬
provement. It has greatly reduced the height of the
building. This was formerly a tower. The wall which
fupported the beam could hardly be built with fufficient
ftrength for withftanding the violent Ihocks which were
repeated without ceafing *, and the buildings feldom
lafted more than a very few years. But the boiler is
now fet up in an adjoining (bed, and the gudgeons of
the main beam reft on the top of upright polls, which
are framed into the joifts which fupport the cylinder.
Thus the whole moving parts of the machine are con¬
tained in one compact frame of carpentry, and have lit¬
tle or no connexion with the flight walls of the build¬
ing, which is merely a cafe to hold the machine, and
proteft it from the weather.
It is now time to inquire what is to be expefled from
this machine, and to afcertain the moft advantageous
proportion between the moving power and the load that
is to be laid on the machine.
It may be confidered as a great pulley, and is indeed
33
>w to
ertain
3 moft
vantage-
spropor-
n be-
een the
iving
: ■ver and
l: load.
E r 659 ] S T E
Mr Buat, in his examina- fometimes fo conftru&ed, the arches at the ends of the
working beam being completed to a circle. It muft be
unequally loaded that it may move. It is loaded, during
the working ftroke, by the prtffure of the atmofphere
on the pifton fide, and by the column of water to be
raifed and the pump-gear 'on the pump fide.—During
the returning ftroke it is loaded, on the pifton fide, by a
fmall part of the atmofpheric preffure, and on the pump
fide by the pump-gear adling as a counter weight. 1 he
load during the working ftroke muft therefore confift of
the column of water to be raifed and this counter weight.
1 he performance of the machine is to be meafured only
by the quantity of water raifed in a given time to a given
height. It varies, therefore, in the joint proportion of
the weight of the column of water in the pumps, and
the number of ftrokes made by the machine in a minute.
Each ftroke confifts of two parts, which we have called
the working and the returning ftroke. It does not,
therefore, depend Amply on the velocity of the working
ftroke and the quantity of water raifed by it. If this
were all that is to be attended to, we know that the’
weight of the column of water ftrould be nearly |fths of
the preffure of the atmofphere, this being the proportion
which gives the maximum in the common pulley. But,
the time of the returning ftroke is a neceffary part of the
whole time elapfed, and therefore the velocity of the re¬
turning ftroke equally merits attention. This is regu¬
lated by the counter weight. The number of ftrokes
per minute does not give an immediate proof of the
goodnefs of the engine. A fmall load of water and a
great counter weight will enfure this, becaufe thefe con¬
ditions will produce a brilk motion in both directions.—
The proper adjuftment of the preffure of the atmofphere
on the pifton, the column of water to be raifed, and
the counter weight, is a problem of very great difficul¬
ty j and mathematicians have not turned much of their
attention to the fubjeCt, although it is certainly the
moft interefling queftion that practical mechanics affords
them.
Mr Boffut has folved it very ffiortly and fimply, upon Mr Bofiut's
this fuppofition, that the working and returning ftroke lo^ut^on»
ffiould be made in equal times. This, indeed, is gene¬
rally aimed at in the ereCtion of thefe machines, and they
are not reckoned to be well arranged if it be otherwife.
We doubt of the propriety of the maxim. Suppofing,
however, this condition for the prefent, we may com¬
pute the loadings of the two ends of the beam as fol¬
lows. Let a be the length of the inner arm of the work¬
ing beam, or that by which the great pifton is fupported.
Let b be the outer arm carrying the pump rods, and let
W be a weight equivalent to all the load which is laid
on the machine. Let c1 be the area of the pifton ; let
H be the height of a column of water having c* for its
bafe, and being equal in weight to the preffure exerted
by the fleam on the under fide of the pifton ; and let h
be the preffure of the atmofphere on the fame area, or
the height of a column of water of equal weight. It is
evident that both ftrokes will be performed in equal
times, if h c* a—W b be equal to (^—H) c1 a-f-W
The firft of thefe quantities is the energy of the machine
during the working ftroke, and the fecond expreffes the
fimilar energy during the returning ftroke. This equa-
2hc*a—He* a  (2//—H) c* a
3r
tion gives us W= •
4 O 2
2b
2b
If
we
32
founded on
an errone-
S T E [
we fuppofe the arms of the lever eefual and we
^1 h
have W—c1— j that is, the whole weight of the outer
2- .
end of the beam fliould be half the preffure of the air
on the great pifton. This is nearly the ufual prabtice ;
and the engineers exprefs it by faying, that the engine
is loaded with feven or eight pounds on the fquare inch.
This has been found to be nearly the moft advantageous
load. This way of expreffing the matter would do well
enough, if the maxim were not founded on erroneous
ous maxim, noti0ns, which hinder us from feeing the date of the
machine, and the circumftances on which its improve¬
ment depends. The pifton bears a preflure of 15 pounds,
it is faid, on the fquare inch, if the vacuum below it be
perfect •, but as this is far from being the cafe, we muft
not load it above the power of its vacuum, which very
little exceeds eight pounds. But this is very far from
the truth. When the cylinder is tight, the vacuum is
not more than -^th deficient, when the cylinder is cool¬
ed by the injedtion to the degree that is every day prac¬
ticable, and the pifton really bears during its defcent a
preflure very nfar to 14 pounds on the inch. The load
muft be diminifhed, not on account of the imperfedl va¬
cuum, but to give the machine a reafonable motion.
We muft confider not only the moving force, but alfo
the quantity of matter to be put in motion. This is fo
great in the fteam-engine, that even if it were balanced,
that is, if there were fufpended on the pifton arm a
weight equal to the whole column of water and the
counter weight, the full preflure of the atmofphere on
the fteam pifton would not make it move twice as faft
as it does.
This equation by Mr Boflut is moreover eflentially
faulty in another refpedl. The W in the firft member
is not the fame-with the W in the fecond. In the firft
it is the column of water to be raifed, together with the
counter weight. In the fecond it is the counter weight
only. Nor is the quantity H the fame in both cafes, as
is moft evident. The proper equation for enfuring the
equal duration of the two ftrokes may be had in the fol¬
lowing manner. Let it be determined by experiment
what portion of the atmofpheric preflure is exerted on
the great piflon during its defcent. This depends on
the remaining elafticity of the fteam. Suppofe it T^ths:
this we may exprefs by a a being =rT^-ths. Let it
alfo be determined by experiment what portion of the
atmofpheric preflure on the pifton remains unbalanced
by the fteam below it during its afeent. Suppofe this
-j%th, we may exprefs this by b h. Then let W be the
weight of the column of water to be raifed, and c the
counter weight. Then, if the arms of the beam are
equal, we have the energy during the working ftroke
—ah—W—c, and during the returning ftroke it is
~c—bh. Therefore <7—b h^za h—W—c; and c~
——5 which, on the above fuppofition of
33
and laul-
ty in an¬
other re-
fpe<ft.
the values of a and b, gives us err
//—W
We lhall
make fome ufe of this equation afterwards *, but it af¬
fords us no information concerning the mod; advan¬
tageous proportion of //and W, which is the material
point.
way of con- We muft confider this matter in another way : And
fidermg the -we may not involve ourfelves in unneceifary diffi-
malter. ^
34
Another
Steam-
Engine,
3S
660 ] S T E
e culties, let us make the cafe as Ample as poffible, and
fuppofe the arms of the working-beam to be of equal
length.
We ftiall firft confider the adjuftment of things at the
outer end of the beam.
Since the foie ufe of the fteam is to give room for the Adjuft-
a ft ion of the atmofpheric preflure by its rapid conden- ment of
Ability, it is admitted into the cylinder only to allow ^''^s at
the pifton to rife again, but without giving it any im- end
pulfe. The pump-rods muft therefore be returned to beam con
the bottom of the working barrels, by means of a pre- fidered.
ponderancy at the outer end of the beam. It may be
the weight of the pump-rods themfelves, or may be con-
fidered as making part of this weight. A weight at
the end of the beam will not operate on the rods which
are fufpended there by chains, and it muft therefore bo
attached to the rods themfelves, but above their refpec-
tive pump-barrels, fo that it may not lofe part of its
efficacy by immerfion in the water. We may confider
the whole under the notion of the pump-gear, and call
it p. Its office is to deprefs the pump-rods with fuffi-
cient velocity, by overcoming the refiftances arifing from
the following caufes.
1. From the inertia of the beams and all the part* of
the apparatus which are in motion during the defcent
of the pump-rods.
2. From the l®fs of weight fuftained by the immer¬
fion of the pump-rods in water.
3. From the friftion of all the piftons and the weight
of the plug-frame.
4. From the refiftance to the pifton’s motion, arifing
from the velocity which muft be generated in the water
in paffing through the defeending piftons.
The fum of all thefe refiftances is equal to the pref¬
fure of fome weight (as yet unknown), which we may
call m.
When the pump-rods are brought up again, they bring
along with them a column of water, whofe weight we
may call w.
It is evident that the load which muft be overcome
by the preflure of the atmofphere on the fteani pifton
confifts of w and p. Let this load be called L, and the
preflure of the air be called P.
If jo be zr L, no water will be raifed •, if jo be r= 0,
the rods will not defeend : therefore there is fome in¬
termediate value of jo which will produce the greateft
effe£I.
In order to difeover this, let g be the fall of a heavy
body in a fecond.
The defeending mafs is p : but it does not defeend
with its full weight \ becaufe it is overcoming a fet of
refiftances which are equivalent to a weight m, and the
moving force is p—m. In order to difeover the fpace
through which the rods will defeend in a fecond, when
urged by the force jo—m (fuppofed conftant, notwith-
ftanding the increafe of velocity, and confequently of
w), wTe muft inftitute this proportion p : p—m—g :
gjP—™)
P
The fourth term of this analogy is the fpace re¬
quired.
Let t be the whole time of the defcent in feconds.
m) _ t*g(p r/i)
Then i*
P
P
This laft term
JStcam-
Jingine.
fc -
may
S T E [
is the -whole defcent or length of the ftroke accomplilh-
ed in the time t.
The weight of the column of water, which has now
got above the pifton, is xu, == L—p. This muft be
lifted in the next working ftroke through the fpace
, Therefore the performance of the engine
P
raull be
p
That this may be the greatell pofllble, we muft con-
fider p as the variable quantity, and make the fluxion of
661 ] S T E
force L+y, it would acquire a certain velocity-) which
we may exprefs by s ; but it is impelled only by the
force y, the reft of P being employed in balancing L.
The velocities which different forces generate by impel¬
ling a body along the fame fpace are as the fquare roots
of the forces. Therefore n/T -\-y -W y = s -
J The fourth term of this analogy expreffes
lhe fraaiont=2i*i=^
Then m = j~.
Jut
weight of the column
J35
Vnt pro-
pi'<ion of
nj:ing
bl'pplied
t<jhe
gVtcit ad-
vfage.
P
This will be found to give us p—sf 5 that is,
the counter weight or preponderancy of the outer end
of the beam is —kJL m.
This gives us a method of determining m experimen¬
tally. We can difcover by a&ual meafurement the
quantity L in any engine, it being equal to the un¬
balanced weights on the beam and the weight of the
water in the pumps.
Alfo we have the weight of the column of water
L—y, “ L—L m.
When therefore we have determined the load which
is to be on the outer end of the beam during the work,
ing ftroke, it muft be diftributed into two parts, which
have the proportion of Lm to L—Lm. The firft
is the counter weight, and the fecond is the weight of
the column of water.
If m is a fradlion of L, fuch as an aliquot part of it ;
that is, if
L L L L L
—, —, —, -7, —, &c.
14 9 ’ 16 25’
L L L L L
P — —, 1 , , 5 ~J &-C.
I ’ 2 ’ 3 ’ 4 5 ’
The circumftance which is commonly obtruded on
us by local confiderations is the quantity of water, and
the depth from which it is to be railed ; that is, w: and
it will be convenient to determine every thing in con¬
formity to this.
We faw that ii;rrL — sjLm. This gives us Lrz:
, / . *
  / nP m
T — tj wmA 1 .
4 2.
Having thus afcertained that diftribution of the load
on the outer end of the beam which produces the great-
eft effeft, we come now to confider what proportion of
moving force we muft apply, fo that it may be employ¬
ed to the beft advantage, or fo that any expence of
power may produce the greateft performance. It will
be fo much the greater as the work done is greater, and
the power employed is lefs; and will therefore be pro¬
perly meafured by the quotient of the work done divided
by the power employed.
The work immediately done is the lifting up the
weight L. In order to accomplilh this, we muft em¬
ploy a preflure P, which is greater than L. Let it be
~L-|-y; alfo let s be the length of the ftroke.
If the xuafs L were urged along the fpace s by the
m . . . ,
an<I counter weight
s/^-^-y.
the velocity of the pifton at the end of the ftroke. The
quantity of motion produced will be had by multiply¬
ing this velocity by the mafs L. This gives — - —
. . . v -Ly
and this divided by the power expended, or by L-{-y,
gives us the meafure of the performance; namely,
L\^sy 
L+J'Xx/L+y
That this may be a maximum, conflder ?/ as the va¬
riable quantity, and make the fluxion of this formula
z=o. This will give us y = —.
Now P=rL-f-y,
_L+—, -1L.
Therefore the
whole, load on the outer end of the beam, confiding of
the water and the counter weight, muft be two-thirds
of the preflure of the atmofphere on the fteam pifton.
We have here fuppofed that the expenditure is the
atmofpheric preflure ; and fo it is if we confider it me¬
chanically. Eut the expenditure of which we are fen-
fible, and which we are anxious to employ to the beft
advantage, is fuel. Suppofing this to be employed with
the fame judgment in all cafes, we are almoft intitled,
by what we now know of the produftion of fteam, to
fay that the fteam produced is proportional to the fuel
expended. But the fteam requifite for merely filling
the cylinder is proportional to the area of the pifton,
and therefore to the atmofpheric preflure. The refult
of our inveftigation therefore is ft ill juft ; but the fteam
wafted by condenfation on the fides of the cylinder does
not follow this ratio, and this is more than what is ne-
ceflary for merely filling, it. This deranges our calcu¬
lations, and is-in favour of large cylinders; but this ad¬
vantage muft be in a great meafure compenfated by a
fimilar variation in the prodmftion of the ftcam ; for in
fimilar boilers of greater dimenfions the fuel is lefs ad-
vantageoufly employed, becaufe the furface to which the
fuel is applied does not increafe in-the ratio of the eapa*
city, juft as tire furface of the cylinder which waftes the
fttam. The rule may therefore be confided in as pretty
exaff. .
It is a fatisfa&ory thing to obferve thefe refults agree,
very well with, the ,moft fuccefsful practice. By many faitTagrce
changes and trials engineers have eftabliflied maxims of with the
conftruftion, which are probably not very far from the moft fuc-
beft. It is a pretty general maxim, that the load ofcefsful
water thould be one-half of the atmofpheric preflure. ^ral^'ce‘
They call this loading the engine with 7I pounds on
the inch, and they fay that fo fmall a load is neceflary
on account of the imperfect vacuum. But we have
now feen that it is neceflary for giving a reafonable ve¬
locity of motion. Since, in this praftice, w is made -|-
or i-^ths of P, and L ftiould be -nj-ths of P, and L is
it follows, that the counterweight Ihould be
5 “ ith.
37
Thefe re-
S T E
[ 662 ]
S T E
3®
Ttefiftance
to the mo¬
tion of the
Steam- of P; and we have found this to be nearly the cafe
Engine. jn feveral very good engines.
■” v~ It muft be remarked, that in the preceding inveftiga-
tion we introduced a quantity M to exprefs the refift-
ances to the motion of the engine. This was done in
order to avoid a very troublefome inveftigation. The
refiftances are of fuch a nature as to vary with the ve¬
locity, and moft of them as the fquare of the velocity.
This is the cafe with the refinance arifing from the mo¬
tion of the water through the piftons of the pumps, and
that arifing from the friftion in the long lift during the
working ttroke. Had we taken the diredt method,
which is fimilar to the determination of the motion
through a medium which refifts in the duplicate ratio of
the velocity, we mufi: have ufed a very intricate expo¬
nential calculus, which few of our readers would have
the patience to look at.
But the greateft part of the quantity m fuppofes a
motion already known, and its determination depends
on this motion. We muft now fhow how its different
component parts may be computed.
1. What arifes from the inertia of the moving parts
is by far the moft confiderable portion of it. To ob¬
tain it, we muft find a quantity of matter which, when
placed at the end of the beam, will have the fame mo¬
mentum of inertia wuth that of the whole moving parts
engine com- jn ^]iejr natural places. Therefore (in the returning
ftroke) add together the v'eight of the great pifton with
its rod and chains ; the pit pump-rods, chains, and
any weight that is attached to them ; the arch-heads
and iron-work at the ends of the beam, and |ths of the
weight of the beam itfelf} alfo the plug-beam with its
arch-head and chain, multiplied by the fquare of its di-
ftance from the axis, and divided by the fquare of half
the length of the beam $ alfo the jack-head pump-rod,
chain, and arch-head, multiplied by the fquare of its di-
ftance from the axis, and divided by the fquare of the
half length of the beam. Thefe articles added into one
-fum may be called M, and may be fuppofed to move
with the velocity of the end of the beam. Suppofe this
beam to have made a fix-foot ftroke in two feconds,
with an uniformly accelerated motion. In one fecond
it would have moved i4 feet, and would have acquired
the velocity of three feet per fecond. But in one fe¬
cond gravity would have produced a velocity of 3 2 feet
in the fame mafs. Therefore the accelerating force,
which has produced the velocity of three feet, is nearly
M
'iTrth of the weight. Therefore — is the ‘firft confti-
11
tuent of m in the above inveftigation. If the obferved
velocity is greater or lefs than three feet per fecond, this
value muft be increafed or diminiftied in the fame pro¬
portion.
The fecond caufe of refiftance, viz. the immerfion of
the pump rods in water, is eafily computed, being the
weight of the water which they difplace.
The third caufe, the friftion of the piftons, &c. is al-
moft infignificant, and muft bedifcovered by experiment.
The fourth caufe depends on the ftrudfture of the
pumps. Thefe pumps, when made of a proper ftrength,
can hardly have the perforation of the pifton more than
a fourth part of the area of the working-barrel; and
the velocity with which the water paffes through it is
increafed at leaft -Jth by the contraction (fee'PuMp).
The velocity of the water is therefore five times greater
than that of the pifton. A pifton 12 inches diameter, Steam,
and moving one foot per fecond, meets with a refiftance
equal to 20 pounds; and this increafes as the fquare of !
the diameter and as the fquare of the velocity. If the
whole depth of the pit be divided into feveral lifts, this
refiftance muft be multiplied by the number of lifts, be-
caufe it obtains in each pump.
Thus we make up the value of m ; and we muft ac¬
knowledge that the method is ftill indirect, becaufe it
fuppofes the velocity to be known.
We may obtain it more eafily in another way, but
ftill with this circumftance of being indireft. We found
that p was equal to njlutn, and confequently
Now in any engine L and p can always be had ; and
unlefs p deviates greatly from the proportion which we
determined to be the beft, the value of m thus obtained
will not be very erroneous.
It was farther prefumed in this inveftigation, that the obfem-
motions both up and down were uniformly accelerated ; tioas con.
but this cannot be the cafe when the refiftances increafe W”"’?
W’ith the velocity. This circumftance makes very little lonieft1‘rj»
change in the working-ftroke, and therefore the theo-fn
rem which determines the beft relation of P to L may veftigation
be confided in. The refiftances which vary with the
velocity in this cafe are a mere trifle when compared
with the moving power Thefe refiftances are, ift,
The ftrangling of the water at the entry and at the
ftanding valve of each pump : This is about 37 pounds
for a pump 12 inches diameter, and the velocity one
foot per fecond, increafing in the duplicate ratio of the
diameter and velocity. And, 2d, The friftion of the
ivater along the whole lift: This for a pump of the
fame fize and with the fame velocity, lifting 20 fathoms,
is only about pounds, and varies in the Ample pro¬
portion of the diameter and the depth, and in the du¬
plicate proportion of the velocity. The refiftance ari¬
fing from inertia is greater than in the returning ftroke;
becaufe the M in this cafe muft contain the momentum
of the water both of the pit-pumps and the jackhead-
pump : but this part of the refiftance does not affeft
the uniform acceleration. We may therefore confide
in the propriety of the formula y~—.
And we may
obtain the velocity of this ftroke at the end of a fecond
with great accuracy as follows. Let 2g be the veloci¬
ty communicated by gravity in a fecond, and the velo¬
city at the end of the firft fecond of the fleam pifton’s
defcent will be fomewhat lefs than — 2g; where M ex-
preffes the inertia of all the parts which are in motion
during the defcent of the fleam pifton, and therefore in¬
cludes L. Compute the two refiftances juft mentioned
for this velocity. Call this r. Then - 2g will
give another velocity infinitely near the truth.
But the cafe is very different in the returning ftroke,
and the proper ratio of to L is not afcertained with
the fame certainty: for the moving force p is not fo
great in proportion to the refiftance tn; and therefore
the acceleration of the motion is confiderably affefted
by it, and the motion itfelf is confiderably retarded, and
in a very moderate time it becomes fenfibly uniform :
for it is precifely fimilar to the motion of a heavy body
falling
S T E
:>rve
■ |rticular
nfidera-
a.
falling through the air, and may be determined in the
manner laid down in the article RESISTANCE of Fluids^
viz. by an exponential calculus. We tliall content our-
felves here with faying, that the reiiftances in the pre-
fent cafe are fo great that the motion would be to ail
fenfe uniform before the piitons have defcended one-
third of their itroke, even although there were no other
40 circumitance to affedt it.
ie motion But this motion is aflfedled by a circumflance quite
dded by unconne6ted with any thing yet coniidered, depending
rediat on con(iitions not mechanical, and fo uncertain, that we
Vrve, are not yet able to afcertain them with any precifion ;
yet they are of the utmoft importance to the good per¬
formance and improvement of the engine, and therefore
deferve a particular confideration.
The counter weight has not only to pufh down the
pump rods, but alfo to drag up the great pifton. This
it cannot do unlefs the fleam be admitted into the cy¬
linder. If the fleam be no ftronger than common air,
it cannot enter the cylinder except in confequence of the
pifton’s being dragged up. If common air were admit¬
ted into the cylinder, fome force would be required to
drag up the pifton, in the fame manner as it is required
to draw up the pifton of a common fvringe j for the
air would rufh through the fmall entry of the cylinder
in the fame manner as through tire fmall nozzle of the
fyringe. Some part of the atmofpheric preffure is em¬
ployed in driving in the air with fufficient velocity to
fill the fyringe, and it is only with the remainder that
the admitted air prelfes on the under furface of the fy¬
ringe. Therefore fome of the atmofpheric preflure on
its upper furface is not balanced. This is felt by the
hand which draws it up. The fame thing muft happen
in the fleam engine, and fome part of the counter weight
is expended in drawing up the fleam pifton. We could
tell how much is thus expended if we knewr the denfty
of the fleam ; for this would tell us the velocity with
which its elafticity would caufe it to fill the cylinder.
If we fuppofe it 12 times rarer than air, which it cer
tainly is, and the pifton rifes to the top of the cylinder
in two feconds, we can demonftrate that it will enter
with a velocity not lefs than 1400 feet per fecond, where¬
as 500 feet is enough to make it maintain a denfity ^ths
of that of fleam in equilibrio with the air. Hence it
follows, that its elafticity will not be lefs than |gths of
the elaflieity of the air, and therefore not more than T^th
of counter weight will be expended in drawing up the
fteam-pifton.
But all this is on the fuppofition that there is an un¬
bounded fupply of fleam of undiminifhed elafticity. This
is by no means the cafe. Immediately before opening
the fleam-cock, the fleam was iftuing through the fafe-
ty valve and all the crevices in the top of the boiler,
and (in good engines) was about -j%-th ftronger or more
elaftic than air. 'This had been gathering during fome-
thing more than the defcent of the pifton, viz. in about
three feconds. The pifton rifes to the top in about two
feeonds ; therefore about twice and a half as much fleam
as fills the dome of the boiler is now fhared between the
boiler and cylinder. i he dome is commonly about fix
times more capacious than the cylinder. If therefore no
fleam is condenfed in the cylinder, the denfity of the
fleam, when the pifton has reached the top, muft be a-
bout r|ths of its former denfity, and (fill more elaftic than
air. But as much fleam is condenfed by the cold cy-
[ 663 ]
S T E
Steam -
Engine.
41
Under, its elafticity mull be lefs than this. We cannot
tell how much lefs, both becauie we do not know how
much is thus condenled, and becaufe by this diminution
of its preffure on the furface of the boiling water, it mult
be more copioufly produced in the boiler; but an atten¬
tive obfe.vation of the engine will give us fume infor¬
mation. The moment the fleam cock is opened we have
a ftrong puff of fleam through the (hitting valve. At
this time, therefore, it is ftiil more elaltic than air ; but
after this, the fnifting valve remains (hut during the
whole rife of the piiton, and no fleam any longer iffues
through the fatety-valve or crevices 5 nay, the whole
dome of the boiler may be obierved to fink.
Thefe fadls give abundant proof that the elafticity of The elafti-
the fleam during the afcent of the pifton is greatly dbCIty of the
miniihed, and therefore much of the counter weight is^;ean\CU
expended in dragging up the fleam piiton in oppofition afcent of
to the unbalanced part of the atmofpheric preffure. The the pifton
motion ot the returning ftroke is therefore fo much de-§r.eatly cll_
ranged by this foreign and inappreciated circuinftance,minillied*
that it would have been quite ufelefs to engage in the
intricate exponential invefligation, and we mult fit down
contented with a lefs perfedl adjuftment of the counter
weight and weight of water.— Any perfon who attends
to the motion of a fleam engine will perceive that the
defcent of the pump-rods is fo far from being accelera¬
ted, that it is nearly uniform, and frequently it is fenfi-
bly retarded towards the end. We learn by the way,
that it is of the utmoft importance not only to have a
quick produ&ion of fleam, but alfo a very capacious
dome, or empty fpace above the water in the boiler. In
engines where this fpace was but four or five times the
capacity ot the cylinder, w7e have always obferved a very
fenfible check given to the defcent of the pump-rods
after having made half their ftroke. This obliges us to
employ a greater counter weight, which diminifties the
column of water, or retards the working ftroke j it alfo
obliges us to employ a ftronger fteam, at the rifk of
burfting the boiler, and increafes the expence of fuel. 42
It would be a moft defirable thing to get an exaift How to
knowledge of the elafticity of the fteam in the cylinder jklI0'y .tlie
and this is by no means difficult. Take a long glafs
tube exaftly calibered, and clofe at the farther end. Putin the cy-
a fmall drop of fome coloured fluid into it, fo as to ftand finder,
at the middle nearly.—Let it be placed in a long box
filled with water to keep it of a conftant temperature.
Let the open end communicate with the cylinder, with
a cock between. The moment the fteam-cock is open¬
ed, open the cock of this inftrument. The drop will
be pufhed towards the clofe end of the tube, while the
fteam in the cylinder is more elaftic than the air, and it
will be drawn the other way while it is lefs elaftic, and,
by a fcale properly adapted to it, the elafticity of the
fteam corresponding to every pofition of the pifton may
be difcovered. The fame thing may be done more ac¬
curately by a barometer properly conitrufted, fo as to
prevent the ofcillations of the mercury. 43
It is equally neceffary to know the ftate of the cylin- Ncceflary
der during the defcent of the fteam-pifton. We have
hitherto fuppofed P to be the full preflure of the atmo- The
fphere on the area of the pifton, fuppofing the vacuum cylinder
below it to be complete. But the infpedtion of our(lUnn£ die
table of elafticity (hows that this can never be the cafe,^lcent of
becaufe the cylinder is always of a temperature far aboveLhe riltoai
32°. We have made many attempts to dflcover its tem¬
per a ture^
S T E [ 664. ] S T E
Steam- perature. We have employed a thermometer in clofe con-
Engine. ta(^. t]ie 0£ t}ie cylinder, which foon acquired a
' " ileady temperature: this was never lefs than 1450. We
have kept1 a thermometer in the water which lies on the
pifton: this never funk below 13 50. It is probable that the
cylinder within may be cooled fomewhat lower ; but for
this opinion we cannot give any very fatisfaftory reafon.
Suppofe it cooled down to 1 20°} this will leave an elaf-
ticity which would fupport three inches of mercury. ^ e
cannot think, therefore, that the unbalanced preflure of
the atmofphere exceeds that of 2*7 inches of mercury,
which is about 13-yd pounds on a fquare inch, or io4 on
a circular inch. And this is the value which we (hould
employ in the equation P~L-}~y. 1 his queftion may
be decided in the fame way as the other, by a barometer
conne&ed with the infide of the cylinder.
And thus we {ball learn the ftate of the moving forces
in every moment of the performance, and the machine
will then be as open to our examination as any water or
horfe mill 5 and till this be done, or fomething equiva-
•lent, we can only guefs at what the machine is a£hially
performing, and we cannot tell in what particulars we
can lend it a helping hand. We are informed that
Meffrs Watt and Boulton have made this addition to
fome of their engines j and we are perfuaded that, from
the information which they have derived from it, they
have been enabled to make the curious improvements
from which they have acquired fo much reputation and
44 profit.
'.’Quantity There is a circumftance of which we have as yet ta-
■te^tobe*'* ken no notice» V1Z' ^ie quality °f c°ld water inje£led.
injedted! Here we confefs ourfelves unable to give any precife in-
ftruftions. It is clear at firft fight that no more than
is abfolutely neceffary ihould be injected. It muft ge¬
nerally be fupplied by the engine, and this expends part
of its power. An excels is much more hurtful by cool¬
ing the cylinder and pifton too much, and therefore
wafting fleam during the next rife of the pifton. But
the determination of the proper quantity requires a
knowledge, which we have not yet acquired, of the
quantity of heat contained in the fleam in a latent
form. As much water muft be injedfted as will abforb
all this without rifing near to the boiling temperature.
But it is of much more importance to know how far
we may cool the cylinder with advantage } that is,
when will the lofs of fleam, during the next rife of the
piflon, compenfate for the diminution of its elafticity
duting its prefent defcent ? Our table of elallicities
fhows us, that by cooling the cylinder to 120°, we
Hill leave an elafticity equal to one-tenth of the whole
power of the engine $ if we cool it only to 140, we
leave an elafticity of one-fifth ; if we cool it to a blood-
heat, we leave an elafticity of one-twentieth. It is ex¬
tremely difficult to choofe among thefe varieties. Expe¬
rience, however, informs us, that the bell engines are
thofe which ufe the fmalleft quantities of injeftion wa¬
ter. We know an exceedingly good engine having a
cylinder of 30 inches and a fix feet ftroke, which works
with fomething lefs than one-fifth of a cubic foot of wa¬
ter at each inje&ion} and we imagine that the quantity
Ihould be nearly in the proportion of the capacity of the
cylinder. Defaguliers obferved, that a very good en¬
gine, with a cylinder of 32 inches, worked with 300
inches of water at each inje&ion, which does not much
exceed one-fixth of a cubic foot. Mr Watt’s obferva-
tions, by means of the barometer, muft have given him Steam,
much valuable information in this particular, and we Engine,
hope that he will not always withhold them from the
public.
We have gone thus far in the examination, in order This exa.
feemingly to afcertain the motion of the engine whenmination,
loaded and balanced in any known manner, and in or- though m?
der to difcover that proportion between the moving
power and the load which will produce the greateft ti,e atter
quantity of work. The refult has been very unfatis-tion toth-
fadlory, becaufe the computation of the returning ftroke principal
is acknowledged to be beyond our abilities. But it has
given us the opportunity of directing the reader’s atten¬
tion to the leading circumftances in this inquiry. By
knowing the internal ftate of the cylinder in machines
of very different goodnefs, we learn the connection be¬
tween the ftate of the fteam and the performance of the
machine ; and it is very poflible that the refult of a
full examination may be, that in fituations where fuel
is expenfive, it may be proper to employ a weak fteam
which will expend lefs fuel, although lefs work is per¬
formed by it. We Ihall fee this confirmed in the clear-
eft manner in fome particular employments of the new
engines invented by Watt and Boulton.
In the mean time, we fee that the equation which we
gave from the celebrated Abbe Boffut, is in every re-
fpeft erroneous even for the purpofe which he had in
view. We alfo fee that the equation which we fubfti-
tuted in its place, and which was intended for determi- ' h-
ning that proportion between the counter-weight and
the moving force, and the load which would render the
working ftroke and returning ftroke of equal duration,
is alfo erroneous, becaufe thefe two motions are extreme¬
ly different in kind, the one being nearly uniform, and
the other nearly uniformly accelerated. This being
fuppofed true, it {hould follow that the counter-weight
{hould be reduced to one-half *, and we have found this
to be very nearly true in fome good engines which we
have examined. 46
We fnall add but one obfervation more on this head. An errore.
The pra6lical engineers have almoft made it a maxim,
that the two motions are of equal duration. Buttbetwomo_
only reafon which we have heard for the maxim, is, tions are of
that it is awkward to fee an engine go otherwife. But equal dura-
we doubt exceedingly the truth of this maxim ; and,'1011,
without being able to give any accurate determination,
-we think that the engine will do more work if the
working ftroke be made {hnver than the returning ftroke.
Suppofe the engine fo conftrufted that they are made
in equal times 5 an addition to the counter-weight will
accelerate the returning ftroke and retard the working
ftroke. But as tire counter-weight is but fmall in pro¬
portion to the unbalanced portion of the atmofpheric
preffure, which is the moving force of the machine, it
is evident that this addition to the counter-weight muft
bear a much greater proportion to the counter-weight
than it does to the moving force, and muft therefore ac¬
celerate the returning ftroke much more than it retards
the working ftroke, and the time of both ftrokes taken
together muft be diminiflied by this addition and the
performance -of the machine improved ; and this muft
be the cafe as long as the machine is not extravagantly
loaded. The beft machine which vse have feen, in re-
fpefl of performance, raifes a column of water whofe
weight is very nearly two-thirds of the preffure of the
atmofphere
S T E
IlSteam-
|:inginc.
f 66
ahnofpliere on the pifton, making 11 ftrokes of fix feet
each per minute, and the working ftroke was almoft
twice as flow as the other. This engine had worked
pumps of 12 inches, which were changed for pumps of
14 inches, all other things remaining the fame. In its
former ftate it made from 12 and a half to 13 and a
half ftrokes per minute, the working ftroke being con-
fiderably flower than the returning ftroke. The load
was increafed, by the change of the pumps, nearly in
the proportion of three to four. This had retarded the
working ftroke; but the performance was evidently in¬
creafed in the proportion of 3 X 13 to 4 X 11, or of 39
to 44. About '300 pounds were added to the counter¬
weight, which increafed the number of ftrokes to more
than 12 per minute. No fenfible fcbange could be ob-
ferved in the time of the working ftroke. The per¬
formance was therefore increafed in the proportion of
39 to 48. We have therefore no hefitation in faying,
that the feemly equality of the two ftrokes is a facfifice
to fancy. The engineer who obferves the working
ftroke to be flow, fears that his engine may be thought
feeble and unequal to its work *, a fimilar notion has
long mifled him in the oonftruftion of water-mills,
efpecially of overfhot mills 5 and even now he is fub-
mitting with hefitation and fear to the daily correction
of experience.
It is needlefs to engage more deeply in fcientific cal¬
culations in a fubjeft where fo many of the data are fo
very imperfeCtly underftood.
We venture to recommend as a maxim of conftruClion
(fuppofing always a large boiler and plentiful fupply of
^pure fteam Anmixed with air), that the load of work be
1 ,oufl([s ’not lefs than 10 pounds for every fquare inch of the pi-
fti;v*ry fton, and the counter-weight fo proportioned that the
f: reitich time of the returning ftroke may not exceed two-thirds
e i6 pi- 0f tliat of the working ftroke. A ferious objection may
be made to this maxim, and it deferves mature confide-
ration. Such a load requires the utmoft care of the ma¬
chine, that no admiflion be given to the common air ;
and it precludes the poffibility of its working, in cafe
the growth of water, or deepening the pit, ftiould make
a greater load abfolutely neceflary. Thefe confidera-
tions muft be left to the prudence of the engineer. The
maxim now recommended relates only to the belt aClual
performance of the engine.
lol Before quitting this machine, it will not be amifs to
tq mting give fome eafy rules, fanClioned by fuccefsful praftice,
tljiier- for computing its performance. Thefe will enable any
attift, who can go through Ample calculations, to fuit
the fize of his engine to the talk which it is to per¬
form.
The circumftance on which the whole computation
muft be founded is the quantity of water which muft
be drawn in a minute, and the depth of the minej and
the performance which may be expected from a good
engine is at leaft 12 ftrokes per minute of fix feet each,
working againft a column of water whofe weight is
equal to half of the atmofpheric preflure on the fteam-
pifton, or rather to 7.64 pounds on every fquare inch of
its furface.
It is moft convenient to eftimate the quantity of wa¬
ter in cubic feet, or its weight in pounds, recollefling
load
tvork
ftld not
kefs than
IUs for
hi ance
of/e
fttfi-en
«ib
0 1 , . S T E
that a cubic foot of water weighs 62^ pounds. The
depth of the pit is ufually reckoned in fathoms of fix
feet, and the diameter of the cylinder and pump is
ufually reckoned in inches.
Let £) be the quantity of water to be drawn per
minute in cubical feet, and f the depth of the mine in
fathoms $ let c be the diameter of the evlinder, and p
that of the pump 5 and let us fuppofe the arms of the
beam to be of equal length.
I ft, To find the diameter of the pump, the area of
the pifton in fquare feet isX °*^ —• The length
144
of the column drawn in one minute is 12 times 6 or 72
feet, and therefore its folid contents is ^ 72 X 0.78 .4
r • . 144
cubical feet, or 7?1 XO.3927 cubical feet. This muft be
equal to Q 1 therefore px muft be ——— or nearly O
o,39?7
X Hence this pra&ical rule : Multiply the cubic
feet of water which muft be drawn in a minute by 2f,
and extra# the fquare root of the produ# : this will be
the diameter of the pump in inches.
Thus fuppofe that 58 cubic feet muft be drawn every
minute j 58 multiplied by 2\ gives 145, of which the
fquare root is 12, which is the required diameter of the
pump.
2. To find the proper diameter of the cylinder.
The pifton is to be loaded with 7.64 pounds on every
fquare inch. This is equivalent to fix pounds oh a cir¬
cular inch very nearly. The weight of a cylinder of
water an inch in diameter and a fathom in height is 2-^
pounds, or nearly two pounds. Hence it follows that
6 c* muft: be made equal to 2/p* and that c1 is equal to
. fp-
or to
Vol. XIX. Part II.
6 ' 3
Hence- the following rule : Multiply the fquare of
the diameter of the pump pifton (found as above) by
the fathoms of lift, and divide the produ# by 3 ; the
fquare root of the quotient is the diameter of the cylin¬
der.
Suppofe the pit to which the foregoing pump is to
be applied is 24 fathoms deep; then -4 ^ 144 gives
1152, of which the fquare root is 34 inches very near-
ly"
This engine, conftru#ed with care, will certainly do
the work.
Whatever is the load of wctler prrtpofed for the en¬
gine, let 10 be the pounds on every circular inch of the
fteam pifton, and make cxz=pt x —, and the fquare root
will be the diameter of the fteam pifton in inches.
To free the practical engineer as much as poflible
from all trouble of calculation, we fubjoin the follow¬
ing TABLE of the Dimenjiwis and Power of the Steam
Engine, drawn up. by Mr Beighton in 1717, and fully
verified by practice fince that time. The meafure is in
Englifh ale gallons of 282 cubic inches.
4P .
Steam-
Engine,
S T E
[ 666 ]
S T E
Steam-
Engine.
49
Mr Beigh-
ton’s table
of the di-
menlions
and power
of the
fteam-
engine.
Diain.
of
pump.
Inch.
8
7^
6
5i
5
4t
4
Holds
in one
yard.
Draws by
a fix feet
ftroke.
Gail.
I4-4
12.13
10.02
8.12
7.26
6.41
6.01
c.66
4.91
4-23
3.61
3-T3
2-51
2.02
1.6
Gall.
Lb.' avoir,
28.8
24.26
20.04
16.24
M-52
12.82
12.02
II.32
9.82
8.46
7.2
6.2
5-°
4.04
3-2
Weighs
in one
yard.
At 16
ftrokes
per min.
‘Gall.
462
338
32O
239.8
232-3
205.2
192.3
l8l.I
I57,r
135-3
H5-5
.99.2
80.3
64.6
51.2
Ditto
in hogf-
heads.
(Id. Gal
Ditto per
hour
Hd. Gal.
7.21
6.20
5-5
4-7
3-43
3.16
3-2
2-55
2.31
2.9
1.52
1.36
i-7
1.1
0.51
The depth to be drav^n in yards.
l5
440.
369-33
304.48
247.7
221.15
1 Q t.22
x 8 2.13
i72-3°
149.40
128.54
110.1
94-3°
66.61
60.60
48.5!
’ ‘f . ^
r 181
I5i
I3i
124
I 2
II
jo!
10
9i
20 | 25
2Ii24
19I22
18 j20
i6|i8
>5^i7l
144
14 ‘154
13455
13
12
11
10
3°
264
25
2
20
'9
184
>71
164
154
'4
13
12
11
10
35
28
26
234
3°4
28
204
>9
i87
18
162
40
3 24j34l
2941314
254
23
2%
204
I9l
16^;
'3
11
45 ! 5o
27
244
23
214
21
20
l9
18
16
*5
i34
12
11
28I
25
24
23
22
214
204
!9
!7
!54
14
*34
11
60
70
371
34’
3J4
28
264
25
24l
231
22
20
*9
x7
154
M
12
40
37
34
3°4
284
25
22
20 i
>9
164
>5
>34
80 90
43t
39i
36
33
31
29
28
27
25i
23
22
20
184
16
f4
38i
35
32i
3°i
294
284
27
24i
23
21
>94
>7
!5
Steam*
Engine.
The firft part of the table gives the fize of the pump
fuited to the growth of water. The fecond gives the
lize of the cylinder fuited to the load of water. If the
depth is greater than any in this table, take its fourth
part, and double the diameter of the cylinder. Thus if
1 co’hoglheads are to be drawn in an hour from the
depth of 100 fathoms, the laft column of part firft gives
for 149.40 a pump of feven inches bore. In a line ivitn
this under the depth of 50 yards, which is one-fourth of
100’fathoms, we find 2o4, the double of which is 41
inches for the diameter of the cylinder.
It is almoft impoflible to give a general rule for ftrokes
of different lengths, &c. but any one who profeffes the
ability to ere£t an Engine, ftiould furely know as much
arithmetic as will accommodate tne rule now given to
any length of ftroke.
We venture to fay, that no ordinary engineer can
tell a priori the number per minute which an engine
will give. We took 12 ftrokes of fix feet each for a
ftandard, which a careful engineer may eafily accom-
plith, and which an employer has a right to expeft, the
engine being loaded with water to half the preffure of
the atmofphere : if the load be lefs, there is fome fault—
an improper counter weight, or too little boiler, or
leaks, &c. &c.
Such is the ftate in which Newcomen’s fteam-engine
ot had continued in ufe for 6d years, negleded by the phi-
converting lofopher, although it is the moft curious objeft which
its recipro- human ingenuity has yet offered to his contemplation,
and abandoned to the efforts of the unlettered artift.
Its ufe has been entirely confined to the raifing of water..
Mr Keane Fitzgerald indeed publilhed in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions a method of converting its reciprocating
motion into a continued rotatory motion by employing
the great beam to work a crank or a train of wheel-work.
As the real a£tion of the machine is confined to its work¬
ing ftroke, to aefeomplith this, it became neceffary to
connect xvith the crank or wheeled work a very large
and heavy fly, which ftiould accumulate in itfelf the
whole preffure of the machine during its time of adtion,
and therefore continue in motion, and urge forward
5°
Mr- Fitzge
raid’s me¬
thod of
eating mo¬
tion into a
continued
rotatory
motion.
the working machinery, while die fteam-engine was
going through its inaaive returning ftroke. This will
be the cafe, provided that the refiftance exerted by the
tvorking machine during the whole period of the work¬
ing and returning ftroke of the fteam-engine, together
with the friaion of both, does not exceed the whole
preffure exerted by the fteam-engine during its work¬
ing ftroke ; and provided that the momentum of the
fly, arifing from its great weight and velocity, be very
great, fo that the refiftance of the work during one re¬
turning ftroke of the fteam-engine do not make any very
fenfible diminution of the velocity of the fly. This is
evidently poffible and eafy. The fly may be made of
any magnitude ; and being exaaiy balanced round its
axis, it will foon acquire any velocity confident with the
motion of the fteam-engine. During the working ftroke
of the engine it is uniformly accelerated, and by its ac¬
quired momentum it produces in the beam the movement
of the returning ftroke -, but in doing this, its momen¬
tum is (hared with the inert matter of the fleam-engine,
and confequently its velocity diminiftied, but not entire¬
ly taken away. The next working ftroke therefore,
by prefling on it afrefh, increafes its remaining velo¬
city by a quantity nearly equal to the whole that it
acquired during the firft ftroke. We fay nearly, but
not quite equal, becaufe the time of the fecond working
ftroke muft be fhorter than that of the firft, on account
of the velocity already in the machine. In this manner
the fly will be more and more accelerated every fuccet?d-
ing ftroke, becaufe the preffure of the engine during
the xvorking ftroke does more than reftore to the fly
the momentum Avhich it loft in producing the returning
movement of the fteam-engire. Noav fuppoje the
working part of the machine to be added. I he acce¬
leration of the fly during each working ftroke of the
fteam-engine AA'ill be lefs than it was before, becaufe the
impelling preffure is noxv partly employed in driving the
Avorking machine, and becaufe the fly Avill lofe more of
its momentum during the returning ftroke of the fteam-
engine, part of it being expended in driving the work-
inti machine. It is evident, therefore, that a time avi
° come
S T E
Steam- come when the fucceffive augmentation of the fly’s velo-
!Engine- cii;y willceafe j for, on the one hand, the continual acce-
|'"n' leration diminifhes the time of the next working flroke,
and therefore the time of adlion of the accelerating power.
The acceleration mull diminilh in the fame proportion •,
and on the other hand, the refillance of the working ma¬
chine generally, though not always, increafes with its
velocity. The acceleration ceafes whenever the addi¬
tion made to the momentum of the fl\ duiing a work¬
ing llroke of the fteam-engine is juft equal to what it
lofes by driving the machine, and by producing the re-
^ turning movement of the fleam engine.
. n impor- This mud be acknowledged to be a very important
int addi- addition to the engine, and though fufficiently obvious,
it is ingenious, and requires conlidcrable {kill and ad-
dreft to make it effe6live (b).
The movement of the working machine, or mill of
whatever kind, mull be in fome degree hobbling or un¬
equal. But this may be made quite infenlible, by ma¬
king the fly exceedingly large, and difpofing the great-
eft part of its weight in the rim. Bv thefe means its
momentum may be made fo great, that the whole force
required for driving the mill and producing the return¬
ing movement of the engine may bear a very fmall pro¬
portion to it. The diminution of its velocity will then
be very trifling.
No .counter weight is neceffary here, becaufe the re¬
turning movement is produced by the inertia of the
fly. A counter weight may, however, be employed, and
ftiould be employed, viz. as much as will produce the
returning movement of the fteam-engine. It will do
this better than the fame force accumulated in the fly *,
for this force mull be accumulated in the fly by the in¬
tervention of rubbing parts, by which fome of it is loft ;
and it mull be afterwards returned to the engine with a
fimilar lofs. But, for the fame reafon, it would be im¬
proper to make the counter weight alfo able to drive the
mill during the returning ftroke.
’k feldotn By this contrivance Mr Fitzgerald hoped to render
never the fteam-engine of moll extenfive ufe j and he, or others
opted, aflbeiated with him, obtained a patent excluding all
others from employing the fteam-engine for turning a
crank. They alfo publifhed propofals for ere£ling mills
of all kinds driven by fteam-engines, and Hated very
fairly their powers and their advantages. But their pro¬
pofals do not feem to have acquired the confidence of
the public ; for we do not know of any mill ever having
been erefted under this patent.
le great great obftacle to this extenfive ufe of the fteam-
oenfe of engine is the prodigious expence of fuel. An engine
i!l having a cylinder of four feet diameter, working night
and day, confumes about 3400 chaldron (London) of
good coals in a year.
S T E ■
This circumftance limits the ufe of fteam-engines ex- Steam-
ceedingly. To draw water from coal-pits, where they Engine. ^
can be flocked with unfaleable fmall coal, they are. of ^
univerfal employment : alio for valuable mines, for limits the
fupplying a great and wealthy city with water, and a ufe of
few other purpofes where a great expence can be bornt , hyam-etv-
they are very proper engines; but in a thoufand cafes
where their unlimited powers might be vaftly fervice-
able, the enormous ex pence of fuel completely excludes
them. We cannot doubt but that the attention of engi¬
neers was much diredled to every thing that could pro-
mife a diminution of this expence. Every one had his
particular noftrum for the conftruflion ot his furnace,
and fome were undoubtedly more fuccefsful than others.
But fctence^was not yet fufficiently advanced : It was
not till Dr Black had made his beautiful difeovery of
latent heat, that we could know the intimate relation
between the heat expended in boiling off a quantity of
water and the quantity of Hearn that is produced.
Much about the time of this difeovery, viz. 1763,
Mr James Watt, eftablilhed in Glafgow in the com¬
mercial line, was amufing himfelf with repairing a
working model of the fteam-engine which belonged to
the philofophical apparatus of the univerfity. Mr Watt
was a perfon of a truly philofophical mind, eminently
converfant in all branches of natural knowledge, and
the pupil and intimate friend of Dr Black. In the
courfe of the above-mentioned amufement many curious 55
fadls in the production and condenfation of fleam 0c-at£
curred to him ; and among others, that remarkable fad
which is always appealed to by Dr Black as the proof contains an
of the immenfe quantity of heat which is contained in immenfe
a very minute quantity of water in the form of elaftic <laantlty
fleam. When a quantity of water is heated feveral de-ot *icat
grees above the boiling point in a clofe digefter, if a
hole be opened, the fleam rufhes out with prodigious
violence, and the heat of the remaining water is redu¬
ced, in the courfe of three or four feconds, to the boil¬
ing temperature. The water of the fleam which has
iffued amounts only to a very few drops ; and yet thefe
have carried off with them the whole excefs of heat
from the water in the digefter. 55
Since then a certain quantity of fleam contains fo in hh at-
. great a quantity of heat, it mull expend a great quail- ^ei^tStt0
tity of fuel ; and no conftrudion of furnace can pre- w'.ly °tp a
vent this. Mr Watt therefore fet his invention to work hulband
to difeover methods of hufbanding this heat. The cy- this heat,
linder of his little model was heated almoft in an inftant,
fo that it could not be touched by the hand. It could
not be other wife, becaufe it condenfed the vapour by
abftraifHng its heat. But all the heat thus communica¬
ted to the cylinder, and wafted by it on furrounding
bodies, contributed nothing to the performance of the
4 P 2 engine,
[ 667 ]
(b) We do not recollect at prefent the date of this propofal of Mr Fitzgerald ; but in 1781 the Abbe Arnal,
canon of Alais in Languedoc, entertained a thought of the fame kind, and propofed it for working lighters in
the inland navigations ; a fcheme which has been fuccefsfully praflifed (ive are told) in America. His brother,
a major of engineers in the Auftrian fervice, has carried the thing much farther, and applied it to manufactures;
and the Aulic Chamber of Mines at Vienna has patronized the projeft : (See Journal Encyclopedique, 1781).
But thefe fchemes are long pofterior to Mr Fitzgerald’s patent, and are even later than the ereClion of feveral
machines driven by fleam engines which have been erefted by Meffirs Watt and Boulton. We think it our duty
to ftate thefe particulars, beeaufe it is very ufual for our neighbours on the continent to affume the credit of Bri-
tifh inventions.
Steam-
Engine.
57
difcovers a
method of
condeniing
the fleam
at a little
diftance •
from the
cylinder,
ss
and re¬
moves the
difficulties
which at¬
tended this
improve¬
ment by
means of
pumps.
S T E [ 668 ] S T E
engine, and muft be taken away at every inje&ion, and
again communicated and walled. Mr Watt quickly
underftood the whole procefs which was going on with¬
in the cylinder, and which we have conlidered fo mi¬
nutely, and faw that a very conliderable portion of the
fleam mull be walled in warming the cylinder. His
firft attempts were made to afcertain how much was
thus waited, and he found that it was not lefs than
three or four times as much as would fill the cylinder
and work the engine. He attempted to diminilh this
walte by ufing wooden cylinders. But though this
produced a feniible diminution of the walle, other rea-
fons forced him to give them up. He then cafed his
metal cylinders in a wooden cafe with light wood alhes
between. By this, and ufing no more injection than
was abfolutely neceflary for the condenfation, he redu¬
ced the walte almolt one half. But by ufing fo fmall a
quantity of cold water, the infide of the cylinder was
hardly brought below the boiling temperature j and
there conlequently remained in it a Iteam of very con-
fiderable elaiticity, which robbed the engine of a pro¬
portional part of the atmofpherical preflure. He faw
that this was unavoidable as long as the condenfation
wras performed in the cylinder. The thought itruek
him to attempt the condenfation in another place. His
firft experiment was made in the fimpleft manner. A
globular veffel communicated by means of a long pipe
of one inch diameter with the bottom of his little cy¬
linder of four inches diameter and 30 inches long.
This pipe had a ftop-coek, and the globe was immerfed
in a veffel of cold water. When the pifton was at the top,
and the cylinder filled with ftrong fteam, he turned the
cock. It was fearcely turned, nay he did not think
it completely turned, when the fides of his cylinder
(only ftrong tin-plate) w'ere crufhed together like an
empty bladder. This furprifed and delighted him. A
new cylinder was immediately made of brafs fufficiently
thick, and nicely bored. When the experiment was
repeated with this cylinder, the condenfation was fo ra¬
pid, that he could not fay that any time w'as expended in
it. But the moll valuable difeovery was, that the va¬
cuum in the cylinder was, as he hoped, almoft perfedl.
Mr Watt found, that when he ufed water in the boiler
purged of air by long boiling, nothing that wTas very
fenfibly inferior to the preffure of the atmofphere on the
pifton could hinder it from coming quite down to the
bottom of the cylinder. This alone was gaining a great
deal, for in moft engines the remaining elafticity of the
fteam was not lefs than one-eighth of the atmofpherical
preffure, and therefore took away one-eighth of the
power of the engine.
Having gained this capital point, Mr Watt found
many difficulties to ftruggle with before he could get
the machine to continue its motion. The -Water pro¬
duced from the condenfed fteam, and the air which was
extricated from it, or which penetrated through un¬
avoidable leaks, behoved to accumulate in the con-
denfing veflel, and could not be voided in any way fimi-
iar to that adopted in Newcomen’s engine. Pie took
another method : He applied pumps to extradl both,
which were worked by the great beam. The contri¬
vance is ealy to any good mechanic •, only wTe muft ob-
ferve, that the pifton of the water-pump muft be under
the furface of the water in the condenfer, that the water
may enter the pump by its own weight, beeaufe there is
4
no atmofpherical preffure there to force it in. We muft Steam-.
alfo obferve, that a confide rable force is neceffarily ex- | Engine,
pended here, beeaufe, as there is but one ftroke for rare-
tying the air, and this rarefadlion muft be nearly com¬
plete, the air-pump muft be of large dimenfions, and its
pifton muit ait againft the whole preffure of the atmo-
fphere. Mr Watt, however, found that this force could
be eafily fpared from his machine, already fo much im¬
proved in relpedt of power.
Thus has the fteam-engine received a very confider-0bfesr^
able improvement. The cylinder may be allowed to tions on
remain very hot •, nay, boiling hot, and yet the con- advantag.
denfation be completely performed. The only elafticcf thefe 1
fteam that now remains is the fmall quantity in the pipe
of communication. Even this fmall quantity Mr Watt
at laft got rid of, by admitting a fmall jet of cold water
up this pipe to meet the fteam in its paffage to the con¬
denfer. This both cooled this part of the apparatus
in a fituation Avhere it was not neceffary to warm it
again, and it quickened the condenfation. He found
at laft that the fmall pipe of communication was of it-
felf fufficiently large for the condenfation, and that no
feparate veflel, under the name of condenfer, was ilecef-
fary. This circumftance fliows the prodigious rapidity
of the condenfalion. We may add, that unlels this
had been the cafe, his improvement would have been
vaftly diminilhed ; for a large condenfer would have
required a much larger air-pump, which would have
expended much of the power of the engine. By thefe
means the vacuum below the pifton is greatly improved :
for it will appear clear to any perfon who underftands
the fubje£l, that as long as any part of the condenfer is
kept of a low temperature, it will abftraft and con-
denfe the vapour from the warmer parts, till the whole
acquires the elafticity correfponding to the coldeft part.
By the fame means much of the wafte is prevented, be-
caufe the cylinder is never cooled much below the boil¬
ing temperature. Many engines have been eredled by
Mr Watt in this form, and their performance gave uni-
verfal fatisfaflion.
We have contented ourfelves with giving a very
flight defeription without a figure of this improved en¬
gine, becaufe we imagine it to be of very ealy compre-
henfion, and becaufe it is only a preparation for Hill
greater improvements, which, when underftood, will
at the fame time leave no part of this mere fimple form
unexplained.
Hurinp; the proerrefs of thefe improvements Mr W attMr ’Watt
made many experiments on the quantity and. denhty °i
the fteam of boiling water, d hefe fully convinced him, fcen(j by
that although he had greatly diminiffied the wafte of the force
fteam, a great deal yet remained, and that the fteam of fteaw* i
expended during the rife of the pifton ivas atleaft three
times more than Avhat Avould fill the cylinder. I he
caufe of this Avas very apparent, In the fubfequent
defeent of the pifton, covered Avith Ayater much below
the boiling temperature, the Avhole cylinder Avas neceffa¬
rily cooled and expofed to the air. Mr Watt’s fertile
genius immediately fuggefted to him the expedient of
employing the elafticity of the fteam from the boiler
to impel the pifton doAvn the cylinder, in place of the
preffure cf the atmofphere ; and thus he reftored the
engine to its firft principles, making it an engine rat/fy
moved byjleom. As this is a neAv epoch.in. its hiftory,
we lhali be more particular in the defeription j at the
- fnrr'*
[
jstcri
ftlie
W
p
'0
S T E
Tame time ftill reftrifting ourfelves to the eHential cir-
cumftances, and avoiding every peculiarity which is
to be found in the prodigious varieties which Mr Watt
has introduced into the machines which he has ere&ed,
every individual of which has been adapted to local cir-
cumitances, or diverlified by the progrefs of Mr Watt’s
At improvements.
jfcription Let A (fig. 9.) reprefent the boiler. This has re-
d16 njW ceived great improvements from his complete acquain-
efe im tance with the procedure of nature in the produftion of
vements fleam. In fome of his engines the fuel has been placed
add- in the midlt of the water, furrounded by an iron or
copper veffel, while the exterior boiler was made of
'* wood, which tranfmits, and therefore wafles the heat
very (lowly. In others, the flame not only plays round
the whole outfide, as in common boilers, but alfo runs
along feveral flues which are conducted through the
midlt of the water. By fueh contrivances the fire is
applied to the water in a mod extenfive furface, and for
a long time, fo as to impart to it the greated part of
its heat. So fkilfully was it applied in the Albion mills,
that although it was perhaps the larged engine in the
kingdom, its unconfumed fmoke was inferior to that of
a very fmall brew-houfe. In this fecond engine of Mr
Watt, the top of the cylinder is (hut up by a drong
metal plate g h, in the middle of which is a collar or box
of leathers k /, formed in the ufual manner of a jack-
head pump, through which the pidon rod PD, nicely
turned and polithed, can move up and down, without
allowing any air to pafs by its (ides. From the dome
of the boiler proceeds a large pipe BCIOQ^, which,
after reaching the cylinder with its horizontal part BC,
defcends parallel to its fide, fending off two branches,
viz. IM to the top of the cylinder, and ON to its
bottom. At I is a puppet valve opening from be¬
low upwards. At L, immediately below this branch,
there is a fimilar valve, alfo opening from below upwards.
The pipe defcends to £), near the bottom of a large
cidern cdef filled with cold water condantly renew¬
ed. The pipe is then continued horizontally along the
bottom of this cidern (but not in contadl), and ter¬
minates at R in a large pump ST. The pidon S has
clack valves opening upwards, and its rod S r, pafling
through a collar of leathers at T, is fufpended by a
chain to a (mall arch head on the outer arm of the beam.
There is a valve R in the bottom of this pump, as ufual,
which opens when preffed in the diredlion (^R, and
flints againd a contrary preffure. This pump delivers
its contents into another pump XY, by means of the
fmall pipe t X, which proceeds from its top. This fe¬
cond pump has a valve at X, and a clack in its pif-
ton Z as ufual, and the piflon rod is fufpended
from another arch head on the outer arm of the beam.
The two valves I and L are opened and (hut by means
of (panners and handles, which are put in motion by a
plug frame, in the fame manner as in Newcomen’s en-
gine.
Lafily, there may be obferved a crooked pipe ab 0,
which enters the upright pipe laterally a little above f).
This has a fmall jet hole at 0; and the other end a, which
is confiderably under the furface of the water of the
condenfing cidern, is covered with a puppet valve v,
whofe long dalk v u rifes above the water, and may be
raifed or lowered by hand or by the plug beam. The
’v’alves 11 and X, anddhe clacks in the piflons S and Z,
[ 669 ]
S T E
arc opened or (hut by the preflure to which they are
immediately expofed.
This figure is not an exa£l copy of any of Mr Watt’s
engines, but has its parts fo difpofed that all may come
didinftly into view, and exablly perform their various
functions. It is drawn in its quiefcent pofition, the
outer end of the beam preponderating by the counter
weight, and the pidon P at the top of the cylinder, and
the pidons S and Z in their lowed fituations.
In this fituation let us fuppofe that a vacuum is (by
any means) produced in all the (pace below the pidon,
the valve I being (hut. It is evident that the valve II
will alfo be (hut, as alfo the valve v. Now let the valve
I be opened. The deam from the boiler, as eladic as
common air, will rufli into the (pace above the pidon,
and will exert on it a preffure as great as that of the
atmofphere. It will therefore prefs it down, raife the
outer end of the beam, and caufe it to perform the fame
work as an ordinary engine.
When the pidon P has reached the bottom of the
cylinder, the plug frame (huts the valve I, and opens
L. By fo doing the communication is open between
the top and bottom of the cylinder, and nothing hin¬
ders the deam which is above the pidon from going along
the palfage MLON. The piflon is now equally af-
fe£ted on both (ides by the fleam, even though a part of
it is continually condenfed by a cylinder, and in the
pipe IOQ^. Nothing therefore hinders the pidon
from being dragged up by the counter weight, which
a£ls with its whole force, undiminifhed by any remain¬
ing unbalanced eiaflieity of (team. Here therefore this
form of the engine has an advantage (and by no means
a fmall one) over the common engines, in which a great
part of the counter weight is expended in overcoming
unbalanced atmofpheric preffure..
Whenever the pidon P arrives at the top of the cy¬
linder, the valve L is (hut by the plug frame, and the
valves I and v are opened. All the fpace below the pif-
ton is at this time occupied by the deam which came
from the upper part of the cylinder. This being a lit¬
tle w^afled by condenfation, is not quite a balance for
the preffure of the atmofphere. Therefore, during the
afcent of the pidon, the valve R was (hut, and it remains
fo. When, therefore, the valve v is opened, the cold
water of the cidern mud fpout up through the hole 0,
and condenfe the fleam. To this mud be added the
coldnefs of the whole pipe OQS. As fad as it is con¬
denfed, its place is fupplied by fleam from the-lower part
of the cylinder. We have already remarked, that this
fucceffive condenfation is accompli (bed with aflonilhing
rapidity. In the mean time fleam from the boiler
preffes on the upper furface of the pidon. It mult there¬
fore defcend as before, and the engine mud perform a
fecond working droke..
But in the mean time the injeftion water lies in the
bottom of the pipe OQR, heated to a confiderable de¬
gree by the condenfation of the fleam ; alfo a quantity
of air has been difengaged from it and from the water
in the boiler. How is this to be difeharged ? This is
the office of the pumps ST and XY. The capacity of
ST is very great in proportion to the fpace in which the
air and water are lodged. When, therefore^ the pidon
S has got to the top of its courfe, there mull be a va¬
cuum in the barrel of this pump, apd the water and air
mud open the valve R and come into it. When the
piflon i
Steam-
Engine.
S T E
[ <57° ]
S T E
Steam-
Engine.
mfton S comes down again in the next returning ftruke, of the fame dimenfions with a common engine, making
h. . •   .l u r.5ftnn ; tkp fame number of itrokes of the fame extent, does
Steam.
62
Caufes of
its fuperio-
rity over
common
engines are.
the full ope¬
ration of
the coun¬
ter weight,
and great
faving of
.fleam.
this water and air gets through the valve ot the pifton j
and in the next working-ftroke they are difeharged by
the pifton into the pump XY, and railed by its pifton.
The air cfcapes at Y, and as much of the water as is
neceffarv is delivered into the boiler by a fmall pipe Y g
to fa poly its wade. It is a matter of indifference whe¬
ther the pittons S and Z rife with the outer or inner
end of the beam, but it is rather better that they rife
with the inner end. They are other wife drawn here,
in order to detach them from the reft and Ihow them
more diftinftly.
Such is Mr Watt’s fecond engine. Let us examine
its principles, that we may fee the caufes of its avowed
and great fuperiority over the common engines.^
We have already feen one ground of fuperiority, the
full operation of the counter weight. We are autho-
rifed bv careful examination to fay, that in the com¬
mon engines at leaft one-half of the counter weight is
expended in eounterafting an unbalanced preflure of the
air on the pifton during its afeent. In many engines,
winch are not the worft, this extends to •yth of the n hole
preflure. This'is evident fiom the examination of the
engine at Montrelaix by Boffut. This makes a very
great counter weight neceffary, which exhaufts a pro¬
portional part of the moving force,
But the great advantage of Mr Watt’s form is the
almoft total annihilation-of the wafte of fleam by con-
denfation in the cylinder. The cylinder is always boil¬
ing hot, and therefore perfeflly dry. This inuft be evi¬
dent to any perfon who underftands the fubjedl By the
time that Mr Watt had completed his improvements, his
experiments on the production of fleam had given him a
pretty accurate knowledge of its denftty •, and he found
himfelf authorifed to fay, that the quantity of fleam
employed did not exceed twice as much as would fill
the cylinder, fo that not above one-balf was unavoid¬
ably wafted. But before he could bring the engine to
this degree of perfection, he had many difficulties to
overcome : He inclofed the cylinder in an outer wooden
cafe at a fmall diftance from it. This diminiftied the
expenee of heat by communication to furrounding bo¬
dies. Sometimes he allowed the fleam from the boiler
to occupy this interval. This undoubtedly prevented
all diflipation from the inner cylinder •, but in its turn
it diffipated much heat by the outer cafe, and a very
fenftble condenfation was obferved between them. This
has occafioned him to omit this circumftance in fome of
his beft engines. We believe it was omitted in the Al¬
bion mills.
The greateft difficulty was to make the great pifton
tight. The old and effeClual method, by water lying
on it, was inadmiffible. He was therefore obliged to
have his evlinders moft nicely bored, perfectly cylindri¬
cal, and finely polifhed •, and he made numberlefs trials
of different foft fubftances for packing his pifton, which
fliould be tight without enormous friCtion, and which
fliould long remain fo, in a fituation perfectly dry, and
hot almoft to burning.
After all that Mr Watt has done in this refpeCt,
he thinks that the greateft part of the wafte of fleam
which he {till perceives in his engines arifes from the
Unavoidable efcape by the fides of the pifton during its
djsfcent.
But the faCt is, that an engine of this conftruCtion,
Engine
<4
ial
the fame number of ftrokes of the fame extent, doe.
not confume above one-fourth part of the fuel that is
confumed by the beft engines of the common form. It
is alfo a very fortunate circumftance, that the perform¬
ance of the engine is not immediately deftroyed, nor in¬
deed fenfibly diminilhed, by a fmall want of tightnefs
in the pifton. In the common engine, if air get in, in
this way, it immediately puts a flop to the work ; but
although even a eonfiderable quantity of fleam get paft
the piiton during its defeent, the rapidity of condehfa-
tion is fuch, that hardly any diminution of preffure can
be obferved. ^
Mr Watt’s penetration foon difeovered another molt Another
valuable property of this engine. When an engine ofvalual3lp
the common form is ereCted, the engineer mult make an ^°.Per^r
accurate eftimate of the work to be performed, and
muft proportion his engine accordingly. He muft be
careful that it be fu//y able to execute its talk. ; but its
power mult not exceed its load in any extravagant de¬
gree. This would produce a motion which is too ra¬
pid, and which, being alternately in oppofite directions,
would occafion jolts which no building or machineiy
could withfland. Many engines have been fhattered by
the pumps drawing air, or a pump-rod breaking ; by
which accidents the fteam-piflon defeends with fuch ra¬
pidity that every thing gives way. But in moft ope-
Tations of mining, the talk of the engine increafes, and
it muft be fo conitruCted at firft as to be able to bear
this addition. It is very difficult to manage an engine
that is much fuperior to its talk 5 and the eafielt way is,
to have it almoit full loaded, and to work it only during
a few hours each day, and allow the pit -water to accu¬
mulate during its repofe. This increafes the firft coft,
and waftes fuel during the inaCtion of the engine. ^
But this new engine can at all times be exaCtly fitted is, that it
(at leaft during the working ftroke) to the load of work can aiwaj
that then happens to be on it. Wre have only to ad-
minilter fleam of a proper elafticity. At the firft.erec-theeload
tion the engine may be equal to twice its talk, if the which ha;
fteam admitted above the cylinder be equal to that of pens to b<
common boiling water •, but when once the ebullition011 lt
is fairly commenced, and the whole air expelled from
all parts of the apparatus, it is evident, that by damping
the fire, fteam of half this elaftieity may be continually
fupplied, and the water will continue boiling although
its temperature does not exceed 185° of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer. This appears by infpeCting our table of
vaporous elafticity, and affords another argument for
rendering that table more accurate by new experiments.
We hope that Mr Watt will not withhold from the pub¬
lic the knowledge which he has acquired on this fubjedt.
It may very poffibly refult from an accurate inveftiga-
tion, that it would be advifable to work our fteam-en-
with w-eak fleams, and that the diminution of
r'i
nines
work may be more than compenfated by the diminution
of fuel. It is more probable indeed, and it is Mr
Watt’s opinion, that the contrary is the cafe, and that
it is much more economical to employ great heats. .At
any rate, the decifion of this queftion is of gretit im¬
portance for improving the engine ; and rve fee, in the
mean time, that the engine can at all times be fitted fo
as to perform its talk with a moderate and manageable
motion, and that as the talk increafes we can increafe
the power of the engine. ^ ^
S T E
[ 671 ]
S T E
wth Mr
V- t’s fer-
tiljenius
Ctoletely
re'ved.
But the method now propofed has a great inconve¬
nience. While the lleam is weaker than the atmofphere,
there is an external force tending to fqueeze in the lides
and bottom of the boiler. This could not be refilled
when the difference "is confiderable, and common air
would rulh in through every crevice of the boiler and
foon choke the engine: it mull therefore be given up.
But the fame elfetl will be produced by diminilhing
the pafiage for the fleam into the cylinder. For this
purpofe, the puppet valve by which the fleam enters the
cylinder was made in the form of a long taper fpigot,
and it was lodged in a cone of the fame Ihapeq confe-
quently the paffage could be enlarged or contradled at
pleafure by the dillance to which the inner cone was
drawn up.
In this way feveral engines were conllrufled, and the
general purpofe of fuiting the power of the engine to its
talk was completely anfwered : but (as the mathemati¬
cal reader will readily perceive) it was extremely diffi¬
cult to make this adjullment precife and conllant. In
a great machine like this going by jerks, it was hardly
poffible that every fucceffive motion of the valve ffiould
be precifely the fame. This occafioned very fenfible ir¬
regularities in the motion of the engine, which increafed
and became hazardous when the joints worked loofe by
long ufe.
Mr Watt’s genius, always fertile in refources, found
out a complete remedy for all thefe inconveniences.
Making the valve of the ordinary form of a puppet
clack, he adjulled the button of its llalk or tail lb that
it ffiould always open full to the fame height. He then
regulated the pins of the plug-frame, in fuch a manner
that the valve ffiould Ihut the moment that the pillori
had defcended a certain proportion (fuppofe one-fourth,
one-third, one-half, &c.) of the cylinder. So far the
cylinder was occupied by lieam as elallic as common
air. In preffing the pitton farther down, it behoved
the lleam to expand, and its elafticity to diminifh. It
is plain that this could be done in any degree we pleafe,
and that the adjuftment can be varied in a minute, ac¬
cording to the exigency of the cafe, by moving the plug
pins.
In the mean time, it mull be obferved, that the pref-
fure on the piilon is continually changing, and confe-
quently the accelerating force. The motion therefore
will no longer be uniformly accelerated; it will ap¬
proach much falter to uniformity *, nay, it may be re¬
tarded, becaufe although the preffure on the pilton at
the beginning of the Itroke may exceed the refiltance
of the load, yet when the pilton is near the bottom the
refiftance may exceed the preliure. Whatever may be
the law by which the preflure on the piilon varieSj an
ingenious mechanic may contrive the connecting ma¬
chinery in fuch a way that the chains or rods at the
outer end of the beam ffiall continually exert the fame
preffure, or ffiall vary their preffure according to any
law he finds molt convenient. It is in this manner that
the watchmaker, by the form of the fuzes, produces an
equal preflure on the wheel-work by means of a very
unequal action of the main-fpring. In like manner, by
making the outer arch heads portions of a proper fpiral
inltead of a circle, we can regulate the force of the
beam at pleafure.
Thus we fee how much more manageable an engine
is in this form than Newcomen’s was, and alfo more
' 5
eafily invelligated in refpeft of its power in its various Stenm-
pofitions. The knowledge of this lalt circumltance was , £nSine- ^
of mighty confequence, and without it no notion could v 7
be formed of what it could perform. This fuggelted to
Mr Watt the ufe of the barometer communicating with
the cylinder ; and by the knowledge acquired by thefe
means has the machine been fo much improved by its in¬
genious inventor. .
We mull not omit in this place one deduftion made
by Mr Watt from his obfervations, which may be call¬
ed a difcovery of great importance in the theory of the
engine.
Let ABCD (fig. 10.) reprefenta feftion of the cy-^ difcovery
linder of a lleam-engine, and EF the furface of its pi-0f Mr Watt
lion. Let us fuppofe that the iteam was admitted of great
while EF was in contact with AB, and that as foon as!rn^tance
it had prelfed it down to the lituation EF the fteamtheory0f
cock is ffiut. The Iteam will continue to prefs it down, the engme*-
and as the Iteam expands its preffure diminiffies. We Fig. 10.
may exprefs its preffure (exerted all the while the pi¬
lton moves from the fituation AB to the fituation EF)
by the line EF. If we fuppofe the elalticity of the
Iteam proportional to its denfity, as is nearly the cafe
with air, we may exprefa the preffure on the pilton in
any other pofition, fuch as KL or DC, by K / and Dc,
the ordinates of a reftangular hyperbola F/c, of which
AE, AB are the affymptotes, and A the centre. The
accumulated preffure during .the motion of the pilton
from EF to DC will be expreffed by the area EFcDE,
and the preffure during the -whole motion by the area
ABFcDA.
Now it is well known that the area EFcDE is
equal to A BFE multiplied by the hyperbolic logarithm
AD AD
of —— , =L.—and the whole area ABF c DA is^
AE AE’
= asfex(,+i4£).
Thus let the diameter of the pifton be 24 inches, .
and the preffure of the atmofphere on a fquare inch be
14 pounds j the preffure on the pilton is 6333 pounds.
Let the whole Itroke be 6 feet, and let the Iteam be
Hopped when the piffion has defcended 18 inches, or 1.5
feet. The hyperbolic logarithm of is 1.3862943.
Therefore the accumulated preffure ABFcD Aiszs
6333X 2-3862943, =15114 pounds.
As few profeffional engineers are poffeffed of a table
of hyperbolic logarithms, while tables of common lo¬
garithms are or ffiould be in the hands of every perfon
who is much engaged in mechanical calculations, let
the following method be pradtifed. Take the common
AD
logarithm of —, and multiply it by 2.3026j the pro-
Aii
AD
du<ff is the hyperbolic logarithm of
The accumulated preffure while the pilton moves
from AB to EF is 6333 X L or limply 6333 pounds,
Therefore the Iteam while it expands into the whole
cylinder adds a preffure of 8781 pounds.
Suppofe that the Iteam had got free admiffion during
the whole defcent of the pillon, the accumulated prel-
fure would have been 6333 X4? or 25332 pounds.
Here Mr Watt obferved a remarkable refult. The
fleam expended in this cafe would have been four times
greater
Steam-
Engine.
Plate
Din.
fig. ii.
71
Defcrip-
tion of Mr
Watt’s
fleam-en¬
gine in its
moft im¬
proved
ftate.
S T E [ 67
gfeater than when it was {lopped at one-fourth, and yet
the accumulated preflure is not twice as great, being
nearly five-thirds. One-fourth of the fleam performs
nearly three-fifths of the work, and an equal quantity
performs more than twice as much work when thus ad¬
mitted during one-fourth of the motion.
This is a curious and an important information, and
the advantage of this method of working a lleam-engine
increafes in proportion as the fleam is fooner Hopped )
but the increafe is not great after the fleam is rarefied
four times. The curve approaches near to the axis,
and fmall additions are made tp the area. The expence
of fuch great cylinders is confiderable, and may fome-
times compenfate this advantage.
Let the fleam be flopped at Its performance Is mult.
2.1
2,4
2.6
2.8
3-
3-2
&c.
It is very pleafing to obfcrve fo many unlooked-for
advantages refulting from an improvement made with
the foie view of leffening the walle of fleam by conden-
fation. While this purpofe is gained, we learn how to
hufband the fleam which is not thus Availed. The en¬
gine becomes more manageable, and is more eafily adapt¬
ed to every variation in its talk, and all its powers are
more eafily computed.
The adlive mind of its ingenious inventor did not Hop
here : It had always been matter of regret that one-half
of the motion was unaccompanied by any Avork. It Avas
a very obvious tiling to Mr Watt, that as the Hearn ad¬
mitted above the pilton preffed it down, lo fleam admit¬
ted beloAV the pillon preffed it up with the fame force,
provided that a vacuum Avere made on its upper fidei
This Avas eafily done, by connecting the lower end of
the cylinder Avith the boiler and the upper end Avith the
condenfer.
Fig. 11. is a reprefentation of this conflruClion exact¬
ly copied from Mr Watt’s figure accompanying his fpe-
cification. Here BE is a feClion of the cylinder, fur-
rounded at a fmall diflance by the cafe 1111. The fee-
tion of the piflon A, and the collar of leathers which
embraces the piflon rod, gives a diftinft notion of its
conftruClion, of the manner in which it is conneCled
Avith the pifton-rod, and hoAV the packing of the piflon
and collar contributes to make all tight.
From the top of the cylinder proceeds the horizontal
pipe. Above the letter D is obfen'ed the feat of the
fleam valve, communicating Avith the box above it. In
the middle of this may be obferved a dark fliaded circle.
This is the mouth of the upper branch of the fleam pipe
coming from the boiler. Beyond D, beloAV the letter
N, is the feat of the upper condenling valve. The bot¬
tom of the cylinder is made fpherical, fitting the piflon,
fo that they may come into entire contaft. Another
horizontal pipe proceeds from this bottom. Above the
letter E is the feat of the loAver fleam valve, opening
into the valve box. This box is ai the extremity of
, another fleam pipe marked C, which branches off from
the upper horizontal part, and defeends obliquely, com-
&c.
2 ] S T E
ing forAvard to the eye. The lower part is reprefented Stalin l
as cut open, to IhoAV its interior conformation. Beyond ^Engine, I
this fleam valve, and beloAV the letter F, may be ob- “in
ferved the feat of the lower condenfing valve. A pipe
defeends from hence, and at a fmall diftance below
unites Avith another pipe GG, Avhich comes down from
the upper condenfing valve N. Thefe two edu&ion-
pipes thus united go doAvnAvards, and open at L into a
re&angular box, of Avhich the end is feen at L. This
box goes backward from the eye, and at its farther ex-*
tremity communicates Avith the air-pump K, whofe pif-
ton is here reprefented in fedlion Avith its butterfly valves.
The pifton delivers the AArater and air laterally into ano¬
ther redlangular box M, darkly {haded, Avhich box
communicates with the pump I. The pifton-rods of
this and of the air-pump are fufpended by chains from
a fmall arch head on the inner arm of the great beam.
The lower part of the edu6lion-pipe, the horizontal box
L, the air-pump K, Avith the communicating box M be-
tween it and the pump I, are all immerfed in the cold
Water of the condenfing ciflern. The box L is made
flat, broad, and IhalloAV, in order to increafe its furface
and accelerate the condenfation. But that this may be
performed with the gteateft expedition, a fmall pipe H,
open beloAV (but occafionally flopped by a plug valve),
is inferted laterally into the eduftiott-pipe G, and then
divides into Iavo branches ; one of Avhich reaches Avithirt
a foot or Iavo of the upper valve N, and the other ap¬
proaches as heat to the valve F.
As it is intended by this conHruftion to give the pi¬
fton a ftrohg impulfe in both diredlions, it will not be
proper to fufpend its rod by a chain from the great
beam ; for it mull not only pull down that end of the
beam, but alfo pulh it upwards. It may indee'd be >
fufpended by double chains like the pi Hons of the en¬
gines for extinguilhlng fires •, and Mr Watt has accor¬
dingly done fo in fotne of his engines. But in his
drawing from which this figure is copied, he has com¬
municated the force of the pifton to the beam by means
of a toothed rack OO, Avhich engages or Avorks in thfe
toothed fe&or ££ on the end of the beam. The rea-
der will undetftand, without any farther explanation,
hoAV the impulfe given to the pifton in either direction
is thus tranfmitted to the beam without diminution.
The fly XX, with its pinion Y, Avhich alfo Avorks in
the toothed arch Q£>, may be fuppofed to be removed
for the prefent, and will be confidered aftenvards.
We {hall take the prefent opportunity of deferibing
Mr Watt’s method of communicating the force of the
fleam-engine to any machine of the rotatory kind.
VV reprefents the rim and arms of a very large and
heavy metalline fly. On its axis is the concentric
toothed Avheel U. There is attached to the end of the
great beam a ftrong and ft ill rod 1 I, to the loA'-er end
of Avhich a toothed Avheel is firmly fixed by Iavo
bolts, fo that it cannot turn round. This Avheel is of
the fame fizo and in the fame vertical plane with the
wheel U ; and an iron link or {trap (which cannot be
feen here, beCaufe it is on the other fide of the two
wheels) conne&s the centres of the two Avheels, fo that
the one cannot quit the other. I he engine being in
the pofition reprefented in the figure, fuppofe the fly to
be turned once round by any external force in the di-
re&ion of the darts. It is plain, that fince the toothed
Avheels cannot quit each other, being kept together by
Steam Engine .
/'/.ATE DI.
BEICtHTON’S steam engine
WATT’S STEAM ENGINE.
PLATE mil.
FLA T E Df V.
A’. AfUcktU ScJp1
S T E [
S»*am- the link, the inner half (that is, the half next the cylin-
Engwe. far) of the wheel U will wTork on the inner half of the
v wheel W, fo that at the end of the revolution of the
.fly the wheel W mud have got to the top of the wheel
U, and the outer end of the beam mud be raifed to its
higheft pofition. The next revolution of the fly will
bring the wheel W and the beam connefted with it to
their firfl: pofitions*, and thus every two revolutions
of the fly will make a complete period of the beam’s re¬
ciprocating movements. Now, inftead of fuppofmg the
fly to drive the beam, let the beam drive the fly. The
motions muft be perfeftly the fame, and the afcent or
defcent of the pifton will produce one revolution of the
%•
.12. A fide view of this apparatus is given in fig. 12.
marked by the fame letters of reference. This {hows
the fituation of parts which were fore-fliortened in fig.
ix. particularly the defcending branch C of the fleam-
pipe, and the fituation and communications of the two
pumps K and I. 8, 8 is the horizontal part of the fleam-
pipe. 9 is a part of it whofe box is rcprefented by the
dark circle of fig. n. D is the box of the fleam-
clack; and the little circle at its corner reprefents the
end of the axis which turns it, as will be defcrihed af¬
terwards. N is the place of the upper edu6iion valve.
A part only of the upper eduftion-pipe G is reprefent-
ed, the reft being cut off, becaufe it would have covered
the defcending fleam-pipe CC. When continued dorvn,
it comes between the eye and the box E of the lower
fleam-valve, and the box F of the lower eduiffion-valve.
Let us now trace the operation of this machine
through all its fteps. Recurring to fig. n. let us fup-
pofe that the lower part of the cylinder BB is exhauft-
ed of all elaftic fluids; that the upper fleam-valve D and
the lower eduftion-valve F are open, and that the lower
fleam-valve E and upper eduftion-valve N are fliut. It
is evident that the pifton muft be prefled toward the bot¬
tom of the cylinder, and muft pull down the end of the
working beam by means of the toothed rack OO and
feflor QQ, caufing the other end of the beam to urge
forward the machinery with which it is connefted.
When the pifton arrives at the bottom of the cylinder,
the valves D and F are {hut by the plug frame, and E
and N are opened. By this laft paflage the fleam gets
into the eduftion-pipe, where it meets with the injeftion
water, and is rapidly condenfed. The fleam from the
boiler enters at the fame time by E, and preffing on
the lower fide of the pifton, forces it upwards, and by
means of the toothed rack OO and toothed feftor 0(^
forces up that end of the working beam, and caufes the
other end to urge forward the machinery with which it
is connefted: and in this manner the operation of the
engine may be continued for ever.
The injeftion water is continually running into the
eduftion-pipe, becaufe condenfation is continually go¬
ing on, and therefore there is a continual atmofpheric
preflure to produce a jet. The air which is difengaged
from the water, or enters by leaks, is evacuated only
during the rife of the pifton of the air-pump K. When
this is very copious, it renders a very large air-pump
neceflfary; and in fome fituations Mr Watt has been
obliged to employ two air-pumps, one worked by each
arm of the beam. This in every cafe expends a very
confiderable portion of the power, for the air-pump is
Vol. XIX. Part II.
673 ] S T E
always working again!! the whole preffure of the atmo-
fphere.
It is evident that this form of the engine, by main¬
taining an almoft conftant and uninterrupted impulfion,
is much fitter for driving any machinery of continued
motion than any of the former engines, which were'in-
aftive during half of their motion. It does not, how¬
ever, feem to have this fuperiority when employed to
draw water: But it is equally fitted for this talk. Let
the engine be loaded with twice as much as would be
proper for it if a fingle-ftroke engine, and let a fly be
connefted with it. Then it is plain that the power of
the engine during the rife of the fteam-pifton will be ac¬
cumulated in the fly; and this, in conjunftion with the
power of the engine during the defcent of the fteam-pi¬
fton, will be equal to the whole load of water.
In fpeaking of the fteam and eduftion-valves, we faid
that they were all puppet-valves. Mr Watt employed
cocks, and alfo fliding-valves, fuch as the regulator or
fteam-valves in the old engines. But he found them
always lofe their tightnefs after a fhort time. This is
not iurprifing, when we confider that they are always
perfeftly dry, and almoft burning hot. He was there¬
fore obliged to change them all for puppet-clacks,
which, when truly ground and nicely fitted in their
motions at firft, are not found to go out of order by any
length of time. Other engineers now univerfally ufe
them in the old form of the fteam-engine, without the
fame reafons, and merely by fervile and ignorant imita¬
tion.
The rvay in which Mr Watt opens and fhuts thefekig. 1
valves is as follows. Fig. 13. reprefents a clack {with
its feat and box. Suppofe it one of the eduftion-valves.
HH is part of the pipe which introduces the fteam, and
GG is the upper part of the pipe which communicates
with the condenfer. At EE may be obferved a piece
more faintly lhaded than the furrounding parts. This
is the feat of the valve, and is a brafs or bell-metal ring-
turned conical on the outfide, fo as to fit exaftly into a
conical part of the pipe GG. Thefe two pieces are
fitted by grinding; and the cone being of a long ta¬
per, the ring fticks firmly in it, efpecially after having-
been there for fome time and united by ruft. The clack
itfelf is a ftrong brafs plate D, turned conical on the
edge, fo as to fit the conical or floping inner edge of the
feat. Thefe are very nicely ground on each other with
emery. This conical joining is much more obtufe than
the outer fide of the ring; fotbat although the joint is
air-tight, the two pieces do not ftick ftrongly together.
The clack has a round tail DG, which is freely move-
able up and down in the hole of a crofs piece FF. On
the upper fide of the valve is a ftrong piece of metal DC
firmly joined to it, one fide of which is formed into a
toothed rack. A is the feftion of an iron axle which
turns in holes in the oppofite fides of the valve-box,
where it is nicely fitted by grinding, fo as to be air¬
tight. Collets of thick leather, well foaked in melted
tallow and rofin, are ferewed on the outfide of thefe holes
to prevent all ingrefs of air. One end of this axis pro-
jefts a good way without the box, and carries a fpanner
or handle, which is moved by the plug-frame. To this
axis is fixed a ftrong piece of metal B, the edge of
which is formed into an arch of a circle having the axis
A in its centre, and is cut into teeth, which work in tho
4 Q. teeth
Stcam^
Engine.
S T E [ 674 ] S T E
Steam- teeth of the rack DC. K is a cover which is fixed by
Engine. fcrews to the top of the box HJJH, and may be taken
oft' in order to get at the valve when it needs repairs.
From this defcription it is eafy to fee that by turn¬
ing the handle which is on the axis A, the feftor B
mmt lift up the valve by means of its toothed rack DC,
till the upper end of the rack touch the knob or button
K. Turning the handle in the oppofite dire<ftion brings
the valve down again to its feat.
This valve is extremely tight. But in order to open
it for the paftage of the fleam, we muft exert a force
equal to the prdTure of the atmofphere. This in a large
engine is a very great rveight. A valve of fix inches
diameter fuftains a preffure not lefs that 400 pounds.
But this force is quite momentary, and hardly impedes
the motion of the engine; for the inttant the valve is
detached from its feat, although it has not moved the
100th part of an inch, the preflure is over. Even this
little incom^enience has been removed by a delicate
thought of Mr Watt. He has put the fpanner in fuch
a pofition when it begins to raife the valve, that its me¬
chanical energy is almoft infinitely great. Let QR
(fig. 14.) be part of the plug-frame defcending, and P
one of its pins juft going to lay hold of the fpanner NO
moveable round the axis N. On the fame axis is ano¬
ther arm NM connefted by a joint Avith the leader
ML, Avhich is eonneffed alfo by a joint Avith the Ipan-
ner LA that is on the axis A of the fe&or within the
valve-box. Therefore when the pin P pulhes doAvn
the fpanner NO, the arm NM moves fideAvife and pulls
down the fpanner AL by means of the connefling rod.
Things are fo difpofed, that when the cock is (hut, LM
and MN are in one ftraight line. The intelligent me¬
chanic Avill perceive that, in this pofition, the force of
the lever ONM is infuperable. It has this further ad¬
vantage, that if any thing flrould tend to force open the
valve, it Avould be ineffedtual; for no force exerted at
A, and tranfmitted by the rod LM, can polfibly pulh
the joint M out of its pofition. Of fuch importance is
it to praflieal mechanics, that its profeflbrs fhould be
perfons of penetration as well as knowledge. Yet this
circumflance is unheeded by hundreds Avho have fervilely
copied from Mr Watt, as may be feen in every engine
that is puffed on the public as a difeovery and an im¬
provement. When thefe puppet-valves have been in¬
troduced into the common engine, xve have not feen one
inftance Avhere this has been attended to 5 certainly be-
caufe its utility has not been obferved : and there is one
fituation where it is of more confequence than in Mr
Watt’s engine, viz. in the injection cock. Here the
valve is draAvn back into a box, Avhere the water is fo
aAvkwardly difpofed round it that it can hardly get oat of
its Avay, and where the preffure even exceeds that of the
atmofphere. Indeed this particular fubftitution of the
button valve for the cock is moft injudicious.
We poftponed any account of the office of the fly
XX (fig. 11."), as it is not of ufe in an engine regulated
by the fly VV. The fly XX is only for regulating the
reciprocating motion of the beam Avhen the fleam is not
admitted during the whole defeent of the pifton. This
it evidently muft render mere uniform, accumulating a
momentum equal to the Avhole preffure of the full fup-
ply of fleam, and then fharing it with the beam during
the reft of the defeent of the pifton.
When a perfon properly fkilled in mechanics and
chemiftry reviews thefe different forms of Mr Watt’s Steam-.
fleam-engine, he will eafily perceive them fufceptible of Engine.-
many intermediate forms, in Avhich any one or more of ^
the diftinguifhing improvements may be employed. The Review of
firft great improvement was the condenfation in a fepa- Mr Watt’s
rate veffel. This increaled the original powers of the ffiree great
engine, giving to the atmofpherie preffure and to the^Pr°ve'
counter-Aveight their full energy •, at the fame time the
wafte of fleam is greatly diminifhed. The next im¬
provement, by employing the preffure of the fleam in-
ftead of that of the atmofphere, aimed only at a ftill
farther diminution of the wafte; but Avas fertile in ad¬
vantages, rendering the machine more manageable, and
particularly enabled us at all times, and Avithout trou¬
ble, to fuit the power of the engine to its load of Avork,
however variable and increafing } and brought into view
a very interefting propofition in the mechanical theory
of the engine, viz. that the whole performance of a
given quantity of fleam may be augmented by admitting
it into the cylinder only during a part of the pifton’s
motion. Mr’Watt has varied the application of this
propofition in a thoufand ways 5 and there is nothing
about the machine Avhich gives more employment to the
fagacity and judgment of the engineer. I he third
improvement of the double impulfe may be confidered
as the finifhing touch given to the engine, and renders
it as uniform in its a<5lion as any water-wheel. In the
engine in its moft perfedl form there does not feem to
be above one-fourth of the fleam Avafted by Avarming
the apparatus •, fo that it is not pojjible to make it one- ^
fourth part more powerful than it is at prefent. 1 he The only
only thing that feems fufceptible of confiderable improve-improve¬
ment is the great beam. The enormous ftrains exerted"1®”1
on its arms require a proportional Itrength. J nis re-t(> Rrengt},.
quires a vaft mafs of matter, not lefs indeed in an en-e,n the great
gine with a cylinder of 54 inches than three tons and abeam,
half, moving Avith the velocity of three feet in a fecond,
which muft be communicated in about half a fecond.
This mafs muft be brought into motion from a ftate of
reft, muft again be brought to reft, again into motion,
and again to reft, to complete the period of a ftroke.
This confumes much potverj and Mr Watt has not been
able to load an engine Avith more than 10 or 11 pounds
on the inch and preferve a fufficient quantity ot motion,
fo as to make 12 or 15 fix-feet ftrokes in a fecond.
Many attempts haAre been made to lefl'en this mafs by
ufing a light framed Avheel, or a light frame of carpen¬
try, in place of a folid beam, i hefe have generally
been conilrufled by perfons ignorant of the true Icien-
tific principles of carpentry, and have fared according¬
ly. Mr Watt has made fimil&r attempts 5 but found,
that although at firft they Avere abundantly ftrong, yet
after a ftiort time’s employment the ftraps and bolts Avitli
which tbe Avooden parts Avere connefled cut their way
into the Avood, and the framing greAv loofe in the joints,
and, without giving any Avarning, Avent to pieces in an
inftant. A folid maffy firnple beam, of fufficient Itrength,
bends, and fenfibly complains (as the carpenters exprefs
it), before it breaks. In all great engines, therefore,
fuch only are employed, and in Imaller engines he fome-
times ufes call-iron Avheelsor pulleys; nay, he frequent¬
ly ufes no beam or equivalent whatever, but employs the-
fteam-pifton rod to drive the machinery to which the
engine is applied.
We prefume that our thinking readers will not be
difpleaitd
S T E [ 675 ] S T E
Steam- difpleafed with this rational hiftory of the progrefs of
Engine, engine in the hands of its ingenious and worthy in-
“ ^ ventor. We owe it to the communications of a friend,
lr Watt well acquainted with him, and able to judge of his
.ociated merits. The public fee him always affociated with the
iith Mr no lefs celebrated mechanic and philofopher Mr Boulton
.mlton. 0p g0])0 near Birmingham (fee Soho). They have
•lhared the royal patent from the beginning ; and the
alliance is equally honourable to both.
'hence The advantages derived from the patent right fhow
ieir pro- both the fuperiority of the engine and the liberal minds
:s are de- of the proprietors. They erefl the engines at the ex-
ved in e- pence of the employers, or give working drafts of all
•ies^ ^ ^ie Prt3’ vv^b i^ftruftions, by which any refident en¬
gineer may execute the work. The employers feledt
the belt engine of the ordinary kind in the kingdom,
compare the quantities of fuel expended by each, and
pay to Meffrs Watt and Boulton one-third of the an¬
nual favings for a certain term of years. By this the
patentees are excited to do their utmoft to make the
engine perfect; and the employer pays in proportion to
the advantage he derives from it.
It may not be here improper to Hate the actual per¬
formance of fome of thefe engines, as they have been
^ afcertained by experiment.
I hat the An engine having a cylinder of 31 inches in diame-
aial per- ter, and making 17 double ftrokes per minute, performs
mance of^g Work of forty horfes working night and day (for
feen which three relays or 1 20 horfes mutt* be kept), and
burns 11,000 pounds of Staffordfhire coal per day. A
cylinder of 19 inches, making 25 ftrokes of 4 feet each
per minute, performs the work of 12 horfes working
conftantly, and burns 3700 pounds of coals per day.
A cylinder of 24 inches, making 22 ftrokes of 5 feet,
burns 5500 pounds of coals, and is equivalent to the
conftant work of 20 horfes. And the patentees think
themfelves authorized by experience to fay in general,
that thefe engines will raife more than 20,000 cubic
feet of wrater 24 feet high for every hundred weight of
good pit-coal confumed by them.
In confequence of the great fuperiority of Mr Watt’s
engines, both with refpeft to economy and manageable-
nefs, they have become of moft extenfive ufe j and in
every demand of manufacture on a great fcale they of-
77 fer us an indefatigable fervant, whofe ftrengtb has no
]-poled to bounds. The greateft mechanical projeft that ever en-
'kV*36 the attention of man was on the point of being
dvrl™ executed by this machine. The States ox Holland were
tr fteam- treating with Meffrs Watt and Boulton for draining the
'line. Haerlem Pvleer, and even reducing the Zuyder Zee:
and we doubt not but that it will be accomplifhed when¬
ever that unhappy nation has fufficiently felt the diffe¬
rence between liberty and foreign tyranny. Indeed fuch
unlimited powers are afforded by this engine, that the
engineer now thinks that no talk can be propofed to him
7S which he cannot execute with profit to his employer.
’’I! at- No wonder then that all claffes of engineers have
Jiptsto turned much of their attention to this engine •, and fee-
^15 Watt’ t^at 1't ^ias d°ne wiuch, that they try to make it
yine in <^° Hill more. Numberlefs attempts have been made to
yeralof improve Mr Watt’s engine •, and it would occupy a vo-
T'e-ad- lume to give an account of thercq whilft that account
ta£e > would do no more than indulge curiofity. Our engi¬
neers by profeflxon are in general miferably deficient in
that accurate knowledge of mechanics and of chemiftry
which is neceffary for underftanding this machine ; and Stearr-
we have not heard of one in this kingdom who can be , 1 'H‘- i
put on a par with the prefent patentees in this refpedft.
Moft of the attempts ot engineers have been made with
the humbler view of availing themlelves of Mr Watt’s
difeoveries, fo as to conilruct a Iteam-engine fuperior to
Newcomen’s, and yet of a form fufficiently different
from Watt’s to keep it without the reach of his patent.
This they have in general accompliftied by performing
the condenfation in a place which, with a little ftretdb
of fancy, not unfrequent in a court of law, may be called
part of the cylinder. - ^
The fueeefs of moft of thefe attempts has interfered ard the
fo little with the intereft of the patentees, that they iuc^e!j ot
have not hindered the eredtion of many engines which
the law would have deemed encroachments. We think the other,
it our duty to give our opinion on this fubjedt without
referve. Thefe are moft expenfive undertakings, and
few employers are able to judge accurately of the me¬
rits of a projedt prefented to them by an ingenious ar-
tift. They may lee the pradticability of the feheme, by
having a general notion of the expanfion and cendenfa-
tion of fteam, and they may be milled by the ingenuity
apparent in the conftrudlion. The engineer himfelf is
frequently the dupe of his own ingenuity ; and it is not
always dilhonefty, but frequently ignorance, which
makes him prefer his own invention or (as he thinks it)
improvement. It is a moft delicate engine, and requires
much knowledge to fee what does and what does not
improve its performance. We have gone into the pre¬
ceding minute inveftigation of Mr Watt’s progrefs with
the exprefs purpofe of making our readers fully mafters
of its principles, and have more than once pointed out
the real improvements, that they may be firmly fixed
and always ready in the mind. By having recourfe to
them, the reader may pronounce with confidence on the
merits of any new conftrudlion, and will not be decei¬
ved by the puffs of an ignorant or diflioneft engineer. j0
We muff; except from this general criticifm a con-Exception
ftruflion by Mr Jonathan Hornblower near Briftol, on^ntavour
account of its Angularity, and the ingenuity and real^M^j
{kill which appears in fome particulars of its conftruc- cr
tion. The following ftiorl defeription will fufficiently
explain its principle, and enable our readers to appre¬
ciate its merit.
A and B (fig. 15.) reprefent two cylinders, of which Plate
A is the largeft. A pifton moves in each, having their P'lv*
rods C and D moving through collars at E and F. Defeription
Thefe cylinders may be fupplied with fleam from the of his
boiler by means of the fquare pipe G, which has a flanch fteam-en-
to connedt it with the reft of the fteam-pipe. This S*ne'
fquare part is reprefented as branching off to both cy¬
linders. c and d are two cocks, which have handles
and tumblers as ufual, worked by the plug-beam W.
On the fore-fide (that is, the fide next the eye) of the
cylinders is reprefented another communicating pipe,
whofe fedlion is alfo fquare or rectangular, having alfo
two cocks a, b. The pipe Y, immediately under the
cock Z>, eftablifhes a communication between the upper
and lower parts of the fmall cylinder B, by opening
the cock b. There is a fimilar pipe on the other fide
of the cylinder A, immediately under the cock d.
When the cocks c and a are open, and the cocks b and
d are ftiut, the fteam from the boiler has free admiflion
into the upper part of the cylinder B, and the fteaiu
4 Q, 2 from
S T E [ 676 ] S T E
Steam- from the lower part of B has free admifTion into the
Engine. Upper part of A j but the upper part of each cylinder
“'~'v has no communication with its lower part.
From the bottom of the great cylinder proceeds the
edu£Hon-pipe K, having a valve at its opening into the
cylinder, which bends downwards, and is connefted
with the conical condenfer L (c). The condenfer is
iixed on a hollow box M, on which Hand the pumps N
and O, for extradting the air and water j which laft
runs along the trough T into a ciftern U, from which
it is raifed by the pump V for recruiting the boiler, be¬
ing already nearly boiling hot. Immediately under the
condenfer there is a fpigot-valve at S, over which is a
fmall jet-pipe, reaching to the bend of the edu£tion-
pipe. The whole of the condenfmg apparatus is con¬
tained in a ciltern R of cold wTater. A fmall pipe P
comes from the fide of the condenfer, and terminates on
the bottom of the trough T, and is there covered rvith
a valve £>, which is kept tight by the water that is al-
ways running over it. Laitly, the pump-rods X caufe
the outer end of the beam to preponderate, fo that the
quiefcent polition of the beam is that reprefented in the
figure, the piftons being at the top of the cylinders.
Suppofe all the cocks open, and fleam corning in
' eopioufly from the boiler, and no condenfation going on
in Lj the fleam mull drive out all the air, and at laft
follow it through the valve O. Now Hint the valves b
and d, and open the valve S of the condenfer. The
condenfation will immediately commence. There is
now' no preffure on the under fide of the pillon of A,
and it immediately defcends. The communication be¬
tween the lower part of B and the upper part of A
being open, the fleam will go from B into the fpace
left by the piilon of A. It mull therefore expand,
and its elaflicity muft diminifh, and will no longer ba¬
lance the preffure of the fleam above the piflon of B.
This piflon therefore, if not withheld by the beam,
would defcend till it is in equilibrio, having fleam of
equal denfity above and below it. But it cannot de¬
fcend fo far ; for the cylinder A is wider than B, and
the arm of the beam at which its piflon hangs is longer
than the arm which fupports the pillon of B: therefore
when the piilon of B has defeended as far as the beam
will permit it, the fleam betrveen the two piftons occu¬
pies a larger fpace than it did when both piftons were
at the tops of their cylinders. Its denfity, therefore,
and its elaflicity, diminilh as its bulk increafes. It is
therefore not a balance ; for the fleam on the upper fide
of B, and the pifton B, pulls at the beam with all the
difference of thefe preffures. The flighteft view of the
fubieft muft Ihow the reader, that as the piftons de-
feend, the fleam that is between them will grow conti¬
nually rarer and lefs elaftic, and that both piftons will
pull the beam downwards.
Suppofe now that each has reached the bottom of its
cylinder. Shut the cock a and the eduction-cock at
the bottom of A, and open the cocks b and d. The
communication being now ellablifhed between the upper
and lower part of each cylinder, nothing hinders the
counter weight from raifing the piflons to the top. Let
them arrive there. The cylinder B is at this time fill- Steam,
ed with fleam of the ordinary denfity, and the cylin- ^aginev
der A with an equal abfolute quantity of fleam, but ex- ~'v' '
panded into a larger fpace.
Shut the cocks b and d, and open the cock a, and
the edu£tion-cock at the bottom of A \ the conden¬
fation will again operate, and the piftons defcend. And
thus the operation may be repeated as long as fleam is
fupplied 5 and one full of the cylinder B of ordinary
fleam is expended during each working ftroke.
Let us now examine the power of this engine. It is
evident, that when both piflons are at the top of their
relpeClive cylinders, the aCtive preffure (that is, the dif¬
ference of the preffure on its two fides) on the piflon
of B is nothing, while that on the piflon of A is equal
to the full preffure of the atmofphere on its area. This,
multiplied by the length of the arm by which it is fup-
ported, gives its mechanical energy. As the piftons
defcend, the preffure on the pifton of B increafes, while
that on the pifton of A diminilhes. When both are at
the bottom, the preffure on the pifton of B is at its
maximum, and that on the pifton of A at its mini¬
mum.
Mr Hornblower faw that this muft be a beneficial
employment of fleam, and preferable to the practice of
condenfing it while its full elaflicity remained ; but he
has not confidered it with the attention neceflary for af-
certaining the advantage with precifion.
Let a and b reprefent the areas of the piflons of A
and B, and let « and /3 be the lengths of the arms by
which they are fupported. It is evident, that when
both piftons have arrived at the bottoms of their cylin¬
ders, the capacities of the cylinders are as and b(2.
Let this be the ratio of rn to 1. Let g Ji 1 k (fig. 16.)
and Imno be two cylinders of equal length, communi¬
cating with each other, and fitted with a piflon-rod p y,
on which are fixed two piftons a a and bb, v. hofe areas
are a* m and 1. Let the diftanee between the piflons
be precifely equal to the height of each cylinder, which
height we fhall call h. Let x be the fpace g b or bo,
through which the piftons have defeended. Let the
upper cylinder communicate with the boiler, and the
lower cylinder with the condenfer or vacuum V.
Any perfon in the lead converfant in mechanics and
pneumatics will clearly fee that the flrain or preffure on
the piflon-rod pq is precifely the fame with the united
energies of the two pifton rods of Mr Hornblower’s en¬
gine, by which they tend to turn the working beam
round its axis.
The bafe of the upper cylinder being I, and its
height h, its capacity or bulk is \h or h; and this ex-
preffes the natural bulk of the fleam which formerly fil¬
led it, and is now expanded into the fpace bhlaatnib.
The part bhib is plainly —h—x, and the part /a atn is
•rzmx. The whole fpace, therefore, is mx-\-h—x,
— —x, or h-\-m—ix. Therefore the denfity of
, .n . h
the fleam between the piflons is rrr—-—.
h -}- m— 1 x
Let p be the downward preffure of the fleam from
J the
(c) This, however, was flopped by Watt’s patent; and the condenfatien muff be performed
Engine, or at leafl in the cylinder A,
as in Newcomen’s
o
t? >)_
team-
ngine.
S T E
the boiler on the upper pifton l h.
prelTed up with a force
This
-P
h -j-m — i x
between the piftons. It is therefore, on the whole,
prefled downward with a force ^
-0
[ 677 ] s T E
pitton is alfo exprefles the accumulated preflure in Hornblower’s en¬
gine.
We can now compute the accumulated preflure very
:^X (.+L4|).
by the fleam
)•
eafdy. It is evidently
Steam-
Engine,
—-y——
8a
/i-j-m—1 x
The lower piflon a a, having a vacuum below it, is pref-
fed downwards with a force —p —, There-
—1 x
fore the whole preflure on the piflon rod dotvmvards
if ?n h h \ (
18 ^ ( 1 +  = p (
' n-\-m—1 x h-\~m—1 x' \
h
1 +
h-\-
— I h \
^=—J, —p-\~
m—I x/
p h m~
p h
k -|-7/7—-1 x
A?
This then is the momentary preflure on the piflon
rod corresponding to its defeent x from its highefl pofi-
tion. When the piflons are in their higheft pofition,
this preffure is equal to m p. When they are in their
lotveft pofition, it is —p Here therefore is an
m
acceffion of popfer. In the beginning the preflure is
greater than on a Angle pifton in the proportion of m to
I ; and at the end of the flroke, where the preflure is
weakeft, it is flill much greater than the preflure on a
fingle piflon. Thus, if m be 4, the preflure at the be-
ginning of the flroke is 4/*, and at the end it is-/?, al-
. . ^4
jnoft double, and in all intermediate pofitions it is great¬
er. It is worth while to obtain the fum total of all the
accumulated preflures, that we may compare it with the
conftant preflure on a fingle pifton.
We may do this by confidering the momentary pref-
T) Ji
fure p^ , as equal to the ordinate GF, H/>»,
or M c, of a curve ¥ b c (fig. 10.), which has for
its axis the line GM equal to h the height of our cy¬
linder,
p h
m—1
p h
Call this
and ?j—p:
ordinate y.
p h
We have y — p -\-
Now it is plain that
is the ordinate of an equilateral hyperbola,
 —l~x
771 I
of which p h is the power or re<51angle of the ordinate
and abfeifs, and of which the abfeifs reckoned from the
©entre is \-x. Therefore make GE =r /?, and
m—1
GM
draw DEA parallel to MG, and make EA=
h
~  . The curve F £ is an equilateral hyperbola
having A for its centre and AH for its aflymptote.
Draw the other aflymptote AB, and its ordinate FB.
Since the power of the hyperbola is ~p //, mGEDM
(for GE—/?, and GMzr^) ; and fince all the inferi-
bed reflangles, fuch as AEEB, are equal to p h, it fol
lows that AEFB is equal to GEDM, and that the
area ABF c HA is equal to the area GF c MG, which
The intelligent reader cannot but obferve that this is The accu*
precifely the fame with the accumulated preflure of amuj£tec*
quantity of fleam admitted in the beginning, and ftop-ji'^,
ped in Mr Watt’s method, when the pifton has defeen-wjt'a that
ded through the mih part of the cylinder. In con-of Mr
fidering Mr Flornblower’s engine, the thing was pre-^yatt’s ctl
fented in fo different a form that we did not perceiveSine*
the analogy at tirft, and we were furprifed at the refult.
We could not help even regretting it, becaufe it had the
appearance of a new principle and an improvement ;
and we doubt not but that it appeared fo to the in¬
genious author 5 for we have had fuch proofs of his
liberality of mind as permit us not to fuppofe that he
faw it from the beginning, and availed bimfelf of the
difficulty of tracing the analogy. And as the thing
may miflead others in the fame way, rve have done a
fervice to the public by fliowing that tiffs engine, fo
coftly and fo difficult in its conftru&ion, is no way fu-
perior in power to Mr Watt’s Ample method of flop¬
ping the fleam. It is even inferior, becaufe there muft
be a condenfation in the communicating paffages. We
may add, that if the condenfation is performed in the
cylinder A, which it muft be unlefs with the permif-
fion of Watt and Boulton, the engine cannot be much
fuperior to a common engine •, for much of the fleam
from below B will be condenfed between the piflons by
the coldnefs of the cylinder A 5 and this diminiffies the
downward preffure on A more than it increafes the
downward preflure on B. We learn however that, by
confining the condenfation to a fmall pari of the cylinder
A, Mr Hornblower has eroded engines clear of Mr
Watt’s patent, which are confiderably fuperior to New¬
comen’s : fo has Mr Symington.
We faid that there was much ingenuity and real fkill Still, kow~
obfervable in many particulars of this engine. The ever> the
difpofition and connexion of the cylinders, and theen^ne-(^
whole condennng apparatus, are contrived with peculiar (JeT,uity
neatnefs. The cocks are very ingenious j they are and (kill,
compofed of two flat circular plales ground very true
to each other, and one of them turns round on a pin
through their centres; each is pierced with three fec-
toral apertures, exa£lly correfponding with each other,
and occupying a little lefs than one-half of their fur-
faces. By turning the moveable plate fo that the aper¬
tures coincide, a large paffage is opened for the fleam j
and by turning it fo that the folid of the one covers
the aperture of the other, the cock is fhut. Such regu¬
lators are now very common in the caft iron ftoves for
warming rooms.
Mr Hornblower’s contrivance for making the collars
for the pifton rods air-tight is alfo uncommonly inge¬
nious. This collar is in fadft two, at a fmall diflance
from each other. A fmall pipe, branching off from the
main fleam-pipe, communicates with the fpaee between
the collars. This fleam, being a little ftronger than
the preffure of the atmofphere, effeftually hinders the
air from penetrating by the upper collar ; and though a
little fleam ffiould get through the lower collar into the
cylinder A, it can do no barm. We fee many cafes
in which this pretty contrivance may be of fignrd fervice.
But
S T E [6
Eat it is in the framing of the great working beam
that Mr Hornblovver’s feientific knowledge is moft con-
Ipicuous j and we have no hefitation in affirming that it
The great- is ftronger than a beam of the common form, and con-
eft im- taining twenty times its quantity of timber. There is
provement ]jarc}iy a part 0f expo fed to a tranfverfe ftrain, if we
1'11C except the ftrain of the pump V on the ftrutt by which
ming of
the work¬
ing' beam.
85 .
The reci¬
procating
fuccefsful.
Steata.
kngifie,
hteam-
Kitchen.
it is worked. Every piece is either puftied or pulled in
the direftion of its length. We only fear that the
bolts which conneft the upper beam with the two iron
bars under its ends will work loofe in their holes, and
tear out the wood which lies between them. We would
propofe to fubftitute an iron bar for the whole of this
upper beam. This working beam highly deferves the
attention of all carpenters and engineers. We have that
opinion of Mr Hornblower’s knowledge and talents,
that we are confident that he .will fee the fairnefs of our
examination of his engine, and wre truft to his candour
for an excufe for our critic! fm.
The reciprocating motion of the fteam-engine has
always been confidered as a great defedft j for though it
motion of pjg now obviated by connecting it with a fly, yet, un-
the fteam- jeps jt p. an enoine of double ftroke, this fly mull be an
defedl ftill enormous mats or matter moving with great velocity.
tobereme-Any accident happening to it would produce dreadful
died. effefts : A part of the rim detaching itfelf would have
the force of a bomb, and no building could withftand it.
Many attempts have been made to produce a circular
motion at once by the fteam. It has been made to
blow on the vanes of a wheel of various forms. Eut
the rarity of fteam is fuch, that even if none is condenfed
by the cold of the vanes, the impulfe is exceedingly
$5 feeble, and the expence of fteam, fo as to produce any
Mr Watt’s ferviceable impulfe, is enormous. Mr Watt, among
attempts to bls firft fpeculations on the fteam engine, made fome
circular * attempts of this kind. One in particular was uncom¬
motion by inonly ingenious. It confifted of a drum turning air-
fteam un- tight within another, with cavities fo difpofed that there
was a conftant and great preflure urging it in one direc¬
tion. But no packing of the common kind could pre-
ferve it air-tight with fufficient mobility. He fucceeded
by immerfing it in mercury, or in an amalgam which
remained fluid in the heat of boiling water •, but the
continual trituration foon calcined the fluid and rendered
it ufelefs. He then tried Parent’s or Dr Barker’s mill,
inclofing tbe arms in a metal drum, which was immer-
fed in cold wTater. The fteam ruffied rapidly along the
pipe which was the axis, and it was hoped that a great
reaftion would have been exerted at the ends of the
arms j but it was almoft nothing. The reafon feems
to be, that the greateft part of the fteam was condenfed
in the cold arms. It was then tried in a drum kept
boiling hot 5 but the impulfe was now very fmall in
comparifon with the expence of fteam. This muft be
the cafe.
Mr Watt has deferibed in his fpecification to the pa¬
tent office fome contrivances for producing a circular
motion by the immediate aftion of the fteam. Some
of thefe produce alternate motions, and are perfeftly
analogous to his double-ftroke engine. Others produce
a continued motion. But he has not given fuch a de-
feription of his valves for this purpofe as can enable an
engineer to conftruift: one of them. From any guefs
that we can form, we think the machine very imperfe£l j
and we do not find that Mr Watt has ever ere&ed a
78 ] ST E
continuous circular engine. He has doubtlefs found all
his attempts inferior to the reciprocating engine with a
fly. A very crude fcheme of this kind may be feen in
the Tranfactions of the Royal Society of Dublin 1787.
But although our attempts have hitherto failed, we hope 87
that the cafe is not yet defperate ; we fee different prin-^dil the
ciples which have not yet been employed. cafe is not
We (hall conclude our account of this noble engine
with obferving, that Mr Watt’s form fuggefts the con-rent prin-
ftruftion of an excellent air-pump. A large veffel may ciples may
be made to communicate with a boiler at one fide, and ^ employ.
with the pump receiver on the other, and alfo with a*' gg
condenfer. Suppofe this veffel of ten times the capa- Mr Watt’
city of the receiver ; fill it with fteam from the boiler, engine %.
and drive out the air from it; then open its communi-Se^s ff6
cation with the receiver and the condenfer. This will™r,f'rri’c'
r , . r „ . .. tion 01 an
rarely the air or the receiver ten times, nepeating'tbe exceuent
operation will rarefy it 100 times ; the third operation air-pump,
will rarefy it 1000 times j the fourth 10,coo times,
&c. All this may be done in half a minute.
STEAM-KitcJicn. Ever fince Dr Papin contrived his
digefter (about the year 1690), fchemes have been pro-
pofed for dreffing vilHuals by the fteam of boiling water.
A philofophical club ufed to dine at Saltern’s coffee-
houfe, Chelfea, about 40 years ago, and had their vic¬
tuals dreffed by hanging them in the boiler of the fteam-
engine which raifes water for the fupply of Picadilly
and its neighbourhood. They were completely dreffed,
and both expeditioufly and with high flavour.
A patent was obtained for an apparatus for this pur¬
pofe by a tin-man in London ; we think of the name of
Tate. They were afterwards made on a much more
effe&ive plan by Mr Gregory, an ingenious tradefman
in Edinburgh, and are coming into very general ufe.
It is well known to the philofopher that tire fteam of
boiling water contains a prodigious quantity of heat,
which it retains in a latent ftate ready to be faithfully
accounted for, and communicated to any colder body.
Every cook knows the great fealding power of fteam,
and is difpofed to think that it is much hotter than
boiling water. This, however, is a miftake j for it will
raife the thermometer no higher than the water from
which it comes. But we can affure the cook, that if
he make the fteam from the fpout of a tea-kettle pafs
through a great body of cold water, it will be conden¬
fed or changed into water j and when one pound of wa¬
ter has in this manner been boiled off, it will have
heated the mafs of cold water as much as if we had
thrown into it feven or eight hundred pounds of boiling
hot water.
If, therefore, a boiler be properly fitted up in a fur¬
nace, and if the fteam of the water boiling in it be con¬
veyed by a pipe into a pan containing victuals to be
dreffed, every thing can be cooked that requires no
higher degree of heat than that of boiling water : And
this will be done without any rilk of fcorching, or any
kind of overheating, which frequently fpoils our dilhes,
and proceeds from the burning heat of air coming to
thofe parts of the pot or pan which is not filled with li¬
quor, and is covered only with a film, which quickly
burns and taints tbe whole difti. Nor will the cook be
fcorched by the great heat of the open fire that is ne-
ceffary for dreffing at once a number of difties, nor have
Ids perfon and clothes foiled by the fmoke and foot un¬
avoidable in the cooking on an open fire. Indeed the
whole
$ T E
i:Steam-
,'itchcn
whole procefs is fo neat, fo manageable, To open to in-
_ fpeftion, and fo cleanly, that it need neither fatigue nor
olfend the delicacy of the niceft lady.
We had great doubts, when we firit heard of this as
a general mode of cookery, as to its economy ; we had
none as to its efficacy. We thought that the fteam,
and confequently the fuel expended, muft be vaftly great¬
er than by the immediate ufe of an open fire j but we
have feen a large tavern dinner expeditioufly dreffed in
this manner, feetningly with much lefs fuel than in the
common method. L he following fimple narration of
fafts will ffiow the fuperiority. In a paper manufa&ory
in this neighbourhood, the vats containing the pulp into
which the frames are dipped are about fix feet diameter,
and contain above 200 gallons. This is brought to a
proper heat by means of a fmall cockle or furnace in the
middle of the liquor. This is heated by putting in
about one hundred weight of coals about eight o’clock
in the evening, and continuing this till four next morn¬
ing, renewing the fuel as it burns away. This method
was lately changed for a fteam heater. A furnace, ha¬
ving a boiler of five or fix feet diameter and three feet
deep, is heated about one o’clock in the morning with
two hundred weight of coals, and the water kept in
brilk ebullition. Pipes go off from this boiler to fix
vats, fome of which are at 90 feet diftance. It is con¬
veyed into a flat box or veffel in the midft of the pulp,
where it condenfes, imparting its heat to the fides of the
box, and thus heats the furrounding pulp. Thefe fix
vats are as completely heated in three hours, expending
about three hundred weight of coals, as they were for¬
merly in eight hours, expending near eighteen hundred
weight of coals. Mr Gregory, the inventor of this
fteam-beater, has obtained (in company with Mr Scott,
plumber, Edinburgh) a patent for the invention ; and
we are perfuaded that it will come into very general ufe
for many fimilar purpofes. The dyers, hatmakers, and
many other manufaflurers, have occafion for large vats
kept in a continual heat 5 and there feems no wav fo ef¬
fectual.
Indeed when we refleCl ferioufly on the fubjeCt, we
fee that this method has immenfe advantages confidered
merely as a mode of applying heat. The fteam may be
applied to the vefiel containing the victuals in every
part of its furface : it may even be made to enter the
veffel, and apply itfelf immediately to the piece of meat
that is to be dreffed, and this without any rifle of fcorch-
ing or overdoing.—And it will give out about -%-§-§ of
the heat which it contains, and will do this only if it be
wanted •, fo that no heat whatever is wafted except what
is required for heating the apparatus. Experience fhows
that this is a mere trifle in comparifon of what was fup-
pofed neceffary. But with an open fire w'e only apply
the flame and hot air to the bottom and part of the fides
of our boiling veffels : and this application is hurried
in the extreme •, for to make a great heat, we muft have
a great fire, which requires a prodigious and moft ra¬
pid current of air. This air touches our pans but for a
moment, imparts to them but a fmall portion of its
heat ; and we are perfuaded that three-fourths of the
heat is carried up the chimney, and efcapes in pure
waftc, while another great portion beams out into the
kitchen to the great annoyance of the fcorched cook.
Vv e think, therefore, that a page or two of this work
[ 679 ]
s T E
will not be thrown away in the defeription of a contri¬
vance by which a faving may be made to the enter¬
tainer, and the providing the pleafures of his table
prove a lefs fatiguing talk to this valuable corps of prac¬
tical chemifts.
Let A (fig. I.) reprefent a kitchen-boiler, either pro¬
perly fitted up in a furnace, with its proper fire-place,
alh-pit, and flue, or fet on a tripod on the open fire, or
built up in the general fire-place. The fteam-pipe BC
rifes from the cover of this boiler, and then is led away
with a gentle afeent in any convenient diredlion. C re-
prefents the feftion of this conducing fteam-pipe.
Branches are taken off from the fide at proper diftances.
One of thefe is reprefented at CDE, furniffied with a
cock D, and having a taper nozzle E, fitted by grind¬
ing into a conical piece F, which communicates with an
upright pipe GH, which is foldered to the fide of the
ftewing veffel PQRS, communicating with it by the
ffiort pipe I. The veffel is fitted with a cover OT, ha¬
ving a ftaple handle V. The piece of meat M is laid
on a tin-plate grate KL, pierced with holes like a cul¬
lender, and Handing on three Ihort feet n n n.
"I he fteam from the boiler comes in by the pipe I,
and is condenfed by the meat and by the fides of the
veffel, communicating to them all its heat. What is
not fo condenfed efcapes between the veffel and its co¬
ver. The condenfed water lies on the bottom of the
veffel, mixed with a very fmall quantity of gravy and
fatty matter from the victuals. Frequently, inftead of
a cover, another ftew-veffel with a cullender bottom is
fet on this one, the bottom of the one fitting the mouth
of the other : and it is obferved, that when this is done,
the diflr in the under veffel is more expeditioufly and
better dreffed, and the upper difli is more flowly, but as
completely, ftewed.
I his defeription of one ftewing veffel may ferve to
give a notion of the whole ; only we muft obferve, that
when broths, foups, and diflies with made fauces or con¬
taining liquids, are to, be dreffed, they muft be put into
a fmaller veffel, which is fet into the veffel PQRS, and
is fupported on three fliort feet, fo that there may be a
fpace all round it of about an inch or three ■ quarters
of an inch. It is obferved, that difties of this kind are
not fo expeditioufly cooked as on an open fire, but as
completely in the end, only requiring to be turned up
now and then to mix the ingredients j becaufe as the
liquids in the inner veffel can never come into ebullition,
unlefs the fteam from the boiler be made of a dangerous
heat, and every thing be clofe confined, there cannot
be any of that tumbling motion that we obferve in 3
boiling pot.
The performance of this apparatus is far beyond any
expe&ation we had formed of it. In one which we ex¬
amined, fix pans were ftewing together by means of a
boiler ic£ inches in diameter, Handing on a brilk open
fire. It boiled very brilkly, and the fteam puffed fre¬
quently through the chinks between the ftew-pans and
their covers. In one of them was a piece of meat con-
fiderably above 30 pounds weight. This required a-
bove four hours ftewing, and was then very thoroughly
and equally cooked ; the outfide be ing no more done
than the heart, and it was near two pounds heavier than
when put in, and greatly fwelled. In the mean time*
federal diffies had been dreffed in the other pans. As
far.
Steam-
Kitchen.
Plate
DV.
fig. 1.
Steam-
Kitchen.
Fig.
S T E [ 680 ]
far as we could judge, this cooking did not confume
( one-third part of the fuel which an open fire would
have required for the fame effeft.
When we confider this apparatus with a little more
knowledge of the mode of operation of fire than tails
to the thare of the cooks (we fpeak with deference),
and confider the very injudicious manner in which the
fteam is applied, we think that it may be improved io
as to furpafs any thing that the cook can have a notion
When the fteam enters the ftew-pan, it is conderifed
on the meat and on the veffel ", but we do not want it
to be condenfed on the veffel. And the furface of the
veffel is much greater than that of the meat, and conti¬
nues much colder $ for the meat grows hot, and conti¬
nues fo, while the veffel, made of metal, which is a
very perfeft conductor of heat, is continually robbed of
its heat by the air of the kitchen, and carried off by
it. If the meat touch the fide of the pan in any part,
no fteam can be applied to that part of the meat, while
it is continually imparting heat to the air by the inter¬
medium of the veffel. Nay, the meat can hardly be
dreffed unlefs there be a current of fteam through it •,
and wre think this confirmed by what is obferved above,
that when another ftew-pan is fet over the firft, and thus
gives occafion to a current of fteam through its cullen¬
der bottom to be condenfed by its fides and contents,
the lower difh is more expeditioufly dreffed. We ima¬
gine, therefore, that not lefs than half of the fteam is
wafted on the fides of the different flew-pans. Our firft
attention is therefore called to this circumftance, and v’e
with to apply the fteam more-economically and effedtu-
ally.
We would therefore conftruft the fteam-kitchen m
the following manner :
We would make a wooden cheft (which wre (hall call
the Stew-chest) ABCD (fig. 2.). 'Ihis ftiould be
made of deal, in very narrow Hips, not exceeding an
inch, that it may not {brink This ftiould be lined with
very thin copper, lead, or even ftrong tinfoil. This
will prevent it from becoming a conductor, of heat by
foaking with fteam. For further fecurity it might be
fet in another cheft, with a fpace of an inch or two all
round, and this fpace filled with a compofition of pow¬
dered charcoal and clay, .this fliould be made by firft
making a mixture of fine potter’s clay and water about
as thick as poor cream : then as much powdered char¬
coal muft be beat up with this as can be made to ftick
together. When this is rammed in and dry, it may be
hot enough on one fide to melt glafs, and will not dif-
colour white paper on the other.
This cheft muft have a cover LMNO, alfo of wood,
having holes in it to receive the ftew-pans P, Q, R.
Between each pan is a wooden partition, covered on
both fides with milled lead or tinfoil. The whole top
muft be covered with very fpongy leather or felt, and
made very flat. Each ftew-pan muft have a bearing or
{boulder all round it, by which it is fupported, refting
on the felt, and lying fo true and clofe that no fteam
can efcape. Some of the pans ftrould be fimple, like
the pan F, for drefling broths and other liquid difhes.
Others ftiould belike E and G, having in the bottom a
pretty wide hole FI, K, which has a pipe in its upper
fide, rifing about an inch or an inch and half into the
ftew-pan. The meat is laid on a cullender plate, as in
S T E
the common way *, only there muft be no holes in the
cullender immediately above the pipe.—Thefe ftew-
pans muft be fitted with covers, or they may have others
fitted to their mouths, for warming fauces or other dilh-
es, or ftewing greens, and many other fubordinate pur-
pofes for which they may be fitted.
The main-pipe from the boiler muft have branches,
(each furnifhed with a cock), which admit the fteam
into thefe divifions. At its firft entry fome will be con¬
denfed on the bottom and fides j but we imagine that
thefe will in two minutes be heated fo as to condenfe no
more, or alraoft nothing, The fteam will alfo quickly
condenfe on the ftew-pan, and in half a minute make
it boiling hot, fo that it will condenfe no more ; all the
reft will now apply itfelf to the meat and to the cover.
It may perhaps be adviiable to allow the cover to con¬
denfe fteam, and even to wafte it. Ihis may be pro¬
moted by laying on it flannel foaked in water. Our
view in this is to create a demand for fteam, and thus
produce a current through the ftew-pan, which will be
applied in its paffage to the victuals. But we are not
certain of the neceflity of this, bteam is not like com¬
mon air of the fame temperature, which would glide
along the furfaces of bodies, and impart to them a imall
portion of its heat, and eicape with the reft, d-o pro¬
duce this effea there muft be a current for air hot
enough to melt lead, will not boil water, it it be kept
ftagnant round the veffel. But fteam imparts the whole
of its latent heat to any body colder than boiling water,
and goes no farther till this body be made boiling hot.
It is a moft faithful carrier of heat, and will deliver its
whole charge to any body that can take it. 1 herefore,
although there were no partitions in the ftew-cheft, and
the fteam were admitted at the end next the boiler, if
the pan at the farther end be colder than the reft, it will
all go thither ; and will, in ftiort, communicate to every
thing impartially according to the demand. If any per-
fon has not the confidence in the fteam which we ex-
prefs, he may ftill be certain that there muft be a pro¬
digious faving of heat by confining the whole in the
ftew-cheft ; and he may make the pans with entire bot¬
toms, and admit the fteam into them in the common
wray, by pipes which come through the fides of the cheft
and then go into the pan. There will be none loft by
condenfation on the fides of the cheft } and the pans will
foon be heated up to the boiling temperature ; and
hardly any of their heat will be wafted, becaufe the air
in the cheft will be ftagnant. The chief reafon for re¬
commending our method is the much greater cafe with
which the ftew-pans can be ftiifted and cleaned. H here
will be little difference in the performance.
Nay, even the common fteam-kitchen may be piodi-
gioufly improved by merely wrapping each pan in three
or four folds of coarfe dry flannel, or making flannel
bags of three or four folds fitted to their fhape, which
can be put on or removed in a minute. It will alfo
greatly conduce to the good performance to "wrap the
main fteam pipe in the fame manner in flannel.
We faid that this main-pipe is conduced from the
boiler with a gentle afcent. The intention of this is,
that the water produced by the unavoidable conden a-
tion of the fteam may run back into the boiler. . But
the rapid motion of the fteam generally fweeps ft up
hill, and it runs into the branch-pipes and defcends into
the ftew-pans. Perhaps it would be as well to give the
r mant*
Steam.
Kitchen.
WA-r/iiba/d scu/jrt
STEAM KITCHEN
PLATE DV
HO O M S imarED nr S T E AM.
T E
Steam- main-pipe a declivity the other way, and allow all the
Kitchen. water to collect in a hot well at the farther end, by
_ ‘ means of a defcending pipe, having a loaded valve at
the end. This may be fo contrived as to be clofe by
the fire, tvhere it would be fo warm that it would not
check the boiling if again poured into the boiler. But
the utmofl attention muft be paid to cleanlinefs in the
whole of this paffage, becaufe this water is boiled again,
and its fleam pafles through the heart of every difh.
This circumflance forbids us to return into the boiler
what is condenfed in the flew-pans. This would mix
the taftes and flavours of every dilh, and be very difa-
greeable. All this muff remain in the bottom of each
ftevv-pan ; for which reafon we put in the pipe riling up
in the middle of the bottom. It might indeed be al¬
lowed to fall down into the ftew-cheft, and to be eol-
iefled in a common receptacle, while the fat would float
at top, and the clear gravy be obtained below, perhaps-
fit for many fauces.
The completed: method for getting rid of this con¬
denfed fleam would be to have a fmall pipe running
along the under fide of the main conductor, and com¬
municating with it at different places, in a manner fimi-
lar to the air difcharger on the mains of water-pipes.
In the paper manufactory mentioned above, each fleam-
box has a pipe in its bottom, with a float-cock, by
which the water is difcharged ; and the main pipe being
of great diameter, and laid with a proper acclivity, the
■water runs back into the boiler.
But thefe precautions are of little moment in a fleam-
kitchen even for a great table ; and for the general ufe
of private families, would hurt the apparatus, by mak¬
ing it complex and of nice management. For a fmall
family, the whole apparatus may be fet on a table four
feet long and two broad, which may be placed on call¬
ers, fo as to be wheeled out of the way when not in
ufe. If the main conductor be made of wood, or pro¬
perly cafed in flannel, it will condenfe fo little fleam
that the cooking table may Hand in the remoteft corner
of the kitchen without fenfibly impairing its perform¬
ance •, and if the boiler be properly fet up in a fmall
furnace, and the flue made fo that the flame may be ap¬
plied to a great part of its furface, we are perfuaded
that three-fourths of the fuel ufed in common cookery
will be faved. Its only inconvenience feems to be the
indifpenfable neceflity of the moft anxious cleanlinefs in
the whole apparatus. The moft trifling negled in this
will deftroy a whole dinner.
We had almofl forgotten to obferve, that the boiler
muft be furniihed with a funnel for fupplying it with
water. This fhould pafs through the top, and its pipe
reach near to the bottom. It will be proper to have a
'cock on this funnel. There fhould alfobe another pipe
in the top of the boiler, having a valve on the top. If
this be loaded with a pound on every fquare inch, and
'the fire fo regulated that fleam may be obferved to puff
fometimes from this valve, we may be certain that it is
pafling through our difhes with fuflicient rapidity 5 and
if we fhut the cock on the funnel, and load the valve a
little more, we fliall caufe the fleam to blow at the co¬
vers of the flew-pans. If one of thefe be made very
tight, and have a hole alfo furnifhed with a loaded valve,
this pan becomes a digefter, and will diffolve bones, and
do many things which are impra&icable in the ordinary
cookery.
Vol. XIX. Part II.
S T E
STEAM applied to Heating Rooms. Steam has been Steam,
fuccefsfully applied as a fubtlitute for open fires in heat- v
ing manufactories, and promifes to be highly beneficial,
not only in point of economy in faving fuel, but alfo in
leffening the danger of accidental fire. The following
mode of heating a cotton mill by fleam was propofed
and pradlifed in 1799 by Mr Niel Snodgrafs of Paifley.
We lhall give an account of it in his own words *. * Phil.
“ Fig. 1. prefents a view of an inner gable, which is Mag. xxvii.
at one extremity of the preparation and fpinning rooms
of the mill. On the other fide of this gable there is a
fpace of 17 feet, enclofed by an outer gable, and con- fig. r.
taining the water-wheel, the flair cafe, and fmall rooms
for the accommodation of the work. In this fpace the
furnace and boiler are placed on the ground. The boiler
cannot be fliovvn here, as it lies behind the gable exhi¬
bited ; nor is it of any confequence, as there is nothing
peculiar in it. It may be of any convenient form. The
feeding apparatus, &c. are in every refpecl the fame as
in the boiler of a common fleam-engine. A circular
copper boiler, two feet diameter by two feet deep, con¬
taining 30 gallons of water, with a large copper head as
a refer voir for the fleam, was found to anfwer in the
prefent inflance. The fleam is conveyed from the boiler
through the gable, by the copper pipe B, into the tin
pipe, C, C. From C it paffes into the centres of the per¬
pendicular pipes E, E, £, by the fmall bent copper tubes
D, D, D. The pipes E, E, E, are con-nedted under the
garret floor by the tubes F, F, for the more eafy circu¬
lation of the fleam. The middle pipe, E, is carried
through the garret floor, and communicates with a lying
pipe, 36 feet in length (the end of which is feen at G)j
for heating the garret. At the further extremity of the
pipe G, there is a valve falling inwards to prevent a va¬
cuum being formed on the cooling of the apparatus; the
confequence of which would be the crufhing of the pipes
by the preffure of the atmofphere. Similar valves K, K,
are placed near the top of the perpendicular pipes,
E, E ; and from the middle one E, the fmall pipe paffes
through the roof, and is furnifhed with a valve at I,
opening outwards, to fuffer the air to efcape while the
pipes are filling with fleam, or the fleam itfelf to efcape
when the charge is too high.
“ The water condenfed in the perpendicular pipe*
E, E, E, trickles down their fules into the three fun¬
nels L, L, L, the necks of which may .either pafs
through or round the pipe C, into the copper tube
M, M, which alfo receives the water condenfed in C, C,
by means of the fhort tubes N, N. The pipe C, C, is
itfelf fo much inclined as to caufe the water to run along
it to the tubes N, N, and the pipe G in the garret has
an inclination of 18 inches in its length, to bring the
water condenfed in it back to the middle pipe E. The
tube M, M, carries back the water through the gable
to the boiler, which ftands five feet lower than this tube.
It is material to return the water to the boiler, as, be¬
ing nearly at a boiling heat, a confiderable expence of
fuel is thereby faved.
“ The large pipes are ten inches in diameter, and are
made of the fecond kind of tinned iron plates. The di-
menfions of the fmaller tubes may be feen bv their com¬
parative fize in the engraving, and perhaps they might
be varied without inconvenience.
“ The apparatus eredled as here deferibed, has been
found fufficiently flrong, and has required no material
4 ft repairs
[ 681 ]
S T E [ 68
Steam, repairs fince tlie fir ft alterations were made, 'i he lead-
ii—v ing object in the inftance under confideration being to
fave fuel, in order to derive as much heat as poflible
from a given quantity of fuel, the due from the fur¬
nace, which heats the boiler, is conveyed into common
ftone pipes placed in the gable. Thefe are eroded fo as
to prevent any danger of fire, in the manner ftunvn in
the engraving, fig. 2. The fteam with this auxiliary
communicates a heat of about 7°° tnill, the
rooms of which are 50 feet long, 32y feet wide, and 8|
feet high, except the lower ftory and garret ; the former
of which is 11, and the latter feven feet high. The
rooms warmed in this manner are much more wholefome
and agreeable than thofe heated by the bell conftrudted
ftoves, being perfectly free from vapour or contaminated
air.
“ The application of the principle to buildings already
conftruded, it is prefumed, will be fufficiently obvious
from the foregoing details. In new manufadories, where
the mode of heating may be made a part of the original
plan, a more convenient apparatus may be introduced,
•jog. i. This will be beft explained by a defeription of fig. 2.
which gives a fedion of a cotton-mill conftruded fo as
to apply the ftcam apparatus to a new building.
“The furnace fur the boiler is drown at« (fig. 2). The
flue of the furnace conveys the fmoke into the caft iron
ftove pipes, 1, 2, 3, 4. Thefe pipes are placed in a fpace
in the gable, entirely inclofed with brick, except at the
{mall apertures, 5, 6, 7, 8. A current of air is admit¬
ted below at 9, and thrown into the rooms by thofe
opening*, after being heated by contad with the pipes.
This part of the plan is adopted with a view to prevent,
as much a* poffible, any of the heat, produced by the
fuel ufed, from being thrown away. It may be omitted
where any danger of fire is apprehended from it, and
the fmoke may be carried off in any way that is confi-
elered abfolutely fecure. So far, however, as appears
from experience., there feems to be little or no dan¬
ger of fire from a ftove of this conftrudion. The greateft
inconvenience of a common ftove is, that the cockle or
metal furnace is liable to crack from the intenfity of the
heist. By the continuity of the metal from the fire¬
place, an intenfe heat is alfo conduded along the pipes,
which expofes them to the fame accident. Here the
fmoke being previoufly conveyed through a brick flue,
can never communicate to the pipes a degree of heat
fufficient to crack them. In like manner the pipes, hav¬
ing no communication with the rooms but by the fmall
apertures, cannot come in contad with any combuftible
fubftance ; and from being furrounded with air, which
is conftantly changing, can impart only a very moderate
degree of heat to the walls. The iron fupporters of the
pipes may be imbedded in fome-fubftance which is a bad
eondudor of heat, as furnace allies and lime, &c. The
emiflion of heated air into the rooms may be regulated
by valves. As the pipes are not expofed to cracking,
there is no rilk of their throwing fmoke or vapour into
the rooms.
“ The boiler b, b, is fix feet long, three and a half
broad, and three feet deep. As there is nothing pecu¬
liar in the feeding apparatus, it is omitted. The boiler
may be placed in any convenient fituation. Where a
fleam engine is ufed for other purpefes, the fteam may
be taken from its boiler. 'The pipe c, c, conveys the
fleam from the boiler to the fir ft perpendicular pipe
2 1 S T E
d, d, d, d. There is an expanding joint at <?, fluffed, to Ste?m,
make it fleam-tight. The fteam afeending in the firft t Stcanu-v, j ^
pipe d, d, d, enters the horizontal pipe fff,f (which t|—T' V^W 1 __
is flightly inclined) expelling the air, which partly ef-
capes by the valve g, and is partly forced into the other
pipes. The valve g being confiderably loaded, forces
the accumulating fteam down into the reft of the pipes
d, d, d. The air in thefe pipes recedes before the fteam,
and is forced through the tubes h, fi, h, into the pipe
ti?, m, vi, whence it efcapes at the valve and the fy-
phon k. The water, condenfed in the whole of the
pipes, pafles alfo through the tubes h, h, h, h, into the
pipe m, m, m, which has fuch a declivity as todifch&rge
the water at the fyphon b, into the hot well «, whence
it is pumped back into the boiler.
“ The whole of the pipes are of call iron, except
in, m, m, which is of copper. The perpendicular pipes
ferve as pillars for fupporting the beams of the houfe, by
means of the projecting pieces 0, 0, 0, which may be
raifed or lowered at pleafure by the wedges/>, The
pipes are funk in the beams about an inch, and are made
fait to them by the iron ftraps (],q. Thofe in the lower
ftory reft on the ftones s, s, s, s, and are made tight at
the junftion with fluffing. The pipe in each ftory fup-
ports the one in the ftory above by a fluffed joint as
ftrown at r. The pipes in the lower ftory are feven
inches in diameter 5 thofe in the higher fix inches j thofe
in the other two are of intermediate diameters. The
thicknefs of the metal is three-eighths of an inch. The
lower pipes are made larger than the upper, in order to
expofe a greater heated lurface in the lower rooms, be-
caufe the fteam being thrown from above into all the
pipes, except the firft, would otherwife become incapable
of imparting an equal heat as it defeends. T here is no
neceffity for valves opening inwards in this apparatus,
the pipes being llrong enough to refill the preffure of the
atmofphere.
“ The cotton mill is 60 feet long, 33 wide, and four
ftones high, the upper being a garret llory. In the en¬
graving, five parts out nine in the length of the
building are only fhown. ’Ihe apparatus will heat the
rooms to 83° in the coldeft feafon. It is evident that,
by increafing the fize, or the number of the pipes, and
the fupply of fteam, any degree of heat up to 212° may
be eafily produced. It may even be carried beyond that
point by an apparatus ilrong enough to comprefs the
fleam : this, however, can feldom be wanted. At firft
it was objcCled to this conftruClion, that the expanfion
of the pipes, when heated, might damage the building :
but experience has proved, that the expanfion occafion-
ed by the heat of fteam is quite infenfible.n
Steam has alfo been advantageoufly employed in dry¬
ing muffin goods, when the ftate of the weather inter*-
rupts this procefs out of doors. This application of fteam,
we underftand, was the invention of an ingenious me¬
chanic in Paifley, who never derived the fmalleft benefit
from the difeovery. It was adopted immediately by fome
bleachers in the neighbourhood, and has now come into
very general ufe. The fteam is introduced into cylin¬
ders of tin plate, and the goods to be dried are wrapped
round the cylinders which communicate to them a heat
equal at leaft to the temperature of boiling water, and
in this way the procefs of drying is expeditioufly acconv-
plifhed.
STEATITES, or Soap earth, a. fpecies of mineral
belonging
S T E
[ 633 ]
S T E
Steatites beloagmg to the magaefian genus. See Mineralogy
11 Index.
Steel-yatj STEATOMA, a kind of cncyfted tumor, confiding
of a matter like fuet or lard, foft, without pain, and
without difcolouring the ikin.
STEEL, iron united with carbone, from which it
pouefies properties diltinct from thofe of iron, and which
render it of fuperior value. From its higher degree of
hardnefs, it admits a finer poliih and affiimes a brighter
colour. When tempered, it pofleffes a higher degree of
elaflieity, and is alfo more fonorous. It is more weak¬
ly attracted by the loadftone, it receives more flowly the
magnetic power, but it preferves it longer. When ex-
pofed to a moid air, it does not contrail rult fo eafily as
iron. See Iron, Chemistry Index.
Steel-Bow Tenants. See Tenure.
STEEL-2ard, is one of the moll ancient prefents
which fcience has made to fociety j and though long in
defuetude in this country, is in moll nations of the
world the only inftrument for afcertaining the weight
of bodies. What is trantlaled balance in the Penta¬
teuch, is in fa61 ileelyard, being the word uied by the
Arabs to this day for their inllrument, which is a Heel-
yard. It is in common ufe in all the Afiatic nations.
It was the Jhitera of the Greeks and Romans, and feems
to have been more confided in by them than the ba¬
lance ; for which reafon it was ufed by the goldfmiths,
while the balance was the inllrument of the people.—
Non aurijicis Jlatera fed populari trutina examinare. Cic.
de Orat. 23S.
The Ileelyard is a lever of unequal arms, and, in its
moll perfect form, is conitracted mucli like a common
balance. It hangs in ihcers E (fig. 1.) reiting on the
nail C, and the fcale L for holding the goods hangs by
a nail D on the fiiort arm BC. The counter weight
I* hangs by a ring of tempered Heel, made (harp in the
infide, that it may bear by an edge on the long arm
CA of the Ileelyard. The under edge of the centre
nail C, and the upper edge of the nail D, are in the
ftraight line formed by the upper edge of the long arm.
Thus the three points of fufpenfion are in one llraight
line. The needle or index of the lle.elyard is perpen¬
dicular to the line of the arms, and plays between the
theers. The tliort arm may be made fo maffive, that,
together with the fcale, it will balance the long arm un¬
loaded. When no goods are in the fcale, and the coun¬
ter weight with its hook are removed, the ileelyard ac¬
quires a horizontal pofition, in confequence of its centre
of gravity being below the axis of fufpenfion. The rules
for its accurate conftrudion are the fame as for a com¬
mon balance.
The inllrument indicates different weights in the fol¬
lowing manner : The ditlance CD of the two nails is
Confidered as an unit, and the long arm is divided into
a number of parts equal to it; and thefe are fubdivided
as low as is thought proper 5 or in general, the long
arm is made a fcale of equal parts, commencing at the
edge of the nail C 3 and the fhort arm contains tome de¬
termined number of thofe equal parts. Suppofe, then,
that a weight A of 10 pounds is put into the fcale L.
The counterpoife P mull be of fuch a weight, that,
ivhen hanging at the divifion 10, it thall balance this
weight A. Now' let any unknown weight W be put
into the fcale. Slide the hook of the counterpoife
along the long arm till it balances this weight* Stip¬
ulate
DVI.
1.
pofe it then hanging at the divifion 38. We Conclude Steel.yarJ*
that there is 38 pounds in the fcale. This we do on ^
the authority of the fundamental property of the lever,
that forces a£ting on it, and balancing each other, are
in the inverfe proportion of the difiances from the ful¬
crum to their lines of diredlion. Whatever weight the
counterpoife is, it is to A as CD to 10, and it is to the
weight W as CD to 38 } therefore A is to the weight
W as 10 to 38, and W is 38 pounds : and thus the
weight in the feale will always be indicated by the di¬
vifion at which it is balanced by the counterpoife.
Our well-informed readers know that this fundamen¬
tal property of the lever was difeovered by the renowned
Archimedes, or at leatt firll demonflrated by him 3 and
that his demontlration, betides the defe6l of being ap¬
plicable only to commenfurable lengths of the arms, has
been thought by metaphyficians of the firtl note to pro¬
ceed on a potlulate which feems equally to need a de¬
montlration. It has accordingly employed the utmoft
refinement of the firtt mathematicians of Europe to fur-
niih a demontlration free from objection. Mr D’Alem¬
bert has given two, remarkable for their ingenuity and
fubtlety 3 Foncenex has done the fame 3 and Profeffor
Hamilton of Trinity college, Dublin, has given one
which is thought the leatt exceptionable-. But critics
have even objected to this, as depending- on a pullulate
which Ihould have been demonitrated.
The following demontlration by Mr Vince, we think
unexceptionable, and of fuch fimplicily that it is atton- ntl Tranf
idling that it has not occurred to any perfon who thinks 1794.
on the fubjeft.
Let AE (fig. 2-.) be a mathematical lever, or inflex- pjg. ^
ible ftraight line, reiting on the prop A, and fupported
at D by a force ading upwards. Let two equal Weights
b and d be hung on at B and D, equiditlant from A and
E. Preffures are now exerted at A and E 3 and bt caufe
every circumllance of weight and diltance is the fame,
the preffure at E, anting from the adlion of the weight
b on the point B, rnuft be the fame with the preffure at
A, anting from the action of the weight d on the point
D 3 and the preffure at E, occafioned by the weight r/,
mutt be the fame with the preffure at A, occafioned by
the weight b. This mutt be the cafe wherever the
weights are hung, ^provided that the ditlance AB and
DE are equal. Moreover, the fum of the preffures at
A and E is unqueftionably equal to the fum of the
weights, beeaufe the weights are fupported folely at A
and E. Let the two weights be hung on at C the mid¬
dle point 3 the preffure at E is dill the fame. Therefore,
in general, the preffure excited at the point E, by two
equal weights hanging at any points B and D, is the
fame as if they were hung on at the middle point between
them 3 but the preffure excited at E is a jutt meafure of
the effort or energy of the weights £ arid d to urge the
lever round the point A. It h, at lead, a meafure of
the oppofite force which muil be applied at E to fudam
or balance this preffure. A very fadidious metaphyfi-
cian may dill fay, that the demontliation is limited to
a point E, wbofe didance from A is twice AC, or
=r AB-f AD. But it extends to any other point, on
the authority of a pullulate which cannot be refuted,
viz. that in whatever proportion the preffure at E is
augmented or diminifhed, the preffure at this other point
mull augment or dimimdt in the fame proportion. This
being proved, the general theorem may be dem^ndr -
4 R ^ ted
S T E
Sfeel-yard. ted in all proportions of diftance, in the manner of Ar-
—v ' chimedes, at once the moft fimple, perfpicuous, and
elegant of all.
We cannot help obferving, that all this difficulty
(and it is a real one to the philofopher who aims at
rendering mechanics a demonftrative fcience) has arifen
from an improper fearch after fimplicity. Had Archi¬
medes taken a lever as it really exifts in nature, and
Confidered it as material, confiding of atoms united by
cohefion •, and had he traced the intermediate preffures
by whofe means the two external weights are put in op-
pofition to each other, or rather to the fupport given to
the fulcrum ; all difficulty would have vaniffied. (See
what is faid on this fubje£t in the article STRENGTH of
Timber, &c.).
The quantity of goods which may be weighed by
this inftrument depends on the weight of the counter-
poife, and on the diftance CD from the fulcrum at
which the goods are fufpended. A double counter-
poife hanging at the fame divifion will balance or indi¬
cate a double quantity of goods hanging at D •, and
any counterpoife will balance and indicate a double
quantity of goods, if the diftance CD be reduced to
one half. And it fometimes occurs that fteelyards are
fo conftrudled that they have two or more points of
fiifpenfion D, to which the fcale may occafionally be
attached. It is evident, that in this cafe the value
or indication of the divifions of the long arm will be
different, according to the point from which the fcale
is fufpended. The fame divifion which would indicate
20 pounds when CD is three inches, will indicate 30
pounds when it is two inches.. As it would expofe to
chance of miftakes, and be otherwife troublefome to
make this reduction, it is ufual to make as many divi¬
ded fcales on the long arm as there are points of fufpen-
fkm D on the ffiort arm : and each fcale having its
own numbers, all trouble and all chance of miftake is
avoided.
But the range of this inftrument is not altogether at
the pleafure of the maker. Befides the inability of a
flender beam to carry a great load, the divifions of the
fcale anfwering to pounds or half-pounds become very
minute when the diftance CD is very ftiort; and the
balance becomes lefs delicate, that is, lefs fenfibly affeiff-
ed by fmall differences of weight. This is becaufe in
filch cafes the thicknefs which it is neceffary to give
the edges of the nails does then bear a fenfible propor¬
tion to the diftance CD between them 5 fo that when
the balance inclines to one fide, that arm is fenfibly
fhortened, and therefore the energy of the_prepondera¬
ting weight is leffened.
We have hitherto fuppofed the fteelyard to be in
equilibrio when not loaded. But this is not neceffary,
nor is it ufual in thofe which are commonly made.
The long arm commonly preponderates confiderably.
This makes no difference, except in the beginning of
the fcale. The preponderancy of the long arm is equi¬
valent to fome goods already in the fcale, fuppofe four
pounds. Therefore when there are really 10 pounds
in the fcale, the counterpoife will balance it when hang¬
ing at the divifion 6. This divifion is therefore rec¬
koned 10, and the reft of the divifions are numbered ac¬
cordingly.
A fcientific examination of the fteelyard will con¬
vince us that it is inferior to the balance of equal arms
S T E
in point of fenfibility : But it is extremely compendi- Steel-yard,
ous and convenient 5 and when accurately made and at- -'v—
tentively ufed, it is abundantly exa£t for moft commer¬
cial purpofes. We have feen one at Leipzig which has
been in ufe fince the year 1718, which is very fenfible
to a difference of one pound, when loaded with nearly
three tons on the fhort arm ; and we faw a waggon-
loaded with more than two tons weighed by it in about
fix minutes.
The fteelyard in common ufe in the different coun¬
tries of Europe is of a eonftru£tion ftill fimpler than
what Ave have defcribed. It confifts of a batten of hard
wood, having a heavy lump A (fig. 3.) at one end, and Rg. j>
a fwivel-hook B at the other. The goods to be weighed
are fufpended on the hook, and the whole is carried in a
loop of whip-cord C, in which it is Aid backward and
forward, till the goods are balanced by the weight of
the other end. The weight of the goods is eftimated by
the place of the loop on a fcale of divifions in harmonic
progreffion. They are marked (we prefume) by trial
with known weights.
The chief ufe that is now made of the fteelyard in
thefe kingdoms is for the weighing of loaded waggons
and carts. For this it is extremely convenient, and
more than fufficiently exaft for the purpofe in view.
We ftiall deferibe one or two of the moft remarkable j
and we (hall begin with that at Leipzig already men¬
tioned.
This fteelyard is reprefented in fig. 4. as run out, Fig. 4.
and juft about to be hooked for lifting up the load. The
fteelyard itfelf is OPO, and is about 12 feet long. The
ffiort arm has two points of fufpenfion c and b ;
and the ftirrup which carries the chains for holding the
load is made with a double hook, inftead of a double
eye, that it may be eafily removed from the one pin to
the other. For this purpofe the two hooks are con-
nedled above an hafp or ftaple, which goes over the
arm of the fteelyard like an arch. This is reprefented
in the little figure above the fteelyard. The fufpenfion
is ffiifted when the fteelyard is run in under cover, by
hooking to this ftaple the running block of a fmall
tackle which hangs in the door through which the
fteelyard is run but and in. This operation is eafy,
but neceffary, becaufe the ftirrup, chains, and the ftage
on which the load is placed, weigh fome hundreds.
The outer pin £ is 14 inches, and the inner one c is
feven inches, diftant from the great nail which refts in
the fheers. The other arm is about loi feet long,
formed with an obtufe edge above. On the inclined
plane on each fide of the ridge is drawn the fcale of
weights adapted to the inner pin c. The fcales corre-
fponding to the outer pin b are drawn on the upright
fides. The counferpoife Hides along this arm, hanging
from a faddle-piece made of brafs, that it may not con-
traft ruft. The motion is made eafy by means of rollers.
This is neceffary, becaufe tire counterpoife is greatly
above a hundred weight. This faddle-piece has like
two laps on each fide, on which are engraved vernier
fcales, which divide their refpeflive fcales on the arm
to quarters of a pound. Above the faddle is an arch,
from the fummit of which hangs a little plummet,
which ffiows the equilibrium of the fteelyard to the
weigher, becaufe the fheers are four feet out of the houfe,
and he cannot fee their coincidence Avith the needle oi
the fteelyard, Laftly, near the end of the long arm
[ 63+ ]
3
ar&
Steelyard
Fig. 4-.
PLATh: DVT.
S T E [68
,iteel-yard. are two pins d and e, for fufpending occafionally two
■— ' eke weights for continuing the fc^le. Thefe are kept
hanging on adjoining hooks, ready to be lifted on by a
little tackle, which is alfo hooked immediately above
the pins d and e.
The fcales of weights are laid down on the arm as
follows. Let the eke-weights appropriated to the pins
d and e be called D and E, and call the counterpoife
C. Although the ftirrup with its chains and ftage weigh
feme hundreds, yet the length and fize of the arm OP
gives it a preponderancy of 300 pounds. Here, then,
the fcale of weights muft commence. The counterpoife
weighs about 125 pounds. Therefore,
1. When the load hangs by the pin £,14 inches from
the centre, the ditfance from one hundred to another on
the fcale is about 11 inches, and the firft fcale (on the
fide of the arm) reaches from 300 to 1200. In order
to repeat or continue this, the eke-weight E is hung on
the pin e, and the counterpoife C is brought back to the
mark 300 j and the two together balance noo pounds
hanging at b. Therefore a fecond fcale is begun on the
fide of the arm, and continued as far out as the firfi, and
therefore its extremity marks 2000; that is, the coun¬
terpoife C at 2000 and the eke-weight E at e balance
2000 hanging at b.
2. To continue the fcale beyond 2000, the load mull
be hung on the inner pin c. The eke-weight E is
taken off, and the eke-weight D is hung on its pin d.
The general counterpoife being now brought clofe to
the Iheers, it, together with the weight D at d, balance
2000 pounds hanging at c. A fcale is therefore begun
on one of the inclined planes a-top, and continued out
to 4000, which falls very near to the pin d, each hun¬
dred pounds occupying about five inches on the arm.
To complete the fcale, hang on the eke-weight E on its
pin e, and bring back the counterpoife to the fheers, and
the three together balance 3800 hanging at c. There¬
fore when the counterpoife is now Hid out to 4000, it
muft complete the balance with 5800 hanging at c.
It required a little confideration to find out what
proportion of the three weights C, D, and E, would
make the repetitions of the fcale extend as far as pof-
fible, having very little of it expreffed twice, or upon
two fcales, as is the cafe here. We fee that the fpace
correfponding to a fingle pound is a very fenfible quan¬
tity on both fcales, being one-ninth of an inch on the
firft two fcales, and one-twentieth on the laft two.
This very ponderous machine, with its maffy weights,
cannot be eafily managed without fome afliftance from
mechanics. It is extremely proper to have it fufcep-
tible of motion out and in, that it may be protefted
from the weather, which would foon deftroy it by ruft.
The contrivance here is very effectual, and abundantly
iimple.
When the ftcel-yard is not in ufe, it is fupported at
one end by the iron rod F, into which the upper end
of the {beers is hooked. The upper end of this rod has
a ftrong hook E, and a little below at a it is pierced
with a hole, in which is a very ftrong bolt or pin of
tempered fteel, having a roller on each end clofe to the
rod on each fide. Thefe rollers reft on twojoifts, one
of which is reprefented by MN, which traverfe the
building, with juft rooni enough between them to al¬
low the rod F to hang freely down. The other end O
of the fteel-yard refts in the bight of a large flat hook
5 1 . . S T E
at the end of a ehain W, which hangs down benveen
the joifts, and is fupported on them by a frame with
rollers H. This is conne&ed with the rollers at G,
which carry the ftieers by means of two iron-rods, of
which one only can be feen. Thefe conneiff the two
fets of rollers in fuch a manner that they muft always
move together, and keep their diftance invariable. This
motion is produced by means of an endlefs rope HI
ZLKVH pafling over the pulleys I and K, which turn
between the joifts, and hanging dowm in a bight be¬
tween them. It is evident that by pulling on the part
LZ we pull the frame of rollers in the diredlion GH,
and thus bring the whole into the houfe in the pofition
marked by the dotted figure. It is alfo plain, that by
pulling on the part LK we force the roller irame and
the whole apparatus out again.
It remains to (how how the load is raifed from the
ground and weighed. When the fteelyard is run out
for ufe, the upper hook E juft enters into the ring D,
which hangs from the end of the great oaken lever
BCA about 22 feet long, turning on gudgeons at C
about 5 feet from this end. From the other end A
defeends a long iron-rod SR, which has one fide formed
into a toothed rack that is added on by a frame of
wheel-work turned by an endlefs ferew and winch Q,
Therefore when the hook E is well engaged in the
ring D, a man turns the winch, and thus brings down
the end A of the great lever, and raifes the load two
or three inches from the ground. Every thing is now
at liberty, and the weigher now manages his weights
on the arm of the fteelyard till he has made an equi¬
librium.
We need not deferibe the operation of letting down
the load, difengaging the fteelyard from the great
lever, and bringing it again under cover. The whole
of this fervice is performed by two men, and may be
done in fucceflion by one, and is over in five or fix
minutes.
The moft compendious and economical machine of
this kind that we have feen is one, firft ufed (we have
heard) for weighing the riders of race-horfes, and af¬
terwards applied to the more reputable fervice of weigh¬
ing loaded carriages.
Fig. 5. is a plan of the machine. KLMN is theFi
plan of a rectangular box, which has a platform lid or
cover, of fize fufficient for placing the wheels of a cart
or waggon. The box is about a foot deep, and is funk
into the ground till the platform cover is even with the
furface. In the middle of the box is an iron lever fup¬
ported on the fulcrum pin ik, formed like the nail of a
balance, which refts with its edge on arches of hardened
fteel firmly faftened to the bottom of the box. This
lever goes through one fide of the box, and is furnifli-
ed at its extremity with a hard fteel pin / m, alfo
formed to an edge below. In the very middle of the
box it is croffed. by a third nail of hardened fteel g //,
alfo formed to an edge, but on the upper fide. Thefe
three edges are in one horizontal plane, as in a well
made balance.
In the four corners A, A', E', E, of the box are
firmly fixed four blocks of tempered fteel, having their
upper furfaces formed into fpherical cavities, well polic¬
ed and hard tempered. ABCDE reprefents the upper
edge of an iron bar of confiderable ftrength, which refts
on the cavities of the fteel blocks in A and E,by means
• ' oil
s T E [ 6S6 I S T E
'Ste'e!-yar<3. 0f two liard fteel ftuds projefting from its under edge,
(«—formed into obtufe angled points or cones, i hefe
points are in a ftraight line parallel to the lide KN of
tlie box. The middle part C of this crooked bar is
faced Vvith hard-tempered fteel below, and is there
formed into an edge parallel to AE and KN, by which
it reds on the upper edge of the ileel pin g h which is
in the lever. In a line parallel to AE, and on the up¬
per fide of the crooked bar ACE, are fixed two ftuds or
points of hardened fteel B and D projeding upwards
above half an inch. The platform-cover has four ftiort
feet like a ftool, terminated by hard heel ftuds, which
are ftiaped into fpherical cavities and well polithed. With
thefe it refts on the four fteel points B, B1’, D', D. 1 he
bar ACE is kneed in fuch a manner vertically, that the
points A, B, D, E and the edge C are all in a horizon¬
tal plane. Thefe particulars will be better underftood
by looking at the elevation in fig. 6. What has been
laid of the bar ACE, muft be underftood as alfo faid of
the bar A! C' E'.
Draw through the centre of the box the line abc
.perpendicular to the line AE, BD. It is evident that
the bar ACE is equivalent to a lever abc, having the
fulcrum or axis AE refting with its extremity Con the
pin hg and loaded at b. It is alfo evident that <i C is
to as the load on this lever to the prefture which it
exerts on the ping//, and that the fame proportion fub-
fifts between the whole load on the platform and the
preffure which it exerts on the pin g h. It will alfo ap¬
pear, on an attentive confideration, that this proportion
is nowife deranged in whatever manner the load is placed
on the platform. If very unequably, the two ends
of the pin g h may be unequally prefled, and the lever
wrenched and ftrained a little > but the total prtflure is
not changed.
If there be now placed a balance or fteelyard at
the fide LK, in fuch a manner that one end of it may
be direiftly above the pin /m in the end of the lever
EOF, they may be conneifted by a wire or (lender rod,
and a weight on the other arm of the balance or fteel¬
yard may be put in equilibrio with any load that can
be laid on the platform. A fmall counterpoife being
firft hung on to balance the apparatus when unloaded,
any additional weight will meafure the load really laid
on the platform. If a b he to a c as I to 8, and EO
to EF, alfo as i to 8, and if a common balance be
ufed above, 64 pounds on the platform will be balanced
by one pound in the feale, and every pound will be ba¬
lanced by -Jth of an ounce. This would be a very con¬
venient partition for tnoft purpofes, as it would enable us
to ufe a common balance and common weights to com¬
plete the machine : Or it may be made with a balance
of unequal arms, or with a fteelyard.
Some have thought to improve this inftrument by
uung edges like thofe of the nails of a balance, inftead
of points. But unjefs made with uncommon accuracy,
they will render the balance very dull. The fmall de¬
viation of the two edges A and E, or of B and D,
from perfect parallelifm to KN, is equivalent to a broad
furfaee equal to the whole deviation. We imagine
that, with no 'extraordinary care, the machine may be
made to weigh within -j-— of the truth, which is ex-
aft enough for any purpofe in commerce.
It is neceflary that the points be attached to the
tsars. Some have put the points at A and E in the
4
blocks of fteel faftened to the bottom, becaule the cavi- Steel-yard;
ty there lodged water or dirt, which foon deftroyed Steele.
tile inftrument with ruft. But this oecafions a change l"”' A'-’''1
of proportion in the firft lever by any fliifling of the
crooked bars j and this will frequently happen w hen tho
wheels of a loaded cart are puflied on the platform.
The cavity in the fteel ftud Ihould have a little run
round it, and it ftiould be kept full of oil. In a nice
machine a quarter of an inch of quickfilver would eftbc-.
tually prevent all theie inconveniences.
The fimpleft and mold economical form of this ma¬
chine is to have no balance or fecond fteelyard ; but
to make the firft fteelyard EOF a lever of the firft
kind, viz. having the fulcrum between O and F, and
allow it to projeft far beyond the box. The long or
outward arm of this lever is then divided into a fcaleof
weights, commencing at the fide of the box. A coun¬
terpoife muft be chofen, fuch as will, when at the begin¬
ning of the feale, balance the fmalleft load that will
probably be examined. It will be convenient to carry
on this feale by means of eke-weights hung on at the
extremity of the lever, and to ufe but one moveable
weight. By this method the divifions of the fcale
will always have one value. The beft arrangement is
as follows : Place the mark O at the beginning of the
feale, and let it extend only to too, if for pounds ; or to
112, if for cwts.; or to 10, if for ft ones *, and let the
eke-weight be numbered I, 2, 3, &c. Let the
loweft weight be marked on the beam. This is al¬
ways to be added to the weight fliown by the opera¬
tion. Let the eke-weights Hand at the end of the
beam, and let the general counterpoife always hang at
O. When the cart is put on the platform, the end of the
beam tilts up. Hang on the heavieft eke-weight that is
not fuffieient to prefs it down. Now complete the ba¬
lance by iliding out the counterpoife. Suppofe the con-
ftant load to be 3121b. and that the counterpoife Hands
at 86, and that the eke-weight is 9 j we have the load
=986 + 312,= x 298+8.
STEELE, Sir Richard, was born about the year
1676 in Dublin •, in which kingdom one branch of the
family was poflefled of a confiderable eftate in the county
of Wexford. His father, a counfellor at law in Dub¬
lin, was private fecrelary to James duke of Ormond 5
but he was\ of Englifti extraftion : and his fon, while
very young, being carried to London, he put him to
fchool at the Charter-houfe, whence he was removed to
Merton College in Oxford. Our author left the uni-
verfity, which he did without taking any degree, in the
full refolution to enter into the army. This ftep was
highly difpleafing to his friends •, but the ardour of his
paffion for a military life rendered him deaf to any other
propofal. Not being able to procure a better ftation-,
he entered as a private gentleman in tlje horfe guards,
notwithftanding he thereby loft the fucceflion to his Irifli
eftate. However, as he had a flow’ of good nature, a ge¬
nerous opennefs and franknefs of fpirit, and a fparkling
vivacity of wit, thefe qualities rendered him the delight
of the foldiery, and procured him an enfigrvs commiftlon
in the guards. In the mean time, as he had made
choice of a profeflion which fet him free from all the or¬
dinary reftraints in youth, he fpared not to indulge his
inclinations in the wildtft excefles. Yet his gaieties and
revels did jiot pafs without fome cool hours of refleftion j
it was in thefe that he drew no his little treatife intitled
m
S T 1!
Steele. The Chrljlian Here, with a defign, if wc tnav believe
himfelf, to be a check upon his paffions. 1 or this pur-
pofe it had lain fome time by him, when he printed
it in 1701, with a dedication to Lord Cutts, who had
not only appointed him his private fecretary, but procu¬
red for him a company in Lord Lucas’s regiment of fu-
fileers.
The fame year he brought out his comedy called The
Funeral, or Grief a la Mode. This play procured him
the regard of King William, who reiolved to give him
fome elfential marks of his favour ; and though, upon
that prince’s death, his hopes were difappointed, yet,
in the beginning of Queen Anne’s reign, he was ap¬
pointed to the profitable place of gazetteer. He owed
this poll to the friendfhip of Lord Halifax and the earl
of Sunderland, to whom he had been recommended by
his fchoolfellow Mr Addifon. That gentleman alfo lent
him a helping hand in promoting the comedy called
The Tender Hujhand, which was acted in 1704 with
great fuccefs. But his next play, The Lying Lover,
had a very different fate. Upon this rebuff from the
ftage, he turned the fame humorous current into ano¬
ther channel, and early in the year 1709, he began to
publilh the Tatler : which admirable paper was under¬
taken in concert with Dr Swift. His reputation was
perfectly eltabliffied by this w'ork •, and, during the
courfe of it, he was made a commiffioner of the (lamp-
duties in 1710. Upon the change of the miniltry the
fame year, he joined the duke of Marlborough, who
had feveral years entertained a friendfhip for him 5 arid
npon his Grace’s difmiffion from all employments in
J711, Mr Steele addrefled a letter of thanks to him
for the fervices which he had done to his country.
However, as our author Hill continued to hold his
place in the ftamp-office under the new adminiftration,
he wifely declined the difeuffion of political fubjeHs ;
and, adhering more clofely to Mr Addifon, he dropt
the Tatler, and afterwards, by the affifiance chiefly
of that fteady friend, he carried on the lame plan,
much improved, under the title of The Speffalor. The
fuccefs of this paper was equal to that of the for¬
mer ; which encouraged him, before the clofe of it, to
proceed upon the fame defign in the charabfer of the
Guardian. This was opened in the beginning of the
year 171an(l was laid down in October the fame
year. But in the courfe of it his thoughts took a
flronger turn to politics : he engaged with great warmth
againff the miniftry ; and being determined to profe-
cute his views that way by procuring a feat in the
houfe of commons, he immediately removed all obfta-
cles thereto. For that purpofe he took care to pre¬
vent a forcible difmiflion from his poll in the ftamp of¬
fice, by a timely refignation of it te the earl of Oxford ;
and at the fame time gave up a penlion, which had been
till this time paid him by the queen as a fervant to the
late Prince George of Denmark. This done, he wrote
the famous Guardian upon the demolition of Dunkirk,
which was publiffied Auguft 7. 1713; and the parlia¬
ment being diffolved next day, the Guardian was foon
followed by feveral other warm political tra&s againft
the adminiftration. Upon the meeting of the new par¬
liament, Mr Steele having been returned a member for
the borough of Stockbridge in Hampfliire* took his
feat accordingly in the houfe of commons; but was ex¬
celled thence in a few days after, for writing the clofe
r os? ]
S
T E
of the paper called the Eng/ijhman, and one of his poli¬
tical pieces intitled the Cnjis. Prefently after his ex-
pulfion, he publifhed propofals fur writing the hiftory
of the duke of Marlborough ; at the fame time he alfo
wrote the Spinfer; and, in oppofition to the Examiner,
he fet up a paper called the Reader, and continued pub-
lilhing feveral other things in the fame fpirit till the
death of the queen, immediately after which, as a re¬
ward for thefe fervices, he was taken into favour by
her fucceffor to the throne, King George J. He was
appointed furveyor of the royal Rabies at Hampton-
Court, governor of the royal company of comedians,
put into the commiffton of the peace for the county
of Middle fex, and in 1715 received the honour of
knighthood. In the firft parliament of that king, he
was chofen member for Boroughbridge in Yorkiliire ;
and, after the fupprefiion of the rebellion in the north,
was appointed one of the commiffioners of the forfeited
efiates in Scotland. In 1718, he buried his fecond
wife, who had brought him a handfome fortune and a
good eftate in Wales ; but neither this, nor the ample
additions lately made to his income, were fufticient to
anfwer his demands. The thoughtlefs vivacity of his
fpirit often reduced him to little fhifts of wit for its
fupport ; and the projeft of the filh-pool this year
owed its birth chiefly to the projedtor’s neceflities.
This veffel was intended to carry filh alive, and with¬
out wafting, to any part of the kingdom : but not-
withftanding all his towering hopes, the fcheme proved
very ruinous to him ; for after he had been at an im-
menfe expence in contriving and building his veffel,
befides the charge of the patent, which he had pro¬
cured, it turned out upon trial to be a mere projedf.
His plan was to bring falmon alive from the coaft of
Ireland ; but thefe fiih, though fupplied by this contri¬
vance with a continual ftream of water while at fea,
yet uneaiy at their confinement, {battered themfelves to
pieces again ft the fides of the pool ; fo that .when they
were brought to market they were worth very little;
The following year he oppofed the remarkable peer¬
age bill in the houfe of commons ; and, during the
courfe of this oppofition to the court, his licence for
adling plays was revoked, and his patent rendered in*
effedfual, at the inltance of the lord chamberlain. He
did his utmoft to prevent fo great a lofs •, and finding
every direfl avenue of approach, to his royal mailer
effectually barred againft him by his powerful adver-
fary, he had re courfe to the method of applying to the
public, in hopes that his complaints would reach the ears
of his fovereign, though in an indirect courfe, by that
canal. In this fpirit he formed the plan of a periodical
paper, to be pub!ilhed-twice a week, under the title of
the Theatre; the firft. number of which came out on the
2d of January 1719-20. In the meantime, the eiii-
fortune of being out of favour at-court, like other mif-
fortunes, drew after it a train of more. During ihe
courfe of this paper, in which he had affumed the. feign¬
ed name of Sir John Edgar, he wasmuti ageoufly atta ek¬
ed by Mr DeKnis, the noted critic, in a very -abnfive
pamphlet, entitled The Character and Con duel of Sir
John Edgar. To this infult our author made a proper
reply in the Theatre.
While he was ftruggling with all his might to favc
himfelf from ruin, he found time to turn his pen againlt
the mifehievous South fea fcheme, which had nearly
brought
Steele.
S T E ^ [6!
Sieele brouglit the nation to ruin in 17205 and. the next year
11 he was reftored to his oface and authority in the play-
Steermg- houfe in Drury Lane. Of this it was not long before
^ ' he made an additional advantage, by bringing his ce¬
lebrated comedy called the Confcious Lovers upon that
itage, where it was afted with prodigious fuccefsj lo
that the receipt there muft have been very confiderable,
befides the profits accruing by the fale of the copy,
and a purfe of 500I. given to him by the king, to whom
he dedicated it. Yet notwithftanding thele ample ii.p-
plies, about the year following being reduced to the
utmoft extremity, he fold his (hare in the play-houfe j
and foon after commenced a lavv-fuit with the managers,
which in 1726 was decided againft him. Having now
again, for the laft time, brought his fortune by the moft
heedlefs profufion, into a defperate condition, he wras
rendered altogether incapable of retrieving the lofs, by
being feized with a paralytic diforder, which greatly im¬
paired his underffanding. In thefe unhappy circum-
itances, he retired to his feat at Languanor near Caer-
marthen in Wales, where he died on the 2lft of Sep¬
tember 1729, and was privately interred, according to
his own defire, in the church of Caermarthen. Among
his papers were found the manuferipts of twTo plays, one
called The Gentlemen, founded upon the Eunuch of Te¬
rence, and the other intitled The School of A chon, both
nearly finifhed.
Sir Richard wras a man of undiflembled and extenfive
benevolence, a friend to the friendlefs, and, as far as his
circumftances would permit, the father of every orphan.
His works are chafte and manly. He was a flranger to
the moll diftant appearance of envy or malevolence 5
never jealous of any man’s growing reputation 5 and fo
far from arrogating any praife to himfelf from his con¬
junction with Mr Addifon, that he was the firlt who de¬
fined him to diftinguifh his papers. His great fault w'as
want of economy 5 and it has been faid of him, he was
certainly the moll agreeable and the moll innocent rake
that ever trod the rounds of diflipation.
STEEPLE, an appendage ereCted generally on the
wellern end of churches, to hold the bells. Steeples
are denominated from their form, either fpires or towers:
the firll are fuch as afeend continually diminilhingeither
conically or pyramidally 5 the latter are mere parallelo-
pipeds, and are covered a-top platform-like.
STEERAGE, on board a fhip, that part of the
ihip next below the quarter-deck, before the bulk-head
of the great cabin, where the lleerfman Hands, in moil
{hips of war. See Steering.
STEERING, i,n Navigation, the art of direfting
the (hip’s way by the movements of the helm 5 or of
applying its efforts to regulate her courfe when fire ad¬
vances.
The perfeftion of fleering confills in a vigilant at¬
tention to the motion of the (hip’s head, fo as to check
every deviation from the line of her courfe in the firll
inftant of its motion*, and in applying as little of the
power of the helm as poflible. By this fire will run
more uniformly in a llraight path, as declining lefs to
the right and left 5 rvhereas, if a greater eftort of the
helm is employed, it will produce a greater declination
from the courfe, and not only increafe the difficulty
of fleering, but alfo make a crooked and irregular
track through the water. See Helm.—The helmfman
thould diligently watch the movements of the head by
8 ] S T E
the land, clouds, moon, or liars5 becaufe, although Steering- ■
the courfe is in general regulated by the compafs, yet Steevec., ^
the vibrations of the needle are not fo quickly per- ^
ceived as the (allies of the (hip’s head to the right or
left, which, if not immediately reltrained, will acquire
additional velocity in every inllant of their motion, and
demand a more powerful impulfe of the helm to re¬
duce them 5 the application of which will operate to
turn her head as far on the contrary fide of her courfe.
—The phrafes ufed in fleering a Ihip vary according
to the relation of the wind to her courfe. Thus, if
the wind is fair or large, the phrafes uied by the pilot
or officer who fuperintends the fleerage are, port, Jlar-
hoard, and Jleady. The firll is intended to diredt the
Ihip’s courfe farther to the right 5 the fecond is to
guide her farther to the left 5 and the lall is defigned
to keep her exadlly in the line whereon (he advances,
according to the courfe prefcribed. The excefs of the
firll and fecond movements is called hard a-port, and
hard-a-Jlarboard; the former of which gives her the
greatell poffible inclination to the right, and the latter
an equal tendency to the left—If, on the contrary, the
wind is foul or fcant, the phrafes are luff, thus, and no
nearer; the firft of which is the order to keep her clofe
to the wind 5 the fecond, to retain her in her prefent
fituation 5 and the third to keep her fails full.
In a fiiip of war, the exercife of fleering the Ihip is
ufually divided among!! a number of the moft expert
failors, who attend the helm in their turns; and are ac¬
cordingly called timoneers, from the French term timo-
nier, which fignifies “ helmfman.” The fteerage is
conltantly fuperintended by the quarter-mailers, who
alfo attend the helm by rotation. In merchant Ihips
every feaman takes his turn in this fervice, being di¬
rected therein by the mate of the watch, or fome other
officer. As the fafety of a fhip, and all contained there¬
in, depends in a great meafure on the Iteerage or effeCls
of the helm, the apparatus by which it is managed ffiould
often be diligently examined by the proper officers.
Indeed, a negligence in this important duty .appears
almolt unpardonable, when the fatal effefts which may
refult from it are duly confidered.
STEEVENS, George, the moll fuccefsful of all the
editors and commentators of Shakefpeare, was born in
the year 1735. We know nothing refpeCling his pa¬
rents, but they appear to have been in affluent circum¬
ftances. Our author received the rudiments of his edu¬
cation at Kinglton-upon-Thames, and had Gibbon the
hillorian for a companion at that fchool. From hence
he ivent to Eton, and in a few years was admitted a
fellow commoner of King’s college, Cambridge; but no
mention is made of his peculiar courfe of ftudies. It ap¬
pears, however, that he had little reliffi for the mathe¬
matics, which lead at Cambridge to academical ho¬
nours. On the firll eftabliffiment of the Effex militia,.he
accepted of a commiflion; but he fpent the concluding
years of his life in almoft total feelufion from the world,
feldom mingling with fociety, but in the {hops of book-
fellers, in the Shakefpeare gallery, or in the morning
converfations of Sir Jofeph Banks.
Although not an original writer, we cannot in ju-
llice refufe him a place among the firlt literary charac¬
ters of the age, when we confider the workshe illuftrated,
and the learning, fagacity, talle, and general knowledge
which he brought to the talk. With a verfatiiity oi ta¬
lents,
s T E f 689 ] S T E
gt2<mns lents, he was eminent both by his pen and his pencil,
li . but his chief excellence lay in his critical knowledge of
an author’s text; and the beft fpecimen of his great
abilities is his edition of Shakefpeare, in which he has
left every competitor far behind him. He had ftudied
the age of Shakefpeare, and employed his perfevering
induttry in becoming acquainted with the writings, man¬
ners, and laws of that period, as well as the provincial
peculiarities, whether of language or cuftoms, which
prevailed in different parts of the kingdom, but more
particularly in thofe where Shakefpeare palfed the early
years of his life. He was continually increafing this
ftore of knowledge, by the aequilition of the obfolete
publications of a- former age, which he fpared no ex¬
pence to obtain. His critical fagacity and obfervation
were conftantly employed in calling forth the hidden
meanings of the dramatic bard, and of courfe enlarging
the difplay of his beauties. This advantage is apparent
from his lail edition of Slrakefpeare, which contains fo
large a portion of new, interefting, and accumulated in-
ftruiftion. In preparing it for the preCq he gave an in-
ftance of activity and perfeverance without example. To
this work he exclufively devoted a period of 18 monthsj
during which he left his houfe every morning at one
o’clock, going to his friend Mr Ifaae Read’s chambers
in Barnard’s-inn, without any confideration of the wea¬
ther or the feafon, and there he found a Iheet of the
Shakefpeare letter-prefs ready for correction. Thus,
while the printers fiept the editor was awake, by which
means he completed, in lefs than 20 months, his fplen-
did edition of Shakefpeare in 15 vols oCtavo ; a labour
almoft incredible, and by which the energy and perfe¬
vering powers of his mind were fully proved.
He probably reited fatisfied with being a commentator
from the particular habits of his life, and his devotion to
the name of Shakefpeare. But at the fame time he was
a clafTical feholar of the firft order, and well acquainted
with the belles lettres of Europe. He ftudied ancient
and modern hiiEry; and particularly that of his own
country. His genius was ilrong and original his wit
abundant ; his imagination of every colour 5 and his fen-i
timer,ts enlivened with the mod brilliant expreffions.
Hi> eloquence was logical and animated 5 his deferip-
lions were fo true to nature, his figures fo curioufly fe-
ietted, and fo happily grouped, that he might be regard¬
ed as a fpeakmg Hogarth. He fcattered his wit and his
humour too freely around him, and they were not loft
.for want of gathering.
Mr Steevens had a very handfome fortune, which he
managed with diferetion. His generofity Was equal to
kis fortune ; and though not profufe of his money to
fturdy beggars, few perfons diftributed with more libe¬
rality to truly deferving objects. He poflefled all the
-graces of outward aecomplilhment, at a period when ci¬
vility and politenefs were charadleriftics of a gentleman.
He bequeathed his valuable Shakefpeare, illuftrated
with about 1500 prints, to Lord Spencer 3 his Hogarth
perfeCt, with the exemption of one ot two pieces, to
Mr Windham 3 and his corrected copy of Shakefpeare,
with 200 guineas, to Ins friend Mr Read. He died in
the month of January 18:0, about 65 years of age.
STEGANOGRAPHY, the art of fecret writing,
OF of writing in ciphers, known only to the perfons cor-
-trefponding. See CIPHER.
STELL ARIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
Vql. XIX. Part II.
clafs decandria, and m the natural fyftem arranged tin-
der the 22d order, Caryophylleee. See Botany Index.
STELLATE, in Botany, a term applied to leaves '
which grow not lefs than hx at a joint, and are arran¬
ged like the rays of a ftar.
STELLERA, German Groundsee, a genus or.
plants belonging to the clals oCtandria ; and in the na¬
tural fyftem arranged under the 31ft order, Veprecuhr-
See Botany Index,
S PELLIONATE, in the civil law, a kind of crime
committed by a fraudulent bargain, where one of the
parties fells a thing for what it is not j as if I fell ah
eftate for my own which belongs to another, or convey
a thing as free and clear which is already engaged to
another, or put off copper for gold, &c.
STEM, in Botany, that part of a plant arifing out of
the root, and which fuftains tke leaves, flowers, fruits,
&c. By wafhing and rubbing the Items of trees, their
annual increafe is promoted 3 for the method of doing
which, fee the article Tree.
STEM of a Ship, a circular piece of timber into which
the two lides of a ftn’p are united at the fore-end :
the lower end of it is fcarfed to the keel, and the
bowfprit refts upon its upper end. The item is form¬
ed ol one or two pieces, according to the fize of the
veflel; and as it terminates the flop forward, the ends
of the wales and planks of the fides and bottom are let
into a groove or channel, in the midft of its furface,
from the top to the bottom 3 which operation is called
rubiting. The outfide of the Item is ufually marked
with a fcale, or divifion of feet, according to its per¬
pendicular height from the keel. The intention of
this is to afeertain the draught of water at the fore¬
part, when the fhip is in preparation for a fea-voyage,
&c. The ftem at its lower end is of equal breadth and
thicknefs with the keel, but it grows proportionally
broader and thicker towards its upper extremity. See
Shit-Building.
S J EMM AT A, in the hiftory of infeifts, are three
fmoolh hemifpheric dots, placed generally on the top
of the bead, as in moil of the hymenoptera and other
dalles. The name was firft introduced by Linnaeus.
STEMODIA, a genus of plants belonging to tl^
clafs didynamia 3 and in the natural fyftem ranging un¬
der the 40th order, Peifonatce. See BotaNY Index.
SfEMPHYLA, a word ufed by the ancients fo
exprefs the hulks of grapes, or the remains of the
preflings of wine. The fame word is alfo ufed by fume
to exprefs the remaining mafs of the olives, after the oil
is prefled out.
STEMPHYLITES, a name given by the ancients
to a fort of wine prelTed hard from the hulks.
STEMPLES, in mining, crofs bars of wood in the
fliaits which are funk to mines.
In many places the way is to fink a perpendicular
hole, or fhaft, the fides of which aVe flrengthened from
top to bottom with wood-work, to prove nt the earth
from falling in 5 the tramverfe pieces of wood are called
jlernples, and by means of thefe the miners in fume places
defeend, without unng tiny rope.
STEMSOls7, lit a fhip-, an arching piece of timber
fixed within the apron, to reinforce the fcarf thereof,
in the fame manner as the apron fupports the fcarf of
the ftern. In large ftiips it is ufually formed of two
pieces.
4 s stenography:
[ 690 ]
* Vide
Btixtorf
Diog. Tae
tilts, Plu¬
tarch, &c.
STENOGRAPHY (a).
CHAP. I. *
TPIE art of ftenography, or (hort writing, was known
and pra&ifed by moft of the ancient civilized na¬
tions. The Egyptians, who were diftinguilhed for
learning at an early period, at firft expreffed their words
by a delineation of figures called hieroglyphics. A more
concife mode of writing feems to have been afterwards
introduced, in which only a part of the fymbol or pic¬
ture was drawn. This anfwered the purpoie of Ihort-
hand in fome degree. Alter them the Hebrews, the
Greeks, and the Romans *, adopted different methods of
abbreviating their words and fentences, fuited to their
refpe£live languages. 1 he initials, the finals, or radi¬
cals, often ferved for whole words ^ and various combi¬
nations of thefe fometimes formed a fentence. Arbitrary
marks were likewife employed to determine the mean¬
ing, and to affift legibility ; and it feems. probable that
every writer, and every author of antiquity, had fome
peculiar method of abbreviation, calculated to facilitate
the expreffion of his own fentiments, and intelligible
only to himfelf.
It is alfo probable, that fome might by thefe means
take down the heads of a difeourfe or oration *, but few,
very few, it is prefumed, could have followed a fpeaker
through all the meanders of rhetoric, and noted with
precifion every fyliable, as it dropt from his mouth, in
a manner legible even to themfelves.
To arrive at fuch confummate perfeftion in the art
■was referved for more modern times, and is Hill an ac-
quifition by no means general.
In every language of Europe, till about the clofe.of
the 16th century, the Roman plan of abbreviating (viz.
fubftituting the initials or radicals, with the help of ar-
bitraries, for words) appears to have been employed.
Till then no regular alphabet had been invented ex-
p?efsly for ftenography, when an Englilh gentleman of
the name of Willis invented and publiftied one (b). His
plan was foon altered and improved, or at leaft pretend¬
ed to be fo. One alteration fucceeded another; and at
intervals, for a feries of years paft, fome men of ingenuity
and application have compofed and publiftied fyftems of
ftenography, and doubtlefs have themfelves reaped all
the advantages that attend it. But among the various
methods that have been propofed, and the different
plans that have been adopted by individuals, none has
yet appeared fortunate enough to gain general approba¬
tion 5 or proved fuffieiently fimple, clear, and concife,
to be univerfally ftudied and praflifed.
Some fyftems are replete with unmeaning fymbols,
perplexing arbitraries, and ill-judged contractions} .
which render them fo difficult to be attained by a com¬
mon capacity, or ordinary application, that it is not to
be wrondered at if they have iunk into neglect, and are
now no longer known (c). Other fyftems, by being
too prolix, by containing a multiplicity of charafters,
and thofe characters not fimple or eafily remembered,
become ineffectual to the purpofe of expedition, and are
only fuperior in obfeurity to a common hand. Some,
again, not only rejeCt all arbitraries and contractions,
but even prepofitions and terminations} which laft, if
not too laviffily employed and badly deviled, highly
contribute to promote both expedition and legibility ;
and though they reduce their characters to fewer than
can poffibly exprefs the various modifications of found,
yet they make nearly one half of them complex. In the
difpofition of the vowels there is the greateft perplexity
in moft fyftems. A dot is fometimes fubftituted for ail
the vowels indiferiminately, and the judgment is left
to determine which letter out of fix any dot is intended
to exprefs } or a minute fpace is allotted them } fo that
unlefs they be arranged with mathematical precifion
they cannot be diftinguiffied from one another ; but
fuch a minute attention is inconfiftent with the nature
of ffiort hand, which ffiould teach us to write down in
a flrort time, as well as in fmall bounds, what we with
to preferve of what we hear. Nor is the plan of lifting
the pen and putting the next confonant in the vowel’s
place, in the middle of words, lefs liable to objections }
or that of reprefenting all the vowels by diftinCt cha¬
racters, being obvioufty ill calculated for facility and
difpatch,
(a) The value of ftenography is not unknown to the learned } and the care and fiiccefs with which it has been
lately cultivated in thefe kingdoms will, in ail probability, foon render it an objeCt of general attention. No
one, however, appears to us to have fimplified and improved the art lo much as Dr Pvlavor, author of Umverjal
Stenography, who has liberally permitted us to prefent our readers with a complete view of his leheme.. ^ o
thofe who with to become proficients in Short-writing, we earneftly recommend his entire publication (printed
for Cadell and Davis, Strand, London), which in many fchools of the firft reputation now forms a dderved clais-
(B) Mr Locke fays, a regular method of ffiort-writing feems to be known and praftifed only in Britain. This
is not now the cafe •, and indeed there is no reafon to doubt whether characters may not be invented to expre s t ic
various founds, or letters, employed in any language, either ancient or modern.
(c) A lift of writers on ftenography. Mr Addy, Alridge, Angell, Annet, Blandemore, Bloffet Botley,
Bridges, Byrom, Coles, Crofs, Dix, Everardt, Ewen, Facey, Farthing, Gibbs, Graeme, Gurney, Heath, Holdl-
worth, Hopkins, Jeake, Labourer, Lane, Lyle, Macauley, Mafon, Mavor, Metcalfe, Nicholas, Palmei, ,
Ridpath, Shelton, Steele, Tanner, Taylor, Thickneffe, Tiften, Web.fter, Wefton, Williamfon, Willis,
and Willis, &c.
STENOGRAPHY.
691
uifpatcli, and confequcntly Inadmiffible into any ufeful
fyftem.
It is to be confeffed, that the perfon who firft propo-
fed the omiffion of vowels in the middle of words (d),
which it is obvious are not wanted, and invented let¬
ters, which could be conne£fed as in a running hand
without lifting the pen in the middle of the word, made
a real improvement on the works of his predeceffors.
But, in fine, moft fyllems, either in their plan or exe¬
cution, labour under fome capital deleft, attended with
circumfiances highly difcouraging to the learner, and
which in a great meafure defeat the end of their inven¬
tion, by being too complicated to be learned with eafe
and remembered with accuracy, or to be praftifed with
the expedition which is requifite ; and fo difficult to be
deciphered, that a man can fcarcely read what he has
juft written.
To obviate thefe defefts ; to provide againft prolixity
and concifenefs, which might occafion obfeurity ; to ex¬
hibit a fyftem founded on the limpleft principles, which
might be ecfily learned and read, and yet be capable of
the utmoft expedition—were the motives that gave rife
to the prefent attempt.
This method will be found different from any yet
publifhed, and fuperior to all in the difpofition of the
vowrels and the facility of arranging them ; the confufion
in placing which feems to detraft from the merit of the
Beft performances on the fubjeft ; and it may be affirm¬
ed, without oftentation, that charafters fimpler in their
form, and more perfeft in their union, have not been
applied to the art of ftenography.
As well as it could be determined, the fimpleft cha¬
rafters are appropriated to the letters moft ufually em¬
ployed : indeed, as far as poflible, tbofe which are com¬
plex have been rejefted •, but as it was an objeft always
kept in view that the writing fliould be on a line, a few
are admitted into the alphabet for that reafon.
The charafters for the double and triple confonants
are the eafieft that could be invented, confiftent with
perfpicuity (e) ; for care has been taken to provide
againft all obfeurity which might arife by adopting
letters too fimilar in their formation 5 and with re-
fpeft to the prepofttions and terminations, thofe which
occur moft frequently are expreffed by the fimpleft cha¬
rafters, which will be found perfeftly eafy in their ap¬
plication.
The arbitraries are few in number (f), and the arbi¬
trary abbreviations, as they are entirely from the letters
of the alphabet, and chofen from fome thoufands of
words in common ufe, will well repay the learner for
an hour’s trouble in committing them to memorv.
The laft chapter lays down a fcheme of abbreviation,
comprifed in a few rules, perfeftly eafy to be uhderftood
and praftifed by proficients in this art, which we hope
will anfwer the expeftation of the author, and wdll be
found free from the perplexity complained of in many
fyftcms where abbreviation is admitted. The principal
rules are new, are fo eafy, fo extenfive in their ufe, and
fo confiftent with expedition and legibility, if applied
with judgment, that they alone might fuffice. The
learner is, however, advifed by no means to adopt any
of them, till experience has convinced him that they
may be ufed without error or injury to legibility. All
abbreviating rules are fuited to thofe only who have
made fome progrefs in the ftenographic art j for al¬
though they certainly promote expedition in a wonder¬
ful manner, and afford the greateft eafe to a proficient,
yet a learner, as expedition is not his firft, though his
ultimate view, ffiould admit of nothing that in the leaft
renders the reading difficult.
CHAP. II.
Tfie Englifh alphabet confifts of twenty-fits letters; xhe gene-
fix of which are vowels, o, e, i, 0, u, andy; and the ral princi-
other twenty confonants, £, c, d, f g, h, k, /, tn, n,p, ^ pies of fte-
r, r, t, v, X, and ». nogcaphy.
This alphabet, as is obferved by the beft grammari¬
ans that have written on the language, is both defeftive
and redundant in exprefling the various modifications of
fou"d *- . . * Louth's
Cuftom or prejudice has afligned fome letters a place, Gram.
when others would with much more propriety ex- Prieflley's
prefs the fame found : and to this may be added, that ^am-j ,
feveral letters, fometimes in one word, feem to be ad- ie^nires „„
mitted for no other reafon than to perplex a young be- Elocution.
ginner or a foreigner, as an obftruftion to true pronun¬
ciation, and to add to the apparent length of the word,
when they are entirely quiefeent and ufelefs. That this
is the genius of the orthography of our language muft
be perceived by the moft fuperficial obferver; but no
modern tongue is abfolutely free from the fame ex¬
ceptions. In particular, the French has a great num¬
ber of dormant letters, which, it is obvious, render the
pronunciation more difficult and perplexing to learn¬
ers (g).
But as it is neither our bufinefs nor our intention to
propofe a mode of fpelling different from that in com¬
mon ufe, when applied to printing or long-hand writing
(fince feveral innovators in orthography have fallen into
contempt, and their plans have been only preferved as
beacons to warn others of the folly of endeavouring to
fubvert eftablifhed principlesf) ; v'e ffiall only obferve, j prefacc
that in ftenography, where the moft expeditious and to John-
4 S 2 concife Ayz’-f dic¬
tionary.
(d) Mr Byrom rejefted vowels entirely in the middle of words, as others before him had only done partially.
Without critically examining the executive part of his performance, which is very defeftive, it muft be owned,
that it is above the reach of human ingenuity to exceed his general plan j which for ever muft be the bafis of
every future rational fyftem.
(e) Thofe for th and ch may be either made upright or floping to the right.
(f) Thefe are not by any means preferibed ; they may be employed or not according to the fancy of the
learner.
(g) The Latin and Greek claim a juft fuperiority over the modern tongues in this refpeft. In them no con¬
fufion or doubt can arife from the manner of fpelling j and the reader can fcarceiy be wrong (unlefs in quantity)
in founding all the letters he fees.
$9‘
2 S T E N O G
•oncife met'hodIs tlie boO, If conhftent with perfjncuity
the following fimple rules are ftudioufiy to be regarded
2 and praflifed.
.Pules for Rule I. All quiefeent confonants in words are to
the conib-. pje dropped ; and the orthography to be dire&ed only
*snts- by the pronunciation j which being known to all, will
render this art attainable by thofe who cannot fpell with
precifion in long hand.
Rule II. When the abfence of confonants, not en¬
tirely dormant, can be eafily known, they may often be
omitted without the leaft obfeurity.
Rule III. Two or fometimes more confonants may,
to promote greater expedition, be exchanged for a {ingle
one of nearly fimilar found ; and no ambiguity as to the
meaning enfue (h).
Rule IV. When two confonants of the fame kind
or fame found come together, without any vowel be¬
tween them, only one is to be expreffed •, but if a vowel
or vowels intervene, both are to be written : only.ob-
ferve, if they are perpendicular, horizontal, or oblique
lines, they mufl: only be drawn a-fize longer tiian ufual.j
and charaflers with loops mufl have the fize of their
heads doubled
EVIL Might is to be written mit, fightyf/, machine mafhin,
3 enough, enuf laugh htf prophet profet, pbyfics fifths,
jFkft rale through thro\ foreign foren, fovereign foveren, pfalm
vzompii- Jam, receipt refet, write rite, wright rit, ifiand ilund,
knavery navenj, temptation temtation, knife nife, flick
fib, thigh tlu\ honour onour, indiftment inditement, ac-
^ quaint aquaint, chaos kaos, &c.
Second rule SIrength frenth, length lenth, friendfliip./i'<?y/7’f/i, con-
exempli- ne(q. cone^ commandment comanment, conjunft conjunt,
humble humle, lumber lumer, {lumber fvttier, number
5 numer, exemplary exemlary, &c.
Third rule Rocks rox, afls cths or ax, fadls fahs or fax, dillridls
exempli- difriis or difrix, affefrs afehs or afex, affli&s afiks or
6 oflix, conquer konhr, &c.
Fourth rule Letter leter, little title, command comand, error eror,
exempli- terror teror, &c. But in remember, moment, ffer, and
fuch like words, where two confonants of the fame name
have an intervening vowel, both of them mufl be writ¬
ten.
Thefe four rules, with their examples, being carefully
eonfidcred by the learner, will leave him in no doubt
concerning the difpofition and management of the con¬
fonants in this feheme of fhort-writing } wre {hall there¬
fore proceed to lay down rules for the application of the
7 vowels with eafe and expedition
tied.
Xules for
Rule I. Vowels, being only fimple articulate founds,
the vowels, they are the conne6lives of confonants, and em-
11 A P H Y.
incipient vowel is often implied in that ox the firfl con-
fonant, which will confequently fupply its place.
Rule III. But if the vowel conflitutes the firfl or
lafl fyllablc of a word, or is flrongly accented at its
beginning or end, that vowel is continually to be writ¬
ten.
Rule IV. If a word begins or ends with two or more
vowels though feparated, or when there is a coalition of
vowels, as in diphthongs and triphthongs •, only one of
them is to be expreffed, which mufl be that which agrees
belt with the pronunciation.
' Rule V. In monofyllables, if they begin or end with
a vowel, it is always to be inferted, unlei's the vowel be
e mute at the end of a word.
Such are the general principles of this art ; in vindi¬
cation and fupport of which it will be needlefs to offer
any arguments, when it is confidered that brevity and
expedition are the chief objefls, if confiflent with legi¬
bility ; and the fubfequent fpecimens in the orthography
recommended will, we hope, be fufficicnt to fhow that
there is no real deficiency in the lalt mentiomed parti¬
cular. g
He who md us mft be etrnl, grt, nd mnptnt. It is .Specimen
or dty, as rfnl bngs, to frv, Iv, nd oby hm.-*—A mn tht°f the mock?
wd avd blm, fhd be frkmfpk in al bs axns, nd ndvr wth
al hs mt to pis evry bdy.—I wd nt frm any knxns wthphy<
a mn who hd no rgrd fr hraslf-, nthr wd I blv a mn who
hd ons tld me a li.—Onr is of al thngs the mft dfklt to
prfrv ntrnfhd ; nd whn ons mpchd, Ik the chaftty of a
wmn, nvr Pans wth its wntd Iftr.—Wth gd mnrs,
kmplfms nd an efy pit adrs, mny mk a fgr in the wrl,
whs mnl ablts wd ikrfly hv rsd thm aby the rnk of a
ftmn.—Idlns is the prnt of a thfnd msfrtns, wch ar nvr
fit by the ndftrs : it is a pn nd a pnfhmnt of itslf, nd
brngs wnt nd bgry in its trn.—Vrtu is the frft thng tht
ftid be rgrdd ; it is a rwrd of itslf; mks a mn rfpktbl
hr, nd wl mk hm etrnly hpy hrftr.—Prd is a mft prn&
psn, wch yt ws plntd by hvn in ur ntr, to rs ur emlsn
to imtt grt nd wrthy krktrs or axns, to xt in us a si fr
wht is rt nd gft, nd a Idbl ndgnfn gnft'oprfrs nd wrkrs
of any knd of nkyty ; in flirt, to mk us st a prpr vlu upn
urvfls, nd dfps a wrthls flo, hu evr xltd. I hs fr prd is
a vrtu, nd my gftly be kid a grtns of ft. Bt prd, Ik
othr pfns, gnrly fxs upn rng obgks, or is apld in rng
prprfns. Hu kmn is it to fe a rtch wbm evry vs hs
rndrd mfrbl, nd evry fly kntmbl, vlng hmflf on hs hi
brth, nd bftng ths ilftrs nffttrs, of whm he nhrts nthng
bt the nm or ttl ! nfftrs who if thy nu hm, wd dfn thr
dfndnt wth kntmt. But al prd of ths frt is fly, nd evr
to be avdd.
ployed in every word and every fyllable, are not necef-
farv to be inferted in the middle of words; beeaufe the
confonants, if fully pronounced, with the affiftance of
connexion, will always difeover the meaning of a word,
and make the writing perfectly legible.
Rule II. If a vowel is not ftrongly accented in the
incipient fyllable of a word, or if it is mute in the final,
ft is likewife to be omitted ; becaufe the found of the
CHAP. III.
As the whole of this art depends upon a regular me¬
thod and a fimple alphabet, we have not only endea¬
voured to eftablifh the former on fatisfa&ory principles,
but have been careful to appropriate, according to tLe
comparative frequency of their occurrence, fuch chaiao
ters
(h) By this rule likewife q and -j in the middle of words, but never in the beginning, may be exchanged fo?
£ and/, when they admit of an eafier connedling with the following characler, or will nr e t wvi-.ng app
neater.
9
Ijtenogra-
•■hic alpha-
i let
Plate
DVII.
10
>l;ies.
n
1 lircles.
12
irves and
I les.
STENOGRAPHY.
tfcrs for tne letters as, after repeated trials and altera¬
tions, were conceived to be the beft adapted for dif-
patch.
T'he flenographic alphabet confifls of iS diilindl cha¬
racters (viz. two for the vowels and the reit for the con-
fonants), taken from lines and femicircular curves 5 the
formation and application of which we {hall now explain,
beginning with the vowels.
For the three firft vowels, e, and /, a comma is
appropriated in different pofitions j and for the other
three, 0, u, and y, a point. The comma and point,
when applied to a, and 0, is to be placed, as in the Plate
DVII. at the top of the next charadler •, when for e
and u, oppofite to the middle ) and when for i and y, at
the bottom.
This arrangement of the vowels is the mod fimple
and dillindt that can eafily be imagined. Places at the
top, the middle, and the bottom of characters, which
make three different pofitions, are as eafily diftinguifhed
from one another as any three feparate characters could
be ; and a comma is made with the fame facility as a
point.
Simple lines may be drawn four different ■ways; per¬
pendicular, horizontal, and with an angle of about 45
degrees to the right and left. An afeending oblique
line to the right, which will be perfectly diftinct from
the reft when joined to any other character, may like-
wife be admitted. Thefe characters being the fimpleit
in nature, are afligned to thofe five confonants which
mod frequently occur, viz. /, r, t, c hard or k, and c foft
or r.
Every circle may be divided with a perpendicular and
horizontal line, fo as to form like wife four didimS cha¬
racters. Thefe being the next to lines in the fimplieity
of their formation, we have appropriated them for b, d,
n, and m.
The characters exprefiing nine of the confor.ants are
all perfectly didinCt from one another •, eight only re¬
main which are needful, viz.v/', g or /, h, p, q, v, iu, and
x ; to find characters for which we mud have recourfe
to mixed curves and lines. The characters which we
have adopted are the firnpled in nature after thofe al¬
ready applied, admit of the eafied joining, and tend to
preferve lineality and beauty in the writing.
It muit be obferved that we have no eharaCter fbr c
when it has a hard found, as in cajlle; or foft, as in city j
for it naturally takes the found of h or which in all
cafes will be fufficient to fupply its place.
R likewife is reprefented by the fame charaCter as 1;
only wdth this difference, r is written with an afeending
ftroke (1), and / with a defeending \ which is always to
be known from the manner of its union with the follow¬
ing character \ but in a few monofyllables where r is the
only confonant in the word, and confequently dands
alone, it is to be made as is fit own in the alphabet for
diftinCtion’s fake.
Z, as it is a letter feldom employed in the Englidi
language, and only a coarfer and harder expredion of x,
mud be fupplied by s whenever it occurs j as for Zedc-
kiah write dedekiahy &c.
CHAP. IV.
* . l3
The prepofitions and terminations in this feberne are Rules for
fo fimple, that the greated benefit may be reaped from prepofitions.
them, and very little trouble required to attain them*,
as the incipient letter or the incipient confonant of all
the prepofitions and of feveral of the terminations is
ufed to exprefs the whole. But although in Plate
DVII fudicient fpecimens are given of the manner of
their application, that the learner of lefs ingenuity or
more dow perception may have every affidance, we have
fubioined the following diredions.
Rule I The prepofition is always to be written
without joining, yet fo near as plainly to diow w'hat
word it belongs to ; and the bed way is to obferve the
fame order as if the whole was to be connected.
Rule II. A prepofition, though the fame letters
that conditute it may be met with in the middle or end
of a word, is never to be ufed, becaufe it wmuld expofe
to obfeurity.
Rule III. Obferve that the prepofition om/ii is ex-
prefled by the vowel 0 in its proper pofition 5 and for
anti, antci, ante, by the vowel a, which the radical part
of the word will eafily didinguifn from being only fimpic
vowels.
The fird rule for the prepofitions is (alloiving fuch
exceptions as may be feen in the Plate) to be obferved
for the terminations •, and alfo the fecond, nwtatis mutan¬
dis ; except that whenever fts, fits, fys, cious, tious, and
ces occur, they are to be exprefled as direCted in the
fourth rule for the confonants, whether in the begin¬
ning, middle, or end of words (k).
Rule IV. The terminative charaCter for tion, fion,
cion, cinn, tian,- is to be-expreffed by a fmall circle joined
to the neared letter, and turned to the right ; and the
plurals lions, Jians, cions, cians, tians, tience, by a dot on
the fame fide.
Rule V. The terminative charaCter for ing, is to be
exprefled likewife by a fmall circle, but drawn to the
left hand •, and its plural ings by a dot (l).
Rule VI. The plural fign x is to be added to the
terminative characters when neceffary.
Rule VII. T'he feparated terminations are never to
be ufed but in polyfyllables or words of more fyllables
than one.
Thefe rules duly obferved will point out a method as
concife and elegant as can be defired, for exprefling the
moft
(1) The charaCter for h, when lineality requires it, may be made from the bottom and inverted (fee Plate DVII.).
And often h may be omitted entirely, or a vowel may be fubflituted in its dead, without any injury to legibility,
it being rather a breathing than letter. !|
(k) But in a few words where three horizontal characters meet, it will be better to exprefs the Jis, &c. by the
femielliptical charaCter in Plate DVII. oppofite tiovs.
(l) In horizontal characters, by the left hand is meant the top, and by the right the fpace below the letter (fee
joined, Plate DVII.). In all other characters the right and left pofitions will naturally be known.
1
694
•14
Jlules for
abbrevia¬
tion.
ENOGHAPHY.
moft frequent and longed prepofitions and terminations
in the Englifh language. If it (hould be thought ne-
ceffary to increafe their number by the addition of
others, it ‘will be an eafy matter for any one of the lead:
difcernment to do fo, by proceeding on the principles
before laid down.
CHAP. V.
Though a more concife method of writing, or more
numerous abbreviations, may not be indifpenfably ne-
ceffary, if the foregoing directions be praftifed for a
confiderable time, yet contractions will be found ex¬
tremely ufeful and convenient to thofe who have attain¬
ed a proper knowledge of the fubjeCt, and lead to a
greater degree of expedition, at the fame time that they
diminith the labour of writing. It has been obferved in
the introduction, that abbreviations are only to be em¬
ployed by proficients in this art j becaufe expedition is
not the fir ft, though the ultimate, objeCi in view ; and
that an eafy legibility is of the utmofl: confequence to
the learner ; which, however, cannot be preferved, if
he adopts too foon thofe very rules which in time will
afford him the greatefl eafe when applied with judge¬
ment.
The following ftiort and practical rules will be found,
we hope, fully adequate to every purpofe for which they
were intended, and are far fuperior in the facility of their
application to any which we have feen.
Rule I. The ufual abbreviations in long hand are al¬
ways to be followed ; as Mr for Mailer, M. D. for Doc¬
tor of Phyfic, and Abp. for Archbifhop, &c.
Rule II. Subftantives, adjeCfives, verbs, and parti¬
ciples, when the fenfe will direCl to the meaning, are
to be expreffed by their initial confonant with the di-
ftinguiihing marks exhibited in Plate DVII. viz. a fub-
ftantive muff have the dot exaCfly over its initial con¬
fonant ; an adjeCtive muft have a dot under it j a verb
is to be expreffed by a comma over its initial confottant;
and a participle by a comma under (m). Thefe being
the four principal parts of fpeech will be fufficient; and
an adept will never be at a lofs to know when he can
with fafety apply this rule to them.
Rule III. To render the writing more legible, the
laft letter of the word may be joined to the firft, and
the proper mark applied.
Rule IV. The conftituent or radical part of words,
e,rpecially if they are long, will often ferve for the whole
or fometimes the firft fyliable : as, rve ought to mode¬
rate our ex. by our circum.; a man’s man. commonly
fhape his for.
Rule V. All long words Avithout exception may
have their prepofitions or terminations expreffed by the
incipient confonant of fuch prepofition or termination.
Rule VI. When there is a great dependence be-
tAveen the parts of a fentence, the initial letter Avill often
fuffice *, as L. is the capital of Great B.; the eldeft S.
of the king of Great B. is ftyled prince of TV. Every
one, it is prefumed, Avill alloAV this to be perfeftly le¬
gible in long-hand, then why may it not in ftenogra-
phy ?
Rule VII. The terminations ncfs and /fs may be
omitted •, as faithfulnefs is only to be written faithful;
forwardnefs, forward ; heedlefs, heed ; fubbor nnefstub¬
born, &c.
Rule VIII. The fecond and third perfons of verbs,
ending in eth and ef, may be expreffed by .r; as, he
loves, thou teaches i inftead of he loveth, thou teachejl:
or even without s ; as, he love, &c.
Rule IX. Words may often be entirely omitted,
and yet no ambiguity enfue $ as, In beginning God crea¬
ted heaven and earth, for In the beginning God created
the heaven and the earth.
Rule X. When there is an immediate repetition of
a fentence or word, a line is to be drawn under the fen¬
tence or word to be repeated ; as, Amen, Amen, is to be
Avritten Amen ; but if any words intervene before a
Avord or fentence is to be repeated the line muff be
draivn as before, and a a or mark of omiflion placed
where the repetition (hould begin j as, Is it jufl the in¬
nocents fhould be condemned a reviled ?
The Contents of the Stenographic Plates.
Fabricius's Reply to Pyrrhus.
As to my poverty, you have indeed, Sir, been rightly p]a(c
informed. My whole eftate confifts in a houfe of but DVIIL
mean appearance, and a little fpot of ground, from
which by my own labour I draw my fupportx But if
by any means you Imc been perfuaded to think, that
this poverty makes me lefs confidered in my country,
or in any degree unhappy, you are extremely deceived.
I have no reafon to complain of fortune, (lie fupplies me
Avith all that nature requires ; and if I am Avithout fiu-
perfluities, I am alfo free from the defire of them.
With thefe I confefs I fhould be more able to fuccour
the nccefiitous, the only advantage for Avhich the Aveal-
thy are to be envied 5 but as fmall as my poffeflions are,
I can ftill contribute fomething to the fupport of the
ftate and the aftiftance of my friends. With regard to
honours, my country places me, poor as I am, upon a
level with the richeft : for Rome knows no qualifica¬
tions for great employments but virtue and ability. She
appoints me to officiate in the moft: auguft ceremonies
of religion •, fhe entrufts me Avith the command of her
armies •, (he confides to my care the moft: important ne-
gociations. My poverty does not leffen the Aveight and
influence of my counfels in the fenate 5 the Roman
people honour me for that very poverty which you con-
fider as. a difgrace 5 they know the many opportunities
I have had in Avar to enrich myfelf without incurring
cenfure *, they are convinced of my difinterefted zeal
for their prefperity; and if I have any thing to com¬
plain of in the return they make, it is only the excels
of their applaufe. What value then can I fet upon
your gold and filver ! What king can add any thing to
my fortune ! Always attentive to difcharge the duties
incumbent
(m) I he dot or comma being placed thus Avill never occafion them to be miftaken for voAvels, becaufe they
fhould always be on one fide or other 5 whereas the mark for parts of fpeech may conftantly be placed exaflly over
or under.
STENOGRAPHY.
incumbent on me, I have a mind free from felf-reproaeh,
and I have an honeft fame. Dodjleifs Preceptor.
Letter to a Friend againji wajle of Time.
Converfe often with yourfelf, and neither lavilh your
time, nor fuffer others to rob you of it. Many of our
hours are ftolen from us, and others pafs infenfibly away j
but of both thefe Ioffes the mofi; (hameful is that which
happens through our own negledt. If we take the
trouble to obferve, we fhall find that one confiderable
part of our life is fpent in doing evil, and the other in
doing nothing, or in doing what we Ihould not do. We
don’t feem to know the value of time, nor how precious
a day is \ nor do we confider that every moment brings
us nearer our end. Refleft upon this, I entreat you,
and keep a ftrifl account of time. Procraftination is the
moil dangerous thing in life. Nothing is properly ours
but the inftant we breathe in, and all the reft is no¬
thing ; it is the only good we poffefs 5 but then it is
fleeting, and the firft comer robs us of it. Men are fo
weak, that they think they oblige by giving of trifles^
and yet reckon that time as nothing for which the moft
grateful perfon in the world can never make amends.
Let us therefore confider time as the moft valuable of
all things j and every moment fpent, without fume im¬
provement in virtue or fo'me advancement in goodneis,
as the greateft fublunary lofs.
St PauPs Speech before Agrippa and Fefluc.
I think myfelf happy, King Agrippa, that I ftiall an-
fwer for myfelf this day before thee, touching all things
whereof I am accufed of the Jews : efpecially becaufe-
I know thee to be expert in all cuftoms and queftions
which are among the Jews, wherefore I befeeeh thee to
hear me patiently. My manner of life from my youth,
which was at firft among mine own nation at Jerufalem,
know all the Jews, which knew me from the begin¬
ning (if they would teftify), that, after the ftraiteft left
of our religion, I lived a Pharifee. And now I ftand
and am judged for the hope of the promife made by
God unto our fathers; unto which promife our twelve
tribes inftantly ferving God day and night hope to
come j for which hope’s fake, King Agrippa, I am ac¬
cufed of the Jews. Why fftould it be thought a thing
incredible with you, that God fhould raife the dead,
when God himfelf has given affurance of it unto all
men, in that he hath railed Chrift from the dead ? As
for my own part, moft noble Feftus, I own I once ve¬
rily thought that even I myfelf ought to do many things
contrary to the name of Jefus of Nazareth. Which
thing I alfo did in Jerufalem. I puniihed the faints
oft in every fynagogue, and compelled them to blaf-
pheme •, and being exceedingly mad againft them, I
perfecuted them even unto ftrange cities. In purfuit
of which, as I went to Damafcus, with authority and
commiffion from the chief priefts : At mid-day, O king,
I faw in the way a light from heaven, above the bright-
nefs of the fun, ftiining about me, and them which jour¬
neyed with me. And when we were all fallen to the
earth, I heard a voice fpeaking unto me, and faying in
the Hebrew tongue, Saul, Saul, why perfeeuteft thou
me ? It is hard for thee to kick againft the pricks.
And I faid, Who art theu, Lord ? And he faid, I am
Jefus whom thou perfecuteft. But rife, and ftand up¬
on thy feet; for I have appeared unto thee for this pur.
pofe, to make thee a minifter and a witnefs both of
thefe things which thou haft feen, and of tliofe things
in which 1 will appear unto thee. Whereupon, O king
Agrippa, I was not difobedient to the heavenly vifion ;
but fhewed firft unto them of Damafcus, and at Jeru¬
falem, and throughout all the coafts of Judea, and then
to the Gentiles, that they ihould repent and turn to
God. For thefe caufes the Jews caught me in the
temple, and went about to kill me. Having therefore
obtained help of God, I continued unto this day, wit-
neffing both to fmall and great, faying none other things
than thofe which the prophets and Mofes did lay Ihould
come: That Chrift Ihould fuffer, and that he Ihould be
the firft that ftiould rife from the dead, and ihould ftiow
light unto the people, and to the Gentiles. This is the
real truth : Believe me, I am no peftilent fellow, nor
mover of fedition j but always endeavour all that lies
in me to preferve a confcience void of offence towards
God and towards man: nor can the Jews prove the
things whereof they now aceufe me. Neither am I,
Feftus, befides myielf; but fpeak thus freely before the
king, becaufe he knows thefe things to be fa£I 5 yea, I
am fully perfuaded the king knows them all to be fadt}
for they were not done in a corner. King Agrippa,
believeft thou the prophets ? I know that thou believeft.
And w'ould to God that not only thou, but alfo all that
hear me this day, were altogether inch as I am except
theie bonds. Holmes's Rhetoric.
Pope to Atterbury.
Once more I write to you as I promifed, and this
once I fear will be the laft ; the curtain will foon be
drawn between my friend and me, and nothing left but
to with you a long good night 5 may you enjoy a ftate
of repofe in this life not unlike that fleep of the foul
which fome have believed is to fucceed it, where we lie
utterly forgetful of that world from which we are gone,
and ripening for that to which we are to go. If you
retain any memory of the paft, let it only image to
you what has pleafed you beft ; fometimes prefent a
dream of an abfent friend, or bring you back an agree¬
able converfation. But, upon the whole, I hope you
will think lefs of the time paft than the future j as the
former has been lefs kind to you than the latter infal¬
libly will be, Do not envy the world your ftudies :
They will tend to the benefit of men, againft whom
you can have no complaint I mean, of a>ll pofterity :
and, perhaps, at your time of life, nothing elfe is worth
your care. What is every year of a wife man’s life
but a cenfure or critic on the paft ? Thofe wbofe dale is
the fhorteft, live long enough to laugh at one half of it:
The boy defpifes the infant, the man the boyT, the phi-
lofopher both, and the Chriftian all. You may now be¬
gin to think your manhood Avas too much a puerility j
and you rvill never, fuffer your age to be but a fecond
infancy. The toys and baubles of your childhood
are hardly hoav more below you than thofe toys of
our riper and our declining years ; the drums and rat¬
tles of ambition, and the dirt arid bubbles of avarice.
At this time, when you are cutoff from a little fociety,
and made a citizen of the rvorld at large, you fliould
bend your talents not to ferve a party, or a ferv, but all
mankind. Your genius ftiould mount above that mift,
in which its participation and neighbourhood with earth
hath long involved it; To Ihine abroad, and to heaven,.
ought
695
S T E N O G
ought to be the bufinefs and the glory of^ your prtfent
fituation. Remember it was at (uch a time that the
great eft lights of antiquity dazzled and blazed the rnoft ;
in their retreat, in their exile, or in their death. But
why do I talk of dazzling or blazing ? it was then that
they did good, that they gave light, and that they be¬
came guides to mankind. Thole aims alone are wor¬
thy of fpirits trulv great, and fueh I therefore hope
will be yours. Refentrnent indeed may remain, per*
haps cannot be quite extinguiftied, in the nobleft minds;
but revenge will never harbour there : Higher principles
than thole of the firft, and better principles than thole
of the latter, will infallibly influence men whofe
thoughts and whofe hearts are enlarged, and caufe them
to prefer the whole to any part of mankind, tfpecially
R A P H Y.
to fo fmail a part as one's fingle felf. Believe m?, rrrf
Lord, i look upon you as a fpirit entered into another
life, as one juft upon the edge of immortality, where-
the paluons and affedHons mull be much more exalted,
and where you ought to defpife all littie views and all
mean retrofpedls. Nothing is worth your looking back :
and therefore look forward, and make (as you can) the
world look after you ; but take care it be not with,
pity, but with eftesm and admiration. I am, with the
greateft fincerity and paflion for your fame as well as
happinefs, your, Sec.
The above molt charming and moft affedlionate let¬
ter was written about a month before Atterbury bi-
Ihop of Rochefter was lent into bamlhment, and is uni-
verlally admired.
S T E
'Stenforo-
phonic
Stephens.
STENTOROPHONIC tube, a fpeahtng trumpet ;
thus called from Stentor, a per Ion mentioned by Homen
See TruwpEt.
STEP, in a llvip, a block of wood lived on the decks
or bottom of a Ihip, and having a hole in its upper fide,
fitted to receive the heel of a mail or capftern. 1 he
fteps of the main and foremafts of every Ihip reft upon
the kelfon, to which they are firmly fecured by knees,
bolts, or fpike-nails. The ftep of the mizen-tuaft ufually
refts u])on the lower deck.
STEPHANIUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 47th order, StellaUe. See Botany /«-
STEPHANOPHORUS, in antiquity, the chief
prieft of Pallas, who prefided over the reft. It W'as
ufual for every god to have a chief prieft ; that of Pal¬
las was the Stephanophorus juft mentioned, and that of
Hercules was ealled Dadouchus.—Stephanophorus was
alfo a prieft who aflifted the women in the celebration
of the feftival Thefmophoria.
STEPHANUS ByzaNTIKUS, an able grammarian,
V/ho lived in the fifth or fixth century. He wrote a
Dictionary, in which he made a great number of obfer-
Vations, borrowed from mythology and hiftory, which
-fhowed the origin of cities and colonies, of which we
have nothing remaining but a mean abridgement by Her-
rholaus the grammarian ; but from that work the learn¬
ed have received great light ; and Sigonius, Cafaubon,
Scaliger, Salmafius, &.C. have employed themfelves in
illuftrating it.
STEPHEN, king of England. See England,
N° 108, &c.
Stephen, or St Stephen's Day, a feftival of the Chri-
Itian church, obferved on the 26th of December, in me¬
mory of the firft martyr St Stephen.
STEPHENS, a family of printers defervedly celebra-
. ted. They flourithed at the time of the revival of learning,
and contributed a great deal towards difpelling the cloud
of ignorance which had fo long overfhadowed Europe.
Some of the claffics before the 16th century were in a
great meafure loft, and all of them were exceedingly
S T E
corrupted. By their abilities and indefatigable induftry
thefe defcCfs were fupplied, and the learned were furniih-
ed with beautiful and correbf editions of the Greek and
Roman authors. 'J ims the world was not only fupplied
with an inexhauftible fund of amufement and inftrmftion
in thefe ancient writings ; but it is to the ardour which
they infpired, and to the model of elegance which they
difplayed, that the prefent advanced ftate of literature is
in a great rtieafufe owing.
Henry Stephens, the firft of thefe illuftrious men,
was born in France, foon after the difeovery of print¬
ing, perhaps about the year 1465* He fettled as a
printer at Paris, and was probably patronized by Louis
Nil. A great proportion of the books which he pub-
liihed were Latin : They are printed in the Roman
letter, and are not inelegant, though feme of them
abound rather too much in contractions* He died about
the year 1520, and left behind him three for.s, Francis,
Robert, and Charles. His widow married Simeon de
Colines {Colinanis in Latin), who thus got poffeflion of
Henry’s printing-office, and continued the profeflion till
his death.
Of Francis, the eldeft fon, little more is known than
that he carried on bufinefs along with his father-in-law
Colinceus, and that he died at Paris in 155°*
Robert Stephens, thefeeond fon, was born in 15030
In his youth he made great proficiency in the Roman,
Greek, and Hebrew languages, and at the age of 19
had acquired fo much knowledge, that his father-in-law
er.trufted him with the management of his prefs. An
edition of the New leftament was publiftied undtr his
infpeflion, which gave great offence to the Paris divines,
who accufed him of herefy, and threatened to prevent
the fale of the book. Sorin after he began bufinefe him-
felf, and married Perrete the daughter of Jodocus Ra¬
dius, a printer and an author. She was a woman of
learning, and underftood Latin, whieh indeed was the
neceffary confequence of her fituation. Her hufband
always entertained a number of learned men as correctors
of the prefs: Being foreigners, and of different nations,
they made ufe of no other language but Latin ; which
Perrete being accuftomed to hear, ivas able in a lliort time
Stcpl.er.j
1
iM Al (PHABET^>^STENOGRAPir^
Dvn.
DoVsbfc and Tr?pl£/
Consonants.
Ctiai'. Arb. Ablirrv;
a, a/fv, a/wve/
D.GAfc.Char. Arb. AHlirev:
Y r
\f r *
l\
/' /
m o
m u
c .
' P
ni /
tT _
b&./y, Aers/Mrir
fA), {// j//
frvms,/,
c/
/r/na,
w//A a//
ms, 'nvifS'me&A
M n //, irt /ns//////&
/S’ ///t ,nn/e, a/otws
^/gofl/e, f//YZSYJy
^//zsi':l<yr/////nf//y
PKny/e/
m, //*/, r/nm/
/&,//(?, t/
/id/i^, n/z/tJt/
^"t/, ///sw/zn/s/*///
'/Ut/, //Ut /A
eaxWi/eaxzm/iie,
yt,.y//////tyed./zc/
c/>
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S T E [ 697 ] s T E
In 1531 hs pub!iflied Ins Latin “ Thefaurus 5” a
work of great importance, which he laboured at for two
years. The mark which he put upon all his books was
a tree branched, with a man looking upon it, and thefe
words noli aitum fapei'e, to which he lometimes added
fed time. In 1539, Francis I. made him his printer,
and ordered a new fet of elegant types to be founded
for him. His frequent editions of the New Teflament
gave great oft’ence to the doffors of the Sorbonne, who
accufed him of herefy for his annotations, and indited
upon the fuppredion of fome of his books. Although
Henry the French king in lome meafure protected him,
the perfecution of thefe divines rendered him fo unhappy,
not to mention the expence and lofs of time which an
almoft conftant attendance at court unavoidably occa-
fioned, that in 1552 he abandoned his country and went
to Geneva. Here he embraced the Proteftant religion,
and thus juftified in fome meafure the fufpicions of his
theological enemies. It has been affirmed by feveral
•writers that he carried along with him the royal types,
and the moulds alfo in which they were call 5 but it is
certain that he never afterwards made ufe of thofe types.
Befides, is it poffible that the author of fo daring a theft
could have been not only prote&ed in Geneva, but even
courted and honoured by the moft eminent men of the
age ? Is it credible that fuch a crime could have been
concealed for 60 years j or that Henry, the fon and heir
of the perpetrator, would have enjoyed the favour of the
French king, if Robert Stephens had a6ted fuch a fhame-
ful part ? If he was burnt in effigy at Paris, it was not
for theft, but for having changed his religion. After
his arrival at Geneva, he publiffied an account of the
difpute between him and the Paris divines, which does
as much honour to his abilities as his Tkcfaurus does
to his learning. He died in 1559, a^er a life the
moll extraordinary indullry. The books of which he
was the editor were not fewer than 360. Many of
them were ancient claffics in different languages. Se¬
veral were accompanied with annotations which he col-
leHed, and all of them were correfle^d by collating ma-
nufcripts. He was fo anxious to obtain perfeft accura¬
cy, that he ufed to expofe his proofs in public, and re¬
ward thofe who difcovered a millake. His books con-
fequently were very corredt. It is faid that his New
Tellament, called 0 Mirificam (becaufe the preface be¬
gins with thefe words), has not a Angle fault.
It was Robert Stephens who firft divided the New
Tellament into verfes during a journey between Paris
and Lyons. The advantages of this improvement are
fully counterbalanced by its defedls. It has dellroyed
the unity of the books, and induced many commentators
to confider every verfe as a dillindl and independent
aphorifm. To this in fome meafure is to be afcribed the
many abfurd interpretations and creeds that have been
forced out of that book.
By his lall will his ellate was left exclufively to fuch
of his children as Ihould fettle at Geneva. He left be¬
hind him three fons, Henry, Robert, and Francis.
Chari.es Stephens, the third fon of Henry, was,
like the rell of his family, familiarly acquainted with
the learned languages. This recommended him to La¬
zarus de Baif, who made him tutor to his fon, and in
1940 carried him along with him to Germany. He
“Vol. XIX. Part 1L
lludied medicine, and praclifed it with fuccefsin France. Step!
He did not, however, forfake the profeffion of his fami¬
ly, but exercifed it in Paris, where he became the edi¬
tor of many books remarkable for neatnefs and ele¬
gance. He wrote above thirty treatifes on different lub-
jecls, particularly on botany, anatomy, and hillory.
He died in 1564.
Robert Stephens, the fon of Robert the firll of that
name, did not accompany his father to Geneva, but
continued to proiefs the Catholic religion, and to relide
at Paris. His letter was remarkably beautiful.—He
was made king’s printer, and died about 1589.
His brother Francis was alfo a printer. He embra¬
ced the Protellant religion, and relided at Geneva.
Henry Stephens, the remaining fon of Robert,
was born at Paris in 1528. He became the moil learn¬
ed and moll celebrated of all his family. From his very
birth almoft he gave proofs of uncommon abilities, and
difplayed an ardent paffion for knowledge. The Medea
of Euripides, which he faw afled while at fchool, firft
kindled his love for poetry, and infpired him with the
defire of acquiring the language in which that tragedy
is written. He intreated his father not to condemn him
to ftudy Latin, which he already underfiood from con-
verfation, but to initiate him at once into the knowledge
of Greek. His father willingly granted his requeft ;
and Henry applied with fuch vigour, that in a fhort time
he could repeat the Medea by heart. He afterwards
ftudied Greek under Peter Danefius, who was tutor to
the Dauphin, and finally heard the ledlures of Tufanus
and Turnebus. He became eager at an early age to
underlland aftrology, and accordingly attended a pro-
feffor of that myllerious art; but he was not long in dif-
covering its abfurdity. At 19 he began his travels,
which he undertook in order to examine foreign libra¬
ries, and to become acquainted with learned men. He
fpent two years in Italy, and returned into France com¬
pletely mafter of Italian, and bringing along with him
copies of feveral fcarce authors, particularly a part of
Anacreon, which before was thought loft.
He found his father publilhing an edition of the New
Teflament, to which he prefixed fome Greek verfes.—
Soon after, he vifited England and the Netherlands,
where he met with John Clement, an Englifhman, to
whom he was indebted for the remaining odes of Ana¬
creon. During this journey he learned the Spanilh lan¬
guage, which was very much fpoken at that time in the
Low Countries.
Whether Henry accompanied his father to Geneva or
not is uncertain j at leafl he muft have returned imme¬
diately to France, for wTe find him foon after ellablilhed
at Paris, and publifhing the odes of Anacreon. In
1554 he went to Rome, and thence to Naples. This,
journey was undertaken at the requefl, and in the fer-
vice, of the French government. He was difcovered,
and would have been arrefted as a fpy, had he not by
his addrefs and fkill in the language of the country been
able to pafs himfelf for a native of Italy. On his re¬
turn to France he affumed the title of printer to Ulric
Fugger, a very rich and learned German nobleman,
who allowed him a confiderable penfion.
In 1560 he married a relation, as is generally fuppo-
fed, of Henry Scrimgeour, a Scotch nobleman, with
whom Re was intimately acquainted. She was a wo¬
man, as he himfelf informs us, endowed with the noblefl
4 T fpirit
Stephens.
See Sea
pula.
S T E
fpirit anti the moft amiable dirpofitions. Her death,
which happened in 1586, brought on a difeafe that had
twice attacked him before. It was a difguft at allthofe
purfuits which had formerly charmed him, an averfion
to reading and the fight of books. It Avas probably
occafioned by too conilant and fec'ere an application to
literary purfuits. In 157^ ^*e publilhed his Ihefaurus
Linguee Greece?, one of thegreateft works, perhaps, that
ever was executed by one man, if \ve confider the wretch¬
ed materials which more ancient dictionaries could fur-
nifh, if avc confider the fize and perfeftion of the Avork,
and the immenfe labour and learning Avhich muft have
been employed in the compilation. This Avork had been
carried on at a greater expence than he could Avell bear.
He expefted to be reimburfed by the fale of the book,
but he Avas unfortunately difappointed. John Scapula,
one of his oavia fervants, extrafted from it whatever he
thought AA^ould be moll ferviceable to ftudents, and pub-
lifiled it beforehand in 4to. By this adl of treachery
Henry Avas reduced to poverty.
About this time he Avas much beloved by Henry III.
of France, Avho treated him fo kindly, and made him
filch flattering promifes, that he refided frequently at
court. But thefe promifes Avere never fulfilled, owing
to the civil Avars Avhich foon after diftraCled France,
and the unfortunate death of King Henry himlelf. Du¬
ring the remainder of his life his fituation w as very un¬
fettled. We find him fometimes at Paris, fometimes in
Geneva, in Germany, and even in Hungary. He died
at Lyons in 1 £98, at the age of 70. He was fond of
poetry from his very infancy. It Avas a cuflom of his
to compofe verfes on horfeback, and even to write them,
though he generally rode a very mettlefome fteed. His
Thefaurus Avas his great work, but he Avas alfo the au¬
thor of feveral other trealifes. His poems are numerous:
His Apology for Herodotus is a Avitty fatire on the
Roman Catholics. His Concordance to the New Tef-
tament mufi have been a laborious work, and has de-
fervedly endeared him to every Chriftian Avho Avifhesto
acquire a rational and critical knoAvledge of the Scrip¬
tures. The number of books Avhich he publiflied,
though feAver than his father, was great, and fuperior in
elegance to any thing Avhich the world had then feen.
A great proportion of them Avere Greek •, he was the
editor, hoAvever, of many Roman and even of fome eaft-
ern Avritings. His Greek claflics are remarkably cor-
reft \ the principal of them are Homer, Anacreon, i£f-
chylus, Maximus Tyrius, Diodorus Siculus, Pindar, Xe¬
nophon, Thucydides, Herodotus, Sophocles, Diogenes
Laertius, Plutarch, Plato, Apollonius Rhodius, i£f-
chines, Lyfias, Callimachus, Theocritus, Herodian, Di-
onyfius Halicarnaflenfis, Dion Caflius, Ifocrates, Appi-
an, Xiphilin, &c. His temper in the latter part of his
life is reprefented as haughty and fevere, oAving probably
to his difappointments. He left behind him a fon and
tAvo daughters, one of whom Avas married to the learned
Ifaac Cafaubon.
Paul Stephens, the fon of Henry, continued his
father’s profeflion at Geneva. He Avas a man of learn¬
ing, and Avrote tranfiations of feveral books, and publifti-
ed a confiderable number of the ancient claflics; but his
editions poffefs little of his father’s elegance. He died
in 1627, at the age of 60, after felling his types to one
Chouet a printer.—His fon Antony, the laft printer
ȣ the family, abandoned the Proteftant religion, and re-
S T E
turned to France, the country of his anceftors. He re- Stephens
ceived letters of naturalization in 1612, and Avas made II
printer to the king ; but managing his affairs ill, he was 'te^°me‘
reduced to poverty, and obliged to retire into an hofpi- j
tal, Avhere he died in 1674, miferable and blind, at the
age of 80.
STERCOR ARIANS, or Stercoranist^s, formed
from Jlercus, “ dung,” a name which thofe of the Ro-
mifli church anciently gave to fuch as held that the hofi
Avas liable to digeftion, and all its eonfequences, like
other food.
STERCULIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs monoecia; and in the natural fyftem ranging under
the 38th order, Tricocceee. See Botany Index.
STEREOGRAPHIC projection, is the projedlion
of the circles of the fphere on the plane of fome one great
circle, the eye being placed in the pole of that circle.
See Projection of the Sphere.
STEREOMETER, an inftrument invented in France
for meafuring the volume of a body, however irregular,
without plunging it in any liquid. If the volume of air
contained in a vefiel be meafured, when the veflel con¬
tains air only, and alfo Avhen it contains a body whofe
volume is required to be knoAvn, the volume of air af-
certained by the firft meafurement, deducting the volume
afeertained by the fecond, Avill be the volume of the bo¬
dy itfelf. Again, if the volume of any mafs of air be
inverfely as the preffure to Avhich it is fubjedled, the
temperature being fuppofed conftant, it Avill be eafy to
deduce, from the mathematical relations of quantity, the
whole bulk if the difference betAveen the tAvo bulks un¬
der two known preffures be obtained by experiment.
Suppofe that the firft preffure is double the fecond,
or the fecond volume of air double the firft, and the dif¬
ference equal to 50 cubic inches j the firft \rolume of air
will likeAvife be 50 cubic inches. The defign of the fte-
reometer is to afeertain this difference at tivo knoAvn
preffures.
The inftrument is a kind of funnel AB (fig. 1.) com- Plate
pofed of a capfule A, in which the body is placed, and WX.
the tube B as uniform in the bore as can be procured. u
The upper edge of the capfule is ground with emery,
that it may be hermetically clofed Avith a glafs cover M
flightly greafed. A double fcale is palled on the tube,
having two fets of graduations j one to denote the
length, and the other the capacities, as determined by
experiment.
When this inftrument is ufed, it muft be plunged in¬
to a veffel of mercury, Avith the tube very upright, till
the mercury rife Avithin and without to a point C of the
fcale. See fig. 2. Fig. z.
The capfule is then clofed AA'ith the cover, Avhich be-
ing greafed Avill preA'ent its communication betiveen
the external air and that contained Avithin the capfule
and tube.
In this fituation of the inftrument, the internal air is-
compreffed by the Aveight of the atmofphere, expreffed
by the length of the mercury in the tube of the common
barometer.
The inftrument is then elevated, ftill keeping the tube
in the Arertical pofition. It is thus reprefented, fig. 2.
fecond pofition. The mercury defeends in the tube, but
not to the level of the external furface, and a column of
mercury DE remains fufpended in the tube, the height
of which is known by the fcale. The interior air is lefs
comprefied
[ <593 ]
STEREO M ET E R
13
PLATE DIX.
SOILS Analysis ol“
\
Stet
1
)
4^
/
S T E
Stereome
ter
comprefled than before, the increafe of Its volume being'
equal to the whole capacity of the tube from C to D*
tereotoray. indicated by the fecond fcale.
■' "■y"" * ft is therefore known that the preffures are in propor¬
tion to the barometrical column, and to the fame co¬
lumn —-DE. 1 he bulks of the air in thefe two ftates
are inverfely in the fame proportion j and the dilference
between thefe bulks is the abfolute quantity left void in
the tube by the fall of the mercury ; from which data
the following rule is deduced. Multiply the number
expreffing the lefs preffure by that which denotes the
augmentation of capacity, and divide the product by the
number which denotes the difference of the preffures.
The quotient is the bulk of the air w'hen fubjed to the
greater preffure.
Suppofe the height of the mercury in the barometer
to be 78 centimetres, and the inftrument being empty
to be plunged into the mercury to the point C. It is
then covered and raifed till the fmall column of mer¬
cury DE is fufpended, fay at the height of fix centi¬
metres. The internal air at firft compreffed by a force
reprefented by 78 centimetres, is now only compreffed
by a force =72 centimetres, or 78—6 = 72.
Suppefe that the capacity of the part CD of the tube
which the mercury has quitted is two cubic centimetres.
Then — x 2 r= 24 cubical centimetres, the volume of
the air included in the inftrument when the mercury
rofe as high as C in the tube.
The body of which the volume is to be afcertained
muft then be placed in the capfule, and the operation
Tepeated. Let the column of mercury fufpended be
— 8 centimetres, when the capacity of the part CD of
the tube is= 2 centimetres cubic. Then the greateft
preffure being denoted by 78 centimetres, the leaft will
be 70 centimetres, the difference of preffure being 8,
and difference of the volumes two cubic centimetres.
Hence ^ X 2 gives the bulk of the included air under
the greateft: preffure 17.5 cubic centimetres. Then
24—17.5 =6.5 the volume of the body introduced.
If the abfolute weight of the body be multiplied by its
bulk in centimetres and divided by the abfolute weight
of one cubic centimetre of diftilled water, the quotient
will be =r the fpecific gravity of the body in the com¬
mon form of the tables, where diftilled water is taken as
unity, or the term of comparifon.
Mr Nicholfon fuppofes that the author of the inven¬
tion had not finifhed his meditations on the fubjeft. If
he had, it is probable that he would have determined
his preffures, as well as the meafures of bulks, by weight.
For if the whole inftrument were fet to its pofitions by
fufpending it from one arm of a balance at H (fig. 3.)
the quantity of counterpoife, when in equilibrio, might
be applied to determine the preffures to a degree of ac¬
curacy much greater than can be obtained by linear
meafurement.
STEREOMETRY, formed of 5-egeoj,
fohd, and ftir^ov, meafure, that part of geometry which
teaches how to meafure folid bodies, i. e. to find the fo-
lidity or folid contents of bodies ; as globes, cylinders,
cubes, veffels, Ihips, &c.
STEREOTOMY, formed from yigsej, and
[ 699 ]
S T E
feflion, the art or aiT of cutting folids, or making fec-Stereotomy
tions thereof; as walls and other membranes in the pro- H
files of architecture. Stern-mo(h
STEREO IYPE printing, a method of printing,
which was introduced into this country by William Ged
of Edinburgh before the middle of the 18th century,
and which has been revived of late, and greatly im¬
proved by the French. It has alfo been brought into
practice in Britain by Earl Stanhope, who has produced
fome beautiful fpecimens of it. Some perfons feem diL
pofed to difpute the invention of Ged, feeing that the
fame method of printing by wooden blocks was praCtifed
by the Chinefe and Japanefe many hundred years ago.
See Ged, life of and Printing.
STERILITY, barrenefs, in oppofition to fertility.
It has been aflerted by many authors, that all monitors
produced by a mixture of different fpecies of animals,
fuch as mules, are barren ; but this does not hold uni-
verfally, even with the mule, which is the inftance molt
generally adduced.
Sterility in women fometimes happens from a mifcar-
riage, or violent labour injuring fome of the genital
parts •, but one of the molt frequent caufes is the fup-
preffion of the menftrual flux.—There are other caufes
arifing from various difeafes incident to thofe parts, by
which the uterus may be unfit to receive or retain the
male feed 5—from the tubae fallopianae being too fliort,
or having loft their ereClive power ; in either of which
cafes no conception can take place 5—from univerfal de¬
bility and relaxation j or a local debility of the genital
fyftem ; by which means, the parts having loft their
tone or contraCUle power, the femen is thrown off im¬
mediately poll cohum ;—from imperforation of the va¬
gina, the uterus, or the tubce, or from difeafed ova, &c.
Hence medical treatment can only avail in cafes arifing
from topical or univerfal debility ; in correfting irregu¬
larities of the menftrual flux, or in removing tumors,
cicatrices, or conftri&ions of the paffage, by the art of
furgery.
STERIS, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs
pentandria. See Botany Index.
STERLING, an epithet by which.genuine Englifli
money is diftinguilhed. It is unneceffary to mention
the various conjeclures of antiquaries about the origin
and meaning of this appellation. The moft probable Henn's
opinion feems to be this, that fome artifts from Ger- Hiftory of
many, who were called Efer/ings, from the fituation ofG' eat Bri-
their country, had been employed in fabricating ourv°biib
money, which confifted chiefly of filver pennies ; and
that from them the penny was called an eferling, and
our money eferhng or ferling money.
STERN, the pofterior face of a {hip j or that part
which is reprefented to the view of a fpe&ator, placed
on the continuation of the keel behind. The ftern is
terminated above by the taffarel, and below by the coun¬
ters j it is limited on the fides by the quarter-pieces, and
the intermediate fpace comprehends the galleries and
windows of the different cabins. See Quarter of a
Ship, Ship, and Ship-building.
STERN-Faf, a rope ufed to confine the ftern of a fliip
or boat to any wharf or jetty head, &c.
STERN-Mof, in fea language, ufually denotes that
part of a fleet of fhips which is in the rear, or fartheft
a-ftern, as oppofed to head-moft.
4 T 2
Stern-
S T E
[ 7°° ]
S T E
Sterne.
Stern-Poft STEBN-PoJ, a long ftraight piece of timber ere£led
1' on the extremity of the keel, to fuftam the rudder and
, terminate the {hip behind. , , r .
This piece ought to be well fecured and tupported j
becaufe the ends of all the lower planks of the fhip’s
bottom are fixed in a channel, cut on Us furface j and
the whole weight of the rudder is fuftained by it. .
STERN-Sheets, that part of a boat which is contained
between the ftern and the aftmoft or hindmoft feat of
the rowers. It is generally furniflied with benches to
accommodate the paffengers. See Boat\
STERNA, the Tern*, a genus of birds arranged
under the order olpalmipedes. See ORNITHOLOGY /«-
dcx •
STERNE, Laurence, an Englifti writer of a very
peculiar call, was born at Clomwell, in the fouth of Ire¬
land, on 24th November 1713. His _ father Roger
Sterne was the grandfon of Sterne archbifhop of 1 ork,
who has been fuppofed, we know not upon what grounds,
to have been the author of the excellent book entitled
“ The Whole Duty of Man.” Laurence inherited no¬
thing of his anceftor’s manner of writing, but rather re-
fembled Rabelais, whofe wit he carried with him even
into the pulpit. , _ . .
In 1722 he was fent to fchool at Halifax m York-
fhire, where he continued till 1732, when he was re¬
moved to Jefus College in Cambridge. How long he
reiided in college, or what progrefs he made in litera¬
ture or fcience, is not known : his works dhplay rather
native genius than profound erudition. Upon quitting
the univerfity he went to York, and being in orders was
prefented to the living of Sutton by the intereft of his
uncle Dr Sterne, a prebendary of that church. In 1741
he married, and was {oon afterwards made a prebendary
of York, by the intereft alfo of his uncle, who w*as then
upon very good terms with him } but “ quickly quar¬
relled with him (he fays), and became his bittereft ene¬
my, becaufe he would not be a party man, and write
paragraphs in the newfpapers.” By his wife s means he
got the1 living of Stillington, but remained near 20
years at Sutton, doing duty at both places. He was
then in very good health, which, however, foon after
forfook him *, and books, painting, fiddling, and {hoot¬
ing, were, as he tells us, his amufements.
in his blank pages, while it is probable that he intended
nothing but to amufe himfelf with the idea of the fage
conjedlures to which thefe pages would give occafion.
Even his originality is not fueh as is generally fuppofed
by thofe fond admirers of the Shandean manner, who
have prefumed to compare him With Swift, Arbuthnot,
and Butler. He has borrowed both matter and manner
from various authors, and in particular from an old
Work, “ The Anatomy of Melancholy by Burton,” as
every reader may be convinced by the learned, elegant,
and candid comments on his works publiflied by Dr Fer-
riar, in the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the Lite¬
rary and Philofophical Society of Manchefter.
STERNOCOSTALES, commonly called the nmf-
culi triangulares Jlerm, in Anatomy, are five pairs of
fleftiy planes, difpofed more or lefs obliquely on each fide
the fternum, on the infides of the cartilages of the fe-
cond, third, fourth, fifth, and fixth true ribs.
STERNO-HYOIDTEUS, in Anatomy. See Table of
the Mufcles, under the article Anatomy.
STERNOM ANTIS, in antiquity, a defignation gi¬
ven to the Delphian prieftefs, more ufually called Py-
thia.—Sternomantis is alfo ufed for any one that had
a prophefying demon within him.
1 STERNOMASTOlDiEUS, a mufele. See Table
of the Mufcles, under Anatomy.
STERNOTHYROIDEUS, a mufcle. See Table
of the Mufcles, under Anatom y .
STERNUM. See Anatomy Index.
STERNUTATIVE, or Sternutatory, a medi¬
cine proper to produce fneezing. See Sneezing.
STETIN, or Stettin, a fea-port town ol Germany,
the circle of Upper Saxony, and capital of Hither
m
Tn 1760, he went to London to publifn his two
firft volumes of “ Triftram Shandy *,” and was that
year prefented to the curacy of Coxwold. In 1762 he
went to France, and two years after to Italy, for the
recovery of his health ; but his health never was reco¬
vered. He languilhed under a confumption of the
lungs, without the flighteft depreflion of fpirits, till
1768, when death put a period to his terreftrial exift-
ence.
The works of Sterne are very generally read. They
confift of, 1. The Life and Opinions of Triftram Shan¬
dy *, 2, Sermons 5 3. A Sentimental Journey 5 4. Let¬
ters, publidied fince his death. In every ferious page,
and in many of much levity, the author writes in praife
of benevolence, and declares that no one who knew him
could fuppofe him one of thofe wretches who heap mif-
fortune upon misfortune : But we have heard anecdotes
of him extremely well authenticated, which proved that
it was eafier for him to praife this virtue than to
praftife it. His wit is- univerfally allowed *, but many
readers have perfuaded themfclves that they found wit
2
Pomerania, with the title of a duchy, and a eaftle. It
had long a famous fchool, which the wars of Germany
never difturbed. T-he ancient dukes of Pomerania re-
fided here j and it was taken by the ele&or of Branden¬
burg in 1676, but given to Sweden by the treaty of
Nimeguen. In 1713 it fubmitted to the allies j and
then the faid eleftor was put in poffefiion again of this
important place, which is a bulwark to the marche of
■ Brandenburg*, and the fortifications have been greatly
improved. It is now a flouriihing place, and carries on
a confiderable trade. It is feated On the river Oder, 72
miles north of Francfort, and 70 north by eaft of Ber¬
lin. E. Long. 14. 38. N. Lat. 53. 35- The duchy is
325 miles in length, and borders upon Mecklenburg,
and partly upon Brandenburg. The breadth is from 17
to 25 miles, and it is divided by the river Oder into
two parts.
STEW, a fmall kind of fifii-pond, the peculiar ufe
of which is to maintain fifti, and keep them in readinefs
for the daily ufe of the family, &c.
STEWS (from the French efhrves, i. e. thermce, bal¬
neum), thofe places which were permitted in England
to women of profeffed incontinency } fo called, becaufe
diffolute perfons are rvont to prepare themfelves for ve-
nereous ads by bathing ; and hot baths were by Homer
reckoned among the efteminate fort of pleafures. Ihefe
ftews were fuppreffed by King Henry VTII. about the
year 1 546.
STEWARD (fenefcallus, compounded of the Saxon
Jleda, i. e. “ room” or “ ftead,” and weafd, “ a ward” or
« keeper”), an officer appointed in another’s ftead or
place,* and always taken for a principal officer within his
x jurifdi&iom
C»
Uli
S T E [70
Steward, jurifdi&ion. Of tliefe there are various kinds. The
greateft officer under the crown is the lord high-fteward
of England, an office that was anciently the inheritance
of the earls of Leicefter, till forfeited by Simon de
Mountfortto King Henry III. But the power of this
officer is fo very great, that it has not been judged fafe
to truft it any longer in the hands of a fubjecf, except¬
ing only pro hac vice, occafionally : as to officiate at a
coronation, at the arraignment of a nobleman for high-
treafon, or the like. During his office, the fteward
bears a white ftaff in his hand *, and the trial, &c. end¬
ed, he breaks the ftaff, and with it his commiffion ex¬
pires. There is likewife a lord-fteward of the king’s
houfehold, who is the chief officer of the king’s court,
has the care of the king’s houfe, and authority over all
’the officers and fervants of the houfehold, except fuch
as belong to the chapel, chamber, and liable.
STEWARD, an officer in a ffiip of war, appointed by
the purfer to diftribute the different fpecies of provifions
to the officers and crew } for which purpofe he is fur-
nilhed with a mate and proper affiftants.
Court of the Lord High STEWARD of Great Britain,
is a court inftituted for the trial of peers indidled for
treafon or felony, or for mifprifion of either. The office
of this great magiftrate is very ancient, and was former¬
ly hereditary, or at leaft held for life, or dum bene fe gef-
ferit: but now it is ufually, and hath been for many cen¬
turies part, granted pro hac vice only \ and it hath been
the conftant praftice (and therefore feems now to have
become neceffary) to grant it to a lord of parliament,
*elfe he is incapable to try fuch delinquent peer. When
fuch an indi£hnent is therefore found by a grand jury
of freeholders in the King’s bench, or at the affizes be¬
fore the juft ices of oyer and terminer, it is to be removed
by a writ of certiorari into the court of the lord high-
fteward, which has the only power to determine it. A
peer may plead a pardon before the court of King’s
bench, and the judges have power to allow it, in order
to prevent the trouble of appointing an high-fteward
merely for the purpofe of receiving fuch plea : but he
may not plead in that inferior court any other plea, as
guilty or not guilty of the indi&ment, but only in this
court; becaufe, in confequence of fuch plea, it is pof-
fible that judgment of death might be awarded againft
him. The king, therefore, in cafe a peer be indified of
treafon, felony, or mifprifion, creates a lord high-fteward
pro hac vice by commiffion under the great feal ; which
recites the indi&ment fo found, and gives his Grace
power to receive and try it fecundum legem et confuetu-
dinem Angliee. Then when the indi&ment is regularly
removed by writ of certiorari, commanding the inferior
court to certify it up to him, the lord high-fteward di-
refts a precept to a ferjeant at arms, to furnmon the
lords to attend and try the indifted peer. This pre¬
cept was formerly iffued to fummon only 18 or 20 fe-
ledfed from the body of the peers •, then the number
came to be indefinite 5 and the cuftom was for the lord
high-fteward to fummon as many as he thought proper
(but of late years not lefs than 23) •, and that thofe
lords only fhould fit upon the trial ", which threw a
monftrous weight of power into the hands of the crown,
and this its great officer, of felefting only fuch peers as
the then predominant party fhould moft approve of.
And accordingly, when the earl of Clarendon fell into
difgrace with Charles II. there was a defign formed to
lathjl.
Eminent,
ol. iv.
I ] S T E
prorogue the parliament, in order to try him by a fe- Steward,
led number of peers 5 it being doubted whether the
whole houfe could be induced to fall in with the views
of the court. But now, by ftatute 7 W. III. c. 3. up¬
on all trials of peers for treafon or mifprifion, all the
peers who have a right to fit and vote in parliament
ffiall be fummoned at leaft 20 days before fuch trial, to
appear and vote therein •, and every lord appearing ftiall
vote in the trial of fuch peer, firft taking the oaths of
allegiance and fupremacy, and fubfcribing the declara¬
tion againrt popery.
During the feffion of parliament, the trial of an in-
dided peer is not properly in the court of the lord high-
fteward, but before the court laft mentioned of our lord
the king in parliament. It is true, a lord high-fteward
is always appointed in that cafe to regulate and add
weight to the proceedings : but he is rather in the na¬
ture of a fpeaker pro tempore, or chairman of the court,
than the judge of it; for the coliedive body of the peers
are therein the judges both of law and fad, and the
high-fteward has a vote with the reft in right of his
peerage. But in the court of the lord high-fteward,
which is held in the recefs of parliament, he is the foie
judge of matters of law, as the lords triors are in matters
of fad ; and as they may not interfere with him in re¬
gulating the proceedings of the court, fo he has no
right to intermix with them in giving any vote upon
the trial. Therefore, upon the convidion and attain¬
der of a peer for murder in full parliament, it hath been
holden by the judges, that in cafe the day appointed in
the judgment for execution Ihould lapfe before execu¬
tion done, a new time of execution may be appointed
by either the high court of parliament during its fit¬
ting, though no high-fteward be exifting, or, in the re¬
cefs of parliament, by the court of King’s-bench, the
record being removed into that court.
It has been a point of fome controverfy, whether the
bifhops have now a right to fit in the court of the lord
high-fteward to try indidments of treafon and mifpri¬
fion. Some incline to imagine them included under
the general words of the ftatute of King William “ all
peers who have a right to fit and vote in parliament j”
but the expreffion had been much clearer, if it had been
“ all lords,” and not “ all peers for though biffiops,
on account of the baronies annexed to their biffioprics,
are clearly lords of parliament, yet their blood not be¬
ing ennobled, they are not univerfally allowed to be
peers with the temporal nobility : and perhaps this
word might be inferted purpofely with a view to ex¬
clude them. However, there is no inftance of their fit¬
ting on trials for capital offences, even upon impeach¬
ments or indidments in full parliament, much lefs in the
court we are now treating of; for indeed they ufually
withdraw voluntarily, but enter a proteft, declaring their
right to ftay. It is obfervable, that in the nth chap¬
ter of the conftitutions of Clarendon, made in parliament
nth Henry II. they are expref-ly excufed, rather than
excluded, from fitting and voting in trials, which con¬
cern life or limb : epifcopi, fait ceeteri barones, debent
intereffe judiciis cum baronibus, quofque pervematur ad
diminutionem mtembrorum vel ad mortem. And Becket’s
quarrel rvith the king hereupon was not on account of
the exception (which was agreeable to the canon law),
but of the general rule, that compelled the bifhops to
attend at all. And the determination of the houfe of
lords
STE [702] STE
Htewara, iorHs in tlie carl of Danby’s cafe, which hath ever lince
Stewart. a(Jhered to, is confonant to thefe conftitutions ;
“ that the lords fpiritual have a right to ftay and fit in
court in capital cafes, till the court proceeds to the vote
of guilty or not guilty.” It mull be noted, that this
refolution extends only to trials in full parliament 5 for
to the court of the lord high-fteward (in which no vote
can be given, but merely that of guilty or not guilty),
no bifliop, as fuch, ever was or could be fummoned : and
though the ftatute of King William regulates the pro¬
ceedings in that court, as well as in the court of parlia¬
ment, yet it never intended to new-model or alter its
conftitution; and confequently does not give the lords
fpiritual any right, in cafes of blood, which they had
not before. And what makes their exclufion more rea-
fonable is, that they have no right to be tried themfelves
in the court of the lord high-fteward, and therefore
furely ought not to be judges there. For the privilege
of being thus tried depends upon nobility of blood ra¬
ther than a feat in the houfe, as appears from the trials
of the popifti lords, of lords under age, and (fince the
union) of the Scotch nobility, though not in the num¬
ber of the fixteen *, and from the trials of females, fuch
as the queen confort or dowager, and of all peereffes by
birth ) and peerefles by marriage alfo, unlefs they have,
when dowagers, difparaged themfelves by taking a com¬
moner to their fecond hufband.
STE WARD of the Chiltern Hundreds. See CHILTERN
Hundreds.
STEWART, Dr Matthew, an eminent mathe¬
matician, was in 1717 born at Rothfay in the Hie of
Bute, of which parifii his father was minifter. Being
intended for the church, he went through the ufual
courfe of a grammar-fchool education, and was in 1734
received as a ftudent into the univerfity of Glafgow.
There he had the happinefs of having for his preceptors
in moral fcience and in mathematics the celebrated pro-
felfors Hutchefon and Simfon; by the latter of whom
he vras inftrudled in what may not improperly be called
the arcana of the ancient geometry .
Mr Stewart’s views making it neceftary for him to
Account of remove to Edinburgh, he was introduced by Dr Simfon
^T-to Mr Maclaurin, that his mathematical ftudies might
difiburgh ^u^er no interruption *, and he attended the lectures of
Philojophi- that great matter with fuch advantage as might be ex-
cal Tranf- pefted from eminent abilities, directed by the judge-
ablioni, rnent of him who made the philofophy and geometry of
ly jjfr Newton intelligible to ordinary capacities. Mr Stew-
Flavfair. art> however, had acquired, from his intimacy with Dr
Simfon, fuch a predilection for the ancient geometry, as
the modern analyfis, however powerfully recommended,
could not leflen ; and he kept up a regular correfpond-
ence with his old matter, giving him an account of his
progrefs and his difcoveries in geometry, and receiving
in return many curious communications refpedting the
Loci Plant and the porifms of Euclid. See Porism and
SlMSON.
While the fecond invention of porifms, to which more
genius was perhaps required than to the firft difcovery
of them, employed Dr Simfon, Mr Stewart purfued
the fame fubjeft in a different and new direction. In
doing fo, he was led to the difcovery of thofe curious
and interefting propofitions which were publifhed under
the title of General Theorems in 1746. They were gi¬
ven without the demonftrations j but did not fail to place
their difcoverer at once among the geometers of the Stewart,
firft rank. They are for the moft part porifms, though
Mr Stewart, careful not to anticipate the difcoveries of
his friend, gave them no other name than that of theo¬
rems.
Our author had before this period entered into the
church *, and obtained, through the patronage of the
duke of Argyle and the earl of Bute, the living of
Rofeneath, a retired country parifh in the weft of Scot¬
land : but in 1747 he was elefted to the mathematical
chair in the univerfity of Edinburgh, which had become
vacant the year before by the death of Mr Maclaurin.
The duties of this office gave a turn fomewhat different
to his purfuits, and led him to think of the moft fimple
and elegant means of explaining thofe difficult propofi¬
tions which were hitherto only acceffible to men deeply
verfed in the modern analyfis. In doing this, he was
purfuing the objeft which of all others he moft ardently
wiftied to attain, viz. the application of geometry to
fuch problems as the algebraic calculus alone had been
thought able to refolve. His folution of Kepler’s pro¬
blem was the firft fpecimen of this kind which he gave
to the world ; and it was impoflible to have produced
one more to the credit of the method he followed, or of
the abilities with which he applied it. On this problem
the utmoft refources of the integral calculus had been
employed. But though many excellent folutions had
been given, there was none of them at once direft in
its method and fimple in its principles. Mr Stewart
was fo happy as to attain both thefe objedls ; and his
folution appeared in the fecond volume of the Effays of
the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh for the year
1756. In the firft volume of the fame collection there
are feme other propofitions of Mr Stewart’s, which are
an extenfion of a curious theorem in the fourth book of
Pappus. They have a relation to the fubjeCt of porifms,
and one of them forms the 91ft of Dr Simfon’s Reftora-
tion. They are befides very beautiful propofitions, and
are demonftrated with all the elegance and fimplicity of
the ancient analyfis.
The profecution of the plan which he had formed of
introducing into the higher parts of mixed mathematics
the ftrift and fimple form of ancient demonftration, pro¬
duced the Trails Phyfical and Mathematical, which
were publilhed in 1761, and the Effay on the Sun’s Di-
ftance, which was publilhed in 1763. In this laft work
it is acknowledged that he employed geometry on a talk
which geometry cannot perform } but while it is grant¬
ed that this determination of the fun’s diftance is by no
means free from error, it may fafely be aflerted that it
contains a great deal which will always intereft geome¬
ters, and will always be admired by them. Few errors
in fcience are redeemed by the difplay of fo much inge¬
nuity, and what is more Angular, of fo much found rea-
foning. The inveftigation is everywhere elegant, and
will probably be long regarded as a fpecimen ol the moft:
arduous inquiry which has been attempted by mere geo¬
metry.
The Sun’s Diftance wras the laft work which Dr
Stew'art publilhed ; and though he lived to fee feveral
animadverfions on it made public, he declined entering
into any controverfy. His difpofition wras far from po¬
lemical } and he knew the value of that quiet which a
literary man Ihould rarely fuffer his antagonifts to in¬
terrupt. He ufed to fay, that the decifion of the point
s T E [ 7
Stewart, in queftion was now before the public ; that if his invef-
lewartia. tigation was right it would never be overturned, and
y— tjiat jp jt was wrong jt ougjjt not tQ be defended. A
few months before he publithed the eflay juft mentioned,
he gave to the world another work, intitled Propoji-
tiones Geometric# More Veterum Demonjlratce. This
title, it is faid, was given to it by Dr Simfon, who re¬
joiced in the publication of a work fo well calculated
to promote the ftudy of the ancient geometry. It con-
fifts of a feries of geometrical theorems, for the moft
part new ; inveftigated firft by an analyfis, and after¬
wards fynthetically demonftrated by the inverfion of the
fame analyfis.
Dr Stewart’s conftant ufe of the geometrical analyfis
had put him in poffeffion of many valuable propofitions
which did not enter into the plan of any of the works
that have been enumerated. Of thefe not a few have
found a place in the writings of Dr Simfon, where
they will for ever remain to mark the friendihip of
thefe two mathematicians, and to evince the efteem
which Dr Simfon entertained for the abilities of his
pupil.
Soon after the publication of the Sun’s Diftance, Dr
Stewart’s health began to decline, and the duties of his
office became burdenfome to him. In the year 1772
he retired to the country, where he afterwards fpent
the greater part of his life, and never refumed his la¬
bours in the univerfity. But though mathematics had
now ceafed to be his bufinefs, they continued to be his
amufement till a very few years before his death,
which happened on the 23d of January 1785, at the
age of 68.
The habits of ftudy, in a man of original genius,
are objedts of curiofity, and deferve to be remembered.
Concerning thofe of Dr Stewart, his writings have
made it unneceffary to remark, that from his youth he
had been accuftomed to the moft intenfe and continued
application. In confequence of this application, added
to the natural vigour of his mind, he retained the me¬
mory of his difcoveries in a manner that will hardly be
believed. He rarely wrote down any of his inveftiga-
tions till it became neceflary to do fo for the purpofe of
publication. When he difcovered any propofition, he
would put down the enunciation with great accuracy,
and on the fame piece of paper would conftrudt very
neatly the figure to which it referred. To thefe he
trufted for recalling to his mind at any future period
the demonftration or the analyfis, however complicated
it.might be. Experience had taught 1dm, that he
might place this confidence in himfelf without any dan¬
ger of difappointment; and for this Angular power he
was probably more indebted to the aftivity of his in¬
vention than the mere tenacioufnefs of his memory.
Though he was extremely ftudious, he read few books,
and verified the obfervation of M. D’Alembert, that of
all men of letters, mathematicians read leaft of the
writings of one another. His own inveftigations oc¬
cupied him fufficiently 5 and indeed the world would
have had reafon to regret the mifapplication of his ta¬
lents, had he employed in the mere acquifition of know¬
ledge that time which he could dedicate to works of
invention.
Stewart, in Scots Law. See Law Index.
STEWARTIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs monadelphia, and in the natural fyftera ranging
>3 ] S T I
under the 37th order, Columniferce. See BdTA'NT Stewarifa
Index. ' . Il .
STIBADIUM, among the Romans, a low kind of
table couch or bed of a circular form, which fucceeded » - ■ - r -1
to the triclinia, and was of different fizes according to
the number of guefts for which it was defigned. Tables
of this kind were called hexaclina, offachna, or ennea^
c/ina, according as they held fix, eight, or nine guefts,
and fo of any other number.
STIBIUM, a name for Antimony.
STICHOS, a name given by the old writers to a
pedtoral confedlion, the principal ingredient of which
was the herb marrubium or horehound.
S LICKLEB ACK, a genus of fifties. See Cas¬
ter osteus, Ichthyology Index.
Foot-S TICKS, in Printing, flips of wood that lie
between the foot of the page and the chefs, to which
they are wedged faft by the quoins, to keep the form
firm, in conjunction with the fide-fticks, which are pla¬
ced at the fide of the page, and fixed in the fame man¬
ner by means of quoins.
STIFF LE, or Great Muscle, in the manege, is~
the part of the hind-leg of a horfe which advances to¬
wards his belly. This is a moft dangerous part to re¬
ceive a blow upon.
S 1TGMA, a brand or impreffion with a hot iron ;
a mark of infamy. See Stigmatizing.
Stigma, in Botany, the fummit or top of the ftyle,
accounted by the fexualilts the female organ of genera¬
tion in plants, which receives the fecundating duit of
the tops of the ftamina, and tranfmits its vapour or efflu¬
via through the ftyle into the heart of the feed-bud, for
the purpofe of impregnating the feeds.
S IIGMATA, in Natural Hijlory, the apertures in
different parts- of the bodies of infects communicating
with the tracheae or air-veflels, and ferving for the of¬
fice of refpiration.
Stigmata, in antiquity, certain marks impreffed on
the left (boulders of the foldiers when lifted.
Stigmata, were alfo a kind of notes or abbrevia¬
tions, confifting only of points difpofed various ways; as ,
in triangles, fquares, crofies, &c.
Stigmata, is alfo a term ufed among the Francif-
cans, to exprefs the marks or prints of our Saviour’s
wounds, faid to have been miraculoufly impreffed by
him on the body of their feraphic father St Francis.
S1IGMATIZING, among the ancients, was in¬
flicted upon (laves as a punilhment, but more frequently
as a mark to know them by : in which cafe, it was done
by applying a red-hot iron marked with certain letters
to their foreheads, till a fair impreffion was made ; and
then pouring ink into their furrows, that the infcription
might be the more confpicuous.
Soldiers were branded in the hand with the name or
character ef their general.
After the fame manner, it was cuftomary to ftigma-
tize the worfflippers and votaries of fome of the gods.
The marks ufed on thefe occafions were various; ffime-
times they contained the name of the god, fometimes
his particular enfign, as the thunderbolt of Jupiter, the
trident of Neptune, the ivy of Bacchus, &c. or they
marked themfelves with fome myftical number, w'hereby
the god’s name was defcribed. To thefe three ways of
ftigmatizing St John is fuppofed to refer (Rev. chap,
xiii. ver. 16, 17.). Theodoret is of opinion, that the
Jews'*
Stigmati¬
zing
. ii
Stilling-
fieet.
* Lib. v.
S T I f 7°4 1
Jews were forbiiiden to brand tberafelves with ftigmata, unfuccefsfirl
becaufe the idolaters, by that ceremony, ufed to conie-
crate themfelves to their falfe gods.
Among fome nations, ftigmatizing was confidered as
' a diftinguilhingmafk^f honour and nobility. In 1 brace,
as Herodotus tells us *, it was praftifed by none but
perfons of credit, nor omitted by any but perfons of the
Leaned rank. The ancient Britons are alfo faid to have
imprinted on the bodies of their infants the figures of
animals, and other marks, with hot irons.
STIL DE GRAIN, in the colour trade, the name ot a
compofition ufed for painting in oil or water, and is
made of a decoaion of the lycium or Avignon berry,
in alum-water, which is mixed with whiting into a
pafte, and formed into twifted flicks. It ought to be
chofen of a fine gold yellow, very fine, tender, and tri¬
able, and free from dirt. . . r
STIL AGO, a genus of plants belonging to the dais
gynandria. See Botany Index.
1 STILBE, a genus of plants belonging to the clals
polygamia, and order of dioecia. See Botany Index.
STIL BITE, a fpecies of mineral, or variety of zeo¬
lite. See Zeolite, Mineralogy Index.
STILE. See Style.
STILL, the name of an apparatus ufed m chemiitry
for various purpofes, and m the diftillation of ardent
fpirits. _ . .
STILL-Bottoms, in the diflillery, a name given by the
traders to what remains in the ftill after working the
wafh into low wines. Thefe bottoms are procured in
the greateft quantity from the malt-wafh, and are of io
much value to the diftiller in the fattening of hogs, Sec.
that he often finds them one of the moft valuable articles
of the bufinefs.
STILLINGFLEET, Edward, bifhop of War-
cefter, was the fon of Samuel Stillingfleet, gentleman,
and was born at Cranborn in Dorfetfhire in 1635. He
was educated at St John’s College, Cambridge •, and
having received holy orders, was, in 1637? Pre^"en^ed.
the reftory of Sutton in Nottinghamfhire. By publifhing
his Origines Saerce, one of the ableft defences of reveal¬
ed religion that has ever been written, he foon acquired
fuch reputation, that he was appointed preacher of the
Rolls Chapel j and in January 1665 was prefented to
the reftory of St Andrew’s, Holborn. He was after¬
wards chofen lefturer at the Temple, and appointed
chaplain in ordinary to King Charles II. In 1668 he
took the degree of dottor of divinity ; and was foon
after engaged in a difpute with thofe of the Romifh re¬
ligion, by publifhing his difeourfe concerning the ido¬
latry and fanaticifm of the church of Rome, which he
afterwards defended againft feveral antagonifts. In 1680
he preached at Guildhall chapel a fermon on Phil,
iii. 26. which he publifhed under the title of The Mif-
S T I
He died at Wejhmnfter in 1699, and
was interred in the cathedral of Worcefler, where a ^
monument was eredled to his memory by his fon. Dr
Stillingfleet wrote other works befides thofe here men¬
tioned, which, with the above, have been reprinted in,
6 vols. folio.
Stillingfleet, Benjamin, an ingenious naturalifi,
was grandfon of the preceding. His father Edward
was fellow of St John’s College in Cambridge, F. R. S.
M. I), and Grefham profeffor of phyfic : but marrying
in L692, he loft his lucrative offices and his father’s fa¬
vour ; a misfortune that afthaed both himfelf and his
pofterity. However, going into orders, he obtained,
by his father’s means, the living of Newington-Butts,
which he immediately exchanged for thofe of Wood-
Norton and Swanton in Norfolk. He died in 1708.
Benjamin, his only fon, was educated at Norwich
fchool, which he left in 1720, with the charafler of an
excellent fcholar. Fie then went to Trinity-College in
Cambridge, at the requeft of Dr Bentley, the mafter,
who had been private tutor to his father, domeftic ehap-
lain to his grandfather, and much indebted to the fami¬
ly. Here he was a candidate for a fellow fliip, but was
rejected by the mafter’s influence. Ibis was a fevere
and unexpected difappointment, and but little alleviat¬
ed afterwards by the Doftor’s apology, that it was a
pity that a gentleman of Mr Stillingfleet’s parts ffiould
be buried within the walls of a college.
Perhaps, however, this ingratitude of Dr Bentley
was not of any real differvice to Mr Stillingfleet. By
being thrown into the world, he formed many honour¬
able and valuable connexions. He dedicated fome
tranflations of Linnaeus to the late Lord Lyttleton,
partly, he fays, from motives of private refpeX and ho¬
nour. Lord Barrington gave him, in a very polite
manner, the place of the maftcr of the barracks at Ken-
fington ; a favour to which Mr Stillingfleet, in the de¬
dication of his Calendar of Flora to that nobleman, al¬
ludes with equal politenefs, as well as with the warmefl
gratitude. His Calendar of Flora was formed at Strat¬
ton in Norfolk in the year 1755, at the hofpitable feat
of his very worthy and ingenious friend Mr Marffiam,
who had made feveral obfervations of that kind, and
had communicated to the public his curious obfervations
on the growth of trees. But it was to Mr Wyndham of
Felbrig in Norfolk that he appears to have had the
greateft obligations: he travelled abroad with him,
fpent much of his time at his boufe, and was appointed
one of his executors (Mr Garrick was another), with a
confiderable addition to an annuity which that gentle¬
man had fettled upon him in his lifetime.
Mr Stillingfleet’s genius feems, if we may judge from
his works, to have led him principally to the ftudy of
natural hiftory ; which he profecuted as an ingenious
Stilling.
fleet.
111. 20. wtnen ne puuiuueu unuci enc Lint ux j. nc j.™ lj - , ....  --- T ,1 ‘c
chief of Separation; and this being immediately attack- philofopher, an ufeful citizen, and a gooa mail. » ^
j 1 __ r i   tvoIF nf Ipurnina he mentions, as his mends, Ur Vv at-
ed by feveral writers, he in 1683 publiftied his Unrea-
fonablenefs of Separation. In 1685 appeared his Ori¬
gines Britannicce, or the Antiquities of the Britiffi
Church, in folio. During the reign of King James II.
he wrote feveral trafts againft popery, and was prolocu¬
tor of the convocation, as he had likewife been under
Charles II, After the Revolution he was advanced to
walk of learning he mentions, as his friends, Dr FVai-
fon, Mr (afterwards Dr) Solander, Mr Hudion, Mr
Price of Foxley, and fome others •, to whom may be ad¬
ded the ingenious Mr Pennant. Nor can w-e
flattering mention which Mr Gray makes of him in one
of his letters, dated from London in 1761 : “ I
lately made an acquaintance with this philofopher, who
canaries ii, zxiier one nevoiuuon ue was auvanccu lu umuc an — ;  1 1 r- :
the bifkopric of Worcefter, and was engaged in a dif- lives in a garret here in the winter, that he may uppor
pute with the Socinians, and alfo with Mr Locke 5 in fome near relations who depend upon hmn e is a
which laft conteft he is generally thought to have been ways employed, confequently (according to
S T I [ 705 ] S T I
Stilling- maxim) always happy, always cheerful, and feems to
fleet me a very worthy honeft man. His prefent feheme is
jl to fend fome perfons, properly qualified, to relide a year
_ ' / or two in Attica, to make themfelves acquainted with
the climate, productions, and natural hath ry of the
country, that we may underftand Arid otic, Theophraf-
tus, &c. who have been heathen Greek to us for fo
many ages j and this he has got propofed to Lord Bute,
no unlikely perfon to put it in execution, as he is him-
felf a botaniiL”
Mr Stillingtleet publiihed a volume of mifcellaneous
traits, which is in much edeem, and does great honour
to his head and heart. They are chiefly tranflations of
fume euays in the Anvxmtates Academic^e, puhlifned by
Linnaeus, interfperfed with iome ob!ei;valions and ad-,
ditions of his own. In this volume he tliows alio a
tafte for clafiical learning, and entertains us with fome
elegant poetical eifufions of his own. But his Eifay on
ConverCation, publilhed in the firft volume of Dodlley’s
Colleebon of Poems, entitles hinj to a dillinguifbed rank
among our Englilh poets. T his poem is addreffed to
Mr Wyndham, with all that warmth of friendlliip which
diifinguidles Mr Stillingfleet. As it is chiefly didac¬
tic, it does not admit of fo many ornaments as fome
compofitions of other kinds. However, it contains
much good fenfe, (hows a condderable knowledge of
mankind, and has feveral palfages that in point of har¬
mony and eafy verfirication would not difgrace the writ-
tings of our mod admired poets. Here more than once
Mr Stillingfleet {hows himfelf dill fore for Hr Bentley’s
cruel treatment of him •, and towards the beautiful and
moral dole of it (where it is fuppofed he gives us a
flcetch of himfelf) feems to hint at a mortification of a
more dtdicate nature, u Inch he is faid to have fullered
from the other fex.
To thefe difappointments it was perhaps owing that
Mr Stillingfleet neither married nor went into orders.
His London relklence was at a faddler’s in Piccadilly ;
where he died in 1771, aged above 70, leaving feve¬
ral valuable papers behind him. He was buried in St
James’s church, without the flighted monument to his
memory.
STILLING I A, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs monoecia, and to the order of monudelphia. See
Botany Index.
STILYARD. See STEEL-Tard,
STILPO, a celebrated pinlofopher of Megara, flou-
rifhed under the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes. In his
youth he had been addicted to licentious pleafures, from
which he religioufly refrained from the moment that he
ranked himfelf among philofophers. When Ptolemy
Soter, at the taking of Megara, offered him a large fum
of money, and requeded that he would accompany him
into Egypt, he accepted but a fmall part of the offer,
and retired to the illand of /Egina, whence, on Ptole¬
my’s departure, he returned to Megara. That city be¬
ing again taken by Demetrius the fon of Antigonus,
and the philofopher required to give an account of any
efletfls which he had lod during the hurry of the plun¬
der, he replied, that he had lod nothing ; for no one
could take from him his learning and eloquence. So
great was the fame of Slilpo, that the mod eminent
philofophers of Athens took pleafure in attending upon
his difeourfes. His peculiar doftrines were, that Ipe-
Vol. XIX. Part II.
cies or univerfals have no real exidence, and that one Stilpo
thiny cannot be predicated of another. With refpedt N
a Air • • , ‘ , Stimuli,
to the former oi thele opinions, he leems to have taught   ^
the lame doebine with the f cl afterwards known by
the appellation ot JSominalJts. To prove that one
thing cannot be predicated of another, he laid, that
goodmfs and man, ;or mdanee, are different things, w Inch
cannot be confounded by aflerting the one to be the
other : he argued farther, that goodnefs is an univerfal,
and univerfals have no real exidence •, confequently
fince nothing cannot be predicated of any thing, g> od-
nel." cannot be predicated ot man. ’i bus, whilit this Enf.eld's
fubtle logician was, through his whole argument, pi e- Hi/tory of
dicating^one thing of another, he denied that any one
thing could be the accident or predicate ol another.
If Stilpo was ferious in this reafoning ; if he meant any
thing more than to expole the fophilfry of the It bools,
he mud be confeffed to have been an eminent mader tit
the art of wrangling •, and it was not wholly without
reafon that Glyeera, a celebrated courtezan, when die
was reproved by him as a corrupter of youth, replied,
that the charge might be judly retorted upon himfelf,
who j’pent his time in filling their heads with fophillical
quibbles and ufelefs fubtleties. In ethics he feems to
have been a Stoic, and in religion he had a public and
a private dotlrine, the former for the multitude, and
the latter for his friends. He admitted the exidence
of a fupreme divinity, but had no reverence for the Gre¬
cian fuperditions.
STTLOBATUM, in Architecture, denotes the body
of the pededal of any column.
STILTON, a town of England, in Huntingdonfliire,
75 miles from London, fouth-wed of Yaxley, on the Ro¬
man highwav from Cador to Huntingdon, called Kr-
minefireet, fome parts of which, in this neighbourhood,
appear dill paved with done. This place is famous for
cheefe called Englijh Partnefan, which is generally kept
till it is old before it is brought to table, and even the
procefs of decay is accelerated by various means, to ren¬
der it agreeable to a vitiated tade. For making Stilton
cheefe, the following receipt is given in the fird volume
of the Repojitpry of Arts and ManufaElures :
“ Take the night’s cream, and put it to the morning’s
new milk, with the rennet •, when the curd is come, it
is not to be broken, as is done with other cheefes, but
take it out with a foil-dilh altogether, and place it in a
fieve to drain gradually ; and as it drains, keep gradu¬
ally prefling it till it becomes firm and dry ; then place
it in a wooden hoop •, afterwards to be kept dry on
boards, turned frequently, with cloth binders round it,
which are to be tightened as occafion requires, and
changed every day until the cheefe become firm enough
to fupport itfelf j after the cloth is taken off, the cheefe
is rubbed every day all over, for two or three months,
with a brufli *, and if the weather be damp or moil!
twice a-day : and even before the cloth is taken off, the
top and bottom are well rubbed every day.”
STIMUL ANTS, in Medicine, fubftances which in-
creafe the aftion of certain parts of the body. In par¬
ticular, they quicken the motion of the blond, inereafe
the aflion of the mufcular fibres, and affedl the nervous
fyllem.
STIMULI, in Botam/, a fpecies of armature or of¬
fend ve weapon, with which fome plants, as nettle, caffa-
4 U da.
Falconer's
Marine .
JDicl ionary.
S T I [
da, acalypha, and tragia, are furnifhed. Their ufe, fays
Linnaeus, is by their venomous punctures to keep olf
naked animals that would approach to hurt them.
STING, an apparatus in the bodies of certain infedts,
in the form of a little fpear, ferving them as a weapon
of offence.
Sting-Ray. See Raia, Ichthyology Index.
STINK-POT, an earthen jar or Ihell, charged with
706 ] S T I
to have been derived from the frequency of flrifes or Stirling,
conflidls in the neighbourhood. The town contains'" » —
about 4000 inhabitants. It has a manufadlure of tar¬
tans and {balloons, and employs about 30 looms in that
of carpets. The great ftreet is very broad. In it is the-
tolbooth, where is kept the ftandard for the wet mea-
fures of Scotland. The other ftreets are narrow and ir¬
regular.—Stirling is in miniature a refemblance of Edin-
nowder grenadoes, and other materials of an offenfive burgh ; being built on a rock of the fame form, with a
rad fuffijating fmell. It is frequently ufed by priva- fortrefi on the fumtmt The ongra of the call e-s un_
teers, in the wertern ocean, in the attack of an enemy known. The rock of Stirling was tirongly fortified by
whom he defigns to board 5 for which purpofe it is fur-
nifhed with a light fufe at the opening or touch-hole.
See Boarding.
STINT, a fpecies of bird. See Tringa, Ornitho¬
logy Index.
STIPA, Feather Grass, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs triandria, and order of digynia $ and in
the natural fyftem ranging under the 4th order, Gratm-
na. See Botany Index.
STIPEND, among the Romans, fignifies the fame
with tribute ; and hence Jlipendarii were the fame with
tributarii.
Stipend, in Scots Law. See Law, § clix. 12.
STIPULA, in Botany, one of the fulcra or props of
plants, defined by Linnaeus to be a fcale, or fmall leaf,
Rationed on each fide the bafe of the footftalks of the
flower and leaves, at their firft appearance, for the pur¬
pofe of fupport. Elmgren reftridls it to the footftalks
of the leaves only.
STIPULATION, in the civil law, the a& of fti-
pulating, that is, of treating and concluding terms and
conditions to be inferted in a contratt. Stipulations were
anciently performed at Rome, with abundance of cere¬
monies ; the firft whereof was, that one party fhould in¬
terrogate, and the other anfwer, to give his confent, and
oblige himfelf. By the ancient Roman law, nobody could
ftipulate but for himfelf *, but as the tabelliones were pub¬
lic fervants, they were allowed to ftipulate for their maf-
ters ; and the notaries fucceeding the tabelliones have
inherited the fame privilege.
STIRIA, a province of Germany, in the circle of
Auftria, with the title of a duchy. It is bounded on
the north by the archduchy of Auftria, on the eaft by
Hungary, on the fouth by Carniola, and on the weft
by Carinthia and the archbifhopric of Saltftmrg ; it is
125 miles in length and 17 in breadth, and is faid to
contain 22 cities, 95 torvns, 338 caftles, 15 convents,
and 200,000 inhabitants. Though it is a mountain¬
ous country, yet there is a great deal of land fit for til¬
lage, and the foil is fo good, that the inhabitants never
were in want of corn. It contains mines of very good
Iron ; whence the arms made there are in great efteem.
The women differ greatly from the Auftrians, and are
very plain and ingenious. They have all fwellings on
their throats, called bronchoceles. The men are alfo very
fimple, and are rather difpofed to indulge in indolence.
The chief torvn is Gratz.
STIRLING, a town of Scotland, fituated on the
river Forth, 35 miles north-weft of Edinburgh, in W.
Long. 3. 59. N. Lat. 56. 6. It is alfo called Sterling
and Striveling; from the former of which Boethius falfe-
ly derives the name Sterling money ; becaufe, fays he,
Ofbeit, a Saxon prince, after the overthrow of the Scots,
eftabliftied a mint there. The name of Striveling is faid
known.
the Pifts, amongft whom architefture and feveral other
ufeful arts had made a confiderable progrefs. As it lay
in the extremities of their kingdom, the poffeflion of it
was the occafion of frequent contefts betwixt them and
their neighbours the Scots and Northumbrians ; each of
whofe dominions did, for fome time, terminate near it.
When the Scots, under Kenneth II. overthrew the
Pi&ifh empire near the middle of the ninth century,
they endeavoured to obliterate every memorial of that
people. They not only gave new names to provinces;
and towns, but, with all the rage of barbarians, demo-
lifhed many magnificent and ufeful edifices which had
been reared up by them, and this fortrefs among the reft.
It was, however, foon rebuilt, though upon an occafion
not very honourable to the Scots.
Upon the death of Kenneth II. in 855, his brother
Donald V. mounted the throne of Scotland. In the
beginning of his reign the kingdom was invaded by
Oibrecht and Ella, two Northumbrian princes, who,
uniting their forces with the Cumbrian Britons, and a
number of Pidfts, who upon their expulfion from their
native country had taken refuge in England, advanced
to Jedburgh, where Donald encountered them ; and, af¬
ter a fierce and bloody battle, obtained a complete vic¬
tory : but, having taken up his ftation in Berwick, in
fupine fecurity, the Northumbrians, informed of the care-
lefs pofture in which the Scottifh army lay, furprifed
them by a hafty march, difperfed them, and made a pri-
foner of the king. Purfuing the advantage they had
gained, they marched northward, and fubdued all be¬
fore them to the frith of Forth and the town of Stir¬
ling. But the forlorn fituation of the Scots, without a
king and without an army, obliging them to fue for
peace, they obtained it, upon condition that they fhould
pay a fum of money for the ranfom of the king, and
yield up all their dominions upon the fouth fide of the
Forth to the conquerors.
The Northumbrians taking pofTeflion of the territo¬
ries ceded to them by this treaty, rebuilt the caftle of
Stirling, and planted with a ftrong garrifon, in. order
to preferve their new conquefts, upon the frontiers of
which it was fituated. Our authorities alfo inform us,
that they erected a ftone bridge over the Forth, upon the
fummit of which a crofs was raifed, with the following
infeription in monkifh rhyme.
Anglos a Scot is feparat crux ijla remotis ;
Armis luc Jlant Bruit, Scott Jlant luc, cruce tuti.
Which is thus tranflated by Bellenden.
I am free marche, as pafiengeris may ken,
To Scottis, to Britonis, and to Inglifmen.
None of the ancient Englifh hiftorians mentions this-
conqueft. The whole ftory, as well as the infeription,
wears-
/
S T I
Stirling, wears much of a monkifh garb; yet its authenticity is
not a little confirmed by the arms of the town of Stir¬
ling, upon which is a bridge, with a crofs, and the laft
line of the above Latin diftich is the motto round it.
' We mufi: not, however, imagine, that in thofe times
that fortrefs bore any refemblance to the prefent ftruc-
ture, which is adapted to the ufe of fire-arms. Its
fize and form probably refembled thofe caftles which,
under the feudal conftitution, the Englifh and Seottifli
barons ufed to erect upon their eltates for dwelling-
houfes; and which, in thofe barbarous ages, they found
ueceflary to fortify for their defence, not only againft
foreign invaders, but often againft the attacks of their
own neighbours. It is direftly fuch a Gothic figure as
this which reprefents the Caftrum Strivclenfe upon the
arms of Stirling.
This fortrefs, after it had continued in the pofleflion
of the Northumbrian Saxons about 20 years, was, to¬
gether with the whole country upon the fouth fide of
the Forth, reftored to the Scots, upon condition of their
aflifting the Saxons againft their turbulent invaders the
Danes. Upon the arms of Stirling are two branches
of a tree, to reprefent the Nemus Strive/enfe; but the
fituation and boundaries of that foreft, which was pro¬
bably a wing of the Caledonian, cannot be afcertained.
Upon the fouth of Stirling, veftiges of a foreft are ftill
difcernible for feveral miles. Banks of natural timber
ftill remain in the caftle park, at Murray’s wood, and
near Nether Bannockburn ; and flumps of trees, with
much brulhwood, are to be feen in all the adjacent
fields.
When Kenneth 111. received intelligence of the Danes
having invaded his dominions, he appointed the caftle of
Stirling to be the place of rendezvous for his army, and
he marched from thence to the battle of Loncarty, where
he obtained a victory over thofe rovers, in the end of the
10th century.
In the 12th century, this caftle is fpoken of as a place
of great importance, and one of the ftrongeft fortreffes
in the kingdom. In 1174, a calamity, not unufual
amongft the Scottilh monarchs, befel William, who at
that time occupied the throne. He was taken prifoner
in an unfuccefsful expedition which he made into Eng¬
land; and, after having been detained 12 months in
captivity, was releafed, upon ftipulating to pay a large
fum of money for his ranfom; and, until payment there¬
of, delivering into the hands of the Englifh the four
principal fortrefles in the kingdom, which in thofe days
were Stirling, Edinburgh, Roxburgh, and Berwick.
This was the firft great afeendant that England obtained
over Scotland ; and indeed the moft important tranfac-
tion which had pafled between thefe kingdoms from the
Norman conqueft.
Though the Scottifti monarchs, in their frequent per¬
ambulations through the kingdom, often vifited Stirling,
and held their courts for fome time in the caftle; yet it
did not become a royal refidence till the family of Stuart
mounted the throne, and it was from different princes
of this family that it received its prefent form. It was
the place of the nativity of James II.; and, whenraifed
to the throne, he frequently kept his court in it. It is
well known to have been the place where that prince
perpetrated an atrocious deed, the murder of William
carl of Douglas, whom he ftabbed with his own hand.
The royal apartments were at that time in the north-weft
C 707 3
s T I
corner of the caftle, and are now the refidence of the Stirling,
fort-major. The room where the murder was commit-
ted ftill goes by the name of Douglas's room.
James III. contracting a fondnefs for the caftle on ac¬
count of its pleafant fituation, made it the chief place
of his refidence, and added feveral embellilhments to it.
He built within it a magnificent hall, which in thofe
days was deemed a noble ftruClure, and is ftill entire.
It now goes by the name of the parliamentJioufe, having
been deligned for the accommodation of that fupreme
court. It was covered with an oaken roof of exqui-
fite workmanftiip, which, though very little decayed,
was a few years ago removed to make wray for one
of more modern ftrir&ure. James alfo erefled a college
of fecular priefts in the caftle, w'hich he called the c/?a-
pel royal, and which proved one caufe of his own ruin.
As the expences neceffary for maintaining the numerous
officers of fuch an inftitution were confiderable, he an¬
nexed to it the revenues of the rich priory of Colding-
ham in the Merfe, which at that time happened to be¬
come vacant. This priory had for a long time been
holden by perfons conneded with the family of Hume;
and that family, confidering it as belonging to them,
ftrongly oppofed the annexation. The difpute feems to
have lafted feveral years ; for one parliament had paffed
a vote, annexing the priory to the chapel-royal, and a
fubfequent one enacted a ftatute prohibiting every at¬
tempt that was contrafy or prejudicial to that annexa¬
tion.
James V. was ctowned in the caftle of Stirling; and
the palace, which is the chief ornament of it, was the
work of that prince. This 5s a {lately and commodious
ftruflure, all of hewn ftone, with much ftatuary work
upon it. It is built in form of a fquare, with a fmall
Court in the middle, in which the king’s lions are faid
to have been kept; and hence it ftill goes by the name
of the lions den. The palace contains many large and
elegant apartments ; the ground ftory is now converted
into barrack-rooms for the foldiers of the garrifon ; the
upper affords a houfe for the governor, with lodgings for
fome of the fubaltern officers.
Oppofite to the palace, upon the north, ftands an
elegant chapel, which was built by James Vi. for the
baptifm of his fon, Prince Henry, in 1594. In this
chapel is preferved the hulk of a large boat, which that
whimfical monarch caufed to be built and placed upon
carriages, in order to convey into the caftle the provi-
fions for that folemnity.
A ftrong battery, with a tier of guns pointing to the
bridge over the Forth, was erefled during the regency
of Mary of Lorraine, mother to Queen Mary. It is
called the French battery, probably becaufe conftrufled
by engineers of that nation. The laft addition vras made
to the fortifications in the reign of Queen Anne. For¬
merly they reached no farther than the old gate, upon
which the flag-ftaff now ftands: but in that reign they
were confiderably enlarged upon the fide towards the
town ; and barracks which are bomb-proof, with feve¬
ral other conveniences for a fiege were erefled.
Upon the fouth fide of the caftle lies a park inclofed
with a ftone wall, called the king's park, and near to
the foot of the rock on which the caftle ftands, lay the
royal gardens; veftiges of the walks and parterres, with
a few flumps of fruit trees, are ftill vifible; but by long
negfeft, and the natural wetnefs of the foil, the place is
4 ^ 2 how
S T I
Stirling, now little better than a marfh.
Sti'r|ing mount of earth in form of a table, with benches of earth
i flme' , around it, where, according to tradition, the court fume-
times held fetes-champetres. In the caflle-hill is an
hollow, comprehending about an acre of ground, and
having all the appearance of an artificial work, which
was ufed for joufls, tournaments, and other feats of chi¬
valry.
Northward of the caftle lies the Govan, or perhaps
xnore properly the Cowling hill (a) ■, in the middle^ of
which is a fmall mount called Hur/y Hanky^ upon which
Duke Murdoch and his two fons were executed for trea-
fonable practices in the reign of James I.
The profoea from the caftle is moft delightful, as
well as extenfive, being greatly beautified, efpecially
upon the eaft, by the windings of the Forth y which are
fo numerous, that though the diftance by land from Stir¬
ling to Alina is, in a ftraight line, not quite fix miles, it
is laid to be 24 by water. As this river generally runs
upon plain ground, it rolls its ftream in to flow and lilent
a manner, that what Silius Italicus faith of the l icinus
is applicable to it, if, inftead of lucenti in that poet, we
lliould read lutofo ; for the clay -banks, together with the
tide, which flows above Stirling, render the Forth per¬
petually muddy :
Vix credos labi, ripis tarn mills opacis
Somnferam ducit lutofo gurgite lyrnpliam.
The lordlbip and caftle of Stirling were a part of the
ufual dowry of the queens of Scotland, at leaft after the
family of Stuart came to the throne, in which they were
invefted at their marriage.
Robert Lord Erfkine yvas appointed governor of the
caftle by King David II. and the office continued in
that family till 1715.
This fortrefs hath been the fcene of many tranfac-
tions. Being by its fituation confidered as a key to
the northern parts of the kingdom, the poffcffion of it
hath been always efteemed of great importance to thofe
who fought to be mailers of Scotland. It was undoubt¬
edly a place of flrength when the art of war by ord¬
nance was in its infancy ; but though it refifted the ut-
moft efforts of the rebels in 1746, it could not now hold
out three days if befieged bv an army of a few thoufand
men conduced by an engineer, of knowledge and in¬
tegrity.
STIRLINGSHIRE, a county of Scotland, of which
Stirling is the capital. It extends 20 miles in length
and 1 2 in breadth ; being bounded on the weft by part
of Lennox and Clydefdale ; on the eaft, by Clackman-
nanftiire, the river Forth, and part of Lothian ; on the
fouth-eaft by Lothian ; and on the north by Monteith.
The face’ of the country is open and agreeable, diverfi-
fied by hill and dale, well watered with ftreams and
rivers, the principal of which is the Forth, rifing in
the neighbourhood of a high mountain called Ben Lo¬
mond, and, running eaftward, forms the frith of Edin¬
burgh. The fouthern part is hilly, affording plenty of
game, and pafturage for ffieep, horfes, and black cattle.
The eaftern part is fertile, producing plentiful harvefts
of corn, and great abundance of coal. Lead-ore is found
Stirling.
fhire.
[ 708 ] S T I
In the gardens is a in different parts of the county ; and the rivers abound
with pike, trout, and falmon.
The population of this county at two differetit periods, t „ rruP|
and according to the different parifties, will be feen in
the following table :
10
Parijloes.
Airth
Alva
Balder nock
Balfron
5 Bothkennar
Buchanan
Campfie
Denny
Dry men %
Falkirk
Fintry
Gargennoek
Kilh arn
Killy th
Kippen
Larbert and Dunipace
Muiravonfide
Pol m out
St Ninians
Slamannan
Stirling
Strathblane
20
Population in
1755-
2416
436
621
755
529
1699
I399
i392
2789
3932
891
956
959
1395
1799
18.64
1539
1094
6491
1209
3951
797
Population in
1750 —1758.
2350
6l2
620^
1381
600
I-111
2517
1400
1607
8020
543
830
973
2450
1777
4000
1065
1400
7°79
1010
4698
620
58,81,
Increafe,
46,663
38>8l3
7850’
* Stati/h
HJl. of
STIRRUP, in the manege, a reft or fupport for the Scotland^
horfeman’s foot, for enabling him to mount, and for
keeping him firm in his feat.
Stirrups were unknown to the ancients. The want
of them in getting upon horfeback was fupplied by agi¬
lity or art. Some horfes were taught to Hoop to take
their riders up 5 but the riders often leapt up by the help
of their fpears, or were affifted by their Haves, or made
ufe of ladders for the purpofe. Gracchus filled the high¬
ways with ft ones, which were intended to anfvver the
fame end. The fame was alfo required of the lurveyors
of the roads in Greece as part of their duty.
Menage obferves, that St Jerome is the firft author
who mentions them. But the paffage alluded to is not to
be found in his epiftles •, and if it were there, it would
prove nothing, becaufe St Jerome lived at a time when
ftirrups are fuppufed to have been invented, and after
the ufe of faddles. Montfaucon denies the authenticity
of this paffage 5 and, in order to account for the Berenger'.
ranee of the ancients with regard to an inftrument.fo ni/lory and
ufeful and fo eafy of invention, he obferves, that while2^ 0/^
cloths and houfings only were laid upon the horfes backs,
on which the riders were to fit, ftirrups could not have p ^
been ufed, becaufe they could not have been faften-
ed with' the fame fecurity as upon a faddle. But it is
more
(a) So called from the wailings and lamentations (in Scotch, gcwlings) that were made ior Duke Murdoch.
Stirrup
I!
jtockliolm.
Poxe's Tra-
Hels, vol. ii
S T Q f yog ]
more probable, that in this inftance, as in many others, iorefts.
the progrefs of human genius and invention is uncer¬
tain and flow, depending frequently upon accidental
caufes.
STIRRUP of a Ship, a piece of timber put upon a
{hip’s keel, when fome of her keel happens to be beaten
oflf, and they cannot come conveniently to put or tit in
a new piece •, then they patch in a piece of timber, and
bind it on with an iron, which goes under the thip’s
keel, and comes up on each fide of the fhip, where it
is nailed ftrongly with fpikes 5 and this they call a ftir-
rup.
STOBiEUS, John, a laborious Greek rvriter, who
lived at the end of the fourth century, compofed many
works:, of which there are only his Colledtions remain¬
ing, and even thefe are not as he compofed them ; many
things being inferted by later authors. This work con¬
tains many important fentiments colledted from the an¬
cient writers, poets, and philofophers.
STOCK, in gardening, &c. the Item or trunk of a
tree. What flock is moft proper for each kind of fruit,
ought as well to be confidered and known, as what foil
is moft fuitable to trees ; for on thefe two things the fu¬
ture vigour of trees, and the goodnefs of fruit, equally
depend. The belt way for thofe who intend to plant,
is to raife their own Hocks, by which they will be better
allured of what they do ; but if they Ihould buy their
trees of nurferymen, they Ihould diligently inquire upon
what flocks they were propagated. See Grafting.
Stock, in trade. See CAPITAL Stock.
STOCK-Broker. See Broker and Stocks.
STOCK-Dove. See CoLUMBA, ORNITHOLOGY Index.
STOCK-Jobbing, the art or myftery of trafficking in
the public flocks or funds. See Fund and Stock-./ OR¬
BING.
Stock GMy-fower. See Cheiranthus, Botany
Index.
STOCKHOLM, the capital of Sweden, is fituated
in the province of Upland, in E. Long. 19. 30. and N.
Lat. 59. 20. Its foundation is by the bell Swedifh wri¬
ters generally attributed to Birger Jarl, regent of the
kingdom about the middle of the 13th century during
the minority of his fon Waldemar, who had been raifed
to the throne by the ftates of the kingdom ; but it was
not before the 18th century that the royal refidence was
transferred from Upfala to this city.
This capital, which is very long and irregular, occu¬
pies, befide two peninfuias, feven fmall rocky iilands,
fcattered in the Mafter, in the ftreams which iffue from
that lake, and in a bay of the gulf of Bothnia. A va¬
riety of contrafted and enchanting views are formed by
numherlefs rocks of granite rifing boldly from the fur-
face of the water, partly bare and craggy, partly dotted
■with houfes, or feathered with wood. 1 he harbour is
an inlet of the Baltic : the water is clear as cryftal, and
of fuch depth that (hips of the largeft burthen can ap¬
proach the quay, which is ot confiderable breadth, atid
lined with fpacious buildings and warehoules. At the
extremity of the harbour feveral ftreets rife one above
another in the form of an amphitheatre ^ and the palace,
a magnificent building, crowns the fummit. Fowaids
the fea, about two or three miles from the town, the
harbour is contrafted into a narrow llrait. and, winding
among high rocks, difappears from the fight •, and the
profpeft is terminated by diilant hilis3. overlprcad with
S T O
It is far beyond the power of words, or of the Stocidiolnu
pencil, to delineate thefe fingular view's. 1 he central "
illand, from which the city derives its name, and the
Ritterholm, are the handfomeft parts of the town. Ex¬
cepting in the fuburbs, where the houfes are of wood
painted red, the generality of the buildings are of ftone,
or brick ftuccoed white. The royal palace, which ftands
in the centre of Stockholm, and upon the higheft fpot
of ground, w'as begun by Charles XL : it is a large
quadrangular ftone edifice, and the ftyle of architefture
is both elegant and magnificent.
It is the habitation not only of the royal family, but
alfo of the greater part of the officers belonging to the
houfehold. It likewife comprehends the national or lu-
preme court of juftice, the colleges of war, chancery,
treafury, and commerce 5 a chapel, armoury, library,
and office for the public records j but the greater num¬
ber of inferior officers and fervants belonging to the
court, are, with the foot-guards, quartered on the burgh¬
ers. The callle, and all the {lately edifices in the king¬
dom, are covered with copper. i he palace of the no¬
bility, in which this order fits during the feffion of the
diet, is an elegant building, adorned on the outfide with
marble ftatues and columns, and on the infide with paint¬
ing and fculpture. This and three other palaces Hand
on the banks of the lake, and are built on the fame mo¬
del, fo as to compofe an uniform piece of architefture.
The bank, built at the expence of the city, is a noble
edifice, and joins with many fumptuous houfes belong¬
ing to the nobility in exhibiting a fplendid appearance.
The houfes of the burghers are generally built of brick
in the city 5 but in the fuburbs they are commonly made
up of timber, and therefore very fubjeft to conftagrations.
Thefe houfes are often framed in Finland, according to
the plan and dimenfions prefcribed : whence they are
tranfported in pieces to Stockholm by water, and there
fet up by the carpenters. Thefe wooden habitations, if
kept in proper repair, will laft 30 or 40 years, and are
deemed warmer, neater, and more healthy, than thofe
of brick or Hone. To prevent the danger of conflagra¬
tions, the city is divided into 12 wards. In each of
thefe there is a mafter and four affiftants, who forthwith
repair to the place where the fire breaks out •, and all
porters and labourers are obliged to range themfelves
under the mafter of the w'ard to which they belong. A
fire-watch patroles the ftreets by night, to give warning
or affiftance as it may be wanted ; and a centinel is
maintained in the fteeple of every church, to toll the
bell on the firft appearance of any fuch accident. The
police of Stockholm is entirely fubjefted to the regula¬
tions of the grand governor, affifted by a deputy and bai-
liflf of the caftle. This city is the emporium of Sweden,
to which all the commodities of the kingdom are brought
for exportation, and where almoft all the imports from
abroad are depofited. The port or haven formed by the
lake Maeler is large enough to contain loco fail of {hip¬
ping •, and furniffied with a key or wharf about an Eng-
liffi mile in length, to which the veiTels may lie with
their broadfides. The greateft inconveniences attending
this fituation are, the diftance from the fea, which is not
within lefs than 10 miles of the town ; the want of tides j
and the winding of the river, which is remarkably crook¬
ed. It opens into the Baltic; and the entrance, which
is dangerous and rocky, the Swedes have feeured with
two fmall forts : within, it is perfectly fafe and commo¬
dious...
S T O [ 71
Stockholm, dious. The northern fuburbs are remarkable for the
Stocking, king’s gardens, and for the great^ number of artitans
-nrh0 have chofen their habitations in this quarter. In
thefouthern fuburbs the Mufcovite commodities are
fold *, and here is a magnificent exchange where the
merchants daily aflemble. Population 80,000.
STOCKING, that part of the clothing of the leg
and foot which immediately covers and fereens them
from the rigour of the cold. Anciently, the only Ilock-
ings in ufe were made of cloth, or of milled Huffs fewed
together 5 but fince the invention of knitting and wea¬
ving ftockings of filk, wool, cotton, thread, &c. the ufe
of doth ftockings is quite difeontinued. Dr Howel,
in his Hiftory of the World (vol. ii. p. 222.) relates,
that Queen Elizabeth, in 1501, was prefented with a
pair of black knit filk ftockings by her filk-woman, and
thenceforth fhe never wore cloth ones any more.. The
fame author adds, that King Henry VIII. ordinarily
wore cloth hofe, except there came from Spain, by great
chance, a pair of filk ftockings. His fon, King Ed¬
ward VI. was prefented with a pair of long Spaniih filk
ftockings by Sir Thomas Grelham, and the prefent was
then much taken notice of. Hence it fhould feem, that
the invention of filk knit ftockings originally came from
Spain. Others relate, that one William Rider, an ap¬
prentice on London bridge, feeing at the houfe of an
Italian merchant a pair of knit worfted ftockings from
Mantua, took the hint, and made a pair exadly like
them, which he prefented to William earl of Pembroke,
and that they were the firft of that kind worn in Eng¬
land, anno 1564.
The modern ftockings, whether woven or knit, are
formed of an infinite number of little knots, called^z/c^-
es, /oops, or mefhes, intermingled in one another.
Knit ftockings are wrought with needles made of po-
lilhed iron or brafs wire, which interweave the threads
and form the mefties the flocking confifts of. At what
time the art of knitting was invented it is perhaps im-
poffible to determine, though it has been ufually attri¬
buted to the Scots, as it is faid that the firft works of this
kind came from Scotland. It is added, that it was on
this account that the company of ftocking-knitters, efta-
blifhed at Paris 1527, took for their patron St Eiacre,
who is faid to have been the fon of a king of Scotland.
But it is moft probable that the method of knitting
ftockings by wires or needles was firft brought from
* See An
Account ef
the Rife
anil Pro-
grefs of
the Beech
Cil Inven¬
tion, Sec.
Svo. 1715.
Spain.
Woven ftockings are generally very fine 5 they are
manufa&ured on a frame or machine made of polifhed
iron, the ftrufture of which it is needlefs tq^deferibe, as
it may be feen in almoft every confiderable town in
Great Britain. The invention of this machine is, by
Mr Anderfon, attributed to William Lee, M. A. of
St John’s College, Cambridge, at a period fo early as
1589. Others have given the credit of this invention
to a ftudent of Oxford at a much later period, who, it
is faid by Aaron Hill *, was driven to it by dire necefli-
ty. This young man, falling in love writh an innkeep¬
er’s daughter, married her though fire had not a penny,
and he by his marriage loft a fellowlhip. They foon
fell into extreme poverty ; and their marriage produ¬
cing the confequences naturally to be expefted from it,
the amorous pair became miferable, not fo much on ac¬
count of their fufferings, as from the melancholy dread
of what would become of their yet unborn infant.
o ] S T O
Their only means of fupport were the knitting of flock- Stocking,
ings, at which the woman was very expert: “ But fit- , Stocks-
ting conftantly together from morning to night, and the ' ^
fcholar often fixing his eyes, with ftedfaft obferva-
tion, on the motion of his wife’s fingers in the dexterous
management of her needles, he took it into his imagina¬
tion, that it was not impoflible to contrive a little loom
which might do the work with much more expedition.
This thought he communicated to his wife, and joining
his head to her hands, the endeavour fucceeded to their
wifti. Thus the ingenious ftocking-loom, which is fo
common now, was firft invented; by which he did not
only make himfelf and his family happy, but has left his
nation indebted to him for a benefit which enables us to
export filk ftockings in great quantities, and to a vaft
advantage, to thofe very countries from whence before
we ufed to bring them at confiderable lofs in the balance
of our traffic.”
STOCKS, or Public Funds in England. By the
word flock was originally meant a particular fum of
money contributed to the eftabliffiing a fund to enable
a company to carry on a certain trade, by means of
which the perfon became a partner in that trade, and
received a ffiare of the profit made thereby, in propor¬
tion to the money employed But this term has been
extended farther, though improperly, to fignify any
fum of money which has been lent to the government,
on condition of receiving a certain intereft till the money
is repaid, and which makes a part of the national debt.
As the fecurity both of the government and of the
public companies is efteemed preferable to that of any
private perfon, as the flocks are negociable and may be
fold at any time, and as the intereft is always punftually
paid when due j fo they are thereby enabled to borrow
money on a lower intereft than what could be obtained
from lending it to private perfons, where there muft be
always fome danger of lofing both principal and inte¬
reft.
But as every capital flock or fund of a company is
raifed for a particular purpofe, and limited by parlia¬
ment to a certain fum, it neceffarily follows, that when
that fund is completed, no flock can be bought of the
company; though {hares already purchafed may be
transferred from one perfon to another. This being the
cafe, there is frequently a great difproportion between
the original value of the ffiares and what is given for
them when transferred : for if there are more buyers
than fellers, a perfon who is indifferent about felling
will not part with his ftiare without a confiderable pro¬
fit to himfelf} and on the contrary, if many are dif-
pofed to fell, and few inclined to buy, the value of
i’uch ffiares will naturally fall in proportion to the
impatience of thofe who want to turn their flock into
fpecie.
A flock may likewife be affefted by the court of
chancery: for if that court fliould order the money,
which is under their direftion, to be laid out in any par¬
ticular flock, that flock, by having more purchafers,
will be raifed to a higher price than any other of the
like value.
By what has been faid, the reader will perceive how
much the credit and intereft of the nation depends on
the fupport of the public funds. W bile the annuities/
and intefeft for money advanced is there regularly paid,
and the principal infured by both prince and people (a
fecurity
S T O [71
Stocks fecurlty not to be had in other nations), foreigners will
II . lend us their property, and all Europe be interefted in
;itomac 1.' welfare 5 the paper* of the companies will be con¬
verted into money and merchandife, and Great Britain
can never want calh to carry her fchemes into execution.
See the article Fund.
Stocks, a frame eredted on the fhore of a river or
harbour, whereon to build (hipping. It generally con-
lids of a number of wooden blocks, ranged parallel to
each other at convenient didances, and with a gradual
declivity towards the water.
STOCKS, a wooden machine to put the legs of offen¬
ders in, for fecuring diforderly perfons, and by way of
punifhment in divers cafes, ordained by datute, &c,
STOCKTON upon Tees, a handfome town in the
county of Durham, about 16 miles fouth of the city of
Durham. It is now a port of confiderable trade j though,
at the redoration, it was a defpicable village, the bed
houfe in which could hardly boad of any thing better
than clay-walls and a thatched roof. About 40 years
ago it fent out in one year 7 5 veffels for the port of
London •, and the trade is much increafed fince.
STOEBE, Bastard ^Ethiopian, a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs fyngenefia j and in the natural
fydem ranging under the 49th order, CompoJiLe. See
Botany Index.
STOKESIA, a genus of plants belonging to the fyn-
geneda clafs, and order of polygamia oequalis. The
corollets in the ray are difpofed in the (hape of a funnel,
and are long and irregular. The down is four-bridled,
and the receptacle is naked. One fpecies only is known,
which is a herbaceous plant, and a native of South Ca¬
rolina.
STOICS, the name given to a fe£t of Grecian phi-
lofophers, from Srcat, “ the porch in Athens,” which
the founder of the left chofe for his fchool. For the
peculiar tenets of this fett, fee Metaphysics, Chap. iv.
Part 3. Moral Philosophy, N° 8. and Zeno.
STOLE ERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and territory of Thuringia, of
which it is the capital place. It is fituated between two
mountains, 50 miles north-wed of Leipdc. E. Long.
II. 8. N. Lat. 51. 42.
STOLE, a facerdotal ornament worn by the Romidi
parifh prieds above their furplice, as a mark offuperio-
rity in their refpe£tive churches j and by other prieds
over the alb, at celebrating of mafs, in which cafe it
goes acrofs the domach •, and by deacons, over the
left (houlder, fcarf-jyife: when the pried reads the
gofpel for any one, he lays the bottom of his dole on
Ids head. The dole is a broad fwath, or flip of duff,
hanging from the neck to the feet, with three croffes
thereon.
Groom of the STOLE, the elded gentleman of his Ma-
jedy’s bedchamber, whofe office it is to prefent and put
on his Majedy’s fird garment, or (hirt, every morning,
and to order the things in the chamber.
STOMACH, in Anatomy. See Anatomy, N°9i.
STOM ACHICmedicines arefuchas drengthenthe
domach and promote digedion, See.
Stomachic corroboratives are fuch as drengthen the
tone of the domach and intedines 5 among which are
carminatives, as the roots of galangals, red gentian, ze-
doary, pimpinella, calamus aromaticus, and aruih. Of
barks and rinds, thofe of canella alba, faffafras, citrons,
3
i ] S T O
Seville and China oranges, &c. Of fpices, pepper, Stomachic
ginger, cloves, cinnamon, cardamums, and mace. H
STOMOXYS, a genus of infefts belonging to the ■ °"c' .
order of diptera. See Entomology, p. 214.
STONE, Edmund, a didinguidied felf-taught ma-^
thematician, was born in Scotland; but neither the place
nor the time of his birth is well known ; nor have we
any memoirs of his life, except a letter from the Cheva¬
lier de Ramfay, author of the Travels of Cyrus, in a
letter to Father Cadel, a Jefuit at Paris, and publilhed
in the Memoirs de Trevoux, p. 109, as follows: “ True
genius overcomes all the difadvantages of birth, fortune,
and education ; of which Mr Stone is a rare example.
Born a fon of a gardener of the duke of Argyle, he ar¬
rived at eight years of age before he learnt to- read.—
By chance a fervant having taught young Stone the
letters of the alphabet, there needed nothing more to
difeover and expand his genius. He applied himfelf
to ftudy, and he arrived at the knowledge of the mod
fublime geometry and analyfis, without a mailer, with¬
out a conduftor, without any other guide but pure ge¬
nius.
“ At 18 years of age he had made thefe confidera¬
ble advances without being known, and without know¬
ing himfelf the prodigies of his acquifitions. The duke
of Argyle, who joined to his military talents a general
knowledge of every fcience that adorns the mind of a
man of his rank, walking one day in his garden, faiv
lying on the grafs a Latin copy of Sir Ifaae Newton’s
celebrated Principia. He called fome one to him to
take and carry it back to his library. Our young gar¬
dener told him that the book belonged to him. ‘ To
you ?’ replied the duke. ‘ Do you underiland geo¬
metry, Latin, Newton ?’ I know a little of them, re¬
plied the young man with an air of fimplieity arifing
from a profound ignorance of his own knowledge and
talents. The duke was furprifed ; and having a talle
for the fciences, he entered into a converfation with the
young mathematician : he alked him feveral quellions,
and was afloniffied at the force, the accuracy, and the
candour of his anfwers. ‘ But how (faid the duke)
came you by the knoivledge of all thefe things ?’ Stone
replied, ‘ A fervant taught me, ten years fince, to read :
Does one need to know any thing more than the 24 let¬
ters in order to learn every thing elfe that one wiffies
The duke’s curiofity redoubled—he fat down upon a
bank, and requefted a detail of all his proceedings in be¬
coming fo learned.
“ I firft learned to read, faid Stone: the mafons were
then at work upon your houfe : I went near them one
day, and I faw that the architedl ufed a rule, compaffes,
and that he made calculations. I inquired what might
be the meaning and ufe of thefe things ; and I was in¬
formed that there was a fcience called Arithmetic : I
purchafed a book of arithmetic, and I learned it.—I was
told there was another fcience called Geometry : I
bought the books, and I learnt geometry. By reading
I found that there were good books in thefe two fciences
in Latin : I bought a diftionary, and I learned Latin.
I underftood alfo that there were good books of the fame
kind in French: I bought a dictionary, and I learned
French.. And this, my lord, is what I have done: it
feems to me that we may learn every thing when we
know the 24 letters of the alphabet.” '
“ This account charmed the Duke. He drew this
wonderful
Stone.
S T O T 7‘
wonderful genius out of Ids obfcurity ; and he provided
him with an employment which left him plenty or dme
to apply himfelf to the fciences. ’He difcovered in him
al(o the fame genius for mufic, for painting, for archi-
tefture, for all the fcienees which depend on calculations
and proportions.”
“ 1 have feen Mr Stone. He is a man of great
fimplicky. He is at prefent fenlible of his own know¬
ledge j but he is not puffed up with it. He is poilef-
fed with a pure and difinterell'ed love for the mathe-
matics, though he is not folieitous to pafs for a ma¬
thematician ; vanity having no part in the great labour
he fultains to excel in that fcience. He defpifes for¬
tune alfo ; and he has folicited me twenty times to re-
queft the duke to give him lels employment, which may
not be worth the half of that he now has, in order to
be more retired, and lefs taken off from his favourite
ftudies. He difcovers fometimes, by methods of his
own, truths which others have diicovered before him.
He is charmed to find on thele occafions that he is not
a firft inventor, and that others have made a greater pro-
grefs than he thought. Far from being a. plagiary, he
attributes ingenious folutions, which he gives to certain
problems, to the hints he has found in others, although
the connection is but very diftant,” &c.
Mr Stone was author and tranflator of feveral ufeful
AVorks 5 viz. I. A New Mathematical Dictionary, in
i vol. 8vo, firft printed in 1726. 2. Fluxions, in 1
vol. 8vo, 1730. The Direct Method is a tranflation
from the French, of Hofpital’s Analyfe des Infiniments
Petits *, and the Inverfe Method was fupplied by Stone
himfelf. 3. The Elements of Euclid, in 2 vols. 8vo,
1731. A neat and ufeful edition of thofe Elements,
Avith an account of the life and writings of Euclid, and
a defence of his Elements againft modern objeCtors. Be-
fide other fmaller Avorks. Stone was a felloAV of the
Royal Society, and had inferted in the Philofophical
TranfaCtions (vol. xli. p. 2x8.), an “ Account of txvo
fpecies of lines of the 3d order, not mentioned by Sir
Ifaac Newton or Mr Stirling.”
Stone, Jerome, the fon of a reputable feaman, Avas
born in the parilh of Scoonie, in the county of Fife,
North Britain. His father died abroad when he Avas
but three years of age, and his mother, Avith her young-
family, Avas left in very narrow circumfiances. Jerome,
like the reft of the children, having got the ordinary
fchool education, reading Englilh, writing, and arith
metic, betook himfelf to the bufinefs of a travelling
chapman. But the dealing in buckles, garters, and
fuch fmall articles, not fuitiivg his fuperior genius, he
foon Converted his little flock into books, and for fome
years AA’ent through the country, and attend! d the fairs
as an itinerant bookfeller. i here is great reafon to be¬
lieve that he engaged in this new fpeeies of traffic,
more Avith a vieAV to the improvement of his mind than
for any pecuniary emolument. Formed by nature for
literature, he poffeffed a peculiar talent for acquiring
languages Avith amazing facility. Whether from a de¬
fire to underftand the Scriptures in their original lan¬
guages, or from being informed that thefe languages are
the parents of many others, he began his philological
purfuits Avith the ftudy of the Hebrew and Greek
tongues -y and, by a wonderful effort of genius and ap¬
plication, made himfelf fo far mailer of thefe, without
any kind of affiftance, as to be able to interpret the
2 ] S T O
Hebrexv bible and Greek Teftament into Englifh eJ
aperiurum Hbri. At this time he did not knoxv one Word '*
of Latin. Senfiblo that he could make no great pro-
grels in learning, without the knowledge of at leaft the
grammar of that language, he made application to the
pariih ichoolmailer for his affiftance. Some time after¬
wards, he was encouraged to prolecute his ftudies at the
univerfity of St Andrews. An unexampled proficiency
in every branch of literature recommended him to the
efteem of the profeflbrs ; and an uncommon fund of
Avit and pleafantry rendered him, at the lame time, the
favourite of all his fellow ftudents, fome of whom fpeak
of him to this day Avith an enthufiaftic degree of admi¬
ration and refpecl. About this period lome very hu¬
morous poetical pieces of his compofition were publiihed
in the Scots Magazine. Before he had finillied his third
feffion, or term, at St Andrew’s, on an application to
the college by the mailer of the fchool of Dunkeld for
an ufiaer, Mr Stone Avas recommended as the bell qua¬
lified for that office •, and about two or three years after,
the mailer being removed to Perth, Mr Stone, by the
favour of his Grace the Duke of Atholl, who had con¬
ceived a high opinion of his abilities, was appointed his
fucceffor.
When he firft Avent to Dunkeld, he entertained but
an unfavourable opinion of the Gaelic language, which
he confidered as nothing better than a barbarous inarti¬
culate gibberilh ; but being bent on inveftigating the
origin and defcent of the ancient Scots, he fuffertd not
Ids prejudices to make him negle6t the ftudy of their
primitive tongue. Having, Avith his ufual affiduity and
luceefs, maftered the grammatical difficulties which he
encmmtered, he fet himfelf to difcover fomething of the
true genius and ehara£!er of the language. He collect¬
ed a number of ancient poems, the production of Infh
or Seottilh bards, which, he faid, Avere daring, innocent,
paffionate, and bold. Some of thefe poems were tranf-
lated into Englilh verfe, which feveral perfons now alive
have feen in manufeript, before Mr Macpherion publitft-
ed any of his tranflations from Offian.
He died Avhile he was writing and preparing for the
prefs a treatife, intitled, “ An Inquiry into the Origi¬
nal of the Nation and Language of the ancient Scots,
with ConjeClures about the Primitive State of the Cel¬
tic and other European Nations-,” an idea which could
not have been conceived by an ordinary genius. In this
treatife he proves that the Scots dreAV their original, as
Avell as their language, from the ancient Gauls. Flad
Mr Stone lived to finifir this work, which difcovers great
ingenuity, immenfe reading, and indefatigable induftry,
it Avould have thrown light upon the dark and early pe¬
riods of the Scottilh hiftory, as he opens a netv and plain
path for leading us through the unexplored labyrinths
of antiquity. But a fever put'an end to his life, his la¬
bours, and his ufefulnefs, in the year 1757, being then
only in the 30th year of his age. He left, in manu-
fcript, a much efteemed and well-known allegory, inti¬
tled, “ The Immortality of Authors,” which has been
publilhed and often reprinted finee his death, and will
be a Jailing monument of a lively fancy, found judge¬
ment, and correCl tafte. It Avas no fmall ornament of
this extraordinary charaCler, that he paid a pious regard
to his aged mother, Avho furvived him tw-o years, and re¬
ceived arr annual penfion from the Du chefs of Atholl as
a teftimony of refpeCl to the memory of her fon.
Store.
S T O [7
Stonelive, STONEHIVE, or STONEHAVEN, a {mall town in
Stones. ^ the county of Kincardine, in Scotland, 15 miles fouth
from Aberdeen. It was built in the time of Charles II.
and {lands at the foot of fome high cliffs, in a fmall bay,
with a rocky bottom, opening a little in one part, fo
that fmall veffels may find admittance, but only at high
water. A pier runs out from the harbour on the north
fide to fecure them after their entrance. The town con¬
tains about 800 inhabitants. The manufaftures are fail-
cloths and ofnaburghs, knit worlled and thread {lock¬
ings.
STONES, in Natural HiJlonj, have been defined bo¬
dies which are infipid, not duftile, nor inflammable, nor
foluble in water. For a view of the claflification of
{tones, and of their diftribution, fee Mineralogy and
Geology.
Here we {hall make a few obfervations on fome fpe-
culative difeuffions relative to their natural hiftory.
As philofophers have perplexed themfelves much
about the origin and formation of the earth (a fubjeft
certainly far beyond the ken of the human intelledl, at
leaft if we believe that it was made by the almighty
power of God), fo they have alfo propofed theories to
explain the origin of {tones. When philofophers limit
their inquiries within the boundaries of fcience, where
they are led by the fober and fafe condu6t of obferva-
tion and experiment, their conclufions may be folid and
may be ufeful ; but whea, throwing experiment and ob-
fervation afide, they rear a theory upon an airy nothing,
or upon a Angle detached fa6t, their theories will vanilh
before the touch of true philofophy as a romantic palace
before the rod of the enchanter. Sometimes from whim,
or caprice, or vanity, they attempt to confound every
thing : they wifli to prove that the foul is mere matter,
that plants are animals, and that foflils are plants, and
thus would banifh two fubllances, fpirit and dead mat¬
ter, entirely from the world 5 as if the Author of Na¬
ture w'ere aftuated by fordid views of parfimony in the
works of creation, though we evidently fee that a gener¬
ous profufion is one of the charadleriftic marks of thefe
works. We leave the talk of confounding the different
claffes of being to thofe philofophers whofe minds are too
contracted to comprehend a great variety «f being at
one view, or who prefer novelty to every thing elfe.
We content ourfelves with the old opinion, that the foul
is a fpiritual fubftance } that plants are plants, and that
Hones are Hones.
We have been led into thefe remarks by finding that
fome philofophers fay that Hones are vegetables *, that
they grow and increafe in fize like a plant. This theory,
we believe, was firff offered to the world by M. l ourne-
fort, in the year 1702, after returning from his travels
in the eafl. It was founded on a curious fad. In fur-
veying the labyrinth of Crete, he obferved that the
names which vifitors had engraved upon the rock were
not formed of hollow but of prominent letters like baffo
Vol. XIX. Part II.
3 ] S T O
relievos. He fuppofes that thefe letters were at firfi Stones
hollowed out by knives ; that the hollows have fince
been filled up by the growth of the Hone 5 and hence
he concludes that Hones vegetate. We with we were
fully affured of the faCl that the letters were at firff hol¬
lowed, before ive attempt to account for their promi¬
nency. But even allow ing the fuppofition to be true
that they were at firff hollow, we reply it is only a fingle
fad, and that it is altogether unphilofophical to deduct
a general fyftem from a fingle fad.
In the fecond place, this protuberancy of the charac¬
ters is very improperly called vegetation, for it is not
produced by a procefs in any refpeft like the vegetation
of a plant. Vegetation fuppofes veffels containing fluids
and growth by expanfion j but who ever heard of veffels
in a Hone, of fluids moving in them, or of the different,
parts expanding and fwelling like the branch or trunk
of a tree i1 Even the faft which Tournefort mentions
proves nothing. He does not pretend to fay, that the
rock itfelf is increafing, but only that a few fmall hol¬
lows are filled Avith nerv flony matter, which rifes a lit¬
tle above the furrounding furface of the rock. This
matter evidently has been once liquid, and at length h^s
congealed in the channel into which it had run. But is
not this ealily explained by a common procefs, the for¬
mation of ffalaftites ? When Avatar charged Avith cal¬
careous matter is expofed to the aft ion of air, the Avater
evaporates, and leaves the calcareous earth behind, Avhich
hardens and becomes like a Hone.
Having thus examined the principal faft upon Avhich
M. Tournefort founds his theory, it is unneceffary to
follow him minutely through the rell of his fubjeft.—
He compares the accretion of matter in the labyrinth
to the confolidation of a bone Avhen broken, by a callus
formed of the extravafated nutritious juice. This ob-
fervation is thought to be confirmed, by finding that
the projefting matter of the letters is Avhitifh and the
rock itfelf grayifli. But it is eafy to find comparifons.
The difficulty, as Pope fays, is to apply them. The re-
femblance betsveen the filling up of the holloAV of a
Hone, and the confolidation of a broken bone by a cal¬
lus, Ave confefs ourfelves not philofophers enough to fee>
Were Ave Avriting poetry in bad tafle, perhaps it might
appear. The circumffance, that the prominent matter
of the letters is whitiffi, Avhile the rock is grayifli, we
flatter ourfelves ffrengthens our fuppofition that it con-
fiffs of a depofition of calcareous matter. Upon the
Avhole, Ave conclude, Ave hope logically, that no fuch
theory as this, that Hones are vegetables, can be drarvn
from the fuppofed faft refpefting the labyrinth. We
have to regret, that the account Avhich Ave have feen of
the fubjeft is fo imperfeft, that Ave have not fufficient
materials for a proper invefligation. Tournefort has
not even told us of what kind of Hone or earth the ac¬
cretion confifls ; yet this fingle information would pro¬
bably have decided the queilion (a).
4 X STONES
(a) To give a more diffinft notion of Tournefort’s theory, we {hall fubjoin his conclufions : From thefe ob-.
fervations (he fays) it follows, that there are Hones Avhich grow in the quarries, and of confequence that are
fed ; that the fame juice which nourifties them ferves to rejoin their parts Avhen broken j juff as in the bones of
animals, and the branches of trees, when kept up by bandages •, and, in a word, that they vegetate. There is,
then (he fays), no room to doubt but that they are organized 5 or that they draw their nutritious juice from
the
[ 7*4 ]
STONES and EARTHS, Analysis of.
Preliminary A T the clofe of our article Mineralogy, we refer-
Proeefles. JLX red to this place for an account of the method of
examining the chemical con dilution of earths and Hones.
In the article Ores, we have given a pretty full detail
of the method of analydng that clafs of minerals. . In
this place we propofe briefly to point out the mod im¬
proved procefles for the analyfis of the other three claf-
fcs of mineral bodies, viz. earths and Hones, falts, and
eombudibles} to which we fliall add fome account of the
method of examining foils.
But before proceeding to the immediate objeft of this
treatife, it may be ufeful to make fome obfervations on
fome preliminary proceffes connefled with the fubjedt
under confideration.
In the firH place, it is neceffary that the mineral to be
examined be reduced to a fine powder. To effedt this
with very hard Hones, they are made red hot, and in
this Hate thrown into cold water. By the fudden change
of temperature in the different parts of the Hone, it cracks,
and falls to pieces. If the pieces be not fufficiently fmall,
the fame procefs is to be repeated. The fragments are
then to be reduced to fmaller pieces in a polifhed Heel
mortar, and the cavity of this mortar ought to be cylin¬
drical. A peHle of the fame metal fhould be made to fit
it exadtly, that no part of the Hone may efcape during
the operation of pounding. The Hone being in this way
reduced to powder, a determinate quantity is taken, 100
or 200 grains, for example, and this is to be reduced to
as fine a powder as poffible ; or, as it is called, to an
impalpable powder. This operation is mofl fuccefsfully
performed in an agate mortar, with a peffle of the fame
mineral ; a mortar of about four inches in diameter, and
rather more than one inch deep, is found to anfwer the
purpofe very well. It is found moff convenient to ope¬
rate on fmall quantities only at a time ; not more than
five or fix grains. When the powder feels foft, adheres,
and appears under the peffle in the form of a cake, it is
then as fine as poffible. It is now to be accurately weigh¬
ed, and it is ufually found to have acquired fome addi¬
tional weight, arifing from part of the mortar being worn
off during the pounding. This additional weight muff
be attended to, and after the analyfis is completed, a
part of the fubffance of the mortar muff be fubtra&ed.
In the cafe of an agate or flint mortar being ufed, the
portion rubbed off, which increafesthe weight, may be
regarded as pure filiceous earth.
The chemical veffels neceffary for the analyfis of mi¬
nerals are crucibles for expofing the fubffanccs to heat, Preliminary
glaffes and (hallow diffies for folutions and evaporations. Procelfes.
The crucibles Ihould be of platina or pure filver, and of v~'~"
fuch a capacity as to hold from feven to eight cubic
inches of water. The veffels in which the folutions,
evaporations, and other proceffes are performed, flrould
be of glafs or porcelain } the glafs veffels, as being more
brittle, and therefore more apt to break, are found to be
lefs economical than thofe of portelain. Some chemiffs
employ porcelain veffels which are in the form of fee-
tions of fpheres, and are glazed both in the infide and
outfide, excepting part of the bottom, which comes into
immediate contaft with the fire. Wedgewood’s glazed
veffels for evaporations, are found to anfwer very well;
the glaze is thin, and the veffels are not very apt to
crack ; but it is fuppofed by fome chemifls, that it is oc-
cafionally afted on by flrong acids. It is fcarcely ne-
ceffary to add, that an accurate balance is a neceffary .
inffrument in the hands of the analyff.
I. Of the Analyfis of EARTHS and STONES.
The ingredients which have been difeovered by means
of analyfis, in the compofition of fimple Hones are fi-
lica, alumina, lime, magnefia, zirconia, and glucina,
with fome of the metallic oxides, as thofe of iron, cop¬
per, manganefe, chromium, and nickel ; but it never
happens that the whole of thefe fubflances are found in
combination j and indeed it is a rare circumffance to
meet with more than four or five in the fame Hone.
With a view of difeovering the different fubflances
which enter into the compofition of Hones, the follow¬
ing method is recommended.
Take 200 grains of the Hone to be examined, or, if it
be inconvenient to procure this quantity, ioo grains
will be fufficient. Let it be reduced to a fine powder,
mixed with three times its weight of pure potafh, and a
fmall portion of water, and then fubje£ted to heat in a
crucible of filver. The heat muff be applied flowly at
firff, and the matter is to be conffantly Hirred, that no
part of it may be thrown out of the crucible by the
fwelling of the potaffi. The water being evaporated,
the mixture is to be kept at a red heat for half an hour j
and being removed from the furnace, fome notion may
be formed of the nature of the ingredients, by examin¬
ing the contents ; for, if the mixture be in a liquid Hate,
the Hone is chiefly compofed of filiceous earth j if it be
of the confidence of paffe, and have an opaque appear¬
ance,
the earth. This juice muff be firH filtrated and prepared in their furface, which may be here effeemed as a
kind of bark ) and hence it muff be conveyed to all the other parts. It is highly probable the juice which fill¬
ed the cavities of the letters was brought thither from the bottom of the roots j nor is there any more difficulty
in conceiving this than in comprehending how the fap fhould pafs from the roots of our largeff oaks to the
very extremities of their highefl branches. Some Hones, then (he concludes), muff be allowed to vegetate and
grow like plants : but this is not all; he adds, that probably they are generated in the fame manner ; at leaff,
that there are abundance of Hones whofe generation is inconceivable, without fuppofing that they come from a
kind of feeds, wherein the organical parts of the Hones are wrapped up as thofe of the largeff plants are in their
feeds.
\
ANALYSIS OF STONES, See. 7*5
Preliminary ance, tiie oilier eartlis predominate ; but if it remain in
precedes. a p0Wdery form, the aluminous earth is in greateft pro-
portion. The oxides of different metals are indicated by
the colour of the mafs •, when it is of a dark or brown-
ilh red, the metallic oxide is that of iron a grafs green
colour denotes manganefe j and yellovvilh green the
oxide of chromium.
But there are fome ftones on which potalh has a very
feeble a£lion, and in this cafe borax has been fubftituted
for the alkali. This is the method which was followed
by Mr Chenevix in analyfing aluminous ftones. A hun¬
dred grains of fapphire in powder were mixed with 250
grains of calcined borax, and fubjefted to a ftrong heat
in a crucible of platina for two hours. When the mafs
was cold, it exhibited the appearance of a greenilh blue
glafs, which adhered ftrongly to the crucible ; but the
whole being boiled for fome hours in muriatic acid, it
was completely diffolved ; the earthy matter was then
precipitated by means of fub-carbonate of ammonia, and
the precipitate, after being well waftied, was again dif¬
folved in muriatic acid •, and in this way the borax was
feparated. The remaining part of the analyfis was nearly
fimilar to that dire&ed for other ftones, excepting only
that the alumina was feparated from the potalh by means
of muriate of ammonia.
But to return to the examination and farther treat¬
ment of the mafs in the filver crucible, which after be¬
ing removed from the furnace, and wiped on the out-
fide, is to be placed in a porcelain capfule it is then
filled with water, and this water is renewed oceafional-
ly, till the whole matter is feparated from the crucible.
By this means a part of the compound of the alkali
with the fdiceous and aluminous earths, is diffolved,
and with a fufficient quantity of water, the whole may
be diffolved. Muriatic acid is now to be added till
the whole of the mafs is brought to a ftate of folution.
This, however, will not be the cafe, if the ftone be
compofed chiefly of filica. On the firft addition of the
acid, a flakey precipitate is produced, becaufe the acid
unites with the alkali, which held the mafs in folution.
An effervefcence afterwards takes place, which arifes
from the decompofition of a portion of carbonate of pot-
afh, formed during the fufion •, and the flakey precipi¬
tate is again diflblved, as well as the matter which re¬
mained in the form of powder at the bottom of the veffel.
If the powder be filica and alumina, there is no effer¬
vefcence ; but if it contain lime, an effervefcence is pro¬
duced. The folution in the muriatic acid being formed,
if it fliall appear colourlefs, it may be inferred that it con¬
tains no metallic oxide, or at lead a very fmall portion.
An orange red colour (hews that it contains iron, a purp-
Hfli red indicates manganefe, and a golden yellow, chro¬
mium.
The folution is now to be introduced into an evapo¬
rating difb of porcelain, and being covered with paper,
is to be placed on a fand bath, and evaporated to dry-
nefs. Towards the end of the evaporation, as the li¬
quid affumes the form of a jelly, it muft be conftantly
ftirred with a rod of lilver or porcelain, to permit the
acid and water to pafs off, and to allow the whole mafs
to be equally dried } for it is in this way that the filica
and alumina are feparated from each other. I he mat¬
ter being reduced to a dry powder, add to it a large
quantity of pure water, expole it to a moderate heat,
and pour it on a filter. This folution may be denomi¬
nated A. Wafti repeatedly the powder which remains Preliminary
upon the filver, till the water with which it is walhed PraceiTes^
no longer precipitates filver from its folutions. The v~
powder remaining is filiceous earth, which is firft to be
dried between folds of blotting paper, and then made red
hot in a crucible of platina or filver ; and when it is cold
it is to be accurately weighed. If it be pure filiceous earth,
it is in the form of a white powder, is of a white co-(
lour, does not adhere to the fingers, and is infoluble in
acids. If it be at all coloured, it (hews that it contains
fome metallic oxide, and is a proof that the evaporation
has been carried on with too great a heat. To feparatc
the oxide, boil the filica with an acid, and then walh
and dry it as before. This acid folution is to be added
to the folution A, and the whole is to be evaporated to
about the quantity of an Englifh pint; then add to it a
folution of carbonate of potalh, till the precipitation
ceafes j and it may be neceffary to boil it a few mo¬
ments, to allow the whole of the precipitate to fall to
the bottom. The whole of the precipitate being colledl-
ed at the bottom, the fupernatant liquid is decanted oft',
and the water being put in its place, the precipitate and
water are thrown on a filter ; and when the water has
run off, the filter with the precipitate upon it is placed
on the folds of blotting paper. After the precipitate has
acquired fome degree of confiftence, colledt it carefully
with an ivory knife, mix it with a folution of pure pot-
afli, and boil it in a capfule of porcelain. The potalh
diffolves the alumina or glucina, and the other fub-
ftances remain in the form of a powder. This powder
may be called B.
Add to the folution of potalli as much acid as will
faturate the potalh, and aifo rediffolve any precipitate
which at firft appeared ; and then add carbonate of am¬
monia till the talle of it be perceptible in the liquid.
The whole of the alumina is now precipitated in the
form of white flakes, while the glucina remains diffol¬
ved, if a fufficient quantity of carbonate of ammonia
had been employed. Filter the liquid ; and the alumina
remaining on the filter being waftied and dried, and af¬
ter being made red hot, and allowed to cool, is weigh¬
ed. To prove its being alumina, diffolve it in fulphu-
ric acid, and a fufficient quantity of fulphate or acetate
of potalh being added, the whole of it will be converted
into alum cryftals, if the earth employed be aluminous
earth.
To fe par ate the glucina, the liquid which paffed
through the filter is to be boiled for fome time, and if
the folution contain any of this earth it will be precipi¬
tated in the form of a light powder, which may be dried
in the ufual manner, and weighed. It is a fine, foft,
light, tallelefs powder, when in a ftate of purity ; and
the application of heat does not make it concrete, as
happens to alumina.
We now return to the reliduum B, in which may be
expefted lime, magnefia, and fome of the metallic ox¬
ides. But if it be fufpefted that this refiduum contains
any yttria, it is to be treated with carbonate of ammo¬
nia, which diffolves the yttria, and leaves the other bo¬
dies untouched. The yttria being feparated, the reli¬
duum B is to be diffolved in weak fulphuric acid, and
the folution evaporated to drynefs. Add a fmall quan¬
tity of water, which will diffolve the fulphate of mag¬
nefia, as well as the metallic fulphates •, but the fulphate
of lime remains undiffolved, or if any part of it Ihould
4X2 diffiftve*
7i6 ANALYSIS OF
Preliminary diffolve, it may be thrown down by adding a fmall por-
Prceefles. tjon 0f Weak alcohol. After being made red hot in a
"n-"1 crucible, it is to be weighed, and the lime will amount to
of the weight. Thefolution containing the remain¬
ing fulphates being diluted with a large portion of wa¬
ter, a fmall excefs of acid is to be added, and then a
Saturated carbonate of potafh. The magnefia and oxide
of manganefe remain diffblved, and the oxides of chro¬
mium, iron, and nickel, are precipitated. This preci¬
pitate may be denominated C.
Add to the folution a folution of hydrofulphuret of
potalh, and the manganefe in the date of a hydroful¬
phuret will be precipitated. Calcine the precipitate in
contaft with air, and weigh it. The addition of pure
potalh to the folution will precipitate the magnelia,
which being walked, and fubjedled to a red heat, is alfo
tb be weighed.
The refiduum C is to be repeatedly boiled with nitric
acid, and then mixed with pure potalh ; and, being
heated, the liquid is to be decanted off. The precipi¬
tate thus obtained, confiding of the oxides of iron
and nickel, is to be walked with pure water, and this
water is to be added to the folution of the nitric acid
and potalh. The chromium, if any be prefent, is con¬
tained in that folution, and is in the form of an acid.
Add to the folution muriatic acid in excefs, and let the
evaporation be continued till the liquor become of a
green colour-, then add a pure alkali, by which the
chromium is precipitated in the date of oxide, which is
to be dried in the ufual way, and weighed.
The precipitate containing the oxides of iron and nic¬
kel is to be diffolved in muriatic acid ammonia is to
be added in excefs, when the oxide of iron precipitates;
and being collefted, wadied, and dried, is to be weigh¬
ed. By evaporating the folution, the oxide of nickel
will be alfo precipitated, or the whole may be precipi¬
tated by the addition of hydrofulphuret of ammonia.
This being treated in the fame manner as the other fub-
ftanees, is alfo to be weighed.
The weight of the whole fubdances thus obtained be¬
ing added together, and being compared with the
weight of the matter originally operated upon, if the
two be equal, or if the difference do not exceed three or
four parts in 100, it may be inferred that the analyfis is
nearly correft; but a confiderable lofs of weight indi¬
cates fome error, and requires the analyfis to be careful¬
ly repeated. If the fame lofs of weight appear, it may
be concluded that the done contained fome fubdance
which is foluble in water, or has been driven off by the
heat. To afcertain the lad point, a portion of the done
is to be broken into dual] pieces, and expofed to a drong
heat, in a porcelain retort. If it contain water, or any
volatile fubdance, it will come over into the receiver,
and by this means the nature and weight of the ingre¬
dients feparated may be afeertained. If nothing come
over into the receiver, or if what is obtained be not
equal to the deficient weight, it may be inferred that the
done contains fome matter which is foluble in water.
A fixed alkali has been not unfrequently found in
fimple ftones; and to afcertain whether the mineral fub-
jjefted to analyfis contains any alkaline matter, different
methods have been purfued. Thefe methods we (hall
now defcribe. The done being reduced to an impalpa¬
ble powder, is cautioufly heated repeatedly with fulphu-
acid, and th® mafs is to be digeded in water j and
STONES, &c.
this folution being properly concentrated, is fet afide Preliminary
for fome days. The appearance of crydals of alum is a Procefies.
certain indication that the mineral contained potalh; "■V"-*
and the quantity of potalh may be edimated at of
the weight of thofe crydals; but if no crydals be ob¬
tained, the folution is to be evaporated to drynels, and
the reliduum expofed to a moderate red heat. Diged;
it afterwards in water, and add carbonate of ammonia,
and filter; evaporate again to drynefs, expofe the refi-
due to a heat of 700°, and rediffolve it. The folution
being properly concentrated, will give crydals of iul-
phate of loda or of potath, as the one or the other al¬
kali is prefent. Potalh may be diicovered by adding to
the folution of the fait, a folution of nitro-muriate of
platina fomewhat concentrated. A yellow precipitate,
which is muriate of platina and potalh, is thus ob¬
tained.
Klaproth’s method for difcovering fixed alkalies in
minerals is the following. He takes four parts oi ni¬
trate of barytes to one of the mineral to be examined,
and fufes them together in a porcelain crucible. A
fpongy mafs of a light-blue colour was thus obtained,
and with the addition of diluted muriatic acid, was com ¬
pletely diffolvtd. The folution, which was of a yellow
colour, was then mixed with a fufficient quantity of ful-
phuric acid, by which the barytes is precipitated, and
the muriatic acid expelled. The liquid is next evapo¬
rated to drynefs, and the mafs being digefted in water,
is filtered, and the fulphate of barytes and lilica remain
on the filter. The clear folution is falurated with car¬
bonate of ammonia, and filtered a fecond time; and all
the earthy and metallic bodies being feparated, the ful¬
phates of fixed alkali and ammonia only remain in the
folution, which being evaporated to drynefs, the dry fa-
line mafs is introduced into a porcelain crucible, and
fubjedded to fuch a degree of heat as is fufficient to drive
off the fulphate of ammonia. The refiduum is then dif¬
folved in water, and cryfiallized; and thus a pure, fix¬
ed alkaline fulphate is obtained, which is again diflol-
ved in water, and decompofed, by adding acetate of
barytes. The folution is then filtered, and the liquid is
evaporated to drynefs. The faline mafs obtained is the
acetate of a fixed alkali, which being expofed to heat in
a crucible, became of a reddilh colour. The carbona¬
ceous refiduum is then to be diffolved in water, filtered,
and cryftallized, and the fait thus procured is a carbo¬
nate of a fixed alkali, the nature of which may be ea-
fily recognifed by the means Hated above.
Mr Davy’s method of detedling a fixed alkali in mi¬
nerals, is different *. One hundred grains of the Hone * Nick
in very fine powder are to be fufed for half an hour at a •
ftrongred heat, in a crucible of platina or filver, with*11*’
200 grains of boracic acid. An ounce and a half of ni¬
tric acid diluted with feven or eight times its quantity
of water, is then digefted upon the fufed mafs, till the
decompofition of the whole is completed. Evaporate
the fluid to about two ounces, or one ounce and a half;
by this means the filiceous earth is feparated, which be¬
ing colle£led on a filter, is to be walked with diftilled
water, till the boracic acid and the whole of the faline
matter are feparated. The fluid is then mixed with wa¬
ter that has paffed through the filter, and evaporated to
the quantity of half a pint, after which it is faturated
with carbonate of ammonia, and boiled with an excefs
of this fait, till the whole of the fubflances capable o£
being
Zircon
Genus.
ANALYSIS OF STONES,
beiirr precipitated, have been thrown down. The fo-
lution being filtered, the earths and metallic oxides re¬
main on the filter. Add nitric acid to the liquid till it
acquire a flrong four tafie, and evaporate till the bora-
cic acid appear free.
The fluid is then to be filtered, and evaporated to
drynefs, and the dry mafs being expofed to a heat of
about 450° Fahrenheit, the nitrate of ammonia is de*
compofed, and the nitrate of potalli or foda remains be-
hind.
To dcteft fluoric acid, which has been fometimes met
with as a component part of ftones, Klaproth heats the
mineral with fulphuric acid in a glafs retort, the corro-
fion of which, and the depofition of filica in the water
of the receiver, are certain tells of fluoric acid.
After the general obfervations which have now been
offered, we proceed to give examples of the analyfis of
minerals belonging to the different genera of earths and
Hones j and we fhall follow the fame order in which
thofe genera are defcribed in the article Minera¬
logy.
By this management, the filiceous earth feparated in
flimy, intumefced grains, and weighed, after ignition,
23^ grains*
F. The faint ion, thus freed from its filica, was now
faturated with a boiling ley of mild alkali •, and the pre¬
cipitate was waflied and dried in the air. This lafl
weighed 114 grains, proving, upon every trial, to be
jargonic earth. A fourth part of it, heated to rednefs,
w-eighed 161, grains ; which make the whole amount to
66 grains.
G. The above fix grains D, with the 234- grains- E,
in the whole 294 grains of filiceous earth, were ignited
with a quadruple weight of vegetable alkali. When
this mafs had been again foftened with water, it left a
refidue, which was extracted by muriatic acid. From
this muriatic folution, alfo, when faturated with potafh,
jargonic earth fell dorvn, weighing four grains after ig¬
nition. Hence, fubtrafting thefe, the quantity of filice¬
ous earth is reduced to 254 grains.
One hundred parts of hyacinth, therefore, have
given
71?
Siliceous
Genus.
 ^ *
i. Zircon Genus.
The mineral affording the earth which chara&erifes
this genus, was analyfed by7 Klaproth in the following
st r/r manner We feledt that fpecies which is called hya-
tPiys> . ,
i 15)5. cinth. _ # .
A. IOO grains of hyacinth being levigated in the
flint mortar, received an increafe of weight of half a
grain.
B. This pulverized hyacinth, digefted w'ith two
ounces of nitro-muriatic acid, yielded, upon faturating
the folution with potarti, a light-brown precipitate, of
three grains and a half, when dried. Ammonia, aad-
ed to it, diffolved nothing*, and it remained colourlefs.
After the precipitate had been again feparated from the
volatile alkali, muriatic acid was added, which diffolved
its ferruginous contents, leaving a white earth behind,
which, when ignited, weighed i| grain. The portion
of iron, precipitated by cauftic ammonia from the mu¬
riatic folution, weighed half a grain, when ignited, and
became black and refplendent. It was fufed with a
neutral phofphate, upon charcoal, to find whether it
contained manganefe ; no trace was perceptible.
C. The above grain of earth B u^ere now added
again to the hyacinth, after treatment with acids. The
Hone was then fubje&ed to red heat, with fix times its
quantity of cauftic alkali, in the manner explained in
the effay on the jargon of Ceylon ; the ignited mafs was
again liquefied with water y and the earth remaining af¬
ter this procefs weighed 123 grains, when collefted,
edulcorated, and dried.
D. The alkaline lixivium was then faturated w-ith
muriatic acid, and evaporated. At firft it continued
clear*, but towards the end filiceous earth feparated,
the quantity of which, alter ignition, amounted to fix
grains.
E. To the 1 23 grains, previoufly well waftied with
Water, a fufficient quantity of muriatic acid was added }
which, with the afliftance of heat, diffolved nearly the
whole, a trifling refidue excepted. I his muriatic lolu-
tion, evaporated in a moderate heat to a fixth or eighth
part, loft its fluidity, and formed a limpid gelatinous
coagulum. It was then covered with water,^ and ex-
pofedj with repeated agitation, to a digelting heat.
I
70
i
25
0.50
95*5°
Lofs, 4.50
100
2. Of the Siliceous Genus.
A great proportion of the ftones belonging to this-
genus are tranfparent, and have a vitreous appearance.
They are fo hard as to fcratch glafs, and, excepting the
fluoric acid, they are not a&ed upon by acids. By fu-
fion with alkalies they form glafs ; they alfo enter into
fufion wfith boracic acid, and the acid of phofphorusi
Stones compofed chiefly of pure filica, are tranfparent
and colourlefs. When a mineral is prefented for exa¬
mination, even if it poffefs moft of the properties which
charadlerize Hones belonging to this genus, fome pre¬
liminary proceffes may be purfued to afeertain farther its
nature and component parts.
A. It is fometimes difficult to reduce ffliceous Hones
to a fine powder. To facilitate this operation, a portion
of the Hone may be heated to rednefs, and in this Hate
fuddenly plunged into cold water. If by the firfi heat¬
ing it is not fufficiently brittle, the operation may be re¬
peated until the mineral can be reduced to a fine powder,
as already direfted.
B. One part of the Hone in fine powder is now to be
mixed with four or five parts of potalh, diffolved in the
fame quantity of water. The mixture is introduced in¬
to a filver crucible, and evaporated to drynefs, fiirring
it conflantly with a filver rod, according to the direc¬
tions given above. The mafs being evaporated to dry.
nefs, the heat is to be gradually inereafed, till the cru¬
cible appears of a dull red heat, or till the mafs enter
into quiet fufion. In this Hate it is kept for an hour.
C. Remove the crucible from the fire before it is
completely cold j foften the mafs with water, by adding
fVeffi
Jargoma,
Silica,
Subtra£l
Oxide of iron,
F
G
G
A
B
66
4
252-
718
Siliceous
Genus.
u—-V"—
* Woys,
i. 348.
ANALYSIS OF
freili portions from time to time, till the AYhole is de¬
tached from the crucible, and then add 12 times its bulk
of water to effea a folution. If the done confided
chiefly of fdiceous earth, the greater part of the mafs
will be diffolved.
D. Add muriatic acid till no farther precipitate is ef¬
fected, and without feparating the precipitate, evaporate
the whole to drynefs.
E. Pour fix times its bulk of muriatic acid, previoufly
diluted with four parts of water, on the dry mats *, boil
the mixture for half an hour ; let the infoluble part fub-
fide, and then colleCt it on a filter, and after being
dried, fubjeCt it in a crucible to a red heat. This pow¬
der is the filiceous earth contained in the mineral.
But dones included under this genus contain very
dift'erent proportions, not only of filiceous earth, but alio
of the other earths ; and fome of them even contain a
far greater proportion of other earths than that which
characterizes the genus under which they are arranged.
Analyjis of Leucite.
STONES, See.
and a half, when edulcorated and ignited. Diluted ful- Siliceous
phuric acid completely diflblved it to a limpid liquor, Genos.
and when properly treated, the folution yielded only v”-—•
alum.
F. To obtain the earth, which podibiy might have
remained latent in the feveral wadiings, the whole wrere
evaporated to drynefs. After having re-diflolved the
faline mafs in water, the remaining portion of earth was
collefted, it amounted only to half a grain, and was fili¬
ceous earth.
There were therefore obtained,
Silica,
Alumina,
(A)
(F)
(E)
54
54r
Lofs,
54-50
24.50
79
21
IOO
The anafyfis of this mineral is particularly interefling,
not only as Klaproth firfl. deteCled in it potafh, which
was fuppofed to belong exclufively to the vegetable
kingdom, and hence called vegetable alkali, but alfo as
it places the Ikill and addrefsof that eminent chemift in
its examination in a very confpicuous light. The pro-
cefs was conducted in the following manner*.
Ignited alone upon charcoal, the leucite is complete¬
ly infufible. It undergoes no manner of alteration, and
its fplinters lofe nothing of their luftre.
A fmall fragment, put into fufed borax, is for a long
time moved about in it before it diffolves, which it does
by degrees , and the glafs globule obtained is clear and
light-brown.
By fufion with a neutral phofphate, the folution is
Hill flower, and a colourlefs rifty glafs pearl is pro¬
duced.
One hundred grains of coarfely pounded leucite ex-
pofed for an hour to a ftrong red heat, in a fmall por¬
celain pot, loti of weight only one-eighth of a grain,
and even the violent heat of the porcelain furnace pro¬
duced in the leucite only an inconfiderable change.
A. One hundred grains of leucite, reduced to an im¬
palpable powder, being feveral times cigefled in muri¬
atic acid, diflblved a confiderable part. A filiceous re¬
fid ue of 54 grains remained after ignition.
B. The filiceous earth ignited with trvice its weight
of caullic alkali, foftened again with water, covered
with muriatic acid, added to excefs of faturation, and,
after fufficient digeftion with this laft, being colle&ed
on the filter, and heated to rednefs, was found to have
loft little of its weight.
C. Prufliate of potafti added to the muriatic folution
produced a precipitate which indicated one-eighth of a
grain of oxide of iron.
D. The folution by cauftic ammonia being decom-
pofed, and the precipitate being feparated, the remain¬
ing liquor was tried with carbonate of foda, but no far¬
ther change was effe&ed.
E. Ihe precipitate produced by means of pure am¬
monia D was firft dried. It was next purified by di-
gefting it with diftilled vinegar, and afterwards neutra¬
lizing this acid by ammonia. It -weighed 24 grains
The remarkable lofs of more than one-fifth of the
whole weight of the mineral under examination, excited
fufpicion that fome error had crept into the analyfis,
and led to a repetition of the experiments, by varying
the procefles as follows.
A. One hundred grains of leucite in fine powder
were ignited for half an hour, with double their weight
of cauftic potafti. To the mafs foftened with Water mu¬
riatic acid was added, juft to the point of faturation,
and the mixture being filtered, the remaining undiflblvcd
refidnum was w a died and dried.
B. The mineral thus prepared for decompofition, was
then treated with muriatic acid, and kept tor lome time
at a boiling heat. By this procefs a quantity of filica
feparated, which after being heated to rednefs weighed
54 grains and a half.
C. Oxalate of potafti being added to the muriatic fo¬
lution, concentrated by evaporation, produced no turbi¬
dity. The alumina was feparated by the fame means as
in the former experiments, and its weight amounted to
nearly the fame. By other trials it did not appear to
have any mixture of other earths, and no other earth
could be obtained by evaporating the waters with which
the powders had been wafhed.
Thus, after varying the experiments, the fame refults
were obtained, and the fame lofs ftill appeared. In the
farther profecution of this inveftigation, the following
experiments were had recourfe to.
A. Two hundred grains of leucite in fine powder
were repeatedly digelted with muriatic acid, and the fili¬
ceous earth collefted on the filter, waftied, and weighed
after being red hot, amounted to 109 grains.
B. The muriatic folution was of a yellowifli colour,
and being reduced by evaporation in a fand heat to the
confiftence of honey, the furface appeared covered with
a faline cruft 5 and when completely cooled, the mafs
appeared like a thick clear oil, of a golden yellow co¬
lour, and full of cryftals, fome of which were of a cubi¬
cal, and fome of a tabular form. The yellow fluid was
gently poured off, and the fait rinfed with fmall por¬
tions of alcohol. The foiution diluted with alcohol was
again evaporated, and the fmali portion of fait thus ob¬
tained
ANALYSIS OF STONES, &c.
719
of alkali *, and in this way the deficiency in the exami- Siliceous
nation of the leucite is accounted for. , Genus. ^
The refult of the analyfis is as follows. v
tained was again walked with alcohol, and added to the
firft. The whole of the fait being dried, weighed 70
grains. This was diffolved in water, and fome drops of
a folution of ammonia being added, threw down fome
particles of alumina. The folution being cryftallized in
a warm place, yielded only cubical cryflals, fome of
which were elongated to four-fided columns.
C. That part of the muriatic folution which {hot in¬
to cryftals being diluted with water, and decompofed in
a boiling heat, by carbonate of foda, yielded a precipi¬
tate, which, after walking, drying, and ignition, a-
mounted to 47-!: grains of aluminous earth. Three
times its weight of concentrated fulphuric acid was add¬
ed, and the mixture was evaporated nearly to drynefs.
The mafs was again dilfolved in water, and combined
with folution of acetate of potalh, which being cryftal¬
lized, produced only alum.
D. The filiceous earth A rvas mixed with double its-
weight of potalh, and fubjedled to a ftrong red heat for
an hour. The mafs was reduced to powder, and diluted
with rvater. Muriatic acid was added in excefs, and
digefted with it. The filtered muriatic folution being
faturated with foda yielded grain of aluminous earth,
after which there remained of filica 1074 grains.
The 200 grains of leucite have thus afforded of
Grs.
Silica D, 107.50
Alumina C, 47-75
 D> i-SS
156-75
Here there rvas ftill a deficiency of 43.25 grains, to
account for which the 70 grains of fait B muft be exa¬
mined. This examination was conducted in the fol¬
lowing manner.
1. The tafte and figure of the cryftals wrere found to
be the fame rvith thofe of muriate of potalh.
2. The folution produced no change in vegetable
blues, or in reddened litmus paper.
3. When heated to rednefs, the fait made a crackling
noife, and remained fixed in the fire.
4. Neither carbonate of foda nor cauftic ammonia
produced any turbidity in the folution.
5. Two parts of ftrong fulphuric acid w'ere added to
three of the fait, and the muriatic acid being driven off by
heat, the mafs was again diffolved in water, which af¬
forded cryftals of fulphate of potalh.
6. The remaining portion of fait w'as diffolved in a
fmall quantity of water, and to this was added a con¬
centrated folution of cryftallized acid of tartar. The
acidulous tartrate of potalh (cream of tartar) was thus
immediately produced and precipitated in the form of
fand. This was walked, dried, burnt in a filver cru¬
cible, and the coal obtained repeatedly wallied with w'a-
ter. The folution being evaporated to drynefs, after
being examined by the proper tefts, appeared to be a car¬
bonate of potalh, which being faturated with nitric acid,
afforded nitrate of potalh.
Thus it appears that the bafe of the 70 grains of fait
confifted entirely of pure potalh, which was neutralized
by part of the muriatic acid employed in decompofing
the mineral; and according to the proportion of bafe in
muriate of potalh, the 70 grains A contain 42.7 grains
5
Grs.
Silica, 53.75
Alumina, 24.62
Potalh, 21.35
129.72
AnahjJis of Pitchfone.
The pitchftone which is the fubjeft of the following
anafylis, alfo conduced by Kalproth, is the tranlparent
yellowilh or olive green variety of that mineral from
Meiffen. It forms an example of foda, the other fixed
alkali, forming a component part of ftones.
A. 100 grains in coarfe fragments were introduced
into a covered crucible, and were fubjedled to a red heat
for half an hour. When taken from the fire they ap¬
peared of a white gray mixed with a yellowilh colour,
and having a rough feel, with fomething of the appear¬
ance of glazing. They loft 8^- grains of weight.
B. In the heat of a porcelain furnace, the pitchftone
was fufed both in the clay and charcoal crucible, and was
converted into a clear glafs, full of fmall froth holes.
C. 100 grains of pitchftone in fine powder w’ere
treated with a folution of 200 grains of cauftic foda,
and being put into a filver crucible, were kept for half
an hour in a pretty ftrong red heat. Themals was then
foftened with water; muriatic acid rvas added in ex¬
cefs ; the lolution was evaporated in a fand heat, nearly
to drynefs ; water was again poured upon it, after which
it was filtered, and 73 grains of filiceous earth were ob¬
tained.
D. Cauftic foda was mixed in excefs with the mu¬
riatic folution, and the w'hole was digefted in a boiling
heat, by which the precipitate formed at the beginning
of the procefs was again diffolved ; a brown refiduum
ftill remained, which being feparated, the alkaline folu¬
tion rvas neutralized, and precipitated with carbonate of
foda. The precipitate, which avus alumina, after being
waihed, dried, and heated to rednefs, amounted to igi
grains. The whole of it yielded cryftals of alum, Avith
fulphuric acid and potalh.
E. The refiduum Avhich remained undilfolved by the
cauftic foda, D, was firft diffblved in muriatic, and then
united with fulphuric acid.- Sulphate of lime AVas ob¬
tained, Avhich Avas eolle&ed, and Avafhed Avith diluted
alcohol. By reducing the filtered fluid by evaporation
to a fmaller quantity, and combining it Avith fulphuric
acid, another portion of fulphate of lime, Avhich, added
to the firft, amounted to three grains, indicating 18
grains of pure lime.
F. The fluid Avas iioav freed from the calcareous earth ;
the iron w'hich it contained Avas precipitated by carbo¬
nate of ammonia, which amounted to one grain. The
remaining fluid Avas evaporated to drynefs, and water
being added to the faline refiduum, fine minute flocks of
oxide of manganefe feparated, but in no greater quantity
than one-tenth of a grain.
G. 100 grains of pitchftone in poAvder were mixed
Avith 300 grains of cryftallized nitrate of barytes, and
heated to rednefs in a porcelain veffel, till the fait was
entirely
720 ANALYSIS OF
Argiflace- entirely decompofed. The cold mafs avas foftened with
ous Genus. waterj neutralized with muriatic acid, and combined in
v fuch proportion with fulphuric acid, that the latter, af¬
ter the evaporation of the mixture, and leparation of the
muriatic acid by heat, was ftill in excels, d he mafs
was walhed wirh hot water j the refiduum fepaiated by
filtration } and the clear fluid was mixed with carbonate
of ammonia in excefs. The precipitate thus obtained
was colle&ed on a filter, and the remaining fluid was
evaporated to drynefs, and the portion of fulphate of
ammonia fubjefted to a moderate heat in a porcelain
veflfel, was driven off. A fixed fait remained, which ap¬
peared to be fulphate of foda. 1 his was rediffolved,
and decompofed by acetate of barytes ; the filtered fo-
lution was evaporated to drynefs ; the dry fait was heat¬
ed to rednefs in a crucible of platina. T he faline re¬
fiduum being rediflolved, filtered, and again evaporated
to drynefs, yielded three grains of dry carbonate of foda,
indicating grain of pure foda. L his being neutra¬
lized with nitric acid, gave cryftals of nitrate of foda.
The ioo grains of the mineral thus examined confift
of
Grs.
Silica C, 73*
Alumina D, 14.5
Lime E, 1.
Oxide of iron D, I.
- — manganefe D, .10
Soda G, 1.75
Water A, 8.50
99.85
3. Argillaceous Genus.
As many of the {tones included under this genus are
-compofed of fimilar fubftances with thofe arranged in
the former genus, it is obvious that the examination
is to be conduced in the fame way. We lhall there¬
fore give one example of the analyfis of a done belong¬
ing to this genus, and the example is that of bafalt by
* EJays Klaproth *.
' Analyjis of Bafalt.
STONES, &c.
to a fuppofitidn that the foda was beginning to volati- Argillace.
lize. The fire was then removed. 0Ui Gfcmii'
D. The porous mals, after cooling and being re- '“■"’V'-—'1
duced to powder, was drenched with water, and treated
with muriatic acid. The whole entered into folution,
and produced a clear yellow fluid. The folution was
evaporated, and fulphuric acid was added gradually,
till it was in excefs. The fulphate of barytes was pre¬
cipitated.
E. The faline mafs by filtration was reduced to dry¬
nefs, and -water was added, the fediment feparated, and
appeared to confift of the fulphate of barytes, and the
filiceous earth of the ftone. The clear fluid was fatu-
rated with ammonia, and the precipitate, which was ob¬
tained being filtered off, the neutralized liquor was eva¬
porated to drynefs, and then expofed in a porcelain vef-
fel to a moderately intenfe heat, till the whole fulphatc
of ammonia was driven off. The fixed portion remain¬
ing diffolved in water, and cryftallized, appeared to be
pure fulphate of foda. This was diffolved, decompdfed
by acetate of barytes ; the precipitate, which was ful¬
phate of barytes, was feparated by the filter, and the
clear fluid being evaporated to drynefs, the dry acetate
of foda was heated to rednefs in a crucible of platina j
and in this way 4^ grains of dry carbonate of foda was
-obtained, which is equal to 2.6 grains of pure foda.
F. To feparate the other ingredients, 100 grains of
powdered bafalt were ignited for two hours with 400
grains of carbonate of foda, in a crucible of porcelain j
but with a degree of heat which did not produce fufion.
It united into a yellowifh, fomewhat hard mafs, which
being reduced to powder, and foftened with water, was
neutralized with muriatic acid. It was then a little fu-
perfaturated with nitric acid, and evaporated to drynefs.
The colour of the dry mafs wras faftfon yellow. It was
diffufed in water, {lightly acidulated with muriatic acid,
and after being digefted for a fliort time it was filtered.
The filiceous earth collefted on the filter was expofed
to a red heat, and being weighed, amounted to 441-
grains.
G. The muriatic folution being fufficiently diluted
with water, was precipitated at the temperature of boil¬
ing water, by means of carbonate of foda. The preci¬
pitate being feparated, was digefted with a folution of
cauftic foda, and a dark brown refiduum was feparated
by filtration. Muriatic acid was added in a fmall ex¬
cefs to the alkaline fluid, and this was precipitated with
carbonate of ammonia. The precipitate obtained after
being wafhed and ignited, amounted to 16^ grains. It
yielded alum, when treated with fulphuric acid and pot-
afh*, and was therefore aluminous earth.
H. The brown refiduum G was diflblved in muriatic
acid with particular attention to the precife point of fa-
turation. Succinate of ammonia was added to the folu¬
tion, to precipitate the iron 5 and the fuccinate of iron
obtained, when perfeftly wafhed and ftrongly heated in
a covered crucible, afforded 20 grains of oxide of iron,
which were attradled by the magnet.
I. The iron being feparated, the fluid was treated at
the temperature of boiling with carbonate of foda ; a
white precipitate was obtained, which was diffolved in
nitric acid ; and fulphuric acid being combined with
the folution, threw down fulphate of lime. This was
feparated, and the remaining liquor being evaporated
nearly ■■ ■ -
A. Small fragments of this ftone were fubjefted to a
ftrong red heat for 30 minutes 5 the lofs of weight was
two per cent, and the mafs became of a lighter colour,
and more readily yielded to the peftle.
B. Bafalt expofed to the heat of a porcelain furnace
in a common clay crucible, fufed into a compadt black
brown glafs, which in thin fplinters was tranfparent.
It alfo entered into thin fufion in a crucible of femi-in-
durated fteatites ; part of it ran into the clefts produced
in the fteatites, and the reft was found cryftallized in
brown fhining lamellae, which on the furface were ftriat-
ed, and cellularly concreted. In a charcoal crucible it
was converted into a dull gray and finely porous mafs,
in which were inferted numerous grains of iron.
C. To afeertain whether this ftone contained foda,
100 grains of bafalt in fine powder were mixed with
400 grains of nitrate of barytes, and were at firft ex¬
pofed in a large porcelain veffel to a moderate heat, and
afterwards to a heat gradually raifed to ignition. The
mixture fwelled up, and when the heat was increafed,
white fumes arofe on uncovering the veffel, which led
Argillace- nearly to drynefs, was again diluted with a mixture of
i&us Genus.. water and alcohol. Another portion of fulphate of
jime feii down, which being feparated, was added to
the former. The Avhole of the fulphate of lime was
deeorapofed by boiling it with carbonate of foda in fo-
lution, and the carbonate of lime thus obtained, after
being walhed and dried, weighed 17 grains, indicating
nine grains and a half of pure lime.
K. Upoti the fluid left from the laft procefs, cauftic
foda rvas affufedj a ilimy precipitate was formed, which
rapidly dillblved in fulphuric acid, and communicated a
brown colour to the iblution. It was evaporated in a
fand bath \ loofe brown flakes fell down at the com¬
mencement of the procefs, and thefe being feparated by
the filter, appeared to be oxide of manganefe j the quan¬
tity eflimated did not exceed one-eighth of a grain.
L. The remaining portion of the fluid was evaporated
to drynefs, and the refiduum was expofed in a fmall cru¬
cible to a ft rung red heat. It was again diffolved ill
water, and yielded a fmall portion of alumina coloured
With iron, and contaminated with manganefe. After
ignition it did not weigh more than half a grain ; but
the clear folution was entirely cryftallized, and afforded
fulphate of magnefia. Carbonate of foda was added to
the magnefian fait in folution, by which the earthy bafe
*was precipitated in the ftate of carbonate. It weighed
fix grains, which is equal to 2? grains of pure mag¬
nefia.
The following is the refult of the preceding ana-
lyfis.
Silica F,
Alumina G
I,
ANALYSIS OF STONES, &c. ' 721
C. Prufliate of putafti was added to the filtered folution,
Oxide of iron H,
Lime I,
Magnefia L,
Oxide of manganefe K,
Soda E,
Water A,
44*5 grs*
16.15
•5
20.
5-5
2.25
.12
2.60
2.
97-7*
and produced a blue precipitate, which being collefted, ^
walhed, dried, and ignited with a little wax, was found,
after cooling, to weigh feven grains. The whole of it
was attradled by the magnet. The portion of iron be¬
longing to the pruftiate of potalh being lubtrailed, left
3-^ grains of oxide of iron as a conftituent of the mineral
under examination. .
D. Carbonate of potafh being added to the folution
freed from the iron, precipitated its earthy ingredient.
This, after wafhing, and gentle ignition, weighed 192
grains. Thefe were covered with a proportionate quan¬
tity of concentrated diftilled vinegar, and being digefted
in a low heat, were thrown upon the filter. The earth
remaining on the paper, which, after being dried and
heated red hot, weighed 93 grains, was mixed with
three times its weight of ftrong fulphuric acid, and tha
mixture being evaporated in a land heat nearly to dry¬
nefs, the dry mafs was dilfolved in water and filtered ,
26 grains of liliceous earth were thus obtained.
E. In the fulphuric folution D, there Hill remained
67 grains of earth, which being precipitated by an al¬
kali, appeared to coniift entirely of aluminous earth.
F. Ninety-nine grains of the firlt, 192 grains of the,
earthy precipitate D, were taken up by the acetic acid,
which being precipitated by carbonate of potalh, and the
earth obtained being tried by fulphuric acid, was found
to be pure magnefia.
This analyfis fliows that the 480 grains of lieatiie.^
thus examined, afforded
Silica B,
 D,
Magnefia F,
Alumina E,
Oxide of iron C,
Water A,
Lofs,
204
26
99
67
3-75
75-
474*75
S'2 5
480x10
4. Magnesian Genus.
Befides feveral of the earths detefted in minerals be¬
longing to the former genera, the Hones arranged under
this genus are diftinguilhed by being combined with
magnefia. We (hall only give one example of the ana¬
lyfis of a magnefian Hone.
Analysis of Steatites.
Tiiis mineral, which was found in Cornwall, was
analyzed bv Klaproth in the following manner.
A. One ounce of the ftone in fmall pieces was fub-
jefted to a ftrong red heat, by placing the glafs retort
which contained it in an open fire. A fmall portion of
water diftilled over, which was pure and taftelefs. i he
mineral loft 75 grains of its weight, and became darker
in the colour, and confiderably harder. _
B. After being reduced to powder, it was carefully
mixed, and heated red hot, with two ounces of carbonate
©f potato in a porcelain pot. The .concreted niafs^vas
levigated with water, and digefted with muriatic acid in
excels. A white loofe finny earth was precipitated,
which after being wafhed, dried, and fubjeftcd to a red
Feat, weighed 204 grains. It was pure filica.
Vol. XIX. Part II.
or too parts of the mineral contain
Silica, 48
Magnefia, 20.5
Alumina, 14.
Oxide of iron, 1.
Water, 1 v.5
99.O
5.1 Calcareous Genu*.
The analyfis of ftones belonging to this genus muli
be varied according to the nature of the combination in¬
to which the lime lias entered. With regard to the
proceffes to be followed in the examination of calcareous
ftones, they are fufeeptible of a natural divifion into lueh
as are foluble in muriatic or nitric acid \vith effervef-
cence, and fuch as are fcarcely foluble in thofe acids,
and do not effervefee. To the firft belong all the ftones
called limeftones, or carbonates of lime *, and to the fe-
cond belongs fulphate of lime, or gypfum.
Analysis of Carbonate of Lime.
Carbonate of lime, whether in ’he form of lime fpar,
or in a lefs pure ftate, in the form of Hmeftone, is foluble
4 Y with
ANALYSIS OF STONES, &c.
722
■Calcareous with effervefcence in nitric or muriatic acid. When
Genus. eXp0fed to heat, it yields carbonic acid gas, and is con-
verted into quicklime j and when fufed with an alkali,
does not form a uniform mafs. But we iliall give a fhort
view of the proceffes to be followed in a more particular
examination.
A. Let- a determinate quantity of the done be redu¬
ced to a fine powder. Digeif it repeatedly with muriatic
acid till no further action is produced upon it. Dilute
the filiation, throw it upon a filter, and, after drying,
weigh the infoluble refiduum.
B. Let the remaining folution be diluted with 24
times its bulk of water •, add fulphuric acid diluted •, a
precipitate takes place if the done contained any barytes,
the amount of which, after being collected and dried,
may be afcertained by weighing.
• C. Add to the filtered folution, after the barytes has
been feparated, a folution of carbonate of foda, as long
as any precipitate is formed. Colleft this precipitate,
and let it be fo much dried that it may be eafily remo¬
ved from the filter.
D. Affufe the precipitate wfith fulphuric acid till all
effervefcence ceafes.
E. introduce the Avhole into a mixture of three parts
of diftilled water, and one of alcohol, in the proportion
of eight parts of the mixture to the quantity of the fub-
ftance previoufly diffolved in nitric acid. Let the whole
be digefted for fome hours in the cold, filter the fluid,
and dry the infoluble refiduum and weigh it.
F. The remaining folution is next to be decompofed
by a folution of carbonate of potalh, and the precipitate
being collected, is to be wafhed, dried, and weighed.
By this examination, if the ftone is to be ranked with
carbonate of lime, the weight of the infoluble part E,
after fubtrafHng from it one-third, muff exceed the
weight of the infoluble parts A and B.
Analysis of Sulphate of Lime.
As this is, infoluble in nitric or muriatic acids, its
analyfis muft be condufted in a different manner.
A. Let one part of the mineral, reduced to fine pow¬
der, be boiled with four times its weight of carbonate of
potalh, in a fuffieient quantity of Avater for two or three
hours •, as the fluid evaporates, water is to be added.
B. Introduce the infoluble mafs obtained by the lafl:
procefs into a flalk containing diluted nitric acid, and
the Avhole being diffolved, let it be evaporated to dry-
nefs, and weighed.
C. Add to the dried mafs more than its own Aveight
of ftrong fulphuric acid 5 apply heat, and let it be gra¬
dually increafed till fumes ceafe to rife, and let it be
again Aveighed.
D. Let the infoluble part be digeftyd in twice its
Aveight of cold Avater j filter the fluid,, colleft the mfo-
luble refiduum, and dry it in a dull red heat. To af-
certain the quantitv of lime, fubtrafl from the Aveight
(If the infoluble maL left (in C) 59 parts ; what remains
is equal to the quantity of lime.
E. i he quantity of lime alfo may be afcertained, by
fubiefting for feme hours to a red" heat, the infoluble
mak B j tor by this procefs it Avill be converted into
quicklime.
Analysis of Fluate of Lime.
In the examination of this mineral, a quantity of it
may be reduced to powder, and moiftened with fulphu¬
ric acid, in'a leaden or pewter veffel. The mixture be- Calcareous
ing heated, fumes arife, to Avhich a plate of glafs being Gen«s.
expofed, is foon corroded. In this Avay the fluoric acid
may be dete&ed, and’ the quantity of bafe may be afcer¬
tained by decompofing the mineral by means of fulphuric
acid, and afterArards analyfing the fulphate of lime, as
already directed.
Analysis of Phofphate of LAme.
The analyfis of this mineral may be conducled in the
following manner.
A. Let a determinate portion be digefted in five
times its quantity of muriatic acid, and let the operation
be repeated till the acid has no farther aflion upon the
refiduum 5 decant the fluid, and then let it be dilated
with Avater and filtered.
B. Add to the muriatic folution, liquid ammonia j
collect the precipitate which is formed, and after being
Avafhed and dried, expole it to heat.
C. Add nitric acid to the precipitate till the AA’hole is
diffolved. Precipitate again by means of fulphuric acid ;
let the Avhole then be filtered, and let the infoluble re¬
fiduum be Avaihed with as little Avater as poflible.
D. Evaporate the filtered fluid to the conliftence of
fyrup 5 the fluid thus obtained is phofphoric acid, if the
ftone examined have been phofphate of lime. The tell
of phofphoric acid is, that it precipitates lime water,
and alfo forms precipitates with the folutions of fulphate
of iron, and nitrate of mercury ; but it does not precipi¬
tate the muriate or nitrate of barytes.
6. Barytic Genus.
Analysis of Carbonate of Barytes.
A. Take a determinate quantity of the mineral, and
diffoEe it in diluted nitric acid ; take a portion of the
folution, and add to it a folution of fulphate of foda. If
a precipitate take place, by adding a fmall quantity of
the fait to the folution of the earth, diluted Avith 24
times its bulk of Avater, it may be inferred that the bafe
of the mineral is barytes.
B. Let the nitric folution be evaporated to drynefs,
and expofed in a filver crucible to a Avhite heat; the
earth obtained is barytes, which is foluble in 20 times
its Aveight of water 5 and after evaporation, cryftaliizes
into long four Tided prifms.
Analysis of Sulphate of Barytes.
This mineral was analyzed by Klaproth in the fol-
loAving manner.
A. 200 grains Avere mixed with 500 grains of carbo¬
nate of potalh, and AA’ere expofed for two hours to a red
heat •, the mafs was reduced to poAvder, boiled Avith
Avater, and the undiffolved earth Avas collected on the
filter.
B. To feparate the filiceous earth, the fluid Avas neu-
tralifed by muriatic acid, and evaporated to drynefs.
The faline mafs Avas rediffolved in Avater, and the filica
remaining after being ignited, Aveighed 18 grains.
C. The barytic earth, freed from the fulphuric acid
B, Avas covered with Avater 5 muriatic acid Avas added 5
the whole Avas diffolved by digeftion, except tAvo grainlf
of filica. The filtered folution was cryftallized, and
afforded muriate of barytes.
D. The cryftals Avere rediffolved in Avater, and ful¬
phuric acid Avas added to the folution, Avhile any preci¬
pitate appeared, and the regenerated fulphate of barytes
being
ANALYSIS OF STONES, &c.
Barytic being waflied and dried, weighed 185 grains, but after
Genus. ignitkm, on]y jgo grains.
It_' ^ ' One hundred parts of this mineral are therefore com-
pofed of
Sulphate of barytes D, 90
Silica B, 0
— c,
^’E.Jaysy'^ 100*
375.
7. Strontian Genus.
Analysis of Carbonate of Strontites.
This mineral was analyzed by Klaproth, in the fol¬
lowing manner.
100 parts were dilTolved in muriatic acid, diluted
with half its quantity of water. Thirty parts of carbo¬
nic acid were driven off during the folution, which be¬
ing evaporated, afforded cryllals in the fhape of needles 5
and thefe crylfals being diifolved in alcohol, communi¬
cated to it the property of burning with a carmine red
flame. This is the tell of flrontitic earth.
B. To afcertain whether the mineral examined con¬
tained any barytes, three drops of a folution of one grain
of fulphate of potafh in fix ounces of water were added
to the muriatic folution •, no appearance of precipitate
was obferved till next day, and therefore it contained no
barytes, as in that cafe an immediate precipitate Would
have taken place.
C. Carbonate of potafh was then added to the muria¬
tic folution j a decompofition took place ; and the car¬
bonate of ftrontites was precipitated. This being fub-
jefted to a flrong heat, the carbonic acid was driven off,
and the whole of the remaining earth being diffolved in
Water, cryftallized. After being dried, it weighed 69.5.
One hundred parts of this mineral therefore contain
Pure earth, 69.5
Carbonic acid, 30.
Water, .5
• Ibid. i. 100.0 f
i'31' II. Salts.
The analyfis of minerals arranged under this clafs, is
in general lefs difficult, in confequence of their eafy fo-
lubility, than thofe already examined. We fhall there¬
fore give only one example.
Analysis of Native Saltpetre.
Hid. i. This native fait was examined by Klaproth J, accord-
70. ing to the following method.
A. 1000 grains of the native fait, with limeffone
and gypfum to which it adhered, were covered with boil¬
ing water. The colourlefs folution was gently evaporat¬
ed-, during the cryftailization, tender needle-fhaped cry-
flals of felenite appeared, and the whole of the folution
cryftallized to a perfect prifmatic nitre. The felenite
weighed 40 grains, and the fait amounted to 446
grains.
B. To afcertain whether any common fait could be
detected in the mineral, the cryftals were rediltolved in
Water, and acetate of barytes was dropt into the folution.
A precipitate was obtained, amounting to 26 grains of
fulphate of barytes, fire wing that i8-J grains of felenite
were ftill combined with the neutral fait. A folution
of nitrate of filver was added to the nitric folution, which
produced a precipitate of 4* grains of muriate of filver,
fo that the quantity of common fait can only be eflima-
ted at two grains. The pure nitre is thus reduced to
4254- grains. Klaproth fufpefts that the neutral muriate
mixed with the native nitre, is rather a muriate of pot¬
afh, than muriate of foda.
C. Tire ftony matters remaining, amounted to 50CJ
grains 5 muriatic acid was poured upon them, and pro¬
duced great effervefcence with pieces of limeftone. One
hundred and eighty-fix grains of white gypfum remain¬
ed } and the fulphuric acid being feparated from it, by
boiling with carbonate of potafh, the carbonate of lime
remaining behind dilfolved without refiduum in nitric
acid.
D. The limeftone taken up by the muriatic acid,
weighed 304 grains. Being farther examined, it ap¬
peared to be calcareous earth, flightly contaminated
with iron.
One hundred parts, therefore, of this fait contain
Pure prifmatic nitre B, 42*55
Muriate of a neutral fait B, .20
Sulphate of lime ABC, 25*45
Carbonate of lime D, 3°-4
Lofs, 1.4
100.00
III. Combustibles.
Analysis of Coal.
The conflituent parts of coal are carbone and bitumen,
with fome earthy matters, and fometimes a fmalh quan¬
tity of metallic matter. The proportion of earthy mat¬
ters contained in coal may be afcertained by weighing a
determinate quantity, and burning it. The nature of
the earths contained in the refiduu.m may7 be difcovered
by the proceffes already given.
To afcertain the proportion of charcoal and bitumen
contained in coal, we fhall defcribe the method followed
by Mr Kirwan.
It has been found that a certain proportion of carbone
or pure charcoal, detonated with nitre in the flate of ig¬
nition, decompofes a given proportion of that fait ; and
it appears from the experiments of Lavoifier, that 13.21
parts of charcoal decompofe 100 parts of nitre, while the
detonation is performed in clofe veflels; but in an open
crucible, a fmaller proportion of charcoal is required, in
confequence of part of the nitre being decompofed by
the adlion of the air of the atmofphere. According to
Kirwan, about 10 parts of charcoal are fufficient to de¬
compofe 96 parts of nitre. Mr Kirwan alfo found that
vegetable pitch and maltha did not produce any detona¬
tion with nitre, but merely burnt on its furl ace 5 and
that the fame quantity of charcoal was required for the
decompofition of the nitre, as if no bituminous fubltance
had been employed. Since, therefore, bitumen produces
no effedl in decompofing nitre, Kirwan thought that the
proportion of charcoal, in any coal, might be afcertain¬
ed by detonation with nitre. In this way the proportion
of carbonaceous and earthy matter in any coal being dif¬
covered, the proportion of bitumen which it contain^
may be eftimated by calculation.
In the experiments on the analyfis of coal, Mr Kirwan
employed a large crucible placed in a Avind furnace, and
expofed to an equable heat. The coal Avas reduced to-
4 Y a fmall
7 2 4 ANALYSIS OF
Combuf- fmall pieces of the frze of a pin head, and was projefted
titles. jn portions of one or two grains at a time, into the nitre,
the moment it became red hot. This was continued till
the detonation ceafed. #
By this procefs it appeared that 50 grains of Kilken¬
ny coal were neceffary to decompofe 480 grains of
nitre. According to the fame proportion, 96 grains of
jiitro would have required for its decompofition 10
grains of coal, which is exaftly equal to the quantity of
charcoal that would have been required to produce the
fame effea ; and thus it appeared that Kilkenny coal is
almoft entirely compofed of carbonaceous matter.
In the examination of cannel coal, Mr Kirwan burnt
240 grains, till the whole of the carbonaceous matter was
eonfumed j a refiduum of feven grains and a half of red-
difh brown aflhes, which appeared to be chiefly alumi¬
nous earth, was left, or about 3.12 per cent. Sixty-fix
grains and a half of this coal were found neceffary to de-
compofe 480 grains of nitre. Fifty grains of charcoal
would have produced the fame effeft, and hence 664-
grains of coal contain 50 of charcoal, and 2.08 parts of
allies, which being fubtra&ed from 664- grains, leaves
14.42 for the. quantity of bitumen, contained in the coal.
Jience the conllituent parts of this coal are,
Charcoal,
Bitumen,
Allies,
75-2
21.68
3-1
99.98
For a more particular analyfis of combuftible mine-
rals, fee Mr Hatchett’s experiments, detailed in the
Philofophical Tranfaflions for 1804.
IV. Analysis of Soils.
The examination of foils is by no means the leaft im¬
portant, becaufe on a knowledge of the nature and pro¬
portions of the ingredients which enter into the compo-
fition of foils, depends the opinion to be formed of their
fertility. Soils confifi: of different combinations of the
-earths, mixed with a certain proportion of animal and
vegetable matter. The inveftigation of the nature of
• See Ws foils has been particularly profecuted by Mr Kirwan *
Treutife on and Mr Davy, From the obfervations of the latter, the
Manures, following account of the analyfis of foils is extrafled.
Inftniments I* reahy important inftruments required for the
for the ana- analyfis of foils are few, and but little expenfive. They
lyfis of
Sills.
are, a balance capable of containing a quarter of a pound
of common foil, and capable of turning when loaded
with a grain j and a feries of weights from a quarter of a
pound troy to a grain a wire fieve, fuffieiently coarfe to
admit a pepper-corn through its apertures •, an Argand
lamp and (land •, fome glafe bottles; Heflian crucibles;
porcelain or queen’s ware evaporating bafons; a Wedge-
wood peflle and mortar; fome filters made of half a flieet
«f blotting paper, folded fo as to contain a pint of liquid,
and greafed at the edges; a bone knife, and an appara¬
tus for collefting and meafuring aeriform fluids.
The chemical fubftances or reagents required for fepa-
rating the conftituent parts of the foil, are muriatic acid’
^fpirit of felt}, fulphuric acid, and pure volatile alkali
diflolved in water, folution of pruffiate of potafh, foap
lye, folution of carbonate of ammonia, of muriate of am¬
monia, folution of neutral qarbonate of potalh, and ni-
Jraie of ammonia.
Soils.
STONES, &g.
2. In cafes when the general nature of the foil of a
field is to be afcertained, fpecimens of it Ihould be taken -"“"■v-"**,
from different places, two or three inches below the fur-
face, and examined as to the fimilarity of their proper-collecting
ties. It fometimes happens, that upon plains the whole foils for
of the upper ftratum of the land is of the fame kind,411®^^*
and in this cafe one analyfis will be fufticient; but in
valleys, and near the beds of rivers, there are very great
differences, and it now and then occurs, that one part
of a field is calcareous, and another part filiceous; and
in this cafe, and in analogous cafes, the portions differ¬
ent from each other fhould be feparately fubmitted to
experiment.
Soils, when colle£led, if they cannot be immediately
examined, fhould be preferved in phials quite filled with
them, and clofed with ground glafs Hoppers.
The quantity of foil molt convenient for a perfect a-
nalyfis is from two to four hundred grains. It ihould
be colle&ed in dry weather, and expofed to the atmo-
fphere till it becomes dry to the touch.
The fpecific gravity of a foil, or the relation of its
weight to that of water, may be afcertained by introdu¬
cing into a phial, which will contain a known quantity
of water, equal volumes of water and of foil; and this
may be eafily done by pouring in water till it is half
full, and then adding the foil till the fluid rifes to the
mouth ; the difference between the weight of the foil
and that of the water will give the refult. Thus, if the
bottle contain 400 grains of Water, and gains 200 grains
when half filled with water and half with foil, the fpe¬
cific gravity of the foil will be two, that is, it will be
twice as heavy as water; and if it gained 165 grains, its
fpecific gravity Avould be 1825, water being 1000.
It is of importance that the fpecific gravity of a foil
fhould be known, as it affords an indication of the quan¬
tity of animal and vegetable matter it contains ; thefe
fubftances being always moft abundant in the lighter
foils.
The other phyfical properties of foils fhould likewife
be examined before the analyfis i*s made, as they denote,
to a certain extent, their compofition, and ferve as
guides in dire&ing the experiments. Thus ftliceous
foils are generally rough to the touch, and fcratch glafs
when rubbed upon it; aluminous foils adhere ftrongly
to the tongue, and emit a ftrong earthy fmell when
breathed on ; and calcareous foils are foft, and much
lefs adhefive than aluminous foils. ^
3. Soils, though as dry as they can be made by con-^j0jeof
tinued expofure to air, in all cafes ftill contain a con-afeertsining
fiderable quantity of water, which adheres with great the quan-
obftinacy to the earths and animal and vegetable matter,
and can only be driven off from them by a confiderable e(j ^ f0jk
degree of heat. The firft procefs of analyfis is, to free
the given weight of the foil from as much of this water
as pofiible, without, in other refpe&s, affecting its com¬
pofition ; and this may be done by heating it for ten or
twelve minutes over an Argand’s lamp, in a bafon of
porcelain, to a temperature equal to 300 Fahrenheit ;
and in cafe a thermometer is not ufed, the proper de¬
gree may be eafily afcertained, by keeping a piece of
wood in contaft with the bottom of the difti: as long as
the colour of the wood remains unaltered, the heat is not
too high ; but when the wood begins to be charred,
the procefs muft be flopped. A fmall quantity of water
will perhaps remain in the' foil even after this operation,
5
V**
Si
btt
4-
ANALYSIS OF STONES, &e.
725
Sells.
4 .
Separation
<if (tones,
&c.
Separation
of the fand
and clay,
or loam,
from each
©then
6
Examina¬
tion of the
fand.
but it alwat's affords ufetui comparative refults j and if a
•' higher temperature were employed, the vegetable or ani¬
mal matter would undergo decompofitien, and in confe-
quence the experiment be wholly unfatisfaftory.
The lofs of weight in the procefs fhould be carefully
noted •, and when in 400 grains of foil it reaches as high
as 50, the foil may be confidered as in the greatelf de¬
gree abforbent, and retentive of water, and will generally
be found to contain a large proportion of aluminous earth.
When the lofs is only from 20 to 10, the land may be
confidered as only (lightly abforbent and retentive, and
the filiceous earth as moil abundant.
4. None of the loofe (tones, gravel, or large vegeta¬
ble fibres (hould be divided from the pure foil till after
the water is drawn off j for thefe bodies are themfelves
often highly abforbent and retentive, and in confequence
influence the. fertility of the land. The next procefs,
however, after that of heating, (hould be their fepara-
tion, which may be eafily accomplilhed by the fieve, af¬
ter the foil has been gently bruifed in a mortar. The
weights of the vegetable fibres or wood, and of the gra¬
vel and Hones, fhould be feparately noted down, and the
nature of the laft afcertained : if calcareous, they will
effervefce with acids 5 if filiceous, they will be fuffici-
ently hard to fcratch glafs •, and if of the common alumi¬
nous clafs of (tones, they will be foft, eafily_ feratched
with a knife, and incapable of effervefcing with acids.
5. The greater number of foils, befides gravel and
(tones, contain larger or fmaller proportions of fand of
different degrees of finenefs } and it is a neceffary opera¬
tion, the next in the procefs of analyfis, to detach them
from the parts in a Hate of more minute divifion, fuch as
clay, loam, marie, and vegetable and animal matter.
This may be effected in a way fufficiently accurate, by
agitation of the foil in water. In this cafe, the coarlc
fand will generally feparate in a minute, and the finer in
two or three minutes •, whilft the minutely divided
animal or vegetable matter will remain in a (late of me¬
chanical fufpenfion for a much longer time 5 fo that, by
pouring the water from the bottom of the veffel, after
one, two, or three minutes, the fand will be principally
feparated from the other fublfances, which, with the wa¬
ter containing them, mud be poured into a filter, and,
after the water has palled through, collected, dried, and
weighed. The fand muff likcwife be weighed, and their
refpe&ive quantities noted down. The water of lixivia-
tion muff be prefervcd, as it will be found to contain the
faline matter, and the foluble animal or vegetable mat¬
ters, if any exift in the foil. _
6. By the procefs of waftiing and filtration, the (oil
is feparated into two portions, the mod important of
which is generally the finely divided matter. A minute
analyfis of the fand is feldom or never neceffary, and its
nature may be detefted in the fame manner as that of
the (tones or gravel. It is always either filiceous fand,
or calcareous fand, or a mixture of both. If it confid
wholly of carbonate of lime, it will be rapidly loluble
in muriatic acid, with effervefcence ; but if it confid
partly of this fubdance, and partly of filiceous matter,
the refpeftive quantities may be afcertained by weigh*
ing the refiduum after the aaion of the acid, which
mud be applied till the mixture has acquired a four tade,
and has ceafed to effervefce. This refiduum is the fi¬
liceous part-, it mud be waftied, dried, and heated
Wrongly in a crucible;, the -difference, between the
weight of the whole, indicates the proportion of calca- , SoiIs- .
reous fand. . 7
*7. The finely divided matter of the foil is ufually ve- £xaraina„
ry compound in its nature *, it fometimes contains all the tion of the
four primitive earths of foils, as well as animal and ve- finely di-
getable matter j and to afeertain the proportions oi thefe
with tolerable accuracy, is the mod didicult part of the and mode’
fubjeft. of cletedi-
The firft procefs to be performed, in this part of the ing mild
analyfis, is the expofure of the fine matter of the foil tolun® ^
the aftion of the muriatic acid. This fubdance (hould ma
be poured upon the earthy matter in an evaporating
bafon, in a quantity equal to twice the weight of the
earthy matter j but diluted with double its volume of
water. The mixture (hould be often (lirred, and dif¬
fered to remain for an hour or an hour and a hall before
it is examined.
If any carbonate of lime or of magnefia exid in the
foil, they ivill have been diffolved in this time by the
acid, which fometimes takes up Hkewife a little oxide of
iron •, but very feldom any alumina.
The fluid fliould be paffed through a filter j the folid
matter collected, waflied with rain water, dried at a
moderate heat, and weighed. Its lofs will denote the
quantity of folid matter taken up. The wadiings mult
be added to the folution j which, if not four to the tade,
mud be made fo by the addition of fredi acid, when a
little folution of common prudiate of potadi mud be
mixed with the whole. If a blue precipitate occur, it
denotes the prefence of oxide of iron, and the folution of
the prudiate mud be dropped in till no further effedd is-
produced. To afeertain its quantity, it mud be collec¬
ted in the fame manner as other folid precipitates, and
heated : the refult is oxide of iron.
Into the Huid freed from oxide of iron, a folution of
neutralized carbonate of potafh mud be poured till all
effervefcence ceafes in it, and till its tade and fmell in¬
dicate a confiderable excefs of alkaline fait.
The precipitate that falls down is carbonate of lime j
it mud be. collefted on the filter, and dried at a heat be¬
low that of rednefs.
The remaining duid mud be boiled for a quarter of
an hour, when the magnefia, if any exid, will be pre¬
cipitated from it, combined with carbonic acid, and its
quantity is to be afcertained in the fame manner as that
of the carbonate of lime;
If any minute proportion of alumina (hould, from pe¬
culiar circuradances, be diffolved by the acid, it will be.
found in the precipitate with the carbonate of lime, and
it may be feparated from it by boiling for a few minutes
with (bap lye, fufficient to cover the (olid matter. This,
fubdance diffolves alumina, without atting upon carbo¬
nate of lime;
Should the finely divided foil be fufficiently calcare¬
ous to effervefce very drongly with acids, a very fimple
method may be adopted for afeertaining the quantity of
carbonate of lime, and .one futliciently accurate in ali
common cafes.
Carbonate of lime, in all its dates, contains a deter¬
minate proportion of carbonic acid,’f. e. about 45 per
cent. ; fo that when the quantity of this eladic duid, gi¬
ven out by any foil during the folution of its calcareous
matter in an acid, is known, either in weight or mea-
fure, the quantity of carbonate of lime may be eafily dif*
covered. -
Wfcj£
7z6 ANALYSIS OF
Soils. When the procefs by diminution of weight is employ-
‘   ' ec]} two parts of the acid and one part of the matter of
the foil muft be weighed in two feparate bottles, and
very flowly mixed together till the effervelcence ceafes 5
the difference between their weight before and after the
experiment denotes the quantity of carbonic acid loft ;
for every four grains and a half of which, ten grains of
carbonate of lime muft be eftimated.
The beft method of collefting the carbonic acid, fo
as to difcover its volume, is by the pneumatic apparatus,
the conftruftion and application of which are defcribed
at the end of this article. The eftimation is, for every
ounce meafure of carbonic acid, two grains of carbonate
$ oflime.
8. After the fine matter of the foil has been afted up¬
on by muriatic acid, the next procefs is to afcertain the
quantity of finely divided infoluble animal and vegetable
Soils,
Mode of
afcertain-
ing the
quantity
of infoluble matter that it contains.
finely di¬
vided ani¬
mal and
vegetable
matter.
Mode of
feparating
aluminous
and filice-
ous matter
and oxide
of iron.
This may be done with fufficient precifion, by heating
it to ftrong ignition in a crucible over a common fire
till no blacknefs remains in the mafs. It ftiould be of¬
ten ftirred with a metallic wire, fo as to expofe new fur-
faces continually to the air ; the lofs of weight that it
undergoes denotes the quantity of the fubftance that it
contains deftrudlible by fire and air.
It is not poflible to afcertain whether this fubftance is
wholly animal or vegetable matter, or a mixture of both.
When the fmell emitted during the incineration is fimi-
lar to that of burnt feathers, it is a certain indication of
fome animal matter ; and a copious blue flame at the
time of ignition almoft always denotes a confiderable
proportion of vegetable matter. In cafes when the ex¬
periment is needed to be very quickly performed, the
deftruftion of the decompofable fubftances may be af-
fifted by the agency of nitrate of ammonia, which, at
the time of ignition, may be thrown gradually upon the
heated mafs, in the quantity of twenty grains for every
hundred of refidual oil. It affords the principle necef-
fary to the combuftion of the animal and vegetable mat¬
ter, which it caufes to be converted into elaftic fluids j
and it is itfelf at the fame time decompofed and loft.
9. The fubftances remaining after the decompofition
of the vegetable and animal matter, are generally mi¬
nute particles of earthy matter containing ufually alu¬
mina and filica with combined oxide of iron.
To feparate thefe from each other, the folid matter
ftiould be boiled for two or three hours with fulphuric
acid, diluted with four times its weight of water ; the
quantity of the acid ftiould be regulated by the quantity
of folid refiduum to be a£led on, allowing for every hun¬
dred grains two drachms or one hundred and twenty
grains of acid.
The fubftance remaining after the aftion of the acid
may be confidered as filiceous 5 and it muft be feparated
and its weight afeertained, after wafliing and drying in
the ufual manner.
The alumina and the oxide of iron, if they exift, are.
both diffolved by the fulphuric acid they may be fe¬
parated by carbonate of ammonia, added to excefs; it
throws down the alumina, and leaves the oxide of iron
in folution ; and this fubftance may be feparated from
the liquid by boiling.
Should any magnefia and lime have efcaped folution
in tlm muriatic acid, they will be found in the fulphu-
ric acid j this, however, is fcarcely ever the cafe ; but
STONES, &c.
the procefs for detedling them, and afcertaining their
quantities, is the fame in both inftances. y—
The method of analyfis by fulphuric acid is fufficient-
ly precife for all ufual experiments 5 but if very great
accuracy be an objeft, dry carbonate of potafti muft be
employed as the agent, and the refiduum of the incine¬
ration mutt be heated red for half an hour, with four
times its weight of this fubftance, in a crucible of filver,
or of well baked porcelain. The mafs obtained muft be
diffolved in muriatic acid, and the folution evaporated
till it is nearly folid 5 diftilled water muft then be added,
by which the oxide of iron and all the earths, except fi¬
lica, will be diffolved in combination as muriates. The
filex, after the ufual procefs of lixiviation, muft be heat¬
ed red ; the other fubftances may. be feparated in the
fame manner as from the muriatic and lulphuric folu-
tions. 1 <5
10. If any faline matter, or foluble vegetable or ani-Mode of
mal matter, be fufpedled in the foil, it will be found in
the water of lixiviation ufed for feparating the fand. ^al and
This water muft be evaporated to drynefs in an ap-vegetable
propriate dilh, at a heat below its boiling point. matter,
If the folid matter obtained is of a brown colour andand laline
inflammable, it may be confidered as partly vegetablema
extraft. If its fmell, when expofed to heat, be ftrong
and foetid, it contains animal mucilaginous or gelatinous
fubftance ; .if it be white and tranfparent, it may be con¬
fidered as principally faline matter. Nitrate of potafti
(nitre), or nitrate of lime, is indicated in this faline
matter, by its detonating with a burning coal. Sul¬
phate of magnefia may be detefled by its bitter tafte ;
and fulphate of potafti produces no alteration in folution
of carbonate of ammonia, but precipitates folution of
muriate of barytes. 11
n. Should fulphate or phofphate of lime be fufpefled Mode of
in the entire foil, the deteflion of them requires a par-^^S
ticular proceQ upon it. A given weight of it, for in- ^ j^6
fiance four hundred grains, muft be heated.red for half (gypfum)
an hour in a crucible, mixed with one third of powder- and phof-
ed charcoal. The mixture muft be boiled for a quarter Pha^e.°f
of an hour, in a half-pint of water, and the fluid
leefted through the filter, and expofed for fome days to
the atmofphere in an open veflel. If any foluble quan¬
tity of fulphate of lime (gypfum) exifted in the foil, a
white precipitate will gradually form in the fluid, and
the weight of it will indicate the proportion.
Phofphate of lime, if any exift, may be feparated
from the foil after the procefs for gypfum. Muriatic
acid muft be digefted upon the foil, in quantity more
than fufficient to faturate the foluble earths 5 the folu¬
tion muft be evaporated, and water poured upon the fo¬
lid matter. This fluid will diffolve the compounds of
earths with the muriatic acid, and leave the phofphate
of lime untouched. 13
1 2. When the examination of a foil is completed, the Refults and
produ&s ftiould be claffed, and their quantities added to- P™dlu^s‘
gether 5 and if they nearly equal the original quantity
of foil, the analyfis may be confidered as accurate. It
muft howTever be noticed, that when phofphate or ful¬
phate of lime is difeovered by the independent procefs
11. a corredlton muft be made for the general procefs,
by fubtradling a fum equal to their weight from the
quantity of carbonate of lime obtained by precipitation
from the mufiatic acid.
In arranging the produ&s, the form fhould be in the
order
ANALYSIS OF
Soils. order of tlie experiments by 'which they were obtain-
ed.
Thus, 400 grains of a good filiceous fandy foil may
be fupppofed to contain
Of water of abforption, - - 18 grs.
Of loofe flones and gravel, principally fili¬
ceous, - - - 42
Of undecompounded vegetable fibres, 10
Of fine filiceous fand, - - 200
Of minutely divided matter feparated by fil¬
tration, and confifting of
Carbonate of lime, - - 25
Carbonate of magnefia, . - 4
Matter deftmdtible by heat, principally ve¬
getable, - - - 10
Silica, - - 40
Alumina, - - 32
Oxide of iron, ‘ - - - 4
Soluble matter, principally fulphate of pot-
a(h and vegetable extra61, - 3
Gypfum, - _ - 3
Phofphate of lime, - - 2
13
Chemical
:orn foils
n this cli-
nate.
Amount of all the produ£ts, 395
Lofs, - - 5
In this inftance the lofs is fuppofed fmall *, but in gene¬
ral, in a6tual experiments, it will be found much great¬
er, in confequence of the difficulty of colle6ting the
whole quantities of the different precipitates ; and when
it is within thirty for four hundred grains, there is no
reafon to fufpeft any want of due precifion in the pro-
ceffes.
13. A very fertile corn foil from Ormifton in Eaft Lo-
rompofiticm thian afforded, in 100 parts, only 11 parts of mild
)ffertile calcareous earth; it contained 25 parts of filiceous fand:
the finely divided clay amounted to 45 parts. It loft
nine in decompofed animal and vegetable matter, and
four in water, and afforded indications of a fmall quan¬
tity of phofphate of lime.
This foil was of a very fine texture, and contained
very few ftones or vegetable fibres. It is not unlikely
that its fertility was in fome meafurc conne6!ed with the
-phofphate ; for this fubftanee is found in wheat, oats,
and barley, and may be a part of their food.
A foil from the low lands of Somerfetffiire, celebra¬
ted for producing excellent crops of wheat and beans
without manure, was found toconfift of one-ninth of fand,
chiefly filiceous, and eight-ninths of calcareous marl
tinged with iron, and containing about five parts in 100
of vegetable matter. No phofphate or fulphate of lime
could be dete&ed in it; fo that its fertility muft have de¬
pended principally upon its power of attracting prin¬
ciples of vegetable nourifhment from water and the at-
mofphere.
Mr Tillet, in fome experiments made on the com-
pofition of foils at Paris, found that a foil compofed
of three-eighths of clay, two-eighths of river fand, and
three eighths of the parings of limeftone, was very pro-
14 per for wheat.
'ompofition - In, general, bulbous roots require a foil much
foils pro- more fan4y an4 lefs abforbent than thegraffes. A very
)ous°roots ' &0°d potato foil> from Varfel in Cornwall, afforded
indfor feven-eighths of filiceous fand; and its abforbent power
rees.
STONES, &c. 727
was fo fmall, that 100 parts loft only two by drying at Soils.
40b Fahrenheit. v
Plants and trees, the roots of which are fibrous and
hard, and capable of penetrating deep into the earth,
Avill vegetate to advantage in almoft all common foils
which are moderately dry, and which do not contain
a very great excefs of vegetable matter.
The foil taken from afield at Sheffield-placein Suffex,
remarkable for producing flouriftiing oaks, was found to
confift of fix parts of fand, and one part of clay and
finely divided matter. And 100 parts of the entire foil,
fubmitted to analyfis, produced
Water, - “ 3 parts
Silica, - - - 54
Alumina, - - 28
Carbonate of lime, - 3
Oxide of iron, - “5
Decompofing vegetable matter, 4
Lofs, - “ " 3
15
15. From the great difference of the caufes that in-Improve-
fluence the produdtivenefs of lands, it is obvious that, inments mad®
the prefent ftate of fcience, no certain fyftemcan be de-
vifed for their improvement, independent of experi-J.ofT1p0gt;on
ment : but there are few cafes in which the labour of of the
analytical trials will not be amply repaid by the cer-eardiy parts
tainty with which they denote the belt methods of ame-0^0^3*
lioration ; and this will particularly happen when the
defeft of compofition is found in the proportions of the
primitive earths.
In fupplying animal or vegetable manure, a tempo¬
rary food only is provided for plants, which is in all
cafes exhaufted by means of a certain number of crops ;
but when a foil is rendered of the beft poffible conftitu-
tion and texture, with regard to its earthy parts, its fer¬
tility may be confidered as permanently eftablilhed. It
becomes capable of attradfing a very large portion of
vegetable nourilhment from the atmofphere, and of pro¬
ducing its crops with comparatively little labour and ex¬
pence.
Defcription of the Apparatus for the Analysis of Soils. Plate
• • DIX.
A, Retort.
B, B, Funnels for the purpofe of filtrating.
D, Balance. , %
E, Argand’s lamp.
F, G, H, K, The different parts of the apparatus re¬
quired for meafuring the quantity of elaftic fluid given
out during the adlion of an acid on calcareous foils.
F, Reprefents the bottle for containing the foil.
K, The bottle containing the acid furniflied with a
ftopcock,
G, The tube connedled with a flaccid bladder.
I, The graduated meafure.
H, The bottle for containing the bladder. When
this inftrument is ufed, a given quantity of foil is intro¬
duced into F; K is filled with muriatic acid diluted
with an equal quantity of water ; and the ftopcock be¬
ing clofed is connedted with the upper orifice of F,
.Which is ground to receive it. The tube G is introdu¬
ced into the lower orifice of F, and the bladder con-
nedted with it placed in its flaccid ftate into H, which
is filled with water. The graduated meafure is placed
under the tube of H. When the ftopcock of K is turn¬
ed
ANALYSIS OF STONES, See,
ed, the aeid flows Into F, and a£b upoti_ the foil j the
elaftic fluid generated paffes through G into the biad¬
der, and difplaces a quantity of water in H equal to it
in bulk, and this water flows through the tube into the
graduated meafure j the water in which gives by its vo¬
lume the indicatiou ot the proportion of carbonic acid
difengaged from the foil; for every ounce meafure of Soil*
which two grains of carbonate of lime may be elli- * '"*¥
mated.
L, Reprefents the Hand for the lamp.
M, N, O, P, £>, R, S, Rtprefent the bottles contain¬
ing the different reagents *„■ * Ph-i.
Mag. rob.
xxiii. p.
■Stones.
* Lib. ii.
c. 6#.
} Lib. iii.
S T O
Artificial STONE. See Stucco.
1 E/a/lic STONE. Some marbles ponefs the property
of elafticity, and hence come under the denomination
of elaflic ftones. But the moft remarkable Hone ot this
nature is the elaftic fandftone from Brazils. It is a mi¬
caceous fandftone in lamime not exceeding half an inch
in thicknefs. Some filiceous ftones alfo have the lame
property, or acquire it by being expofecl to a certain de¬
gree of heat.
Philofopher's Stone. See Philosopher's Stone.
Precious STONES. See Gem. . .
Racking STONE, or Logan, a Hone of a prodigious
fize, fo exaftly poifed, that it would rock or (hake with
the fmalleft force. Of thefe ftones the ancients give us
fome account. Pliny fays, that at Harpafa, a town of
Afia, there was a rock of fuch a wonderful nature, that
if touched with the finger it would (hake, but could
not be moved from its place with the whole force of the
body *. Ptolemy Hepheftion mentions f a gygoman
ftone near the ocean, which was agitated when ftruck by
the ftalk of an afphodel, but could not be removed by a
trreat exertion of force. The word gygonius feems to
be Celtic ; for gwingog fignifies motitans, the rockmg-
ftone.
Many rocking {tones are to be found in diuerent
parts of this i.fland •, fome natural, others artificial, or
placed in their pofitien by human art. In the pariflt of
St Leven, Cornwall, there is a promontory called Caf-
tle Treryn. On the weftern fide of the middle group,
near the top, lies a very large ftone, fo evenly poifed
that any hand may move it from one fide to another j
yet it is fo fixed on its bafe, that no lever nor any me¬
chanical force can remove it from its prefent Situation.
It is called the Logan-Jlone, and is at fuch a height from
the ■•wound that no perfon can believe that it was raifed
to its prefent pofition by art. But there are other rock¬
ing ftones, which are'fo fliaped and fo fituated, that there
can be no doubt but they were erected by human
ftrength. Of this kind Borlafe thinks the great Quoit
er Karn-lehau, in the parifli of Tywidnek, to be. It
is 39 feet in circumference, and four feet thick at a me¬
dium, and Hands on a fingle pedeftal. [here is alfo a
fcmarkable ftone of the fame kind in the iiland of St
Agnes in Scilly. The under roek is 10 feet fix inches
high, 47 feet round the middle, and touches the ground
with no more than half its bafe. The upper rock refts
on one point only, and is fo nicely balanced, that two
or three men with a pole can move it. It is eight feet
fix inches high, and 47 in circumference. On the top
there is a bafon hollowed out, three feet eleven inches in
diameter at a medium, but wider at the brtm, and three
feet deep. From the globular fhape of this upper ftone,
it is highly probable that it was raunded by human art,
s T o
and perhaps even placed on its pedeftal by human Stones,
ftrength. In Sithney parilh, near Hellion, in Cornwall, ——v—
flood the famous logan, or rocking ftone, commonly
called Men Amber, q. d. Men an Bar, or the top-Jlone.
It was eleven feet by fix, and four high, and fo nicely p< l%l*
poifed on another ftone that a little child could move it,
and all travellers who came this way delired to.fee it.
But Shrubfall, Cromwell's governor of Pendennis, with
much ado caufed it to be undermined, to the great grief
of the country. There are fome marks of the tool on
it, and, bv its quadrangular ftiape, it was probably dedi¬
cated to Mercury.
That the rocking ftones are monuments ere&ed by
the Druids cannot be doubted ; but tradition has not
informed us for what purpofe they were intended. Mr
Toland thinks that the Druids made the people befteve
that they alone could move them, and that by a mira¬
cle •, and that by this pretended miracle they condemned
or acquitted the acceded, and brought criminals to con-
fefs what could not otherwife be extorted from them.
How far this conjefture is right we ihall leave to thofe
who are deeply verfed in the knowledge of antiquities to
determine.
Sonorous STONE, a kind of ftone remarkable for emit¬
ting an agreeable found when ftruek, and much uled
in China for making mufical inftruments which they
call king.
The various kinds of fonorous ftones known in China
differ confiderably from one another in beauty, and in
the ftrength and duration of their tone 5 and what is
very lurprifing, is that this difference cannot be difeover-
ed either by the different degrees of their harunefs,
weight, or finenefs of grain, or by any other qualities
which might be fuppofed to determine it. Some ftones
are found remarkably hard, which are very fcmorous.j
and others exceedingly foft, which have an excellent
tone ; fome extremely heavy emit a very Tweet found -j
and there are others as light as pumice ftone which have
alfo an agreeable found.
The chemifts and naturalifts of Europe have never
yet attempted to difeover, whether fome of our ftonee
may not have the fame properties as the fonorous ftones
of the extremities of Afia. It however appears, that thft
Romans were formerly acquainted with a fonorpus ftone
of the clafs of hicing-che. Pliny (fays the Abbe du Bo^
in his Refleftions on Poetry and Painting, when fpeak-
ing of curious ftones) obfervesthat the ftone called dial*
cophonas, or brazen found,is black ; and that, according
to the etymology of its name, it fends forth a found much
refembling that of brafs when it is ftruek. The paffage
of Pliny is as follows : Chalcophonns nigra ejl ;fed elifa
(cris tinnilum reddit.
Some fonorous ftones were at length fent into France,
and
Stone,
Stone¬
henge.
S T O [ 729 ]
an<3 tlielate Duke de Chaulnes examined them with par- circles and two ovals,
ticular attention. The following are fome of his obferva-
, tions: “ The Academy of Sciences, Mr Rome de Lifle,
and feveral other learned mineralogifts, when a Iked if
they were acquainted with the black, itone of which the
•Chinefe king was made, for anfxver cited the paffage of
Pliny mentioned by Boetius de Boot, Linnaeus, and in
the Diddionary of Bomare, and added what Mr Ander-
fon fays in his Natural Hiftory of Iceland refpe61ing a
bluifh kind of done which is very fonorous. As the
black done of the Chinefe becomes of a bluidr colour
when filed, it is probably of the fame fpecies. None of
the red who were confulted had ever feen it. The Chi¬
nefe done has a great refemblance at fird fight to black
marble, and like it is calcareous j but marble generally
is not fonorous. It alfo externally refembles touchdone,
which is a kind of bafaltes, and the bafaltes found near
volcanoes; but thefe two dones are vitrifications.”
The duke next endeavoured to procure fome infor¬
mation from the done-cutters. They all replied, that
blue-coloured marble was very fonorous, and that they
had feen large blocks of it which emitted a very drong
found ; but the duke having ordered a king to be con-
drufted of this kind of done, it was found that it did
not poffefs that property. By trying the black marble
of Flanders, a piece was at length found which emitted
an agreeable found : it was cut into a king, which is al-
mod as fonorous as thofe of China. All thefe obferva-
tions give us reafon to believe that the dones of which
the king are formed are nothing elfe but a black kind
of marble, the condituent parts of which are the fame
as thofe of the marble of Europe, but that fome dif¬
ference in their organization renders them more or lefs
fonorous.
Swine-STONE {lapis fuillus'), or fetid Jlone, fo called
from its excedively fetid fmell, is a calcareous done im¬
pregnated with petroleum. See Mineralogy Index.
STONE-Marrovo, a variety of clay fo called from its
having the appearance of marrow.
SlONE-lVare, a fpecies of pottery fo called from its
hardnefs. See DELFT-Ware and Porcelain.
STONE in the Bladder. See Medicine, N° 400, and
Surgery Index.
Stone, in merchandize, denotes a certain weight for
weighing commodities. A done of beef at London is
the quantity of eight pounds: in Hereford (hire 12
pounds : in the North 16 pounds. A done of glafs is
five pounds ; of wax eight pounds. A done of wool
(according to the datute of 11 Hen. VII.) is to weigh
14 pounds ; yet in fome places it is more, in others
lefs ; as in Gloucederfhire 15 pounds; in Herefordihire
12 pounds. Among horfe-courfers a done is the weight
of 14 pounds.
The reafon of the name is evident. Weights at fird
were generally made of done. See Deut. xxv. 13.
where the word jnx, tranflated weight, properly fignifies
a fone.
STONE-Chatter. See Motacilla, Ornithology
Index.
STONEHENGE, a celebrated monument of anti¬
quity, dands in the middle of a flat area near the fum-
mit of a hill flx miles didant from Salilbury. It is in-
clofed by a circular double bank and ditch near 30 feet
broad, after eroding which wTe afeend 30 yards before
we reach the work. The whole fabric conlided of two
Vol. XIX. Part II.
S T O
The outer circle is about 108 Stone-
feet diameter, confiding when entire of 60 dones, 30 henge. ^
uprights and 30 impods, of which remain only 24 up- Gou^s
rights, 17 danding and 7 down, 34- feet afunder, and Sedition of
impods. Eleven uprights have their 5 impods on l\\evnCamden's
by the grand entrance. Thefe dones are from 13 to 20^*fnnia’
feet high. The leffer circle is fomewhat more than 8^ 10^
feet from the inlide of the outer one, and confided of
40 leffer dones (the highed 6 feet), of which only 19
remain, and only 11 danding : the walk between thefe
two circles is 300 feet in circumference. The adytum
or cell is an oval formed of 10 dones (from 16 to 22
feet high), in pairs, with impods, which Dr Stukdey
calls trilithons, and above 30 feet high, rifing in height
as they go round, and each pair feparate, and not con-
neded as the outer pair ; the highed 8 feet. Within
thefe are 19 more fmaller dngle dones, of which only 6
are danding. At the upper end of the adytum is the
altar, a large dab of blue coarfe marble, 20 inches thick,
16 feet long, and 4 broad ; prefled down by the weight
of the vad dones that have fallen upon it. The whole
number of dones, uprights, impods, and altar, is exact¬
ly 140. The dones are far from being artificial, but
were mod probably brought from thofe called the Grey
Weathers on Marlborough Downs, 15 or 16 miles od ;
and if tried with a tool they appear of the fame hard-
nefs, grain, and colour, generally reddidi. The heads
of oxen, deer, and other beads, have been found on dig¬
ging in and about Stonehenge ; and human bones in
the circumjacent barrows. There are three entrances
from the plain to this dnudure, the mod confiderable
of which is from the north-ead, and at each of them
were raifed on the outfide of the trench two huge dones
with two fmaller within parallel to them.
It h as been long a difpute among the learned, by
what nation, and for what purpofe, thefe enormous
dones were collefled and arranged. The fird account
of this drufture we meet with is in Geoffroy of Mon¬
mouth, who, in the reign of King Stephen, wrote
the hidory of the Britons in Latin. He tells us,
that it Avas erected by the counfel of Merlin the Bri-
tidi enchanter, at the command of Aurelius Ambro-
fius the lad Britifli king, in memory of 460 Bri¬
tons who wrere murdered by Hengid the Saxon. The
next account is that of Polydore Virgil, who fays that
the Britons erefted this as a fepulchral monument of
Aurelius Ambrofius. Others fuppofe it to have been
a fepulchral monument of Boadicea the famous Britifli
queen. Inigo Jones is of opinion, that it was a Roman
temple ; from a done 16 feet long, and four broad, pla¬
ced in an exatR pofition to the ead ward altar-falhion.
Mr Charlton attributed it to the Danes, who were two
years maders of Wiltflnre. A tin tablet, on which were
fome unknown chara&ers, fuppofed to be Punic, was
digged up near it in the reign of Henry VIII. but is
lod ; probably that might have given fome information
refpe&ing its founders. Its common name, Stonehenge,
is Saxon, and fignifies a “ done gallows,” to which
thofe dones, having tranfverfe impods, bear fome re¬
femblance. It is alfo called in Welch choir gour, or
“ the giants dance.”
Mr Grofe thinks that Dr Stukeley has completely
proved this drufture to have been a Britifli temple in
which the Druids officiated. He fuppofes it to have
been the metropolitan temple of Great Britain, and
4 Z tranflates
tiqu."
vol. iv.
p. 40.
S T O [7
Stone- tranflates the words choir gour “ the great choir or
henSe temple.” The learned Mr Bryant is of opinion that it
e 'I was ereaed by a colony of Cuthites probably before
^Stoppers. ^ time of the DfUids j becaufe it was ufual with them
Grofe's An-to place one vail Hone upon another for a religions me¬
morial •, and thefe they often placed fo equably, that even
a breath of wind would fometimes make them vibrate. Of
fueh Hones one remains at this day in the pile of otone-
heno-e. The ancients diftinguilhed Hones erefted with a
relipious view, by the name of amber ; by which was fig-
nified any thing folar and divine. The Grecians called
them xirw xuZpotuu, petra: ambrofta. Stonehenge, ac-
cording f„ Mr'Bryant, is corop.,fed of thefc amber
Hones : hence the next town is denominated Ambrejbu-
ry ; not from a Homan Ambrofius, for no fuch perfoii
eVer exilted, but from the ambrofta: petree, in whofe vi¬
cinity it Hood. Some of thefe were rocking Hones-,
and there was a wonderful monument of this fort near
Penzance in Cornwall, which Hill retains the name of
main-amber, or the facred Hones. Such a one is men¬
tioned by Apollonius Rhodius, fuppofed to have been
raifed in the time of the Argonautae, in the ifland Te-
110s, as the monument of the two winged fons of Boreas,
flain by Hercules •, and there are others in China and
other countries.
STOOK, a term ufed in many parts of the kingdom
for a iliock of corn containing 12 theaves.
STOOL, in Medicine, an evacuation or difeharge of
the faeces by the anus.
Stool, in Mining, is ufed when the miners leave off
digging deeper, and work in the ends forward. The
end before them is called \AveJlool.
Stool, in Ship-building, the name of the fupporters
of the poop and top lanterns.
STOOPING, in Falconry, is when a hawk, being
upon her wings at the height of her pitch, bends down
violently to take the fowl.
STOPPERS, in a fliip, certain fhort pieces of rope,
which are ufually knotted at one or both ends, accord¬
ing to the purpofe for which they are defigned. They
are either ufed to fufpend any heavy body, or to retain
a cable, (hroud, &c. in a fixed pofition. Thus, the
anchors, when firfi hoifted up from the ground, are
hung to the cat-head by a Hopper attached to the lat¬
ter, which palling through the anchor ring, is after¬
wards faflened to the timber-head ; and the fame rope
ferves to faHen it on the bow at fea 5 or to fufpend it
by the ring which is to be funk from the fhip to the
bottom. The Hoppers of the cable have a large knot
and a laniard at one end, and are faflened to a ring-bolt
in the deck by the other. They are attached to the
cable by the laniard, which is fafiened fecurely round
both by feveral turns paffed behind the knot, or about
the neck of the Hopper ; by which means the cable is
reflrained from running out of the fliip when Hie rides at
anchor,
The Hoppers of the Ihroud have a knot and a la¬
niard at each end. They are only ufed when the
(hrouds are cut afunder in battle, or difabled by tem-
pefluous weather : at which time they are laflied, in the
famemanner as thofe of the cables, to the feparated
parts of the Ihroud, which are thereby reunited, fo as
to be fit for immediate fervice. This, however, is only
a temporary expedient.
30 ] S T G
STOPS. See Punctuation ; and Scripture, N°
136.
STORAX. See Styrax, Materia Medica In- Ui
dex.
STORK. See Ardea, Ornithology Index.
STOVE for heating apartments, greenhoufes, hot-
houfes, fruit-walls, &.c.
When treating of the mechanical properties of air,
we explained in lufficient detail the manner in which
the expanfion produced in a mafs of air by heat pro¬
duces that motion up our chimneys which is called the
draught of the chimney ; and, in the article Smoke,
we confidered the circumflances which tend to check,
to promote, or to direfl this current, fo as to free us
from the fmoke and vitiated air which neceffarily accom¬
panies the confumption of the fuel. In Pneumatics
we alfo attended to the manner in which our fires im¬
mediately operate in warming our apartments. At
prefent, when about to deferibe a method of warming
intrinfically different, we muff pay feme more attention
to the diflinguifiiing circumflance. Without pretending
to explain the pbyfical connection of heat and light, it
may fuffice to obferve, that heat, as well as light, is com¬
municated to diffant bodies in an inflant by radiation.
A perfon palling haflily by the door of a glafs-houfe
feels the glow of heat in the very moment he fees the
dazzling light of the furnace mouth, and it is interrupted
by merely fereening his face with his hand. In this
way is an apartment partly warmed by an open fire
and we avoid the opprefiive heat by fitting where the
fire is not feen, or by interpofing a fereen. We are
apt to conneft this fo flrongly in the imagination with
the light emitted by the fire, that we attribute the heat
to the immediate aftion of the light. But this opinion
is fliown to be gratuitous by a curious experiment made
before the Royal Society by Dr Hooke, and afterwards,
with more care and accurate examination, by Mr Scheele.
They found, that by bringing a plate of the mofl tranfpa-
rent glafs brilkly between the fire and one’s face, the heat
is immediately intercepted without any fenfible diminu¬
tion of the light. Scheele, by a very pretty invefligation,
difeovered that the glafs made the feparation, and did
it both in refra&ion and reflection for he found, that
■when the light of the fame fire was collefted into a fo¬
cus by means of a poliftied metal concave fpeculum, a
thermometer placed there was injlantly affefted. But
if we employ a glafs fpeculum foiled in the ufual man¬
ner with quickfilver, of the fame diameter and focal
diftance, and of equally brilliant reflexion, there is
hardly any fenfible heat produced in the focus, and
the thermometer muff remain there for a very long while
before it is fenfibly affefted. When we repeated this
curious experiment, we found, that after the glafs
has remained a long while in this pofition, whether
tranfmitting or refiefting the light, it lofes in a great
meafure its power of intercepting the heat. By varying
this obfervation in many of its circumflances, we thinK
ourfelves entitled to conclude, that the glafs abforbs the
heat which it intercepts, and is very quickly heated by
the abforption. WRiile it nfes in its own temperature,
it intercepts the heat powerfully ; but when it is, as it
were, faturated, attradfling no more than what it imine-
diatelv imparts to the air in corporeal contact with it,
the heat paffes freely through along with the light. If
the
Stops
11
Stove.
Stove.
S T O [ 73I ] S T O
tKe glafs be held fo near the fire that the furrounding
air is very much heated, no fenfible interruption of heat
is perceived after the glafs is thus faturated. We found
the cheek more quickly fenfible than the thermo¬
meter of this inftantaneous radiation of the heat which
accompanies the light, or is feparated from it in this
experiment. It is a very inftruttive experiment in the
phyfiology of heat.
We cannot fay how far this radiation of heat may
extend, nor whether the accompaniment of light is ab-
folutely neceflary. The mathematician proceeds on the
fuppofition that it extends as far as the radiation of
light, and that, being alfo rectilineal, the denfity of
the heat is proportional to that of the light. But
thefe notions are fomewhat gratuitous •, and there are
appearances which render them doubtful. When with
a lens of an inch in diameter we form a focus on a piece
of black unpolilhed marble of an inch diameter, the ma¬
thematician muft allow that no more rays fall on the
marble than if the lens were away: therefore the
marble Qiould be equally warmed in either cafe. But
it is by no means fo, as we have repeatedly found by
expofing it during equal times, and then dropping it
into water. The water which is heated by the marble
on which the focus has been formed will be found to
have acquired from it much more heat than from the
other. The tops of lofty mountains which are never
(haded by clouds, but enjoy perpetual funfiiine and fe-
renity, inftead of being warmer than the valleys below,
are covered w ith never-melting fnow *, and we have feme
grounds to fufpedl: that the genial influence of the fun
requires the co-operation of the atmofphere, and to
doubt whether there is any warmth at the moon, on
which no atmofphere like ours can be obferved. Per¬
haps the heat which cheers us, and fertilizes our earth,
is chemically feparated from our atmofphere by its elec¬
tive attraction for the light of the fun. Our fucceflbrs
in the ftudy of meteorology need not fear that the fub-
je£t of their refearch will be foon deprived of fcientific
allurements. We know but little of it after all the
progrefs we have made during this lad century, and it
(till prefents an ample field of difcuflion.
We faid that the accompaniment of light is not de-
monftrably neceffary. We are certain that heat may be
imparted without any fenfible light, in a manner which
we can hardly fuppofe any thing but radiation. If a
piece of very hot iron be placed a little without the
principal focus of a metallic concave fpeculum, and a very
fenfible air-thermometer be placed in its conjugate focus,
it will inftantly (how an elevation oftemperature, although
the iron is quite imperceptible to an eye which has even
been a long while in the dark. No fuch rife of tempe¬
rature is obferved if the thermometer be placed a little to
one fide of the focus of the fpeculum •, therefore the pheno¬
menon is precifely fimilar to the radiation of light. We
are obliged therefore to acknowledge that the heat is ra¬
diated in this experiment in the fame way that light is in
the common optical experiments.
Although this is the mod ufual way that we in this
country employ fuel for warming our apartments, it is
by no means the only way in which the heat diffufed
from this fuel maybe imparted to didant bodies. It is
not even the mod effectual method ; it is diffufed alfo
by immediate communication t© bodies in contaft. The
air in immediate contaft with the burning fuel is heated,
and imparts fome of its heat to the air lying beyond it,
and this is partly (hared with the air which is dill farther
od'; and this diffufion, by communication in contaElu,
goes on till the remote air contiguous to the walls, the
floor, the ceiling, the furniture, the company, all get a
fliare of it in proportion to their attractions and their ca¬
pacities. And as the air is thus continually fupplied,
and continually gives out heat, the walls, &c. become
gradually warmer, and the room becomes comfortable
and pleai'ant. But we apprehend that no great propor¬
tion of the heat actually acquired by the room is com¬
municated in this way. This diffufion by contact is
but flow, efpecially in air which is very dry ; fo (low
indeed, that the air in the immediate neighbourhood of
the fuel is hurried up the chimney before it has time to
impart any of the heat received in contact. We know
that the time employed in diffufing itfelf in this way
through dagnant air to any moderate didance is very
confiderable. We imagine therefore that the heat, com¬
municated to our rooms by an open fire is chiefly by ra¬
diation, but in a way fomething different from what we
mentioned before. We imagine, that as the piece of
glafs in Dr Hooke’s experiment abforbs the heat, fo the
whole mafsof air which fills the room intercepts the ra¬
diated heat in every part of the room where the fire is
feen, and is as it were faturated Avith it throughout, and
ready to impart it to every body immerfed in it. We
cannot otherwife account for the equability of the heat
in the different parts of the room. Mere radiation on
the folid bodies would warm them in the inverfe dupli¬
cate ratio of their difiances from the fire •, and diffufion
by contaft, if compatible with the rapid current up the
chimney, would heat the room dill more unequably.
RecolleCt how flowly, and with what rapid diminution
ofintenfity, the colouf of blue vitriol is communicated
to water even to a very fmall didance. But becaufe all
parts of the air of the room abforb radiated heat, what
is faturated at a higher temperature, being nearer to
the fire rifes to the ceiling, fpreads outAvards along the
ceiling, and has its place fupplied by the air, which is
thus pulhed towards the fire from the places which are
not direCtly illuminated.
Far different is the method of Avarming the room by
a dove. Here the radiation, if any, is very feeble or
fcanty ; and if a paffage were alloAved up the chimney
for the Avarmed air, it Avould be quickly carried od'.
This is Avell known to the Englifli who refide in the
cold climates of St Peterlburgh, Archangel, &c. They
love the exhilarating flutter of an open fire, and often
have one in their parlour 5 but this, fo far from Avarming
the room during the extreme cold weather, obliges them
to heat their doves more frequently, and even abdraCls
the heat from a whole fuit of apartments. But all paf¬
fage this Aray is (hut up Avhen Ave Avarm a room by
doves. The air immediately contiguous to the dove
is heated by contaft, and this heat is gradually, though
(loAvly, diffufed through the whole room. The diffufion
would however be very (low indeed, were it not for the
great expanfibility of air by heat. But the air fur¬
rounding the dove quickly expands and rifes to the ceil¬
ing, Avhile the neighbouring air dides in to fupply the
place, nay is even puflied in by the air which goes out¬
wards aloft. Thus the Avhole air is foon mixed, and
the room acquires almod an equal temperature through¬
out
The
Stove.
4 Z 3
Stove.
P!ate
DX.
fig. j.
S T 0 [7.3
The warming by ftoves muft therefore be managed
upon very different principles from thofe adopted in
the employment of open fires, ihe general principle
is, ill, To employ the fuel in the moft etfedfual manner
for heating the external part of the Hove, which 1 im¬
mediately efficient in warming the contiguous air j and,
2d, To keep in the room the -air already wanned, at
leaf! as much as is coniiflent with wooiefomends and
cleanlinefs.
The firit purpofe is accomplifhed by conducting the
flue of the furnace round its external parts, or, in ihoit,
by making every part of the flue external. Of ail
forms, that of a long pipe, returned backwards and for¬
wards, up and down (provided only that the place of
its laft difeharge be confiderably higher than its entry
from the fire-place), would be the molt effectual. we
have feen a very finall Hove eon ruCted in this way, the
■whole being inclofed in a handfome cafe of polifhed iron
plate, pierced and cut into elegant foliage like the cock,
of a watch, fo that the odd looking pipes were complete¬
ly concealed. Though only three feet long, one foot
thick, and fix feet high, it warmed a very lofty room of
24 feet by 1 8, and confirmed lets than bait the tuel ot a
ftove of the more ufual make, which did not fo fuiiy
warm a fmaller chamber.
It would occupy a volume to deferibe the immenfe
variety of ttoves which ingenuity or architeCfonic tafle
has conftrufted. We fhall content ourfelves with giving
a fpecimen of the two chief claffes into which they may
be diftinguithed.
The air of a room may be equally warmed, either by
applying it to the furface of a fmall ftove made very hot,
or to the furface of a much larger ftove more moderate¬
ly heated. The firft kind is chiefly ufed in Holland,
Flanders, and the milder climates of Germany and Po¬
land. The laft are univerfally ufed in the frozen cli¬
mates of Ruffia and Sweden. The firft are generally
made of caft-iron, and the laft of brick-work covered
with glazed tiles or ftucoo.
Fig. 1. reprefents a fmall German ftove fully fuffi-
cient for warming a room of 24 feet by 18. The bafe
is about three feet broad and 14 inches deep, that is,
from back to front, and fix or feven feet high. The
decoration is in the fafhion of that country ^ but the
operative ftruClure of it will admit of any ftyle of orna¬
ment. A, is the fire-place, and the wood or charred
coal is laid on the bottom, which has no bars. Bars
would admit the air too freely among the fuel, and
would both confume it too faft and raife too great a heat.
That no heat may be ufelefsly expended, the foie of
the fire-place and the w hole bottom of the ftove is rai-
fed an inch or two above the floor of the room, and the
air F therefore warmed by it in fucceffion, and rifes
upwards. For the fame reafon the back of the ftove is
not in contact with the wall of the room, or of the
niche in which it is placed. The fire-place is fliut up
by a door which fits clofely to its cafe, and has a fmall
wicket at the bot tom, wh >fe aperture is regulated by
a Aiding plate, fo as to admit no more air than what
fuffices tor {lowly confuming the fuel. The flame and
headed air rife to the top of the fire-place three or four
inches above the arch or mantle-piece, and get out la¬
terally by two narrow paffages B, B, immediately be¬
low the top plate of the bale. The current bends
downward on each tide, piffes at C, C, under the partr-
l
2 ] S T O
lion plates which divide the two fide chambers, and then
riles upwards through the outer divifion of each, and '■
paffes through narrow flits D, D, in the top plate, and
from thence along the two hollow piers E, E. The
two lateral currents unite at the top of the arch, and go
through the Angle paffage F into the larger hollow' be¬
hind the efcutcheon G. From this place it either goes
ftraight upwards into the vent in the wall by a pipe on
the top of the ftove, or it goes into the wall behind by
a pipe inferted in the back of the ftove. The propriety
of this conftru&ion is very obvious. The current of hot
air is applied to exterior parts of the ftove everywhere
except in the two fide chambers of the bafe, where the
partition-plates form one fide of the canal. Even this
might be avoided by making each of thefe fide-cham-
bers a detached hollow pillar. But this would greatly
increafe the trouble of conflruftion and joining toge¬
ther, and is by no means neccffary. The arch II has
a graceful appearance, and affords a very warm fituation
for any thing that requires it, fuch as a drink in a fiek
per fun’s bed-chamber, &c. Perfons of a certain clafs
ufe this place for keeping a difh warm j nay, the lower
part of ihe arch is frequently occupied by an inclofed
chamber, where the heat rifes high enough even for dref-
fing victuals, as will be eafily imagined when we reflect
that the foie of it is the roof of the fire-place.
The ftove now deferibed is fupplied with fuel and
with air by the front door opening into the room. That
there may be room for fuel, this middle part proje&s
a few inches before the two fide-chambers. Thefe laft,
with the whole upper part of the ftove, are not more
than ten inches deep. The paffages, therefore, ^ from
the fire-place are towards the back of it*, fo that if we
have a mind to fee the fire (which is always cheerful),
the door may be thrown open, and there is no danger
of the fmoke coming out after the current has once
warmed the upper part of the ftove. Vv hen the ftove is
of fuch dimenfions that the bafe is about two feet and a
half or three feet high, the fire-place may be furniflied
with a fmall grate in the Britilh ftyle. If the door is
fo hung that it can not only be thrown back, but lifted
off its hinges, we have a ftove grate of the completeft
kind, fully adequate, in our mild climate, to warm a
handfome apartment, even w ith an open fire *, and when
we hang on the door, and {hut up the fire-place, a ftove
of the dimenfions already given is almoft too much for a
large drawing room.
We have frequently remarked, that one fide of thefe
ftoves grows much warmer than the other, and that it
was difficult to prevent or remedy this 5 and we ima¬
gine that this is an unavoidable defeft in all ftoves with
a double flue. It is fcarcely poflible to make the fire
fo equable in the fire-place, that one fide {hall not be a
little warmer than the other, and a brifker current will
then be produced in it. This muff increafe the con-
fumption of the fuel on this fide, which will increafe
the current, will heat this fide ftill more, and thus go on
continually till the fuel on this fide is expended ^ after
which the other fide will obtain and increafe the fupe-
riority. The flue is made double, that the fire-place
mav occupy the middle of the front; and it will be
difficult to gain ihF point if fymmetry with one flue.
The inconvenience may, however, be corretfed by damp¬
ing valves placed in foxue part of the upright funnels
Stove,
E, E.
Xu
S T O
[ 733 ]
S T O
Stove- In the colder winters on Lite continent, it is thought
—■Y**-*-'' neceffary to increafe the effect by making the fire-place
open to the back of the ftove. Its mouth or door com¬
municates with or is joined to an opening of the fame
dimenfions formed in the wall, and the door is on the
other fide in an antichamber or lobby. In Weffpha-
lia, and other places of Germany, the apartments are
difpofed round a fpacious lobby, into which all their fire¬
places open, and are there fupplied with fuel. By this
Conftruftion it is plain that the air of the room, already
warmed by the ftove, is not carried off, and the room
is more heated. But this method is very unfavourable
to cheerfulnefs and health. The fame air, confined, and
repeatedly breathed and compounded with all the vola¬
tile emanations of the room, quickly lofes that refrefh-
ing quality that is fo defirable, and even fo neceffary for
health. It is never renewed except by very partial ad¬
mixtures when the room doors are thrown open, and be¬
comes difagreeable to any perfon coming in from the
open air ; and in the houfes of the lefs opulent becomes
really offenfive and naufeous.
Something of this is unavoidable in all rooms heated
by ftoves. Even in our apartments in this illand, per-
fons of delicate nerves are hurt by what they call the
clofe air of a room } and it is long before the fmell of
dinner is quite removed from a dining-room, notwith-
ftanding the copious current up the chimney. I his
mull be incomparably more fenfible in a room heated
by a ftove *, and this inconvenience is peculiarly fenfible
with refpefl to the ftove which w'e are confidering at
prefent, where we employ a fmall furface heated to a
great degree.
Such ftoves are feldom made of any thing elfe than
caft-iron. Thk (in thofe parts at leaft which are in im¬
mediate contadl with the fuel) is in a ftate of continual
calcination, and even throwing off feales. This indeed
is not feen, becaufe it is the bottom or foie of the fire¬
place which is fo heated : but the effect on the air of the
room is the fame. The calcination of the iron is occa-
fioned by the combination of pure vital air with the
iron. This is abftradled from the general mafs of at
mofpheric air in the room, of which it ufually confti-
tutes about two-fifths. By this abffradtion the re¬
mainder becomes lefs fit for fupporting animal life or
flame, and may even become highly deleterious In
every degree the remainder becomes lefs refrelhing, and
grows dull and oppreffive. This is always accompanied
by a peculiar fmeli, which, though not difguiting, is
unpleafant. It refembles the fmell of burnt feathers, or
more exa&ly the fmell we feel if we rub violently for
fome time the palms of our hands together when per-
fedlly dry.
For fimilar reafons thefe iron ftoves occafion a fickly
fmell, by burning every particle of duff which falls on
the hot parts ; and if they be wiped with a wooften
cloth, or any cloth not perfe&ly free from every kind
of greafy or oily matter, a fmell is produced for a day
or days afterwards j fo that without the moft fcrupulous
attention we fuffer by our very cleanlinefs.
For fuch reafons we think that the ftoves of brick¬
work covered with ftucco or with glazed tiles are vaftly
preferable. Thefe are much ufed in the genteeler houfes
in Flanders and Holland, where they are made in the
moft: elegant forms, and decorated with beautiful fci p
tme or enamel j but it is plain that they cannot be fo
effeftual, nor equally warm a room with the fame ex- ^
pence of fuel. Earthen ware, efpecialfy when covered
with porous ftucco, is far inferior to metal in its power
of conducing heat. If built of bricks, they muft be
vaftly more bulky when the fire-place and flues are of
the fame dimenfions. Ihe moft ptrfeft way ot con-
ftru&ing them would certainly be to make them of pot¬
tery, in parts exa&ly fitted to each other, and joined by
a proper cement. This mode of conftrufting would ad¬
mit of every elegance of form or richnefs of ornament,
and would not be fo bulky as thofe which are. built of
bricks. The great difficulty is to prevent their crack¬
ing by the heat. Different parts of the ftove being of
very different heats, they expand unequally, and there
is no cement which can withftand this, efpecially when
we recollect that the fame heat which expands the1
baked earth caufes the clay or cement, with which the
parts of the ftove are put together or covered, to con-
trad. Accordingly thofe earthen ware ftoves feldom
ftand a winter or two without cracking in fome place
or other, even when ftrengthened by iron hoops and
cramps judicioufiy difpofed within them. Even hoop¬
ing them externally, which would be very unfightly,-
will not prevent this; for nothing can refill the expan-
fion and contradion by heat and cold. When a crack
happens in a ftove, it is not only unfightly, but highly
dangerous ; becaufe it may be fo fituated, that it will
difeharge into the room the air vitiated by the fire.
For thefe and other reafons, we can fcarcely hope to
make ftoves of brick work or pottery which fhall bear
the neceffary heat without cracking ; and their ufe muft:
therefore be confined to cafes where very moderate heat
is fufficient. We need not deferibe their conftrudion.
It is evident that it ihould be more fimple than that of
iron ftoves 5 and we imagine that in the very few cafes
in which they are likely to be employed in this country,
a fingle fire place, and an arch over it, divided, if we
pleafe, by a partition or two of thin tile to lengthen the
flue, will be quite enough. If the ftove is made in
whole or in part of potters ware, a bafe for the fire¬
place, with an urn, column, obelifk, or pyramid above
it, for increafing the furface, will alfb be fufficient.
The failure commonly happens at the joinings, w here
the different pieces of a different heat, and perhaps of
a differ' nt baking, are apt to expand unequally, and
by working on each other one of them muff give way.
Therefore, inftead of making the joints clofe and ufing
any cement, the upper piece ffiould ftand in a groove
formed in the undermoft, having a little powdered chalk
or clay fprinkled over it, which will effedlually prevent
the paflage of any air *, and room being thus given for
the unequal expanfion, the joint remains entire. This
may be confidered as a general direction for all furnace-
work, w here it is in vain to attempt to hinder the mu¬
tual working of the parts.
We have feen ftoves in fmall apartments at St Peterf-
burg, which were made internally of potters ware, in a
great variety of forms, and then covered with a thick
coat of ftucco, finilhed externally with the utmoft ele¬
gance of ornament, and we were informed that they were
very rarely fubjidt to crack. They did not give much
heat, on account of the very low conducting power of
the porous ftucco *, but we imagine that they would
he abundantly warm for a moderate room in this
country.
Stove.
When
S T O [ 73+ ] S T O
Stove. When fitted up in tiiefe fituations, and with thefe
' T"*' precautions, the brick or pottery Itoves are incompara¬
bly more fweet asrd pleafant than the iron ores.
But in the intenfe colds of Raffia and Sweden, or
even for very large rooms in this kingdom, ftoves of
thefe fmall dimentions are not fufficiently powerful, and
we mutt follow the praftice of thofe countries where
they are made of great fize, and very moderately heat¬
ed. It is needlefs to defcribe their external form, which
may be varied at pleafure. Their internal ftrufture is
the fame in all, and is diftin&ly defcribed in Pneuma¬
tics, N° 364. We (hall only enlarge a little on the
peculiarities connedled with the general principle of
their conftrudlion.
The ftove is intended’as a fort of magazine, in which
a great quantity of heat may be quickly accumulated,
to be afterwards flowly communicated to the air of the
room. The Hove is therefore built extremely matlive ;
and it is found that they are more powerful when coated
with clay as wet as can be made to hang together-. We
imagine the reafon of this to be, that very wet clay,
and more particularly llucco, muff be exceedingly po¬
rous when dry, and therefore a very flow conductor of
heat. Inftead of flicking on the glazed tiles with no
more clay or ftucco than is fuflicient to attach them,
each tile has at its back a fort of box baked in one piece
about two or three inches deep. It is reprefented in
Fig. 2. fig. 2. This is filled with mortar, and then {luck on
the brick-work of the Hove, which has a great number
of iron pins or hooks driven into the joints, which may
fink into this clay and keep it firmly attached when dry.
This coating, with the maflive brick-work, forms a
great mafs of matter to be heated by the fuel. The
lowell chamber, which is the fire-place, is fomewhat
wider, and confiderably thicker than the {lories above,
which are merely flues. When the fire-place is finilhed
and about to be arched over, a flat iron bar of fmall
thicknefs is laid along the top of the fide-wall on both
Tides, a fet -of finifliing bricks being moulded on purpofe
with a notch to receive the iron bar. Crofs bars are
laid over thefe, one at each end and one or two be¬
tween, having a bit turned down at the ends, which
takes hold of the longitudinal bars, and keeps them
from being thruft outwards either by the preffure of the
arch or by the fwelling in confequence of the heat. In
Fig. 3. fig. 3. A is the crofs feftion of one of the long bars, and
BC is part of one of the crofs bars, and CD is the clench
which confines the bar A. This precaution is chiefly
necefiary, becaufe the contra&ion of the {love upwards
obliges the walls of the other {lories to bear a little on
the arch of the fire-place. The building above is kept
together in like manner by other courfes of iron bars at
every fecond return of the flue. The top of the Hove
is fimfhed by a pretty thick covering of brick work.
I he lail paffage for the air at H (fee Pneumatics,
fig. 62.) has a ring lining its upper extremity, and pro-
jefting an inch or two above it. The flat round it is
covered with fand. When we would flop this paffage,
a covered Ihape like a bafon or cover for diflies at table
is whelmed over it. The rim of this, refting on the
fand, effectually prevents all air from coming through
and getting up the vent. Accefs is had to this damper
by a door which can be {hut tight enough to prevent
the heated air of the room from wafting itfelf up the
vent. When the room is too warm, it may be very ra-
2
pidly cooled by opening this door. The warm air rufties Stove. jto
up with great rapidity, and is replaced by cool air v—
from without.
The management of the ftove is as follows. About
eight o’clock in the morning the pietchnick, or fervant
'who has the charge of the ftoves, takes oft' the cover,
fliuts the damper-door, and opens the fire-place door..
He then puts in a handful of wood {havings or ftravv,
and kindles it. This warms the ftove and vent, and be¬
gins a current of air through it. He then lays a few
chips on the foie of the fire-place, immediately within
the door j and behind this he arranges the billets of
birchwood, with their ends inwards. Then he lays on
more wood in the front, till he thinks there is enough.
He fets fire to the chips, ftiuts the door, and opens the
fmall wicket at its bottom. The air blows the flame
of the chips upon the billets behind them, and thus
kindles them. They confume flowly, while the billets
in front remain untouched by the fire. The fervant,
having made his firft round of the rooms, returns to
this ftove, and opens the door above to admit air into
the vent. This is to fupply its draught, and thus to
check the draught in the body of the ftove, which is
generally too ftrong at this time, and would confume
the fuel too faft. By this time the billets in the front
are burning, firft at the bottom, and the reft in fuccef-
fion as they fink down on the embers and come oppofite
to the wicket. The room does not yet feel any effeft
from the fire, the heat of which has not yet reached its
external furface j but in about half an hour this grows
warm. The upper door is ftiut again, that no heat may
now be wafted. The pietchnick by and by fpreads the
embers and allies over the whole bottom of the fire-place
with a rake, by which the bottom is greatly heated, and
heats the air contiguous to it externally (for it {lands on
little pillars) very powerfully. He takes care to bring
up to the top of the allies every bit of wood or coal that
is not yet confumed, that all may be completely expend¬
ed. He does this as brifldy as poflible, that the room
may not lofe much warmed air by keeping open the
fire-place door. At his laft vifit, when he obferves no
more glowing embers, he ftiuts the fire-place door and
wicket, and puts the damper on the paflage above, and
fliuts its door.—All this is over in about an hour and a
half after kindling the fire. All current of air is now
at an end within the ftove, and it is now a great mafs
of brick-work, heated to a great degree within, but
only about blood-warm externally. The heat gradually
fpreads outwards, and the external furface of the ftove
acquires its greateft heat about three o’clock in the
afternoon j after which it gradually cools till next morn-
ing.
This heat feldom is fo great that one cannot bear to
touch the ftove with his cheek, and to keep it there. In
confequence of this it can burn none of the dull which
unavoidably falls on the ftove, and we are never trou¬
bled with the fickening fmells that are unavoidable when
we employ the fmall call-iron ftoves much heated. The
great expence of heat in a room arifes from the glafs
windows. The pane is fo thin that the external air
keeps it continually cold, and thus the windows are
continually robbing the air of the room of its heat. This
expence of heat is reduced to lefs than one-third by
double cafements. The inner cafement is about as
much colder than the room as the outer cafement is
warmer
Stove.
Stove.
S T O [ 735 ] S T O
warmer than the air of the fields $ and we have the An¬
gular advantage of having no ice formed on the glafles.
But to enfure this lalt advantage, the feams of the inner
cafement muft be parted with paper, and thofe of the
outer cafement muft be left unpafted. If we do the
contrary, we {hall certainly have ice on the outer cafe¬
ment } the reafon of which is eafily feen.
We have been thus particular in our defeription of
the management, becaufe the reafons of feme particulars
are not very obvious, and the praftice would not readily
occur to us in this country ; fo that a perfon who, on
the faith of our recommendation, ftiould prefer one of
thefe ftoves to the German ftove, whofe management is
Ample and obvious, might be greatly difappointed.
But by following this method, we are confident that the
Ruffian ftove will be found much fuperior both in warmth
and agreeable air. The fpreading out of the embers,
and waiting till all is reduced to afhes before the doors
are fhut, is alfo abfolutely neceffary, and a negleft of it
would expofe us to imminent danger of fuffocation by
fixed air ; and this is the only inconvenience of the Ruf¬
fian ftove, from which the other ftove is free. The fix¬
ed air has no fmell ^ and the firft indication of its pre¬
fence is a flight giddinefs and laffitude, which difpofes us
to fit down and to fleep. This would be fatal; and we
muft immediately open the upper paflage and the fire¬
place door, fo as to produce a ftrong current to carry
the vitiated air of the room up the chimney. Throwing
up the failles, or at leaft opening all the doors, is proper
on fuch an occafion.
If we burn pit-coal, either raw or charred, this pre¬
caution is ftill more neceflary ; beeaufe the cinder is not
fo eafily or fo foon completely confumed. This fuel will
require a little difference in the management from wood
fuel, but which is eafily feen by any perfon of reflefh’on.
The fafe way would be to rake out all half-burnt coal
before {hutting up the doors.
If we ufe raw pit-coal, great care is neceffary to
prevent the accumulation of foot in the upper part of
the ftove. It is an inacceflible place for the chimney-
fweep •, and if we attempt to burn it out, we run a great
riik of fplitting that part of the ftove which is the moft
flightly conftrufted. It is advifable therefore to burn
it away every day, by giving a brifk draught with an
open door for five minutes. With wood or coak there
is no danger.
It will not be improper in this place to give fome in-
ftruflions for the conftru&ion of ftoves for warming feve-
ral floors in a great manufactory, fuch as a cotton-mill,
or a public library or mufeum.
In fnch fituations we think cleanlinefs, wholefomenefs,
and fweetnefs of air, no lefs neceffary than in the draw¬
ing room of a man of opulence. We therefore recom¬
mend the brick-ftove in preference to the iron one ; and
though it would not be the beft or moft economical
praClice to heat it but once a-day, and we ftiould rather
prefer the German praCtice of conftant feeding, we ftill
think it highly proper to limit the heat to a very mode¬
rate degree, and employ a large furtace.
If the difpofition of the rooms allows us the conve-
niency of a thick party-wall, we would place the ftove
in the middle of this wall, in an arch which pierces
through the wall. Immediately above this arch we
would carry up a very wide chimney through the whole
height. This chimney muft have a paffage opening
into each floor on both fides, which may be very accu¬
rately ftmt up by a door. The ftove being fet up under
the arch, it muft have a pipe communicating with its
flue, and riling up through this chimney. Could an
earthen pipe be properly fupported, and fecured from
fplitting by hoops, we ihould prefer it for the realons
already given. But as this is perhaps expeCling too
much, we muft admit the ufe of a cart iron pipe. This
is the real chimney or flue of the ftove, and muft be of
as great diameter as poflible, that it may aCt, by an ex-
tenfive furface, all the way up.
The ftove ftands under the arch in the wall •, but the
air that is warmed by its furface would efcape on both
fides, and would be expended in that fingle floor. To
prevent this, the ftove muft be inclofed in a cafe : this
may be of brick-work, at the diftance of two or three
inches from the ftove all round. It muft be well {hut
in above, and at the foundation muft have a row of fmall
holes to admit the air all around it. This air will then
be warmed over the whole fpace between the ftove and
the eafe, pafs up the chimney, and there receive addi¬
tional heat from the flue-pipe which is in the middle.
Great care muft be taken that the fire-place door have
no communication Avith the fpace between the ftove and
its cafe, but be inclofed in a mouth-piece which comes
through the cafe, and opens into the feeding-room.
Thus all the air which goes up to the rooms will be
pure and wholefome, provided we take care that every
thing be kept clean and fweet about the air-holes below.
Obferve that thofe air-holes which are near the furnace
door muft be inclofed in a wooden trunk which take#
in its air at fome diftance from this door ; for fince the
current between the ftove and cafe may be almoft as great
as the current within the ftove (nay, when a puff of wind
beats down the chimney, it may even exceed it), there
is a rifle of fome vitiated air and fmoke being drawn into
the cafe.
If the ftove cannot be placed in the arch of a party-
wall, it may be fet adjoining to a fide or outer wall,
and furnifhed writh a cafe, a large chimney, and a flue-
pipe, in the fame manner. But in this cafe a great
deal of heat is Availed on this outer wall, and carried off
by the external air. In this fituation we Avould recom¬
mend to line that part of the wall which is behind the
ftove (at two or three inches diftanee), and the Avhole
of the chimney, with plafter on laihs. Thefe fliould be
nailed on battens properly faftened on the. A\!all, leaving
a fpace of an inch between the laths and the Avail. The
plafter fh»u!d be of the moft fpongy kind, having in it a
quantity of elav in powrder inftead of the full proportion
of fand. Horfe-dung, waihed with Avater and drained
through coarfe flannel, leaves a great portion of unafli-
milated vegetable fibre, which Avill mix very intimately
in the plafter, and make it a fubftance very unfit for con¬
ducing heat. There is no danger of catching fire by this
lining. We have feen a moft tremendous fire rage for
three hours, in contaC with a partition of lath and
plafter (on the plafter-fide hoAvever), without difcolour-
ing the thin laths on the other fide. We once favv a
cottage chimney on fire, and burn till the foot was con-
fumed. This chimney w as nothing hut a pipe of a foot
Avide, made of laths, and plaftered on the infide and
outfide ; and it parted through a thatched roof. We
therefore recommend this in place of the brick-cafe for
inclofing the ftove. It Avould fave heat j and as it might
be
S T O
[ 7.35 1
S T O
Stove. be made in pieces on detached frames, which could be
^ 1 'joined by iron ftraps and hinges, any part of the hove
could be laid open for repairs at pleafure.
We have no hefitation in faying that a ftove conftruc-
ted in this manner would be greatly fuperior in power
to any we have feen, and would be free from many of
their difgufting defers. We beg leave therefore to in¬
troduce here the defcription of one which was to have
been erefted in one of the churches of the city of Edin-
burgh. .
rig, pjg, /^, is 3. fketch of tho plcin of tlio cliurcli contained
in the parallelogram AFED. P marks the place of the
pulpit, and LMNO the front of the galleries. Thefe
are carried back to the fide-walls AB and DC. But at
the end oppofite to the pulpit they do not reach fo far,
but leave a fpace BFEC about 12 feet wide. Below
the back of the galleries, on each fide, there is a paf-
fage ABGH, K1CD, feparated from the feated part
of the church by partitions which reach from the floor
to the galleries, fo that the fpace HGIK is completely
(hut in. The church is an ancient Gothic building, of
a light and airy rtru&ure, having two rows of large win¬
dows above the arcades, and a fpacious window in the
eaft end above the pulpit. The congregation complain
of a cold air, which they feel pouring down upon their
heads. This is more particularly felt by thofe fitting in
the fronts of the galleries. We imagine that this .arifes
chiefly from the extenfive furface of the upper row of
windows, and of the cold ftone-walls above, which robs
■the air of its heat as it glides up along the fides of the
church. It becomes heavier by collapfing, and in this
; ft ate defeends in the middle of the church.
The ftove S is placed againft the middle of the weft
■wall at the diftance of a few inches, and is completely
inclofed in a cafe of lath and plafter. The vent, which
is to carry off the fmoke and burnt air, is conveyed up
or along the wall, and through the roof or fide-wall,
but without any communication with the cafe. In like
manner the fire-place door is open to the paffage, with-
,out communicating with the cafe ; and care is taken that
the holes which admit the air into the cafe are fo dif-
pofed that they lhall run no rilk of drawing in any air
from the fire-place door.
From the top of this cafe proceed two trunks Q^, R,
each of which is two feet broad and fix inches deep,
coated within and without with the moft fpungy plafter
that can be compofed. For this purpofe we ftiould re¬
commend a compofition of powdered charcoal and as
much clay and quicklime as will give it a very flight co-
hefion. We know that a piece of this may be held in
the hand, without inconvenience, within an inch of where
it is of a glowing red heat.—Thefe trunks open into
anpther trunk XVTYZ, which ranges along the parti¬
tion immediately under the galleries, and may be form¬
ed externally into a corniche, a little maflive indeed, but
not unfightly in a building of this ftyle. This trunk is
coated in the fame manner. It has feveral openings
<7, a, &Cc. which have Aiders that can be drawn afide by
means of handles acceflible from the outer paffage.—At
the extremities X and Z of this trunk are twTo perpen¬
dicular trunks which come up through the galleries, and
are continued to a confiderable height. At their junc¬
tion with the horizontal trunk are two doors large
enough to admit a lamp. Each perpendicular trunk has
,alfo a valve by which it can be completely flopped.
The ftove is managed as follows: Early in the morn¬
ing the fuperintendant ftiuts all the Aiders, and fets a
lamp (burning) in each of the trunks X and Z, and
Ihuls the doors. He then puts on and kindles the fire
in the ftove, and manages it either in the Ruffian or
German method. Perhaps the latter is preferable, as be¬
ing liable to feweft accidents from miftake or negleft.
The lamps fet in the lower ends of the upright trunks
prefently warm them, and produce a current of air up¬
wards. This muft be fupplied by the horizontal trunk,
which muft take it from the cafe round the ftove. Thus
a current is begun in the direftion we wifli. By and
by the air in the cafe acquires heat from the ftove, and
the current becomes extremely brifk. When the ma¬
nager perceives this, he removes the lamps, ffiuts the
valves, and opens the holes «, a, &c. beginning with
the moft remote, and proceeding flowly towards the
ftove from each extremity of the horizontal branches.
The heated air now iffues by thefe holes, glides along
the ceiling below the galleries, and efcapes, by rifing
up along the fronts of the galleries, and tvill be fenfibly
felt by thofe fitting there, coming on their faces with a
gentle warmth. It will then rife (in great part) ftraight
up, while fome of it will glide backwards, to the com¬
fort of thofe who fit behind.
The propriety of {hutting the valves of the upright
trunks is evident. If they were left open, no air would
come out by the holes a, a, &c.; but, on the contrary,
the air would go in at thefe holes to fupply the current,
and the ftove be rendered ufelefs. The air delivered by
thefe holes will keep clofe to the ceiling, and will not,
as we imagine, incommode thofe who fit below the gal¬
leries, But if it ffiould be found to render thefe parts
too warm, holes may be pierced through the ceiling,
by which it will rife among the people above, and muft:
be very comfortable. It will require the careful atten¬
tion of fome intelligent perfon to bring all this into a
proper train at firft, by finding the proper apertures of
the different holes, fo as to render the heat equable
through the whole fpace. But this being once afeertain-
ed the difficulty is over.
The air trunks muft be very capacious, but may be
contrafled towards the extremities as their lateral dif-
charges diminiffi ; and the row of holes which admit
the air to the cafe round the ftove muft be fully able to
fupply them.
It" muft be obferved, that in this conftru&ion the
afcenfional force is but fmall. It is only the height of
a ffiort column of warm air from the ground to the gal¬
leries. At firft indeed it is great, having the unlimited
height of the perpendicular trunks at X and Z •, but
during the ufe of the ftove it is reduced to nine or ten
feet. It is neceffary, therefore, that the ftove be highly
heated, perhaps confiderably beyond the Ruffian prac¬
tice, but yet inferior to the heat of the German iron
ftoves. But ftill we ftrongly recommend the brick or
pottery ftoves, on account of the wholefome fweetnefs of
the air which they furnifli : and we are certain that a
ftove of moderate dimenfions, eight feet long, for in-
ftance, by eight feet high, will be fufficient for warming
a church holding 1200 or 1500 people. If the ftove
could be placed lower, which in many fituations is very
pra&icable, its effeft would be proportionally greater,
becaufe all depends on the rapidity of the cuirenV
When we are limited in height, we muft extend the
ftove
Stove,
S T O
r 737 i
S T O
Stove, ftove fo mucli the more in length, and make the air
—trunks more capacious. Thefe and many other circum-
ftances of local modification mult be attended to by the
ere£tor of the ftove j and without the judicious attention
of an intelligent artift, we may expe£t nothing but dif-
appointment. It is hardly poffible to give inftru£tions
fuited to every fituation •, but a careful attention to the
general principle which determines the afcenfional force
will free the artiit from any great rilk of failure.
We may fay the fame tiling of ftoves for confervato-
ries, hot-houfes, hot -walls, &c. and can hardly add any
thing of confequence to what we have already faid on
thefe heads in the article Pneumatics.
We muft not, however, difmifs the fubjeft without
taking notice of the very fpecious projects which have
been frequently offered for drying malt by ftoves. Many
of thefe are to be feen in the publications of the Aca¬
demies of Stockholm, Upfal, Copenhagen 5 and fome
have been erected in this kingdom, but they have not
been found to anfwer.
We apprehend that they cannot anfwer. To dry
malt, and make it fit for the ales and beers for which
this illand is fo famous, it is by no means enough that
we give it a proper and an equable fupply of heat.—
This alone would bake it and make it flinty, caufing
the moillure to penetrate the mealy particles of thegrain;
and, by completely diffolving the foluble parts, would
render each kernel an uniform mafs, which would dry
into a flinty grain, breaking like a piece of glafs.—A
grain of malt is not an inert pulp. It is a SEED, in an
active ftate, growing, and of an organized ftrusfture.
We with to flop it in this ftate, and kill it, not by
heating it, but by abftra£ling its moifture. We thus
leave it in its granulated or organized form, fpungy, and
fit for imbibing water in the malh tub, without running
into a pafte.
To accomplifh thefe purpofes, the conftru£tion of our
malt kilns feems very well adapted. The kiln is the
only flue of the furnace, and a copious current of air is
formed through among the grains, carrying off with it
the water which is evaporating by the heat. But this
evaporation, being chiefly in confequence of the vapour
being immediately diffolved by the pafling air, will flop
as foon as the current of air flops. This current has to
make its wray through moift grain, laid in a pretty thick
bed, and matted together. Some force, therefore, is
neceffary to drive it through. This is furnifhed by the
draught of the kiln. Subftituting a ftove, immediate¬
ly applied to the malt, will not have this effeft. The
only way in which we think this can be done different
from the prefent, is to have a horizontal flue, as has
been propofed in thefe projedfts, fpread out at a finall
diftance below the grate on which the malt is laid, and
to cover the whole with a high dome, like a glafs-houfe
dome. This being filled with a tall column of hot air,
-and having no paffage into it but through the malt,
would produce the current which we want. We are
convinced that this will make much lefs fuel ferve j but
wc are by no means certain that the fulphureous and
carbonic acid which accompanies the air in our common
kiln is not a neceffary or a ufeful ingredient in the pro-
cefs. It is well known that different coaks, cinders, or
charcoals, impart different qualities to the malts, and
are preferred each for its own purpofe.
A patent ftove conftructed on fimilar principles, but
Vol. XIX. Part II.
compofed of very different materials, has been lately
erefted in feveral of the churches in Edinburgh. This
ftove, which is formed entirely of call iron, may be con-
fidered as a double ftove, an outer cafe, and a furnace or
inner ftove. The fuel is burnt in the inner ftove ; and
the fmoke produced during the procefs of combuftion, is
carried off by a chimney, which paffes through the top
of the outer ftove, and is conveyed to the outlide of the
building. The outer cafe includes not only the furnace
or inner ftove, but alfo a confiderable fpace, occupied
by the air of the atmofphere, which is freely admitted
through a number of openings placed around it *, and
when any current of air is produced, it paffes oft from,
the fpace between the outer cafe and inner ftove, and is
conveyed by tubes through the body of the apartment.
But we (hall firft defcribe the different parts of which
the ftove is compofed, after which we {hall be better
able to underftand its mode of operation.
Fig. 5. exhibits a perfpedtive view of this ftovc. AB
is the body, which is about three feet high, and of a
circular form. BC is a fquare pedeftal on which the
ftove is placed, and which contains the afh pit DD.
The height of the pedeftal is about a foot, and it is
nearly infulated byrefting on the fpherical fupports a ay
alfo of call iron. EEE are openings in front of the
alh pit through which the air enters to fupport the com¬
buftion. Thefe openings can be enlarged or diminiftted,
or opened and (hut at pleafure. FF is the door cf the
furnace through which the fuel is introduced, d his
door is attached to the inner furnace, and is double. It
is one foot broad, and 1 1 inches high. GG is the
chimney, which paffes from the furnace within, through
the outer cafe, and conveys the fmoke out of the build¬
ing. HH are openings in the outer cafe, and are eight
in number, through which the air enters, and being
heated, is greatly rarefied, and paffes off through the
funnel or pipe IIII. This pipe communicates only with
the outer ftove, and being {hut at the end K, the air
ruflies out from the fmall tubes LL, inferted into the
fide of the pipe IIII, and thus mixes with the cold air
of the church. The diameter of the outer cafe at the
bottom is about two feet, and the diameter of the fur¬
nace within is about 16 inches.
Fig. 6. is a feftion of the ftove. AB is the outer cafe,
from which paffes off the pipe or funnel CCC, by which
the heated air is conveyed through the church. DD is
the furnace in the infide, in which the fuel is burnt,
and EEE is the chimney or funnel which conveys the
fmoke from the inner furnace out of the building. It
paffes through the outer ftove AB at I.
Fig. 7. is a plan of this ftove. AB is the pedeftal
on which it refts, and which contains the aih pit. CC
is the outer cafe, and DD is the furnace within, in
which are feen the tranfverfe bars which lupport the
fuel.
The length of the body of the church, in which two
ftoves of the form and dimenfions now deferibed are
ere£ted, is about 60 feet, and the breadth is about 45
feet. The tubes IIII are conveyed along the lower
edge of the gallery, about half the length of the church.
The fires are lighted up about four or five o’clock on
the Sunday morning, during the earlier part of the cold
feafon ; but as the feafon advances, it is ufual to light
them up the night before. From this time till the con¬
gregation affemble for the afternoon fervice, the furnaces
f A are
Stove.
S T O [
are kept ccmftantly {applied with fuel. By this manage¬
ment the air in the church is kept comfortably warm
during the coldeft feafon of the year.
Thefe ftcves, it appears to us, are fufceptible of iome
improvement, both in their conftruftion and in the
places in which they are erefled. With regard to the
firit circumftance, an external coating of plafter work,
or of the fune kind of materials as are uled for coating
the iniide of chemical furnaces, would be of lome ufe in
preventing an unneceffary waite of heat, as wmll as the
difagreeable fmell which is fometimes complained of,
and which is fuppofed to arife from the combuftion of
light bodies floating in the air and drawn by the curremt
to the heated metal 5 and with regard to the laft, viz.
the places in which they are eredled, it is perfectly ob¬
vious that they ought to be as completely infulated as
poffible, and particularly ought not to communicate
with good conductors of heat. Some of the floves ere£t-
ed in the churches of Edinburgh are faulty in this re-
fpe£t. But to the ufe of this Hove there is a ftrorrger
objection. The air that is heated has circulated through
the apartment, and has been refpired and confequently
vitiated. Hence fume unpleafant efFe£ts have anfen
from its ufe.
A Hove erefted by Mr A. Kilpatrick, tinfmith in
Edinburgh, is free from this ferious obje£tion. In his
{loves the whole of the air heated is conveyeu from the
out fide of the building. Stoves of this, defeription
anfwer well for heating large halls, ftaircafes, and
churches.
The following is the defeription of an improved Hove
by Mr Field of Newman Street London, in which, it is
Hated by the author, the various advantages, of heating,
boiling, (teaming, evaporating, drying, ventilating, &c.
are united ; fome of which we fhall detail in his own
words.
“ Fig. 8. reprefents a longitudinal fection of the ftove,
Blowing the courfe of tlie air from its entrance into the
flues of the fiove at A, to its entrance into the upper
chamber of the Hove at B •, and alfo the courfe of the
fmoke from the fire-place at C, till it efcapes from the
Hove at D. E, E, are the doors or openings of the fire¬
place and afh-hole.
“ Fig. 9. is a fimilar fe£tion at right angles with the
above, exhibiting tlie courfe of the air through the cham¬
bers of the Hove, from its entrance into the chamber N°
I. at B to its entrance beneath the fire-place at F. This
figure alfo {hows fections of the flues, with the divifions
through which the air and fmoke pafs feparately, the
fmoke-flue in the centre, and the air-flues, on each fide.
G, G, are doors and openings through which the arti¬
cles to be dried are introduced into the chambers.
“ When the fire is lighted, and the doors of the cham¬
bers, afh-hole, and fire place, clofed, the air by which
the fire is fupplied enters at A, fig. 8. paffes through the
air-flues a, a, enters the upper chamber at B, tra-
verfes and defeends through the chambers N° 1, 2, 3,
and arrives beneath the fire at F, fig. 9. Having fup¬
plied the fire with oxygen, it paffes through the flue with
the fmoke, and efcapes at D, heating in its protvadled
epurfe the chambers and air-flues.
“ As the cold air enters the Hove at A, immediately
above a plate forming the top of the fire-place, and pur¬
sues a fimilar route with the fire-flue, it enters the cham¬
bers very much heated and rarefied. Hence any moift
738 ] S T O
fubHance placed in the chambers evaporates in confe-
quence, not only of the heated flues circulating round
them, but of a fiream of warm rarefied air, which, while
it continually raifes evaporation, as continually bears a-
way the exhaled moiflure in its paffage to the five, thus
imitating the gradual and efficacious plan of nature in
drying by the fun and air. While theie eftedds are tak¬
ing place within the ftove, part of the air which enters
A, fig. 8. and 9. paffes through air-flues on the other
fide of the fire-flue, purfues a parallel courfe with the fiift,
and gives out a current of warm air to the room at an
aperture H. This effe£t may be obtained in a much
higher degree, if the doors of the chambers and afh-hole
are opened fhould the hand or face be then biought
near, they would be fanned with a ffream of warm air,
efpecially from the upper chamber.
“ By means of this ftove I have evaporated milk to
drynefs, without burning or difcolouring it ; and have
dried cherries, plums, and other fruits, lb as to imitate
thofe which are received from abroad. 1 have repeat¬
edly dried colours and the moft delicate fubftances with¬
out the flighteft injury, even though the operation pro¬
ceeded quickly.
“ The height of the ftove. is about five feet and a half j
its diameter two feet and a half, and that of the flues four
inches. I he external part is conftiucted of brick, aud
the internal parts of thin Ryegate or fire-ftone, except
the top of the fire-place, which is a plate of calf iron.
Were it to be wholly formed of iron, its effbas would
neceffarily be more powerful.
“ Fig. 10. reprefents an extenfion of the plan, in which
ftoves of this kind may be advantageoufly conneaed with
one or more furnaces for chemical or other uies. The
fire-place, brought out, either in front or on one fide,
by the prefent pofitions of its crown I, forms a rever¬
beratory furnace, or will make a fand-bath by reverfing
it.
“ The fpace occupied by the fire-place in fig. 8. may
in this be converted into apartments for evaporating fub-
Hances, or occafionally for cooling them by an opening
at K to admit cold air, while the warm air of the Hove
is excluded by a regiller or door. 1 he dotted lines ffiow
the manner in which a fccond furnace may be connected
by an opening into the flue at L.
“ In addition to the ufes already pointed.out, this
ftove would probably be found extremely ferviceable in
drying japanners goods, and confumingthe noxious fumes
and mis which arife from the oil and varnifh ufed in tins
bufinefs.
“ Since the ftove is not limited to any certain dimen-
fions, it might be adapted to the drying of malt and
hops, perhaps of herbs, corn, and feeds generally. It
might alfo be accommodated to the purpofe of the fugar-
bakers, connefted with the great fires they employ for
their boilers. It has been ffiown to be ufetul in the con¬
fectioners art, and probably it may be equally fo in bak--
ing bifeuits for the navy 5 nor lefs fo in drying linen
for the laundrefs, dyer, calico-printer, and bleacher.. I
have myfelf found it well accommodated for a chemical
elaboratory , * A&/7.
STOURBRIDGE, or SturbiCH, the name of a ikfry. vo!.
field near Cambridge, noted for its famous.fair kept an- XXV11-
nually on the ^th of September, and which continues
for a fortnight. 1 he commodities are, horfes, hops,
iron,
wool,
leather, cheefe,
This place is alfo
noted
S T O [ 739 ]
noted for an excellent fpecie's of clay capable of refill- fituated in E
ing an intenfc heat. It is ufed in making pots for
glafs-houfes, fire-bricks, &c. j and is fold at an high
price.
STOW, the name of a market-town in Gloucefler-
fliire in England, fituated in W. Long. i. 50. N. Lat.
51. 54. It is alfo the name of a fine feat of the mar¬
quis of Buckingham in Buckingham (hire. Here are the
bed gardens in England, adorned with buds, flatues,
obeiifks, pavilions, and temples. It is two miles from
the town of Buckingham.
Stow, John, the indutlrious hiftorian, fon of Thomas
Stow merchant-taylor of St Michael’s, Cornhill, in
London, was born about the year 1525. Of the early
part of his life we know very little, except that he was
bred to his father’s bufinefs, which in the year 1 i;6o he
relinquifhed, devoting himfelf entirely to the itudy of
our ancient hiftorians, chronicles, annals, charters, re-
gifters, and records. Of thefe he made a confiderable
collection, travelling for that purpofe to different parts
of the kingdom, and tranfcribing fuch manufcripts as he
could not purchafe. But this profeffion of an antiquary
being attended with no prefent emolument, he was ob¬
liged for fubfiftence to return to his trade.—It happen-
edj however, that his talents and neceffities were made
known to Dr Parker arehbifhop of Canterbury; who
being himfelf an antiquary, encouraged and enabled Mr
Stow to profecute his darling iludy. In thofe times of
perfeoution, though Elizabeth was then upon the throne,
honefl John Stow did not efcape danger. His collection
of Popifh records was deemed caufe of fufpicion. His
younger brother Thomas preferred no lefs than 140 ar¬
ticles againft him before the ecclefiaflical commiffion ;
but the pr-oof being infufficient, he was acquitted. In
J565 he firft publifhed his Summary of the Chronicles
of England. About the year 1584 he began his Sur¬
vey of London. In 158) he was one of the two col¬
lectors for a great mutter of Limeftreet ward: in the
fame year lie petitioned the corporation of London to
beftow on him the benefit of two freemen to enable
him to publifh bis furvey; and in 1589 he petitioned
again for a penfion. Whether he fucceeded, is not
known. He was principally concerned in the fecond
edition of Holinfhed’s chronicle, publifhed in 1587. He
alfo corrected and twice augmented, Chaucer’s works,
’publifhed in 1561 and in 1597. His furvey of London
was firil publifhed in 1598. 'To thefe laborious works
be would have added his large Chronicle, or Hiftory of
England; but he lived only to publifh an abftraCt of it
under the title of Flores Hijloriarum. The folio volume,
which was printed after his death, with the title of Stow's
Chronicle, was taken from his papers by Edmund Howes.
Having thus fpent his life and fortune in thefe laborious
purfuits, he was at laft obliged to folicit the charitable
and well difpofed for relief. For this purpofe, King
James I. granted him, in 1603, a brief, which was re¬
newed in 1604, authorizing him to colleCt In churches
the benefaCtions of his fellow-citizens. He died in A-
nril 1605, aged 80; and was buried in bis parifli church
of St Andrew’s, Underfhaft, where his widow erected a
decent monument to his memory. John Stow' was a
moft indefatigable antiquarian, a faithful hiflorian, and
an honeft man. ' *
iSTOWM ARKET, a town of Suffolk, in England,
S T R
Long. 1. 6. N. Lat. 52. 16. It is a
large handfome place, fituated between the branches of
the rivers Gypping and Orwell, and is remarkable for
having the belt cherries in England.
STOWAGE, the general difpofition of the fcveral
materials contained in a fhip’s hold, with regard to their
figure, magnitude, or folidity.
In the Itowage of different articles, as ballaft, calks,
cafes, bales, and boxes, there are feveral general rules
to be obferved, according to the circumftances or qua¬
lities of thofe materials. The calks which contain any
liquid are, according to the fea phrafe, to be bung-up
and bilge-free, i. e. clofely wedged up in an horizontal
pofition, and relting on their quarters: fo that the bil¬
ges where they are thickeft being entirely free allround,
cannot rub againil each other by the motion of the vef-
fel. Dry goods, or fuph as may be damaged by the
water, are to be carefully inclofed in calks, bales, cafes,
or wrappers; and wedged off from the bottom and'fidcs
of the Ihip, as well as from the bow, malls, and pump-
well. Due attention mull likewife be had to their dif¬
pofition with regard to each other, and to the trim and
centre of gravity of the Ihip ; fo that the heaviell may
always be nearell the keel, and the lightell gradually
above them.
S 1'R ABISMUS, fquinting. See Medicine Index,
STRABO, a celebrated Greek geographer, philofo-
pher, and hiftorian, was born at Amafia, and was de-
feended from a family fettled at Gnofius in Crete. He
was the difciple of Xenarchus, a Peripatetic philofopher,
and at length attached himfelf to the Stoics. He con-
trafleda iirict friendlhip with Cornelius Gallus, gover¬
nor of Egy pt, and travelled into feveral countries to ob-
ferve the fituation of places, and the culloms of nations.
He 11 ouri!hed under Auguftus, and died under Tiberius
about the year 25, in a very advanced age.—He com-
pofed feveral works, all of which are loll except his Geo¬
graphy in 17books; which’are jullly elleemed very pre¬
cious remains of antiquity. The two firil books are em¬
ployed in (bowing, that the ftudy of geography is not
only worthy of, but even neceflary to, a philofopher ;
the third dtferibes Spain; the fourth, Gaul and the Bri¬
tannic iiles; the fifth and fixth, Italy and the adjacent
ifles; the feventb, which is imperfeft at the end, Ger¬
many, the countries of the Getae and Illyrii, Taurica
Cherfonefus, and Epirus; the eighth, ninth, and tenth,
Greece with the neighbouring ifles; the four following,
Afia within Mount Taurus; the fifteenth and fixteenth,
Alia without Taurus, India, Perfia, Syria, Arabia; and
the feventeenth, Egypt, Ethiopia, Carthage, and other
places of Africa. Strabo’s work was publifhed with a
Latin verfion by Xylander, and notes by Ifaac Cafaubon
(or rather by Henry Scrimzeer, from whom Cafaubon
chiefly Hole them), at Paris, 1620, in folio. But the
bell edition is that of Amllerdam in 1707, in two vo¬
lumes folio, by the learned Theodore Janfonius ab Al-
melooveen, with the entire notes of Xylander, Cafau¬
bon, Meurfius, Cluver, Holltenius, Salmafius, Bochart,
Ez. Spanheim, Cellarius, and others. To this edition
is fubjoined the Chrejlonmthice, or epitome of Strabo;
which according to Mr Dodwell, who has written a
very elaborate and learned differtation about it, was
made by fome unknown perfon between the years of
Clirill 676 and 996. It has been found of fome ule,
5 -k 2 ■ not
StO'V-
market
Strabo.
S T ft [ 74
Styabo not only m helping to correft the original, but in fop-
H plying in Tome raeafure the deleft in the feventh book.
Strahan- Mr Dodwell’s differtation is prefixed to this edition.
“ v ^ S'1'R ADA, Famianus, a very ingenious and learned
Jefuit, was born at Rome in the latter end of the 16U1
•century, and taught rhetoric there, m a public manner,
for fifteen years. He wrote feveral pieces upon the art
of oratory, and publilhed fome orations with a view of
illultrating by example what he had inculcated by pre¬
cept But his Prolujiones /icademiccz and his Hijlona
de Bello Belgico are the works which raifed his reputa¬
tion, and have preferved his memory. His hUtor? of
the war of Flanders was publifhed at Rome •, the firlt
decad in 1640, the fecond in 1647 } the whole extend¬
ing from the death of Charles V. which happened in
1558, to the year 1590. It is written in good Latin,
as all’allow; but its merit in other refpefts has been
varioufly determined. His Profrjtones Academic# (how
crreat ingenuity, and a mafterly ikill in claflical litera¬
ture ; that prolufion especially in which he introduces
Lucan, Lucretius, Claudian, Ovid, Statius, and Virgil,
each of them verfifiying according to his own (train.
Tbev have been often printed. We know not the year
of Strada’s birth Or of his death. . •
STRAHAN, William, an eminent printer, was
born at Edinburgh in the year 17 tj- -HL father., who
had a fmall appointment in the cultoms, gave his fon
the education which every one of decent rank then
received in a country where the avenues to learning
were eafy, and open to men of the molt moderate cir-
cumftances. After having paffl d through the tuition
of a grammar fchool, he was put apprentice to a printer j
and when a very young man, removed to a wider fphere
in that line of bufinefs, and went to follow his trade in
London. Sober, diligent, and attentive, while his
emoluments were for fome time very fcanty, he contri¬
ved to live rather within than beyond his income; and
though he married early, and without fuch a provifion
as prudence might have looked for in the eftabliihment
of a family, he continued to thrive, and to better his
eircumfiances. 1 his he would often mention as an en¬
couragement to early matrimony j and ufed to fay, that
he never had a child born that Providence did not fend
fome increafe of income to provide for the increafe of his
houfehold. With fufficient vigour of mind, be had that
happy flow of animal fpirits that is not eafily difcouraged
by unpromifing appearances.
His abilities in his profeflion, accompanied with per-
feft integrity and unabating diligence, enabled him, af¬
ter the firft difficulties were overcome, to advance with
rapid fuccefs. And he was one of the moft flourifhing
men of the trade, when, in the year 177°? purcha-
fed a ffiare of the patent for king’s printer of Mr Eyre,
with whom he maintained the moil cordial intimacy du¬
ring the reft of his life. Befide the emoluments arifing
from this appointment, as well as from a very extenfive
private bufinefs, he now drew largely from a field which
required fome degree of fpeculative fagacity to cultivate,
on account of the great literary property which he ac¬
quired by purchafing the copy-rights of the moft cele¬
brated authors of the time. In this his liberality kept
pace with his prudence, and in fome cafes went perhaps
rather beyond it. Never had fuch rewards" been given
to the labours of literary men as now were received from
4
5 j STB.
him and his affociates in thofe purchafes of copy-rights Strahas,
from authors. —v—■
Having now attained the firft great objeft of bufi¬
nefs, wealth, Mr Strahan looked with a very allowable
ambition on the Rations of political rank and eminence.
Politics had long occupied his active mind, which he
had for many years purfued as his favourite amufement,
by correfponding on that fubjeft with fome of the hrit
charafters of the age. Mr Strahan’s queries to Dr
Franklin in the year 1769, refpefting the dilcontents
of the Americans, publithed in the London Chronicle
of 28th July 1778, (how the juft conception he enter¬
tained of the important eonlequences of that difpute,
and his anxiety as a good lubjeft to inveftigate, at that
early period, the proper means by which their grie¬
vances might be removed, and a permanent harmony
reftored between the two countries. In the year 1775
he was elected a member of parliament for the borough
of Malmfbury in Wiltihire, with a very illsflrious col¬
league, the Hon. C. j. Fox *, and in the fucceeding
parliament, for Wootton Ballet, in the tame county.
In this ilation, applying himltlf with that induitry
which was natural to him, he was a uleiui member,
and attended the houie with a (crupulous punftuality.
His talents for bufinefs acquired the eoniideration to
which they were intitled, and were not unnoticed by
the minifter.
In his political conneftion he was conftant to the
friends to whom he had firit been attached. He was
a Iteady fupporter of that party who were turned out
of adminiltration in fpring 1784? and l°fl hi3 feat
the houfe of commons by the dillolution of parliament
with which that change was followed : a lituation
which he did not ftiew any defire to refume on the
return of the new parliament 5 arifing from a feeling
of fome decline in his health, which had rather luftered
from the long fittings and late hours with which the
political warfare in the preceding had been attended.
Without any fixed difeafe, his ftrength viably declined 5
and though his fpirits furvived his ftrength, yet the vi¬
gour and activity of his mind wrere conliderably impair¬
ed. Both continued gradually to decline till his death,
which happened on the 9th of July 1785 71^ year
of his age.
Endued with much natural fagacity, and an attentive
obfervation of life, he owed his rife to that ilation of
opulence and refpeft which he attained, rather to his
own talents and exertion, than to any accidental occur¬
rence of favourable or fortunate circumltanees. His
mind was not uninformed by letters j and from a habit
of attention to ftyle, he acquired a confiderable portion
of critical acutenefs in the dilcernment of its beauties
and defefts ? In one branch of writing he particularly
excelled—the epiftolary } in which he not only jfliowed
the precifion and elearnefs of bufineis, but poileffed a
neatnefs as well as a fluency of expreffion which few let¬
ter-writers have been known to lurpals. Letter-wiiting
was one of his favourite amufements ; and among his
correfpondents were men of ftreh eminence and talents
as well repaid his endeavours to entertain them. Among
thefe, as before mentioned, was the jullly celebrated
Dr Franklin, originally a printer like Mr Strahan,
whole friendihip and correfpondence, notwithftanding
the difference of their fentiaients in political matters,
Sti'aliau
Strain.
S T R
he continued to enjoy till his death,
letters which he received from his illuftrious and vene¬
rable friend contained a humorous allegory of the ftate
of polities in Britain, drawn from the profefTion of print¬
ing ; of which, though the doctor had quitted the exer-
cife, he had not forgotten the terms.
The judicious difpofition which Mr Strahan made of
his property, affords an evident proof of Ids good fenfe
and propriety. After providing munificently for his
widow and children, Ids principal ftudy feems to have
been to mitigate the affliction of thofe (and many there
were) who would more immediately have felt Ids lofs,
by bequeathing them liberal annuities for their lives ;
and (recolleCting that all of a profefflon are not equally
provident) he left loool. to the Company of Stationers,
the interett to be divided among infirm old printers.
As the virtuous connections of the life and the heart
are always pleafing to trace,—of Mr Strahan it may
briefly be faid, that his capacity, diligence, and probi¬
ty, raifed him to the head of his profeffion. The good
humour and obliging difpofition which he owed to na¬
ture, he cultivated with care, and confirmed by habit.
His fympathetic heart beat time to the joy and forrow
of his friends. His advice was always ready to direCt
youth, and his purfe open to relieve indigence. Living
in times not the pureft in the Englilh annals, he efeaped
unfullied through the artifices of trade and the corrup¬
tion of politics. In him a ftrong natural fagacity, im¬
proved by an extenfive knowledge of the world, ferved
only to render refpeCtable his unaffeCted fimplicity of
manners, and to make his Chriftian philanthropy more
difcerning and ufeful. The uninterrupted health and
happinefs which accompanied him for half a century in
the capital, proves honelty to be the beft policy, tempe¬
rance the greateft luxury, and the effential duties of life
its moft agreeable amufement. In his elevated fortune,
none of his former acquaintance ever accufed him of ne-
gleCk He attained profperity without envy, enjoyed
wealth without pride, and difpenfed bounty without
oftentation.
STRAIKS, in the military art, are flrong plates of
iron, fix in number, fixed with large nails called Jlruik-
nnilsy on the circumference of a cannon-wheel, over the
joints of the fellows j both to ftrengthen the wheel,
and to fave the fellows from wearing on hard ways or
ftreets.
STRAIN, a pain occafioned by the violent extenfion
of fome membranous or tendinous part.
Strain, Strefs, in Mechanics, are terms indifcrimi-
nately ufed to exprefs the force which is excited in any
part of a machine or ilrufture of any kind tending to
break it in that part. Thus every part of a rope is
equallij drained by the weight which it fufpends. Every
part of a pillar is equally drained by the load which it
fupports. A mill axle'is equally twided and drained in
every part which lies between the part of the wheel ac¬
tuated by the moving power and the part which is re¬
dded by the work to be performed. Every part of a
lever or joidr is differently drained by a force aiding on a
didant part.
It is evident that we cannot make the drufture fit
for its purpofe, unlefs the drength at every part, be at
lead equal to the drefs laid on, or the drain excited in
that part. It is no lefs plain, that if we are ignorant
•f the principles which determine this drain, both in in-
[ 741 ] S T R
One of ihe lated teniity and direidion, in relation to the magnitude and
the fituation of its remote caufe, the only fecurity we
have for fuccefs is to give to every part of the affem- v.
blage fuel) folidity that we can leave no doubt of its fuf-
ficiency. But daily experience diows us that this vague
fecurity is in many cafes uncertain, if we are thus igno¬
rant. In all cafes it is dovenly, unlike an arlid, attend ¬
ed with ufclefs expence, and in machines is attended
with a lofs of power which is waited in changing the
motions of a needlefs load of matter.
It mud therefore greatly tend to the improvement of
all profedions occupied in the ereflion or employment
of fuch dructures, to have a didindt notion of the drains
to which thefe parts are expofed. Frequently, nay ge¬
nerally, thefe drains are not immediate, but arife from
the adtion of forces on didant parts, by which the af-
femblage is drained, and there is a tendency to rupture
in every part. This drain is induced on every part, and
is there modified by fixed mechanical laws. Thefe it is
our bufinefs to learn •, but our chief objedt in this invof-
tigation is to determine the drength of materials which
it is neceffary to oppofe in every part to this drain j and
how to oppofe this drength in fuch a manner that it
diall be exerted to the bed advantage. The notions ol
drain and drength therefore hardly admit of feparation j
for it is even by means of the drength of the interme¬
diate parts that the drain is propagated to, or excited in,
the part under confideration. It is proper therefore to
condder the whole together under the article STRENGTH
of Materials in mechanics.
STRAINING, is the clarification of a liquor, by
paffing it through a fieve or filter. The word is derived
from the French, ejlreindre ; which is formed from ex,
“ out of,” and Jlringere, “ to prefs.”
STRAIT, a narrow channel or arm of the fea, dnit
up between lands on either fide, and affording a paffage
out of one great fea into another.
There are three kinds of draits. 1. Such as join
one ocean to another. Of this kind are the draits of
Magellan and Le Maire. 2. Thofe which join the-
ocean to a gulf: the draits of Gibraltar and Babelman-
del are of this kind, the Mediterranean and Red lea be¬
ing only large gulfs.. 3. Thofe which join one gulf to
another } as the draits of Caffa, which join the Palus
Maeotis to the Euxine or Black fea. The paffage of
draits is commonly dangerous, on account of the rapi¬
dity and oppofite motion of currents. The mod cele¬
brated drait in the world is that of Gibraltar, which is
about from 24 to 36 miles long, and from 15 to 24
broad, joining the Mediterranean fea with the Atlantic
ocean. The draits of Magellan, difeovered in 1520
by F. Magellan, were ufed fome time as a paffage out
of the North into the South fea j but fince the year
1616, that the drait of Le Maire has been difeovered,
the former has been difufed ; both becaufe of its length,
which is full three hundred miles, and becaufe the navi¬
gation thereof is very dangerous, from the waves of the
North and South feas meeting in it and cladiing. The
drait at the entrance of the Baltic is called the Sound ;
that between England and France, Le pas de Calais,
or the Channel. There are alfo the draits of Weigats,
of Jeffo, of Anian, of Davis, and Hudfon, &c.
STRAKES, or Streaks, in a dup, the uniform
ranges of planks on the bottom and fides of a dup, or
the continuation of planks joined to the ends of each
Other-
Strain
Strakes.
S T K [ 742 ] S T R
'Strnkes other, and reaching from the ftem to the ftern-poft and
gtr ^ falinon-piece?: the lowed of thefe, which is called the
 ’ . parhoardjlreah, ia let into the keel below, and into the
ftem and ftern-poft. They lay alfo a ftiip heels a jfrahe,
that is, hangs or inclines to one fide the quantity of a
whole plank’s breadth.
StrakeS, or Streks, in mining, are frames of boards
fixed on or in the ground, where they wadi and drefs
the fmall ore in a little ftream of water, hence called
Jlraked ore.
STRALSUND, a ftrong and rich fea-port town of
Germany, in Hither Pomerania, formerly an important
trading-place. In 1678 it was forced to furrender to
the elecftor of Brandenburg, after 1 8co houfes had been
burnt to allies in one night’s time. After this the
Swedes defended it to the lart extremity •, and Chas. XII.
in 1714, came hither after his return out of Turkey. But
the throne of Sweden not being able to hold out againft
five great powers, it was forced to fubmit in 1715. In
1720 it was rendered back to Sweden, but in a very
poor condition. It is almoft furrounded by the fea and
the lake Francen, and has a harbour feparated from the
ille of Rugen by a narrow ftrait. It is 15 miles north-
weft of Grippfwald, and 40 north-eaft of Guftrow.
E. Long. 13. 28. N. Lat. 54. 17.
STR AMONIUM, a fpecies of plant. See Datura,
Botany Index.
STRAND (Saxon), any fhore or bank of a fea or
great river. Hence the ftreet in the weft fuburbs of
London, which lay next the fhore or bank of the
Thames, was called the Strand. An immunity from
cuftom, and all impofitions upon goods or vtlfels by land
or water, was ufually exprefted Jlrand or Jlream.
STRANDED (from the SaxonJ!rcnd\ is when a
fhip is by tempeft, or by ill fteerage, run on ground,
and fo perifhes. Where a velfel is ftranded, juftices of
the peace, &c. fhall command conftables near the fea-
coafts to call ailiftance for the prefervation of the (hip j
and officers of men of war are to be aiding and affifting
thereto.
STRANGE, Sir Robert, an eminent engraver,
who carried the art to great perfeftion in this country,
and was diftinguitlnd not only as an artift, but highly
relpedled and beloved on account of his private virtues
and domeftic habits. Modeft as he Was ingenious, he
ufed to fay that the works of an artift fhould ferve for
his life and monument. His works no doubt will per¬
petuate his name whilft any tafte for the fine arts re¬
mains.
Sir Robert Strange was born in the ifland of Pomona
in Orkney, July the 14th 1721 and died at London
July the 5th 1792. He was lineally defcended from
David Strange or Strang, a younger fon of the family
of the Stranges or Strangs of Balcafky, in the county
of Fife, who fettled in Orkney at the time of the Re¬
formation. But as there were no males remaining of the
elder branch of the Stranges of Balcafky, Sir Robert
became the male reprefentative of it, and was found by
a legal inveftigation to have a right to the armorial
Bearings and every other mark of honour belonging to
that ancient family.
He received his claffical education at Kirk^vall in
Orkney, under the care of a learned, worthy, and much
refpe&ed gentleman,'Mr Murdoch Mackenzie, who has
gendered infinite fervice to his eountry by the accurate
5
furveys and charts he has given of the iflands of Orkney, Strange,
and of the Britilh and Irith coafts.
Originally intended for the law, Mr Strange foon be¬
came tired of that profeffion, and perceived that his ge¬
nius decifively led him to the arts of drawing and en¬
graving. For this purpofe lie was introduced to the
late Mr Richard Cooper at Edinburgh, the only perfon
there who had then any tafte in that line of the fine
arts. He was bound with him as an apprentice for fix
years j during which time he made fueh progrefs in
his new profeffion, that his friends entertained the
higheft expectation of his fuccefs 3 nor were they rifap-
pointed.
In the year 1747 quarried Ifabella, only daughter
of William Lumlden, fon of Bifliop Lumfden ; and
foon after his marriage he went to France, where with
the mod ardent application be profecuted his ftudies,
chietly at Paris, under the direction of the celebrated
Le Bas, who engraved many excellent prints from the
Dutch painters. It was from Le Bas he had the firft
hint of the ufe of the inftrument commonly called the
dry needle; but which he afterwards greatly improved
by his otvn genius, and which has added fueh fuperior
beauties to his engravings.
In the year 1751 Mr Strange removed with his fa¬
mily from Edinburgh and fettled at London, where he
engraved feveral fine hiitorical prints, which juftly ac¬
quired to him great reputation. At this period hiftori-
cal engraving had made little progrefs in Britain, and
he may be properly confidered as its father.
The admiration he always had for the works of the
great Italian painters made him long deiire to vifit Ita¬
ly, the feat of the fine arts ; and the farther he advan¬
ced in life, he became the more perfuaded that a jour¬
ney to that country was efiential to an artift who had
the laudable ambition to excel in his profitffion. He
therefore undertook this journey in the year 1760. In
Italy he made many admirable drawings, feveral of
which he afterwards engraved. Thefe drawings are
now in the poffeffion of Lord Dundas.
Everywhere in Italy lingular marks of attention were
bellowed on Mr Strange •, not only by great perfonages,
but by the principal academies of the fine arts in that
country. He was made a member of the academies
of Rome, Florence, and Bologna, and profefibr in the
royal academy at Parma.
To fhow the eftimation in which his talents -were held
at Rome, we cannot but record the following anecdote.
The ceiling of the room of the Vatican library, in
which the colledlion of engravings is kept, is elegant¬
ly painted by Signor Rotfanelli. It reprefents the pro¬
gress of engraving; and the portraits of the molt emi¬
nent artifts in that line are there introduced, among
which is that of our arlift. Under his arm he holds a
portfolio, on which his name is inferibed. He is the
only Britilh artift on whom this honour has been con¬
ferred.
In France, where he refided many years at different
periods, his talents Ifkewife received every mark of at¬
tention that could be bellowed on a foreigner. Fie was
made a member of the royal academy of painting at
Paris.
His majefty King George III. ever attentive to the
progrefs of the fine arts in Britain, and fenfible of the
advantages of which engraving particularly has been to
this
S T It f 743 ] S T R
Strwgc. tliis country, even in a commercial light j and defirous
—¥ to give a mark of his royal approbation of the merit of
Mr Strange, whom he confidered as at the head of his
profeflion and the great improver of it—was gracioutly
pleafed to confer the honour of knighthood on him the
5th of January 1787.
Such was Sir Robert Strange as an artift ^ nor was he
lefs. diftinguiflied by his truly amiable moral qualities,
■which endeared him to all who had the happinefs to
know him.
With regard to his works, he left fifty capital plates,
(till in good condition, which are carefully preferved in
his family. They are engraved from pidlures by the
moil celebrated painters of the Roman, Florentine,
Lombard, Venetian, and other fchools. They are hi-
ftorical, both facred and profane, poetical, allegorical.
From his earliell efiablifiiment in life, Sir Robert
carefully preferved about eighty copies of the finefl and
moft choice impreflions of each plate he engraved;
which, from length of time, have acquired a beauty,
mellownefs, and brilliancy, eafier feen than deferibed.
He did this with a view of prefenting them to the pub¬
lic at a period when age fhould difable him from adding
to their number. Thefe he colledled into as many vo¬
lumes, and arranged them in the order in which they
were engraved. To each volume he prefixed two por¬
traits of himfelf, on the fame plate, the one an etching,
the other a finilhed proof, from a drawing by John
Baptifte Greufe. This is the laft plate which he en¬
graved ; and is a proof that neither his eyes nor hand
were impaired by age. It likewife fhorvs the ufe he
made both of aquafortis and the graver. Each volume,
befides a dedication to the king, contains an introduc¬
tion on the progrefs of engraving, and critical remarks
on the pictures from which his engravings are taken.
Thefe volumes were ready to be given to the public,
when Sir Robert’s death delayed this magnificent publi¬
cation •, a publication which does fo much honour to the
artift, and to the country which gave him birth. Fie
died at London 5th July 1792.
The following is an authentic catalogue of his works.
Plate I. Two Heads of the author—one an etching, the
other a finiihed proof, from a drawing by John Baptifte
Greufe 5 2. The Return from Market, by Wouvermans-,
3. Cupid, by Vanloo •, 4. Mary Magdalen, bv Guido ;
5, Cleopatra, by the fame *, 6. The Madonna, by the
fame ; 7. The Angel Gabriel, by the fame ; 8. The
Virgin, holding in her hand a book, and attend* d by
angels, by Carlo Maratt; 9, '['he Virgin with the Child
afleep, by the fame ; 10. Liberality and Mndefty, by
Guido*, ri. Apollo rewarding Merit and nunifhing Ar¬
rogance, by Andrea Sacchi ; 12. The Finding of Ro¬
mulus and Remus, bv Pietro da Cortona ; 13. Caefar re¬
pudiating Pompeia, by the fame ; 14. Three Children
of King Charles I. by Vandyke; 15. Belifarius, by Sal¬
vator Ilofa ; 16. St Agnes, by Dominichino ; 1 7. The
Judgment of Hercules, by Nicolas Pouffin ; ] 8. Venus'
attired by the Graces, by Guido ; 19. and 20. Juft ice
and Meeknefs, by Raphael ; 21. The Offspring of
Love, by Guido; 22. Cupid Sleeping, by the fame;
23. Abraham giving up the Handmaid Hagar, by
Guercino; 24. Efther a Suppliant before Ahafuerus,
by the fame ; 25. Jofeph and Potiphar’s Wife, by
Guido; 26. Venus Blinding Cupid, by Titian.; 27.
Venus, by the fame; 28. Danae, by the fame; 29.
Portrait of King Charles I. by Vandyke; 30. The Ma- Strange
donna, by Correggio; 31. St Ctecilia, by Raphael; 32.
Mary Magdalen, by Guido ; 33. Our Saviour appear-
ing to his Mother after his Refurretftion, by Guercino ;
34. A Mother and Child, by Parmegiano ; 35. Cupid
Meditating, by Schidoni; 36. Laomedon King of Troy
detedled by Neptune and Apollo, by Salvator Rofa ;
37. The Death of Dido, by Guercino; 38. Venus and
Adonis, by Titian; 39. Fortune, by Guido; 40. Cleo¬
patra, by the fame ; 41. Two Children at School, by
Schidoni; 42. Mary Magdalen, by Correggio; 43.
Portrait of King Charles L attended by the marquis of
Hamilton, by Vandyke; 44. Queen Henrietta, attend¬
ed by the Prince of Wales, and holding in her arms
the Duke of York, by the fame; 45. Apotheofis of the
Royal Children, by Weft ; 46. The Annunciation, by
Guido; 47. Portrait of Raphael Sancio D’Urbino, by
himfelf; 48. Sappho, by Carlo Dolci; 49. Our Saviour
afleep, by Vandyke; 50. St John in the Defert, by
Pvlurillo. • ‘
STRANGER, in Law, denotes a perfon who is not
privy or .party to an a<!ft. Thus a ftranger to a judge¬
ment is he to whom a judgment does not belong; in
which fenfe the word ftands directly oppofed to party
or privy.
STRANGLES, in Farriery. See that article,
N° 481.
STRANGURY, afuppreftion of urine. See Medi¬
cine Index.
STRAP, among furgeons, a fort of band ufed to
ftretch out limbs in the letting of broken or disjointed
bones.
Strap, in afhip, the rope which isfplioed about any
block, and made with an eye to fallen it anywhere on
oecafion.
STRAPS, in the manege. The ftraps of a faddlo .
are fmall leather ftraps, nailed to the bows of the
faddle, with which we make the girths fall to the.
faddle.
STRAPADO, or Strappado, a kind of military
punithment, wherein the criminal’s hands being tied be¬
hind him, he is hoifted up with, a rope to the top of a >
long piece of wood, and let iall again almoft to the
ground; fo that, by the weight of his body in the.
ftiock, his arms are diflucated. Sometimes he is to un- •
dergo three-ftrapadoes or more. .
S’L RASBURG, an ancient, large, handfome, and ,
ftrong city of France, in Alface, .with a population of
40,SCO.- It contains about • 200 ftreets, part of which .
are very narrow-, and moft of the houfts are built after
the ancient tafte. However, there are a great number
of handfome buildings, fueh as the hotel of the marftial
of France, who is commander of the city ; the hotel of .
the cardinal of Rouen, the bifhop’s palace, the Jefuits
college, the royal hofpital, the hotel of Heffe-Darm-
ftadt, the arfenal, the town houfe, and the cathedral.
It has a wooden bridge-over the Rhine, which is thought
to be one of the fineft in Europe ; as is likewife the ca¬
thedral church, v hole tower is the handfomeft in Ger¬
many, and the clock is greatly admired by all travel¬
lers. Some look upon it as one of the wonders of the
world, and the fteeple is allowed to be the higheft in
Europe. The clock not only Ihows the hours of the
day, but the motion of the fun, moon, and ftars. A-
mong other things there is an angel, which turns an. .
bout-
Strafburg,
Strata.
S T R
[ 744 1
S T R
hour-etafs every hour ; and the twelve apoftles proclaim
noon, by each of them ftriking a blow with a hammer
on a bell. There is likewife a cock, which is a piece ot
clock-work, that crows every hour. There are 700
fteps up to the tower or fteeple, it being 500 feet high.
It was a free and imperial city 5 but the king of France
became mafter of it in 1681, and greatly augmented
the fortifications, though before it had 365 cannon.
The inhabitants were formerly Proteftants, and carried
on a great trade *, but moft of them have been obliged
to embrace the Romilh fuperltition, though there is ftill
a fort of toleration. Such was Straihurg before the
French revolution 5 what it is now we have not leilure
to inquire. It is feated on the river 111, 55 miles north
of Bafil, 112 fouth-weft of Mentz, and 255 caft P31,15,
F. Long. 7. 51. N. Lat. 48. 35.
STRATA, in Natural Hijlorif, the feveral beds or
layers of different matters whereof the earth iscompofed.
See Geology.
The flrata whereof the earth is compofed are lo very
different in different countries, that it is impoffible to
fay any thing concerning them that may be generally
applicable: and indeed the depths to which we can pe¬
netrate are fo fmall, that only a very few can be known
to us at any rate; thofe that lie near the centre, or even
n great way from it, being for ever hid. One reafon
why we cannot penetrate to any great depth is, that as
we go down the air becomes foul, loaded with perni¬
cious vapours, inflammable air, fixed air. &c. which <ie-
firoy the miners, fo that there is no poflibility of going
on. In many places, however, thefe vapours become
pernicious much fooner than in others, particularly where
fulphureous minerals abound, as in mines of metal, coal,
&c.
But however great differences there may be among
the under ftrata, the upper one is in fome refpefts the
fame all over the globe, at leaft in this refpe&, that
it is fit for the fupport of vegetables, which the others
are not, without long expofure to the air. Propel ly
fpeaking, indeed, the upper ftratum of the earth all
round, is compofed of the pure vegetable mould, though
in many places it is mixed with large quantities of
other ftrata, as clay, fand, gravel, &c. ; and hence pro¬
ceed the differences of foils fo well known to thofe who
pradtife agriculture.
It has been fuppofed, by fome naturalifts, thai the
different ftrata of which the earth is compofed were
originally formed at the creation, and have continued
in a manner immutable ever fince : but this cannot pof-
fibly have been the cafe, fince we find that many of the
ftrata are ftrangely intermixed with each other •, the
bones of animals both marine and terreftrial are fre¬
quently found at great depths in the earth ; beds of
oyfter-fhells are found of immenfe extent in feveral coun¬
tries ; and concerning thefe and other {hell filh, it is re¬
markable, that they are generally found much farther
from the furface than the bones or teeth either of ma¬
rine or terreftrial animals. Neither are the (hells or
other remains of fifh found in thofe countries adjoining
lo the feas where they grow naturally, but in the moft:
diftant regions. Mr Whitehurft, in his Inquiry into the
Original State and Formation of the Earth, has given
the following account of many different kinds of ani¬
mals, whofe (hells and other remains or exuvuv are found
Eajl and Wejl Iri'
dies.
in England; though at prefent the living animals are
not to be found except in the Eaft and Weft Indies. '
A Catalogue of Extraneous Fossils, flowing
where they were dug up; alfo their native Climates.
Moflly fele&ed from the curious Cabinet of Mr NEIL-
SON, m King-ftreet, Red-Lion Square.
Their names, and Places where found. Native Climates.
Chambered Nautilus. SheppyT Chinefe Ocean, and
iftand ; Richmond in Surrey ; >- other Parts of that
Sherbone in Dorfetftiire, - J great fea.
Teeth of Sharks. Sheppyifland,'
Oxfordftiire, Middlefex, Surrey,
Northamptonlhire, - -
Sea-Tortoise, feveral kinds; the"!
Hawkfbill, Loggerhead, and \ - Wejl Indies.
Green fpecies. Sheppy iftand, .
Mangrove Tree Oysters. 7 ^ W,w.
Sheppy iftand, - - ^
Coxcomb Tree Oysters. Ox-T
fordlhire, Gloucefterlhire, Dor \-Coafl of Guinea.
fetftiire, and Hanover, - . I
Vertebra: and Palates of the j R ^ WeJl lnm
Orbes. Sheppy itland, and
many other parts of England, j
Crocodile. Germany, Derby-
fhire, Nottinghamfliire, Oxford¬
ftiire, and Vorkftiire, - _
Alligator’s Teeth. Oxford- 7 &ofl and Wef lh»
(hire, Sheppy iftand, - 3 dies.
The Banded Buccinum. Oxford- \
(hire, and the Alps, - 4 ^
The Dipping-Snail, and Star- Xweft
Fish. Sheppy illand, - j ^
Tail Buccinum. Sheppy ifland,1 y n
Hordel Cliff, Hampftiire, - 3 J
Strata-.
J
Indies.
Indies.
' Indies.
Nothing has more perplexed thofe who undertake to
form theories of the earth than thefe appearances. Some
have at once boldly afferted, from theie and other phe¬
nomena, that the world is eternal. Others have had.
recourfe to the univerfal deluge. Some, among whom
is the Count de Buffon, endeavour to prove that, the
ocean and dry land are perpetually changing places;
that for many ages the higheft mountains have been
covered with water, in confequence of which the ma¬
rine animals juft mentioned ivere generated in fuch vaft
quantities; that the waters will again cover thefe. moun¬
tains, the habitable part of the earth become fea, and
the fea become dry land as before, &c. Others have
imagined that they might be occafioned by volcanoes,
earthquakes, &e. which confound the different ftrata,
and often intermix the produdtions of the fea with thofe
of the dry land.
But for a view of the different ftrata fo far as they
are kjiown, as well as for a view of fome of the theories
which have been propofed to account for the formation
and changes of the earth, fee Geology.
Mr Forfter has given an account of fome of the ftrata
of the South-fea iftands, the fubftance of which may be
feen in the following table.
South Georgia.
I. No foil, except in a few crevices of the rocks.
2*
S T R [74S
Strata. 2. Ponderous date, with fome irony particles, in hori¬
zontal ftrata, perpendicularly interfered with veins
of quartz.
Southern IJle of New Zealand.
1. Fine light black mould, in fome places nine inches
deep, but generally not fo much.
2. An argillaceous fubftance, nearly related to the clafs
of Falcons, turned into earth by the addon of the
air.
3. The fame fubftance farther indurated, in oblique
ftrata, generally dipping to the fouth.
Easter Island.
1. Reddifh-brown dufty mould, looking as if it had
been burnt.
2. Burnt rocks, refembling flags or drofs and other
volcanic matters.
mixed with tarras
Marquesas.
1. Clay mixed with mould.
2. An earthy argillaceous fubftance
and puzzolana.
Otaheite.
The fhores are coral rock, extending from the reef en¬
circling thefe ifles to the very high water-mark.
There begins the fand, formed in fome places from
fmall fhells and rubbed pieces of coral; but in others
the (hores are covered with blaokilb fand, confiding
of the former fort mixed with black, fometimes glit¬
tering, particles of mica, and here and there fome
particles of the refradory iron ores called in Eng¬
land Skim, the ferrum micaceum of Linnaeus, and
Kall, the molybdcenumfpuma lupi of the fame author.
The plains from the fliores to the foot of the hills
are covered with a very fine thick ftratum of black
mould, mixed with the above-mentioned fand, which
the natives manure with fhells. The firft and lower
range of hills are formed of a red ochreous earth,
fometimes fo intenfely red, that the natives ufe it to
paint their canoes and cloth. The higher hills con-
fill of a hard, compad, and ftiff clayey fubftance,
hardening into ftone when out of the reach of the fun
and air. At the top of the valleys, along the banks
of the rivers, are large mafles of coarfe granite ftones
of various mixtures ; in one place are pillars of a
gray, folid bafaltes } and, in feveral others, fragments
of black bafaltes.
Friendly Islands and New Hebrides.
The fame with the above.
Mallicollo.
Yellowifh clay mixed with common fand.
Tanna, a Volcanic If and.
The chief ftrata here are clay mixed with aluminous
earth, interfperfed with lumps of pure chalk. The
ftrata of the clay are about fix inches, deviating very
little from the horizontal line.
New Caledonia and the adjacent Ifes.
The fliores confift of fliell-fand, and particles of quartz;
the foil in the plains a black mould mixed with this
VOL. XIX. Part II.
] S T R
fand. The fides of the hills compofed of a yellow
ochreous clay, richly fpangled with fmall particles of
cat-filver, or a whitiftr kind of daze, the mica argentca
of Linnaeus. The higher parts of the hills confift
of a ftone called by the German mmeTsgefelfein, com¬
pofed of quartz and great lumps of the above cat-
filver. The latter is fometimes of an intenfely red or
orange colour, by means of an iron ochre.
“ From the above account, fays Mr Forfter, it ap¬
pears, I think, evidently, that all the high tropical ifles
of the South fea have been fubjed to the adion of vol¬
canoes. Pyritical and fulphureous fubftances, together
with a few iron-ftones, and fome veftiges of copper, are
no doubt found in feveral of them : but the mountains
of New Caledonia are the moft likely to contain the
richeft metallic veins ; and the fame opinion, I fufped,
may be formed of the mountains in New Zealand.”
In the city of Modena in Italy, and for fome miles
round that place, there is the moft Angular arrange¬
ment of ftrata perhaps in the whole world. From the
furface of the ground to the depth of 14 feet, they meet
with nothing but the ruins of an ancient city. Being
come to that depth, they find paved ftreets, artificers
fhops, floors of houfes, and feveral pieces of inlaid work.
After thefe ruins they find a very folid earth, which
one would think had never been removed ; but a little
longer they find it black and marlhy, and full of briars.
Signior Ramazzini in one place found a heap of wheat
entire at the depth of 24 feet; in another, he found
filbert-trees with their nuts. At the depth of about
28 feet, they find a bed of chalk, about 11 feet deep,
which cuts very eafily ; after this a bed of marfhy earth
of about two feet, mixed with rufhes, leaves, and
branches. After this bed comes another of chalk,
nearly of the fame thicknefs ; and which ends at the
depth of 42 feet. This is followed by another bed of
marftiy earth like the former ; after which comes a new
chalk-bed, but thinner, which alfo has a marfhy bed
underneath it. This ends at the depth of 63 feet ;
after which they find fand mingled with fmall gravel,
and feveral marine fhells. This ftratum is ufually about
five feet deep, and underneath it is a vaft refervoir of
water. It is on account of this w'ater that the foil is
fo frequently dug, and the ftrata fo well known in this
part of the world. After coming to the fandy bottom
above mentioned, the workmen pierce the ground with
a terebra or augre, when the water immediately fpfings
up with great force, and fills the well to the brim.
The flow is perpetual, and neither increafes by rain,
nor decreafes by drought. Sometimes the augre meets
with great trees, which give the workmen much trou¬
ble ; they alfo fometimes fee at the bottom of thefe
wells great bones, coals, flints, and pieces of iron.
It has been aflerted by fome, that the fpecific gra¬
vity of the ftrata conftantly increafed with the depth
from the furface. But Dr Leigh, in his Natural Hi-
ftory of Lancashire, fpeaking of the coal-pits, denies
the ftrata to lie according to the laws of gravitation ;
obferving, that the ftrata there are firft a bed of marie,
then free-ftone, next iron-ftone, then coal, or channel
mire, then fome other ftrata, then coal again, &c.
This determined Mr Derham to make a nicer inquiry
into the matter: accordingly, in 1712, he caufed di¬
vers places to be bored, laying the feveral ftrala by
5 B ihemfelves;
Strata.
S T R [ 74^ ] S T R
Strata tliemfelves ; and afterwards determined very carefully
II their fpecific gravity. The refult was, that in his yard
Stratiotes. ^ ftrata vvere gradually fpecifically heavier and heavier
the lower and lower they went j but in another place
in his fields, he could not perceive any difference in the
fpecific gravities.
Acquainting the Royal Society therewith, their ope¬
rator Mr Hauklbee was ordered to try the ftrata of a
coal pit, which he did to the depth of 30 ftrata : the
tbicknefs and fpecific gravity of each whereof he gives
Vol. xxvii. us in a table in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions ; and
p. ^41. from the whole makes this inference, that it evidently
appears the gravities of the feveral ftrata are in no
manner of order, but purely cafual, as if mixed by
chance.
STRATAGEM, in the art of war, any device for
deceiving and furprifing an enemy. The ancients dealt
very much in ftratagems : the moderns wage War more
openly, and on the fquare. Frontinus has made a col-
leftion of the ancient ftratagems of war.
STRATEGUS, cg«r»iy«s, in antiquity, an officer
among the Athenians, whereof there were two chofen
yearly, to command the troops of the ftate.
Plutarch fays, there was one ehofen from out of each
tribe but Pollux feems to fay they were chofen indif¬
ferently out of the people. The people themfelves
made the choice •, and that on the raft day of the year,
in a place called Pnyx. The two Jirategi did not com¬
mand together, but took their turns day by day ; as
we find from Herodotus and Cornelius Nepos. Some¬
times indeed, as when a perfon was found of merit
vaftly mperior, and exceedingly famed in war, the com¬
mand was given to him alone : but it was ever a rule
not to put any perfon in the office but whofe eftate was
in Attica, and who had children, that there might be
fome hoftages and fecurities for his conduft and fideli¬
ty. Conftantine the Great, befides many other privi-
leges granted to the city of Athens, honoured its
chief magiftrate with the title of Msf«s ZT§*njy0s, Mag¬
nus Dux.
STRATH, in the Scottifh language, fignifies a long
narrow valley, with a river running along the bottom.
STRATHEARN, a beautiful and extenfive valley
in Perthfliire, bounded on the north by the lofty ridge
of mountains called the Grampians, and on the fouth by
the Ochiis, which are rounded on the tops and covered
with verdure. It is called Strathearn from the river
Earn, which runs through the middle of it from weft to
eaft for about 30 miles. On each fide of the banks of
this beautiful ftream are many villages and country-feats
diftinguirtied for romantic fituations. Were we to fingle
out any of the villages, we would mention Crieff, which
ftands on a fine Hoping ground on the north fide of the
Earn, and has been much admired by travellers for
its fituation, and the variety, contraft, Angularity, and
beauty of the profpe& which it affords.
ST RA1HNAVER, a fubdivifion or diftri£t of the
county of Sutherland in Scotland } bounded on the
north by the ocean, on the eaft: by Caithnefs, on the
louth by Sutherland properly fo called, and on the weft
partly by Rofs and partly by the ocean.
STRATIOTES, Water-soldier, a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs polyandria. See Botany
Index.
3
S PRATO, a philofopher of Lampfacus, difciple and Strato
fuccefl'or in the fchool of Theophraftus, about 248 years II
before the Chriftian era. He applied himfelf with un- Stren£th °f
common induftry to the ftudy of nature j and after the ,
moft mature inveftigations, he fupported that nature was
inanimate, and that there was no god but nature. (See
PLASTIC Nature). He was appointed preceptor to Pto¬
lemy Philadelphus, who not only revered his abilities
and learning, but alfo rewarded his labours with un¬
bounded liberality. He wrote different treatifes, all
now loft.
STRAWBERRY. SccFragaria, Botany/W<?v.
STBA tVBERB T-Tree. See Arbutus, Botany Index.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, in Mechanics, is aImp0Jtatlcs
fubjeft of fo much importance, that in a nation fo emi-0fthe fub-
nent as this for invention and ingenuity in all fpecies of]eft.
manufactures, and in particular lb diftinguilhed for its
improvements in machinery of every kind, it is fome-
what Angular that no writer has treated it in the detail
which its importance and difficulty demands. The man
of fcience who vifits our great manufactories is delighted
with the ingenuity which he obferves in every part, the
innumerable inventions which come even from indivi¬
dual artifans, and the determined purpofe of improve¬
ment and refinement which he fees in every workfhop.
Every cotton mill appears an academy of mechanical
fcience j and mechanical invention is fpreading from
thefe fountains over the whole kingdom: But the philofc-
pher is mortified to fee this ardent fpirit fo cramped bv
ignorance of principle, and many of thefe original ami
brilliant thoughts obfcured and clogged with needkfs
and even hurtful additions, and a complication of ma¬
chinery which checks improvement even by its appear¬
ance of ingenuity. There is nothing in which this
want of fcientific education, this ignorance of principle,
is fo frequently obferved as in the injudicious proportion
of the parts of machines and other mechanical ftru&ures j
proportions and forms of parts in which the ftrength and
pofition are nowife regulated by the ftrains to which
they are expofed, and where repeated failures have been
the only leffons.
It cannot be otherwife. We have no means of in-
ftruflion, except two very ffiort and abftra&ed treatifes
of the late Mr Emerfon on the ftrength of materials.
We do not recolleft a performance in our language from
which our artifts can get information. Treatifes written
exprefsly on different branches of mechanical arts are to¬
tally filent on this, which is the bafis and only principle
of their performances. Who would imagine that Price’s
British Carpenter, the work of the firft reputation in
this country, and of which the foie aim is to teach the
carpenter to ereft folid and durable ftruclures, does not
contain one propofition or one reafon by which one form
of a thing can be fhown to be ftronger or weaker than
another ? We doubt very much if one carpenter in an
hundred can give a reafon to convince his own mind
that a joift is ftronger when laid on its edge than when
laid on its broad fide. We fpeak in this ftrong manner
in hopes of exciting fome man of fcience to publifh a
fyftem of inftruftion on this fubjeft. The limits of our
Work will not admit of a detail : but we think it necef-
fary to point out the leading principles, and to give the
traces of that fyftematic connexion by which all the
knowledge already poffeffed of this fubject may be
brought
s T R [ 747 1 S T R
Strength Dibrougnt together and properly arranged. This we (hall more (hortly exprefe it, excited. 1’his action is modi-Strength ef
attempt in as brief a manner as we are able. fied in every part by the laws of mechanics. It is this Materials.^
Strength of I'he ftrength of materials arifes immediately or ulti-
■ materials mately from the cohefion of the parts of bodies. Our
arifes from examination of this property of tangible matter has as
cohefion. yet been very partial an(i imperfeA, and by no means
enables us to apply mathematical calculations with pre-
cifion and fuccefs. The various modifications of cohe¬
fion, in its different appearances of perfedt foftnefs, plafti-
city, ductility, elafticity, hardnefs, have a mighty influ¬
ence on the ftrength of bodies, but are hardly fulceptible
of meafurement. Their texture alfo, whether uniform
like glafs and ductile metals, cryftallized or granulated
like other metals and freeftone, or fibrous like timber, is
a circumftance no lefs important *, yet even here, al¬
though we derive feme advantage from remarking to
which of thefe forms of aggregation a fubftance belongs,
3 the aid is but fmall. All we can do in this want of
ment^to general principles is to make experiments on every clafs
afeertain it. 0f bodies. Accordingly philofophers have endeavoured
to inftruft the public in this particular. The Royal So¬
ciety of London at its very firft inftitution made many
experiments at their meetings, as may be feen in the
* see firft regifters of the Society *. Several individuals have
Birche’s added their experiments. The moft numerous colleflion
Hijlory,and jn detail is by Mufehenbroek, profeffor of natural philo-
^Weithcma f°pby at Leyden. Part of it was publiflied by himfelf
lkalCollec-'m his EJfais de Physique, in two vols. 410 5 but the
timi. full colleftion is to be found in his Syftem of Natural
Philofophy, publifhed after his death by Lulofs, in three
vols. 4to. This was tranflated from the Low Dutch
into French by Sigaud de la Fond, and publiflied at
Paris in 1760, and is a prodigious colleftion of phyfieal
knowledge of all kinds, and may almoft fuffice for a li¬
brary of natural philofopliy. But this collection of ex¬
periments on the cohefion of bodies is not of that value
which one experts. We prefiime that they were care¬
fully made and faithfully narrated-, but they were made
on fuch fmall fpecimens, that the unavoidable natural
inequalities of growth or texture produced irregularities
in the refults which bore too great a proportion to the
whole quantities obferved. We may make the fame re¬
mark on the experiments of Couplet, Pitot, De la Hire,
Du Hamel, and others of the French academy. In
ihort, if we except the experiments of Buffon on the
ftrength of timber, made at the public expence on a
large fcale, there is nothing to be met with from which
we can obtain abfolute meafures which may be employed
with confidence ; and there is nothing in the Englifh
language except a fimple lift by Emerfon, which is mere¬
ly afetof affirmations, without any narration ofcircum-
ftances, to enable us to judge of the validity of his con-
elufions: but the character of Mr Emerfon, as a man of
knowledge and of integrity, gives even to thefe affertions
^ a confiderable value.
endered Put to make ufe of any experiments, there muft be
feful by employed fome general principle by which we can ge-
eneraliza- neralize their refults. They will other wife be only nar¬
rations of detached fadls. We muft have fome notion
of that intermedium, by the intervention of which an
external force applied to one part of a lever, joift, or
pillar, occalions a drain on a diftant part. This can be
nothing but the cohefion between the parts. It is this
connecting force which is brought into action, or, as we
a£lion which is what we call the Jlvength of that part, ^
and its effett is the (train on the adjoining parts j and strength
thus it is the fame force, differently viewed, that conlti-defined,
tutes both the drain and the ftrength. When we con-
fider it in the light of a refiftance to frafture, we call it
Jlrength.
We call every thing a force which we obferve to be
ever accompanied by a change of motion 5 or, more
flriftly fpeaking, we infer the prefence and agency of a
force wherever we obferve the ftate of things in refpeft
of motion different from what we know to be the refult
of the aftion of all the forces which we knowr to add on
the body. Thus when we obferve a rope prevent a body
from falling, we infer a moving force inherent in the
rope with as much confidence as when we obferve it
drag the body along the ground. The immediate ac¬
tion of this force is undoubtedly exerted between the
immediately adjoining parts of the rope. The immedi¬
ate effedl is the keeping the particles of the rope to¬
gether. They ought to feparate by any external force
drawing the ends of the rope Contrarywife ; and we a-
feribe their not doing fo to a mechanical force really op- <7
pofing this external force. When defired to give it a Caufes
name, we name it from what we conceive to be its ef- known ort«
fedf, and therefore its charadferiftic, and we call it
hesion. This is merely a name for the fad! ; but it is fC(o;r,
the fame thing in all our denominations. We know
nothing of the caufes but in the effedls ; and our name
for the caufe is in faft the name of the effeft, which is
cohesion. We mean nothing elfe by gravitation or
magnetifm. What do We mean when we fay that New¬
ton under flood thoroughly the nature of gravitation, of
the force of gravitation -, or that Franklin underftood
the nature of the eledfric force ? Nothing but this :
Newton confidered with patient fagacity the general
fadls of gravitation, and has deferibed and claffed them
with the utmoft precifion. In like manner, we (hall
underftand the nature of cohefion when we have dif-
covered with equal generality the laws of cohefion, or
general fadls which are obferved in the appearances, and
when we have deferibed and claffed them with equal ac¬
curacy.
Let us therefore attend to the more fimple and ob¬
vious phenomena of cohefion, and mark with care every
circumflance of refemblance by which they may be claf¬
fed. Let us receive thefe as the laws of cohefion, eha-
radteriftic of its fuppofed caufe, the force of cohefion.
We cannot pretend to enter on this vaft refearch. The
modifications are innumerable: and it would require the
penetration of more than Newton to detect the circum¬
ftance of fimilarity amid!! millions of diferiminatingeir-
cuttiftances. Yet this is the only way of difeovering
which are the primary fadls charadleriftic of the forced
and which are the modifications. The ftudy is immenfe,
but it is by no means defperate; and we entertain great
hopes that it will ere long be fuccefsfully profecuted :
but, in our particular predicament, we muft content our-
felves with feledting fuch general laws as feem to p-ive
us the mod immediate information of the circumftances
that muft be attended to by the mechanician in his con-
ftrudtions, that he may unite ftrength with (implicity,
economy, and energy.
1. Then* it is a matter of fadl that all bodies are in a
5 E 2 certain
Maenah
AU bodies
elaftic.
S T TV [
Strength of certain degree perfectly elattic ; that is, when their form
or bulk is changed by certain moderate comprefhons or
diftraaions, it requires the continuance of the changing
force to continue the body in this new (late and when
the force is removed, the body recovers its original form.
vVe limit the affertion to certain moderate changes : lor
inftance, take a lead wire of one fifteenth of an inch in
diameter and ten feet long ; fix one end firmly to the
ceiling, and let the wire hang perpendicular ; affix to the
lower end an index like the hand of a watch *, on fome
Hand immediately below let there be a circle divided
into degrees, with its centre correfponding to the lower
point of the wire : now turn this index twice round, and
thus twift the wire. When the index is let go, it will
turn backwards again, by the wire’s untwitting itfelf,
and make almoft four revolutions before it flops j aittr
.which it twills and untwifts many times, the index going
backwards and forwards round the circle, diminitliing
however its arch of twill each time, till at Lift it lettles
precifely in its original pofition. This may be repeated
for ever. Now, in this motion, every part of the wire
partakes equally of the twill. J. he particles are flretch-
ed, require force to keep them in their Hate of extenfion,
and recover completely their relative politicos. Thefe
are all the characters of what the mechanician calls/?*r-
feB elaflicity. This is a quality quite familiar in many
cafes \ as in glafs, tempered Heel, &c. but was thought
incompetent to lead, which is generally confidered as
having little or no elaflicity. But we make the affer¬
tion in the moH general terms, with the limitation to
moderate derangement of form. We have made the
fame experiment on a thread of pipe-clay, made by
forcing foft clay through the fmall bole of a fyrmge by
means of a ferew j and we found it more elaffic than
the lead wire : for a thread of one-twentieth of an inch
diameter and feven feet long allowed the index to make
two turns, and yet completely recovered its firff pofi¬
tion.
2. But if we turn the index of the lead wire four
times round, and let it go again, it untwifts again in the
fame manner, but it makes little more than four turns
back again \ and after many ofcillations it finally flops
in a pofition almoft two revolutions removed from its
original pofition. It has now acquired a new arrange¬
ment of parts, and this new arrangement is permanent
like the former •, and, what is of particular moment, it
is perfe&ly elaftic. This change is familiarly known by
the denomination of a set. The wire is faid to have
TAKEN A SET. When we attend minutely to the pro¬
cedure of nature in this phenomenon, we find that the
particles have as it were Hid on each other, ftill coher¬
ing, and have taken a new pofition, in which their con¬
necting forces are in equilibrio : and in this change of
relative fit nation, it appears that the connecting forces
which maintained the particles in their firft fituation
were not in equilibrio in fome pofition intermediate be¬
tween that of the firft and that of the laft form. The
force required for changing this firft form augmented
with the change, but only to a certain degree 5 and
during this procefs the connecting forces always tended
to the recovery of this firft form. But after the change
of mutual pofition has paffed a certain magnitude, the
union has been partly deftroyed, and the particles have
been brought into new fituations; fuch, that the forces
which now connect each with its neighbour tend, not
S
What is
meant by
748 ] ST
to the recovery of the firft arrangement, but to puffi Strength of
them farther from it, into a new fituation, to which ;VlatCTa1^
they now verge, and require force to prevent them from
acquiring. The wire is now in faCt again perfectly
elaftic j that is, the forces which now conned the par¬
ticles with their neighbours augment to a certain degree
as the derangement from this new pofition augments,
This is not reafoning trom any theory, it is narrating
faCts, on which a theory is to be founded. What we
have been juft now faying is evidently a defeription of
that fenfible form of tangible matter which we call due- ^
tilitij. It has every gradation of variety, from the loft-Ductility,
nefs of butter to the firmnefs of gold. All thefe bodies
have fome elaft icily ; but we fay they are not perfectly
elaftic, becaufe they do not completely recover their
original form when it has been greatly damaged. 'I he
whole gradation may be molt diftinCtly oblerved in a
piece of glafs or hard fealing wax. In the ordinary
form glafs is perhaps the molt completely elaitic body
that we know, and may be bent till juft ready to Inap,
and yet completely recovers its firlt form, and takes no
fet whatever *, but when heated to fuch a degree as jull
to be vifible in the dark, it lofes its brittlenels, and be¬
comes fo tough that it cannot be broken by any blow $
but it is no longer elaflic, takes any fet, and keeps it.
When more heated, it becomes as plaftic as clay j but
in this Hate is remarkably diftinguilhed trom clay by a
quality which we may call viscidity, which is fome-y.^®.^
thing like elafticity, of which clay and other bodies
purely plaftic exhibit no appearance. This is the joint
operation of ftrong adheficn and foftnefs. When a rod
of perfectly foft glafs is fuddenly ftretched a little, it
does not at once take the fliape which it acquires after
fome little time. It is owing to this, that in taking the
impreflion of a feal, if we take off the feal while the
wax is yet very hot, the lharpnefs of the imprefiion is
deftroyed immediately. Each part drawing its neigh¬
bour, and each part yielding, the prominent parts are
pulled down and blunted, and the fharp hollows are
pulled upwards and alfo blunted. The feal muft be
kept on till all has become not only ftiff but hard. n
This vifeidity is to be obferved in all plaftic bodies Obferved
which are homogeneous. It is not obferved in clay, be-in all ho-
caufe it is not homogeneous, but confifts of hard parti- nj°|?n<^)ol
cles of argillaceous earth flicking together by their at-|j-fSt
traftion for water. Something like it might be made of
finely poivdered glafs and a clammy fluid fuch as tur¬
pentine. Vifeidity has all degrees of foftnefs till it de¬
generates to ropy fluidity like that of olive oil. Perhaps
fomething of it may be found even in the moft perfeft
fluid that we are acquainted with, as we obferved in the
experiments for afeertaining fpecific gravity.
There is in a late volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
aftions a narrative of experiments, by which it appears
that the thread of the fpider is an exception to our firft
general law, and that it is perfedly duCHle. It is there
afferted, that a long thread of goffamer, furnithed with
an index, takes any pofition whatever ; and that though
the index be turned round any number of times (even
many hundreds), it has no tendency to recover its fiift
form. The thread takes completely any fet whatever.
We have not had an opportunity of repeating this ex¬
periment, but we have diltinCUy obferved a phenomenon
totally inconfiftent with it. If a fibre of goffamer about
an inch long be held by the end horizontally, it bends
downward
S T Pv
t 749 3
S T R
Particles
afted on
by attrac¬
tions and
repulfions.
Strength of downward in a curve like a (lender (lip of whalebone or
Materials. a ]iajr< Jf totally devoid of elailicity, and perfe611y in-
^ different to any fet, it would hang down perpendicularly
without any curvature.
When duftility and elaflicity are combined in differ¬
ent proportions, an immenfe variety of fenfible modes of
aggregation may be produced. Some degree of both
are probably to be obferved in all bodies of complex
conftitution *, that is, which confift of particles made up
of many different kinds of atoms. Such a conftitution
of a body muff afford many fituations permanent, but
eaftly deranged.
In all thefe changes of difpofttion which take place
among the particles of a duftile body, the particles are
at fuch diftance that they (fill cohere. The body may
be ftretched a little ; and on removing the extending
force, the body fhrinks into its firft form. It alfo re-
T„ fills moderate compreftions ; and when the compreffing
force is removed, the body fwells out again. Now the
corpufcular faB here is, that the particles are aifted on
by attra&ions and repulfions, which balance each other
when no external force is acting on the body, and which
augment as the particles are made, by any external
caufe, to recede from this fituation of mutual ina61ivity •,
for fince force is requifite to produce either the dilata¬
tion or the compreffion, and to maintain it, we are obli¬
ged, by the conftitution of our minds, to infer that it is
oppofed by a force accompanying or inherent in every
particle of dilatable or compreflible matter ; and as this
neceflity of employing force to produce a change indi¬
cates the agency of thefe corpufcular forces, and marks
their kind, according as the tendencies of the particles
appear to be toward each other in dilatation, or from
each other in compreffion 5 fo it alfo meafures the de¬
grees of their intenfity. Should it require three times
the force to produce a double compreffion, we muft rec¬
kon the mutual repulfions triple when the compreflion
is doubled 5 and fo in other inftances. We fee from all
this that the phenomena of cohefion indicate fome rela¬
tion between the centres of the particles. To difcover
problem in this relation is the great problem in corpufcular me-
corpuicular chanifm, as it was in the Newtonian inveftigation of the
mechanifm £orce gravJtation. Could we difcover this law of ac¬
tion betw’een the corpufcles with the fame certainty and
diffimflnefs, we might with equal confidence fay what
will be the refult of any pofition which we give to the
particles of bodies *, but this is beyond our hopes. The
law of gravitation is fo fimple, that the difcovery or de-
teflion of it amid the variety of celeftial phenomena re¬
quired but one ftep *, and in its own nature its poflible
combinations ftill do not greatly exceed the powers of
human refearch. One is almoft difpofed to fay that the
Supreme Being has exhibited it to our reafoning powers
as fnfficient to^ employ with fuccefs our utmoft effoits,
but not fo abftrufe as to difcourage us from the noble
attempt. It feems to be otherwife with refpeft to co¬
hefion. Mathematics informs us, that if it deviates fen-
fibly from the law of gravitation, the fimpleft combina¬
tions will make the joint action of feveral particles an
almoft impenetrable myftery. We muft therefore con¬
tent ourfelves, for a long time to come, with a careful
obfervation of the fimpleft cafes that we can propofe,
and with the difcovery of fecondary laws of aftion, in
which many particles combine their influence. In pur-
fuance of this plan, we obferve,
13
The great
3. That whatever is the fituation of the particles
a body with refpedft to each other, when in a quiefeent
date, they are kept in thefe fituations by the balance of I4
oppofite forces. This cannot be refufed, nor can we Particles
form to ourfelves any other notion of the (fate of the kepi rn
particles of a body. Whether we fuppofe the ultimate |’^ce3
particles to be of certain magnitudes and fliapes, touch- laynce ot-
ing each other in (ingle points of cohefion 5 or whether forces,
we (with Bofcovich) confider them as at a diftance from
each other, and acting on each other by attra&ions and
repulfions—we muft acknowledge, in the firft place,
that the centres of the particles (by whofe mutual di-
ftances we muft eftimate the diftance of the particles)
may and do vary their diftances from each other. What
elfe can we fay when we obferve a body increafe in
length, in breadth, and thicknefs, by heating it, or
when we fee it diminiih in all the fe dimenfions by an ex¬
ternal comprefiion ? A particle, therefore, fituated in the
midft of many others, and remaining in that fituation,
muft be conceived as maintained in it by the mutual
balancing of all the forces which conned it with its 15
neighbours. It is like a ball kept in its place by the Illuftra-
oppofite action of two fprings. This illuftration merits ^
a more particular application. Suppofe a number oft-orJ
balls ranged on the table in the angles of equilateral
triangles, and that each ball is conneded with the fix
which lie around it by means of an elartic wire curled
like a cork-ferew ; fuppofe fuch another ftratum of balls
above this, and parallel to it, and fo placed that each
ball of the upper ftratum is perpendicularly over the
centre of the equilateral triangle below, and let thefe be
conneded with the balls of the under ftratum by fimilar
fpiral wires. Let there be a third and a fourth, and any
number of fuch ftrata, all conneded in the fame manner.
It is plain that this may extend to any fize and fill any
fpace.—Now let this affemblage of balls be firmly con¬
templated by the imagination, and be fuppofed to flu-ink
continually in all its dimenfions, till the balls, and their
diffances from each other, and the conneding wires, all
vanifh from the fight as diferete individual objeds. All
this is very conceivable. It will now appear like a folid
body, having length, breadth, and thicknefs ; it may be
compreffed, and will again refume its dimenfions j it may
be ftretched, and will again (brink ; it will move away
when (truck •, in fliort, it will not differ in its fenfible
appearance from a folid elaftic body. Now when this
body is in a date of compreflion, for inftance, it is evi¬
dent that any one of the balls is at reft, in confequence
of the mutual balancing of the adions of all the fpiral
wires which conned it with thofe around it. It will
greatly conduce to the full underftanding of all that fol¬
lows to recur to this illuftration. The analogy or re-
femblance between the effeds of this conftitution of
things and the effeds of the corpufcular forces is very
great 3 and wherever it obtains, we may fafely draw con-
clufions from what we know would be the condition of
a body of common tangible matter. We (hall juft give pjy
one inftrudive example, and then have done with tbispie.
hypothetical body. We can fuppofe it of a long fhape,
refting on one point *, we can fuppofe two weights A, B,
fufpended at the extremities, and the whole in equilibrio.
We commonly exprefs this ftateof things by faying that
A and B are in equilibrio. This is very inaccurate. A
is in fad in equilibrio with the united adion of all the,
fprings which conned the ball tu which it is applied
with
ifi
Plate
DXI.
•fig- i-
S T R [
strength of Vvith the adjoining balls. Thefe fprings are brought in-
atenais, tf) a<cj.;on? anti each is in equilibrio with the joint action
" " v ' of all the reft. Thus through the whole extent of the
hypothetical body, the fprings are brought into action in
a wray and in a degree which mathematics can eafily in-
veftigate. We need not do this: it is enough for our
purpofe that our imagination readily difcovers that fome
fprings are ftretched, others are comprefled, and that a
preffure is excited on the middle point of fupport, and
the fupport exerts a reaffion which precifely balances it;
and the other weight is, in like manner, in immediate
equilibrio with the equivalent of the aft ions of all the
'fprings which conneft the laft ball with its neighbours.
Now take the analogical or refembling cafe, an oblong
piece of folid matter, refting on a fulcrum, and loaded
with two weights in equilibrio. For the actions of the
connecting fprings fubftitute the corpufcular forces, and
the refult will referable that of the hypothefis.
Now as there is fomething that is at leaft analogous to
a change of diftance of the particles, and a concomitant
change of the intenftty of the connecting forces, we may
exprefs this in the fame way that we are accuftomed to
do in fimilar cafes. Let A and B (fig. I.) reprefent the
centres of two particles of a coherent elaftic body in
their quiefcent inaftive ftate, and let us confider only
the mechanical condition of B. The body may be
ftretched. In this cafe the diftance AB of the par¬
ticles may become AC. In this ftate there is fomething
which makes it neceftary to employ a force to keep the
particles at this diftance. C has a tendency towards A,
or we may fay that A attrafls C. We may reprefent
the magnitude of this tendency of C towards A., or this
attra&ion of A, by a line C c perpendicular to AC.
Again, the body may be compreffed, and the diftance
AB may become AD. Something obliges us to em¬
ploy force to continue this compreflion ; and D tends
frotji A, or A appears to repel D. The intenftty of this
tendency or repulfion may be reprefented by another
perpendicular D d; and, to reprefent the different di¬
rections of thefe tendencies, or the different nature of
thefe aCtions, -we may fet D ^ on the oppolite fide of
mch AB. It is in this manner that the Abbe Bofcovich has
pvefentslhe rePre^ented the actions of corpufcular forces in his cele-
adtion of brated Theory of Natural Philofophy. Newton had
corpufcular faid, that, as the great movements of the folar fyftem
were regulated by forces operating at a diftance, and
varying with the diftance, fo he ftrongly fufpeCted (valde
ffpicor) that all the phenomena of cohefion, with all its
modifications in the different fenfible forms of aggrega¬
tion, and in the phenomena of chemiftry and phyfiology,
refulted from the fimilar agency of forces varying with
the diftance of the particles. The learned Jefuit pur-
iued this thought; and has fhown, that if we fuppofe an
ultimate atom of matter endowed with powers of attrac¬
tion and repulfion, varying, both in kind and degree,
with the djftance, and if this force be the fame in every
atom, it may be regulated by fuch a relation to the dif¬
tance from the neighbouring atom, that a collection of
inch may have all the fenfible appearance of bodies in
iheii different forms of lolids, liquids, and vapours, ela-
Itic or unelaftic, and endowed with all the properties
which we perceive, by whofe immediate operation the
phenomena of motion by impulfe, and all the phenome¬
na of chemiftry, and of animal and vegetable economy,
may be produced. He ftiowrs, that notwithftanding a
S T R
i7
How Eof-
•covich re
iorces.
75° 1
perfeCt famenefs, and even a great fimplicity in this ato- Strength 6f
mical conftitution, there will refult from this union all Materials,
that unfpeakable variety of form and property which di- ^ J
verfify and embellifti the face of nature. We ftiall take
another opportunity of giving fuch an account of this ce¬
lebrated work as it deferves. We mention it only, by
the, bye, as far as a general notion of it will be of fome
fervice on the prefent occafion. For this purpofe, we
juft obferve that Bofcovich conceives a particle of any
individual fpecies of matter to confift of an unknowm
number of particles of fimpler conftitution 5 each of
which particles, in their turn, is compounded of particles
ftill more Amply conftituted, and fo on through an un¬
known number of orders, till we arrive at the fimpleft
poftible conftitution of a particle of tangible matter, fuf-
ceptible of length, breadth, and thicknefs, and neceffari-
ly confiding of four atoms of matter. And he ftiows
that the more complex we fuppofe the conftitution of a
particle, the more muft the fenfible qualities of the aggre¬
gate refemble the obferved qualities of tangible bodies.
In particular, he (hows how a particle may be fo con¬
ftituted, that although it aft on one other particle of the
fame kind through a confiderable interval, the interpo-
fition of a third particle of the fame kind may render it
totally, or almoft totally, inaftive ; and therefore an af-
femblage of fuch particles wrould form fuch a fluid as
air. All thefe curious inferences are made with uncon¬
trovertible evidence } and the greateft encouragement is
thus given to the mathematical philofopher to hope, that
by cautious and patient proceeding in this way, we may
gradually approach to a knowledge of the laws of co¬
hefion, that will not fliun a comparifon even with the
Principia of Newton. No ftep can be made in this in-
veftigation, but by obferving with care, and generalizing
with judgment, the phenomena, which are abundantly
numerous, and much more at our command than thofe
of the great and fenfible motions of bodies. Following
this plan, we obferve, iS
4. It is matter of faft, that every body has fome de-Every
gree of compreflibility and dilatability ; and when the“mF®®'.
changes of dimenfion are fo moderate that the bodyiatabje>
completely recovers its original dimenfions on the eeffa-
tion of the changing force, the extenfions or compref-
fions are fenfibly proportional to the extending or com-
preffing forces ; and therefore l/ie conneBivg forces are
proportional to the dijlances of the particles from their ^
quiefcent, neutral, or inaRive pofitions. This feems to Law of na-
bave been firft viewed as a law of nature by the penetra- tore difeo-
ting eye of Dr Robert Hooke, one of the moft eminent ver^
philofophers of the laft century. He publifhed a cipher, Dr 00
which he faid contained the theory of fpringinefs and of
the motions of bodies by the aftion of fprings. It was
this, ceiiinosssttu u.—When explained in his dif-
fertation, publiflied fome years after, it was ut ten ft0 fc
vis. This is precifely the propofition juft now afferted
as a general faft, a law of nature. This difiertation is
full of curious obfervations of fafts in fupport of his af-
fertion. In his application to the motion of bodies he
gives his noble difeovery of the balance fpring of a
watch, which is founded on tin’s law. The fpring, as it
is more and more coiled up, or unwound, by the motion
of the balance, afts on it with a force proportional to
the diftance of the balance from its quiefcent pofitiom
The balance, therefore, is afted on by an accelerating
force, which varies in the fame manner as the force of
gravity
Strti
S T R [ 751 ] S T R
‘Strength of gravity acting on a pendulum fwinging in a cycloid.
Materials.^ jts vi’orations therefore muft be performed in equal time,
ILjr_v ' whether they are wide or narrow. In the fame differta-
tion Hooke mentions all the fads which John Bernoulli
afterwards adduced in fupport of Leibnitz’s whimfical
do&rine of the force of bodies in motion, or the do&rine
of the vires vivce ; a dodlrine which Hooke might juft-
ly have claimed as his own, had he not feen its futility.
And con- Experiments made fince the time of Hooke Ihow that
firmed by this law is flridtly true in the extent to which we have
the expe- limited it, viz. in all the changes of form which will be
riments of completely undone by the elafticity of the body. It is
others. nearly true to a much greater extent. James Bernoulli,
in his differtation on the elaltic curve, relates fome ex¬
periments of his own, which feem to deviate confiderably
from it; but on clofe examination they do not. The
fineft experiments are thofe of Coulomb, publifhed in
fome late volumes of the memoirs of the Academy of
Paris. He fufpended balls by wires, and obferved their
motions of ofcillation, which he found accurately cor-
refponding with this law.
This we fhall find to be a very important fadt in the
dodlrine of the ftrength of bodies, and we defire the
reader to make it familiar to his mind. If we apply to
this our manner of exprefling thefe forces by perpendi¬
cular ordinates C c, D </ (fig. 1.), we muft take other
lituations E, F, of the particle B, and draw E e, Ff;
and we muft have D c?: FybrBD : BF, or C c : E err
BC : BE. In fuch a fuppofition F r/ B c f muft be a
ftraight line. But we {hall have abundant evidence by
and bye that this cannot be ftridtly true, and that the
line Bee which limits the ordinates expreffing the at-
tradlive forces becomes concave towards the line ABE,
and that the part B (//"is convex towards it. All that
can be fafely concluded from the experiments hitherto
made is, that to a certain extent the forces, both attrac¬
tive and repulfive, are fenjibly proportional to the dilata¬
tions and compreffions. For,
ATien a S' ^ univerfally obferved, that when the dilata-
)ody is tions have proceeded a certain length, a lefs addition
nuch di- of force is fufficient to increafe the dilatation in the fame
mjl’ ^ degree* This is always obferved when the body has
lition of been far ftretched that it takes a fet, and does not
bree will completely recover its form. The like may be general-
nersafe its ly obferved in compreflions. Moft perfons will recol-
blatation. that in violently ftretching an elaftic cord, it be¬
comes fuddenly weaker, or more eafily ftretched. But
thefe phenomena do not pofitively prove a diminution of
the corpulcular force acting on one particle : It more
probably arifes from the difunion of fome particles, whofe
action contributed to the whole or fenfible effeift. And
in comprefiions we may fuppofe fomething of the fame
kind } for when we comprefs a body in one direction, it
commonly bulges out in another $ and in cafes of very
violent aflion fome particles may be difunited, whofe
tranfverfe a<ftion had formerly balanced part of the com-
preffing force. For the reader will fee on reflection,
that fince the compreflion in one direCHon caufes the
body to bulge out in the tranfverfe diredion ; and fince
this bulging out is in oppofition to the tranfverfe forces
of attraction, it muft employ fome part of the compref-
fing force. And the common appearances are in per¬
fect uniformity with this conception of things. When
we prefs a bit of dryilh clay, it fwells out and cracks
tranfverfely. When a pillar of wood is overloaded, it
fwells out, and ftnall crevices appear in the direction of Strength of
the fibres. After this it will not bear half of the load. Mat<~na]s',
This the carpenters call CRIPPLING j and a knowledge
of the circumftances which modify it is of great import¬
ance, and enables us to underhand fome very paradoxical
appearances, as will be ftiown by and bye.
This partial difuniting of particles formerly cohering
is, we imagine, the chief reafon why the totality of the
forces which really oppofe an external ftrain does not
increafe in the proportion of the extenfions and compref¬
fions. But fufficient evidence will alfo be given that
the forces which would conned one particle with one
other particle do not augment in the accurate pro¬
portion of the change of diftance ; that in extenfions
they increafe more flowly, and in compreflions more
rapidly. _ ... 22
But there is another caufe of this deviation perhaps Du&ility
equally effectual with the former. Moft bodies manifeft another
fome degree of duClility. Now what is this ? The fad
is, that the parts have taken a new arrangement, in
which they again cohere. Therefore, in the paffage to
this new arrangement, the fenfible forces, which are the
joint refult of many corpufcular forces, begin to refped
this new arrangement inftead of the former. This muft
change the Ample law of corpufcular force, charaderiftie
of the particular fpecies of matter under examination.
It does not require much refledion to convince us that
the poflible arrangements which the particles of a body
may acquire, without appearing to change their nature,
muft be more numerous according as the particles are of.
a more complex conftitution ; and it is reafonable to
fuppofe that the conftitution even of the moft Ample
kind of matter that we are acquainted with is exceed¬
ingly complex. Our microfcopes (how us animals fo
minute, that a heap of them muft appear to the naked
eye an uniform mafs with a grain finer than that of the
fineft marble or razor hone ; and yet each of thefe has
not only limbs, but bones, mufcular fibres, biood-veffels,
fibres, and a blood confifting, in all probability, of glo¬
bules organifed and complex like our own. The ima¬
gination is here loft in wonder ; and nothing is left us
but to adore inconceivable art and wifdom, and to exult
in the thought that v'e are the only fpedators of this
beautiful feene who can derive pleafure from the view.
What is trodden under foot with indifference, even by
the half-reafoning elephant, may be made by us the
fource of the pureft and moft unmixed pleafure. But
let us proceed to obferve,
6. That the forces which conne£f the particles of The forces
tangible bodies change by a change of diftance, not on- which con-
ly in degree, but alfo in kind. The particle B (fig. i.)ne<ft.
is attracted by A when in the fituation C or E. It is^1^^
repelled by it when at D or F. It is not affefted by it bodies
when in the fituation B. The reader is requefted care-change by
fully to remark, that this is not an inference founded on a change
the authority of our mathematical figure. The figUre0f diftance.
is an expreflion (to aflift the imagination) of fafts in na¬
ture. It requires no force to keep the particles of a
body in their quiefeent fituations : but if they are fepa-
rated by ftretching the body, they endeavour (pardon
the figurative expreflion) to come together again. If
they are brought nearer by compreflion, they endeavour
to recede. This endeavour is manifefted by the necef-
fity of employing force to maintain the extenfion or con-
denfation ; and we reprefent this by the different pofition
of,
S T R T 75
strength of of out lines. But this is not all : toe particle B which
Materials. js repelled by A when in the fituation F or D, is neu-
 ' tral when at B, and is attracted when at C or E, may
be placed at fuch a diftance iVG from A greater than
AB that it (hall be again repelled, or at luch a diilance
AH that it ihall again be attracted-, and thefe altera¬
tions may be repeated again and again. 1 his is curious
and important, and requires fomething more than a bare
affertion for its proof.
. , 24,.,. In the article Optics we mentioned the moft curious
•iately at- an(^ valuable obfervations of Sir liaac Newton, by which
tradted and it appears that light is thus alternately attracted and re-
repelled, pelled by bodies. The rings of colour which appear
between the objeft glafles of long telefcopes {flowed,
that in the fmall interval of to-W*1 of an incl1’ there
are at lead an hundred fuch changes obfervable, and
that it is highly probable that thefe alternations extend
to a much greater diflance. At one of thefe didances
the light a (dually converges towards the {olid matter of
the glafs, which we exprefs (hortly, by faying that it is
attracted by it, and that at the next didance it declines
from the glafs, or is repelled by it. The fame thing is
more-fim ply inferred from the phenomena of light pading
by the edges of knives and other opaque bodies. We
refer the reader to the experiments themfelves, the
detail being too long for this place ; and we requed
him to condder them minutely and attentively, and
to form didinft notions of the inferences drawn from
them. And we defire it to be remarked, that although
Sir Ifaac, in his difeudion, always condders light as a
fet of corpufcles moving in free {pace, and obeying the
a6f ions of external forces like any other matter, the par¬
ticular concludon in which we are jud now intereded
does not at all depend on this notion of the nature of
light. Should we, with Des Cartes or Huygens, fup-
pofe light to be the undulation r.f an eladic medium,
the concludon will be the fame. The undulations at
certain didances are didurbed by forces direfled towards
the body, and at a greater didance, the didurbing forces
a 5 tend from the body.
The fame But the fame alternations of attraction and repuldon
alternations may obferved between the particles of common mat-
tioifaud" ter- ^ we ta^e a P^ece very dat and well-polilhed
repulfion glafs, fuch as is made for the horizon glades of a good
obfervable Hadley’s quadrant, and if we wrap round it a fibre of
in the par- filk as it comes from the cocoon, taking care that the
t'herbodies nowhere crofs another, and then prefs this pretty
as olafj. ’ hard on fuch another piece of glafs, it will lift it up and
keep it fufpended. The particles therefore of the one
do mod certainly attraft thofe of the other, and this at
a didance equal to the thicknefs of the dlk fibre. This
is nearly the limit; and it fometimesrequires a confider-
able predure to produce the edeft. The predure is
ededual only by comprefling the filk fibre, and thus di-
minifliing the didance between the glafs plates. This
adhefion cannot be attributed to the preflure of the at-
mofphere, becaufe there is nothing to hinder the air
from infinuating ilfelf between the plates, finoe they are
feparated by the filk. Befides, the experiment fucceeds
equally well under the receiver of an air-pump. This
mod valuable experiment was firfl made by Huygens,
who reported it to the Royal Society. It is narrated in
the Philofophical Tranfaciions, N° 86.
Here then is an attraction aCting, like gravity, at a
diftance. But take away the filk fibre, and try to make
2 ] S T R
the glades touch each other, and we fhall find a very Strength of
great force neccflary. By Newton’s experiments it ap- Materiab.
pears, that unlefs the prifmatic colours begin to appear 'r*~i
between the glades, they are at lead -g-Jo-th of an inch
afunder or more. Now we know that a very confider-
able force is necedary for producing thefe colours, and
that the more we prefs the glades together the more
rings of colours appear. It alfo appears from Newton’s
meafures, that the difference of diflance between the
glafles where each of thefe colours appear is about the
89,cocth part of an inch. We know farther, that
when we have produced the lad appearance of a greafy
or pearly colour, and then augment the preflure, making
it about a thoufand pounds on the fquare inch, all co¬
lours vanilh, and the two pieces of glafs feem to make
one tranfparent undiflinguifhable mafs. They appear
now to have no air between them, or to be in mathe¬
matical contaft. But another faCt fliows this conclufion
to be premature. The fame circles of colours appear in
the top of a foap bubble ; and as it grows thinner at
top, there appears an unrefleCting fnot in the middle.
We have the greated probability therefore that the per-
fe£t tranfparency in the middle of the two glafles does
not arife from their being in contadt, but hecaufe the
fhicknefs of air between them is too fmall in that place
for the refleClion of light. Nay, Newton exprefsly
found no refleClion where the thicknefs was ^-ths or more
of the -smooth part of an inch.
All this while the glades are drongly repelling each
other, for great preffure is neceffary for continuing the
appearance of thofe colours, and they vanifh in fuccef-
fion as the preffure is diminidied. This vanilhing of the
colours is a proof that the glades are moving off from
each other, or repelling each other. But we can put
an end to this repulfion by very flrong preffure, and at
the fame time Aiding the glades on each other. W e do
not pretend to account for this effect of the Aiding mo¬
tion j but the fad is, that by fo doing, the glades will
•cohere with very great force, fo that we flrall break
them by any attempt to pull them afunder. It com¬
monly happens (at lead it did fo with us), that in this
Aiding compreflion of two fmooth flat plates of glafs they
{cratch and mutually deflroy each other’s furface.. It is
alfo worth remarking, that different kinds of glafs exhi¬
bit different properties in this refpeCl. Flint glafs will
attraft even though a filk fibre lies double between
them, and they much more readily cohere by this Aid¬
ing preflure.
Here then are two diflances at which the plates of
glafs attraCt each other •, namely, when the filk fibre is
interpofed, and when they are forced together with this
Hiding motion. And in any intermediate fituation they
repel each other. Wre fee the fame thing in other folid
bodies. Two pieces of lead made perft Clly clean, may Lead and
be made to cohere by grinding them together in the iron,
fame manner. It is in this way that pretty ornaments
of filver are united to iron. The piece is feraped clean,
and a fmall bit of filver like a filh fcale is laid on. The
die which is to flrike it into a flower or other ornament
is then fet on it, and we give it a fmart blow, which
forces the metals into contaCl as firm as if they were
foldered together. It fometimes happens that the die
adheres to the coin fo that they cannot be feparated :
and it is found that this frequently happens, when the
engraving is fuch, that the raifed figure is not complete¬
ly
23
Repulfion
the caufe
S T U [753
;Strength ofly furrounded with a fmooth flat ground. The probable
Materials. caufe 0f this is curious. When the coin has a flat fur-
face all around, this is produced by the mofl: prominent
iprobable Part ^ie This applies to the metal, and com-
caul'e why pletely confines the air which filled the hollow of the
ithe die ad- die. As the ueffure goes on, the metal is fqaeezed up
heres to the jnto |-]ie ]10]j0 0f the die *, but there is ftill air com-
preffed between them, which cannot efcape by any paf-
fage. It is therefore prodigioufly condenfed, and exerts
an elafticity proportioned to the condenfation. This
ferves to feparate the die from the metal when the itroke
is over. The hollow part of the die has not touched
the metal all the while, and we may fay that the im-
preffion was made by air. if this air efcape by any en¬
graving reaching through the border, they cohere in-
ft'parably.
We have admitted that the glafs plates are in contaT
when they cohere thus firmly. But we are not certain
of this : for if we take thefe cohering glades, and touch
them with water, it quickly intinuates itfelf between
them. Yef they ftill cohere, but can now be pretty
ealily feparated.
It is owing to this repulfion, exerted through its pro¬
per fphere, that certain powders fwim on the furface of
of tome bo-water, and are wetted with great difficulty. Certain
dies fwim- jnfK(qs can riln about on the furface of water. They
Zi;;: have brulhy feet, which occupy a eonfiderable furface j
cifically and if their flops are viewed with a magnifying glafs,
lighter than the furface of the water is fet n depreiTed all around, re-
themfelves. femijiing thefootfteps of a man walking on feather-beds.
This is owing to a repulfion between the bruffi and the
wTater. A common fly cannot walk in this manner on
■water. Its feet are wetted, becaufe they attraft the wa¬
ter inftead of repelling it. A fteel needle, wiped very
clean, will lie on the furface of water, making an im-
preffion as a great bar would make on a feather bed 3
and its weight is lefs than that of the difplaced water.
A dew drop lies on the leaves of plants without touch¬
ing them mathematically, as is plain from the extreme
brilliancy of the reflection at the poiterior furface ; nay,
it may be fometimes obferved that the drops of rain lie
on the furface of water, and roll about on it like balls
on a table. Yet all thefe fubftances can be wetted 3
that is, water can be applied to them at fuch diftances
that they attraft it.
What we faid a little ago of water infinuating itfelf
between the glafs plates without altogether deftroying
their cohefion, fhows that this cohefion is not the fame
that obtains between the particles of one of the plates 3
that is, the two plates are not in the ilate of one conti¬
nued mafs. It is highly probable, therefore, that be¬
tween thefe two ftates there is an intermediate ftate of
repulfion, nay, perhaps many fuch, alternated with at¬
tractive Hates.
A piece ©f ice is elaftie, for it rebounds and rings.
Its particles, therefore, when compreffed, refile ; and
when ftretched, contraCl again. The particles are there¬
fore in the ftate reprefented by B in figure 1. aCtcd on
by repulfive forces, if brought nearer; and by attrac¬
tive forces, if drawn further afunder. Ice expands, like
all other bodies, by heat. It abforbs a vaft quantity of
fire 3 which, by combining its attractions and repulhons
with thofe of the particles of ice, changes completely
the law of aCtion, without making any fenfible change
in the diftance of the particles, and the ice becomes wa-
Vol. XIX. Part II.
] S T R
ter. In this new ftate the particles are again in limits Strength of
between attractive and repuliive forces 3 tor water has
been fhown, by the experiments of Canton and Zimmer¬
man, to be elaftie or comprelfible. It again expands by
heat. It again abforbs a prodigious quantity of heat,
and becomes elaitic vapour 3 its particles repelling each
other at all dutances yet obferved. The diftance be¬
tween the particles of one plate of glafs and thofe of
another which lies on it, and is carried by it, is a di¬
ftance of repulfion 3 for the force which fupports the
upper piece is a Cling in oppoiition to its weight. This
diftance is lei's than that at which it would fufpend it
below it with a filk fibre interpofed 3 for no pnlmatic
colours appear between them when the filk fibre is inter¬
pofed. But the diftance at which glafs attracts water
is much lefs than this, for no colours appear when glafs
is wetted with water. This diftance is lefs, and not
greater, than the other 3 for when the glaffes have wa¬
ter interpofed between them inftead of air, it is found,
that when any particular colour appears, the thicknefs
of the plate of water is to that of the plate of air which
would produce the lame colour nearly as 3 to 4. Now,
if a piece of glafs be wetted, and exhibit no colour, and
another piece of glafs be limply laid on it, no colour
will appear 3 but if they are ftrongly preffed, the colours
appear in the fame maimer as if the glafl'es had air be¬
tween. Alfo, when glafs is limply wetted, and the film
of water is allowed to evaporate, when it is thus reduced
to a proper thinnefs, the colours lliow themlelves in great
beauty. _ . 2()
Thefe are a few of many thoufand facts, by which it Particles
is unqueftionably proved that the particles of tangible of matter
matter are connected by forces aCting at a diftance, vary- connected
ing with the dillance, and alternately attractive and re-^^®* a
pulfive. If we reprefent thefe forces as we have already tu'tance.
done in fig. 1. by the ordinates C c, D rf, Ee, Yf, &e.
of a curve, it is evident that this curve mult crofs the
axis at all thofe diftances where the forces change from
attraftive to repulfive, and the curve mull have branches
alternately above and below the axis.
All thefe alternations of attraftion and repulfion take
place at fmall and infenfible diftances. At all fenfible
diftances the particles are influenced by the attra&ion of
gravitation 3 and therefore this part of the curve muft
be a hyperbola whofe equation isyrr—. What is the
form of the curve correfponding to the fmalleft diftance
of the particles ? that is, what is the mutual action be¬
tween the particles juft before their coming into abfolute
contact ? Analogy ihould lead us to fuppofe it to be re¬
pulfion 3 for folidity is the laft and fimpleft form of bo¬
dies with which we are acquainted.—Fluids are more
compounded, containing fire as an effential ingredient.
We thould conclude that this ultimate repulfion is infu-
perable, for the hardeft bodies are the moft elaftic. We
are fully entitled to fay, that this repelling force ex¬
ceeds all that we have ever yet applied to overcome it 3
nay, there are good reafons for faying that this ultimate
repulfion, by which the particles are kept from mathe¬
matical contact, is really infuperable in its own na¬
ture, and that it is impoffible to produce mathematical
contact.
We (hall juft mention one'of thefe, which we confider jVTat^nia
as unanfwerable. Suppofe two atoms, r ultimate par-tkal con-
ticles of matter, A and B. Let A be at reft, and B tact impof-.
5 C move^ble‘
S T R
[ 754 1
S T R
Strength of move up to it with the velocity 2 ; and let us fuppofe
Materials, that it comes into mathematical contact, and impels it
' f—' (according to the common acceptation of the word).
Both move with the velocity i. 1 his is granted by all
to be the final refult of the collifion. Now the inllant
of time in which this communication happens is no part
either of the duration of the folitary motion of A, nor
of the joint motion of A and B : It is the reparation or
boundary between them. It is at once the end of the
fir 11, and the beginning of the fecond, belonging equal¬
ly to both. A was moving with the velocity 2. I he
dillinguilhing circumftance therefore of its mechanical
Hate is, that it has a determination (however incompre-
henfible) by which it would move for ever with the ve¬
locity 2, if nothing changed it. T his it has during the
whole of its folitary motion, and therefore in the laft
inllant of this motion. In like manner, during the
whole of the joint motion, and therefore in the firll in-
flant of this motion, the atom A has a determination by
which it would move for ever with the velocity x. In
one and the fame inllant, therefore, the atom A has two
incompatible determinations. Whatever notion -we can
form of this (late, which we call velocity, as a diftindtion
of condition, the fame impoflibility of conception or the
fame abfurdity occurs. Nor can it be avoided in any
other way than by faying, that this change of A’s mo¬
tion is brought about by infenfible gradations •, that is,
that A and B influence each other precifely as they
would do if a flender fpring were interpofed. The reader
is defired to look at what we have faid in the article
Physics, § 82.
The two magnets there fpoken of are good reprefen-
tatives of two atoms endowed with mutual powers of re-
pulfion *, and the communication of motion is accom-
pliflied in both cafes in precifely the fame manner.
If, therefore, we lhall ever be fo fortunate as to difeo-
<ver the law of variation of that force which connects
one atom of matter with another atom, and which is
therefore charadleriftic of matter, and the ultimate fource
of all its fenfible qualities, the curve whofe ordinates re-
. prefent the kind and the intenfity of this atomical force
Fig. 2. -will be fomething like that fketched in fig. 2. The firll
branch « « B will have AK (perpendicular to the axis
AH) for its afiymptote, and the lall branch lmo will
be to all fenfe a hyperbola, having AO for its alTymp-
tote •, and the ordinates /L, m M, &c. will be proper
tional to ~AMri ^£c,exPre^'in§ theuniverfal gra¬
vitation of matter. It will have many branches B £ C,
I) r/E, F^G, &c. exprefling attractions, and alternate
repulfive branches C c D, E e F, G g H, &c. All thefe
will be contained within a dillance AH, which does not
exceed a very minute fraftion of an inch.
The fimpleft particle which can be a conftituent of a
body having length, breadth, and thicknefs, mull confilt
of four fuch atoms, all of which combine their influence
on each atom of another fuch particle. It is evident that
the curve which exprelfes the force that conned two
fuch particles mull be totally different from this original
curve, this hylarchic principle. Suppofing the lall
known, our mathematical knowledge is quite able todif-
cover the firlt; but when we proceed to compofe a body
@f particles, each of which confifts of four fur h particles,
we may venture to fay, that the compound force which
'connects them is almoll beyond our iearcb, and that the
3}
file iim-
pleit ex¬
tended par¬
ticle con¬
fifts of four
atoms.
difeovery of the primary force from an accurate know-Strenpthoi
ledge of the corpufcular forces of t/us particular matter ate'!ah.
is abfolutely out ol our power.
All that we can learn is, the poflibility, nay the cer¬
tainty, of an innumerable variety of external fenfible
forms and qualities, by which different kinds of matter
will be diltinguilhed, arifing from the number, the order
of compofition, and the arrangement of the fubordinate
particles of which a particle of this or that kind of mat¬
ter is compofcd. All thefe varieties will take place at
thofe fmall and infenfible dillances which are between
A and H, and may produce all that variety which we
obferve in the tangible or mechanical forms of bodies,
fuch as elallicity, dudtility, hardnefs, foftnefs, fluidity,
vapour, and all thofe unfeen motions or actions which we
obferve in fufion and congelation, evaporation and con->
denfation, folution and precipitation, cryftallization, ve¬
getable and animal aflimilation and fecretion, &c. &c.
&c. while all bodies muff be, in a certain degree,
elaftic, all mult gravitate, and all mult be incompene-
trable.
This general and fatisfaftory refemblance between the
appearance of tangible matter and the legitimate confe-
quence of this general hypothetical property of an atom
of matter, affords a confiderable probabilit y that fuch is
the origin of all the phenomena. We earneitly recom¬
mend to our readers a careful perufal of Bofcovich’s ce¬
lebrated treatife. A careful perufal is neceffary for fee¬
ing its value •, and nothing will be got by a halty look
at it. The reader will be particularly plcafed with the
facility and evidence with which the ingenious author
has deduced all the ordinary principles of mechanics,
and with the explanation which he has given of fluidity,
and his deduction from thence of the laws of hydrofta-
tics. No part of the treatife is more valuable than ihe'
doftrine of the propagation of preffure through lolid
bodies. This, however, is but iufl touched on in the
courfe of the inveftigation of the principles of mechanics.
WT lhall borrow as much as will fuffice for our prefent
inquiry into the ftrength of materials; and we truft that
our readers are not difpleafed with this general fketch
of the dodlrine (if it may be fo called) of the cohefion 32
of bodies. It is curious and important in itfelf, and is fhe doc-
the foundation of all the knowledge we can acquire of the
prefent article. We are forry to fay that it is as yet a a new
new fubjeft of ftudy; but it is a very promifing one,je£ti
and we by no means defpair of feeing the whole of che-
miftry brought by its means within the pale of mechani¬
cal fcience. The great and diftinguifliing agent in che-
miftry is heat, or fire the caufe of heat; and one of its
moft fingular effedls is the converfion of bodies into ela¬
ftic vapour. We have the cleareft evidence that this is
brought about by mechanical forces : for it can be oppof-
ed or prevented by external preffure, a very familiar me¬
chanical force. We may perhaps find another mechani¬
cal force which will prevent fulion.
Havixg now made our readers familiarwith the mode
of adtior in which cohefion operates in giving ftrength to
folid bodies, we proceed to confider the ftrains to which
this ftrength is oppofed. 33
A piece of folid matter is expofed to four kinds of Strains t9 •
ftrains, pretty different in the manner of their operation.
1. It may be torn afunder, as in the cafe of ropes, p0je(j#
ftretchers, king-pofts, tye-beams, &c.
S T R
[ 7
34
Matter
may 'je
imlled
^funder,
; Strength of 2. It may be cruftied, as in the cafe of pillars, polls,
Materials.^ an^ trufs beams.
s—^ 3. It may be broken acrofs, as happens to a joift or
lever of any kind.
4. It may be wrenched or twilled, as in the cafe of
the axle of a wheel, the nail of a prefs, &c.
I. It may be pulled asunder.
This is the fimpleft of all drains, and the others are
indeed modifications of it. To this the force of cohefion
is direBly oppofed, with very little modification of its
aflion by any particular circumllances.
When a long cylindrical or prifmatic body, fuch as a
rod of wood or metal, or a rope, is drawn by one end,
it mud be refided at the other, in order to bring its co¬
hefion into action. When it is fadened at one end, we
cannot conceive it any other way than as equally llretch-
ed in all its parts 5 for all our obfervations and experi¬
ments on natural bodies concur in Ihowing us that the
forces which connedl their particles, in any way what¬
ever, are equal and oppofite. This is called the third
/aw of motion ; and we admit its univerfality, while we
affirm that it is purely experimental (fee Physics). Yet
We have met with differtations by perfons of eminent
knowledge, where propofitions are maintained inconfid¬
ent with this. During the difpute about the communi¬
cation of motion, fome of the abled writers have faid,
that a fpring compreffed or dretched at the two ends
was gradually lefs and lefs compreffed or dretched from
the extremities towards the middle : but the fame wri¬
ters acknowledged the univerfal equality of aflion and
rea£tion, which is quite incompatible with this date of
the fpring. No fuch inequality of compreffion or dilata¬
tion has ever been obferved 5 and a little refiedlion will
ffiow it to be impoffible, in confidency with the equality
of aflion and readlion.
Since all parts are thus equally dretched, it follows,
that the drain in any tranfverfe fedlion is the fame, as
alfo in every point of that feftion. If therefore the body
be fuppofed of a homogeneous texture, the cohefion of
the parts is equable ; and fmce every part is equally
dretched, the particles are drawn to equal didances
from their quiefcent pofitions, and the forces which are
thus excited, and now exerted in oppofition to the drain¬
ing force, are equal. Phis external force may be in-
creafed by degrees, which wTill gradually feparate the
parts of the body more and more from each other, and
the connecting forces increafe with this increafe of di¬
dance, till at lad the cohefion of fome particles is over¬
come. This mud be immediately followed by a rup¬
ture, becaufe the remaining forces are now weaker than
before.
It is the united force of cohefion, immediately before
the difunion of the fird particles, that we call the
STRENGTH of the feClion. It may alfo be properly call¬
ed its ABSOLUTE STRENGTH, being exerted in the
fimpled form, and not modified by any relation to other
circumdances.
If the external force has not produced any permanent
change on the body, and it therefore recovers its former
dimenfions when the force is withdrawn, it is plain that
this drain may be repeated as often as we pleafe, and the
body which withdands it once will always withdand it.
It is evident that this diould be attended to in all con-
. 35
a circum-
ftance to
be attend¬
ed to in
every con-
ftnuftion
requiring
ftrength.
55 1 * T K.
druftions, and that in all our invedigations on this fub- Strength of
jeCl this ffiould be kept driClly in view. When we treat ^atenals.^
a piece of foft clay in this manner, and with this precau¬
tion, the force employed mutt be very fmall. If we ex¬
ceed this, we produce a permanent change. The rod of
clay is not indeed torn afunder j but it has become
fomewhat more dender : the number of particles in
a crofs feftion is now fmaller ; and therefore, although
it will again, in this new form, differ, or allow an
endlefs repetition of a certain drain without any far¬
ther permanent change, this drain is fmaller than the
former.
Something of the fame kind happens in all bodies
which receive a sett by the drain to which they are
expofed. All du£lile bodies are of this kind. But there
are many bodies which are not ductile. Such bodies
break completely whenever they are dretched beyond
the limit of their perfect eladicity. Bodies of a fibrous
drudture exhibit very great varieties in their cohefion. 36
In fome the fibres have no lateral cohefion, as in the Great va¬
cate of a rope. The only way in which all the fibres lft
can be made to unite their drength is, to twid them to- l ut 5
gether. This caufes them to bind each other fo fad,
that any one of them will break before it can be drawn
out of the bundle. In other fibrous bodies, fuch as tim¬
ber, the fibres are held together by fome cement or glu¬
ten. This is feldom as tlrong as the fibre. Accordingly
timber is much eafier pulled afunder in a direction tranf¬
verfe to the fibres. There is, however, every poffible
variety in this particular.
In dretching and breaking fibrous bodies, the vifible
extenfion is frequently very confiderable. This is not
folely the increafing of the didance of the particles of
the cohering fibre} the greated part chiefly arifes from
drawing the crooked fibre draight. In this, too, there
is great diverfity ; and it is accompanied with important
differences in their power of withdanding a drain. In
fome woods, fuch as fir, the fibres on which the drength
mod depends are very draight. Such woods are com¬
monly very eladic, do not take a fett, and break
abruptly when overdrained : others, fuch as oak and
birch, have their redding fibres very undulating and
crooked, and dreteh very fenfibly by a drain. They
are very liable to take a fett, and they do not break f®
fuddenly, but give warning by complaining, as the car¬
penters call it j that is, by giving vifible figns of a de¬
rangement of texture. Hard bodies of an uniform glaffy
druflure, or granulated like dones, are eladic through
the whole extent of their cohefion, and take no fett, but
break at once when overloaded.
Notwithdanding the immenfe variety which nature,
exhibits in the drufture and cohefion of bodies, there
are certain general fadls of which we may now avail our-
felves with advantage. In particular, ^
The abfolute cohefion is proportional to the area of the abfo-
the feclion. This mud be the cafe where the texture islute cohe-
perfeflly uniform, as we have reafon to think it is in 01.
glafs and the dudlile metals. The cohefion of each par-proportion,
tide being alike, the whole cohefion mud be propor- al to the
tional to their number, that is, to the area of the fee- area of the
tion. The fame mud be admitted with refpeft to bodies1*^1?11 Per_
of a granulated texture, where the granulation is regu- ^Thc^ex17
lar and uniform. The fame mull be admitted of fibrous ten(jjr.g
bodies, if we fappofc their fibres equally drong, equally fgree.
-5 C 2 denfe,
\
38
■Relative
ftrensth.
S T R [ 75
Strength of denfe, and fimllarly dif[)ofed tlirougli tlie whole feclion j
Materials. an(j we rauit either fuppofe, or muft Hate the di-
' v verfity, and meafure the cohefion accordingly.
We may therefore aflert, as a general propofition on
this fubjeft, that the abfolute ftrength in any part of a
body by which it -refills being pulled afunder, or the
force which muft be employed to tear it afunder in that
part, is proportional to the area of the feftion perpendi¬
cular to the extending force.
Therefore all cylindrical or prifmatical rods are
equally ftrong in every part, and will break alike in
any part ; and bodies which have unequal fedlions will
always break in the flendereft part. 1 he length of the
cylinder or prifm has no effefl on the ftrength ; and the
vulgar notion, that it is ealier to break a very long rope
than a (liort one, is a very great miftake. Alfo the ab-
iblute ftrengths of bodies which have fimilar feelions are
proportional to the fquares of their diameters or homolo¬
gous tides of the fedlion.
The weight of the body itfelf may be employed to
ftrain it and to break it. It is evident, that a rope may
be fo long as to break by its own weight. When the
rope is hanging perpendicularly, although it is equally
ftrong in every part, it will break towards the upper
end, becaufe the ftrain on any part is the weight of all
that is below it. Its relative STRENGTH in any
part, or power of withftanding the ftrain which is ac¬
tually laid on it, is inverfely as the quantity below that
part.
When the rope is ftretched horizontally, as in towing
a (hip, the ftrain arifing from its weight often bears a
very fenfible proportion to its whole ilrength.
Let AEB (fig. 3.) be any portion of fuch a rope,
and AC, BC be tangents to the curve into which its
gravity bends it. Complete the parallelogram ACBD.
It is well known that the curve is a catenaria, and that
DC is perpendicular to the horizon ; and that DC is
to AC as the weight of the rope AEB to the ftrain
at A.
In order that a fufpended heavy body may be equal¬
ly able in every part to carry its own weight, the fec-
tion in ;that part muft be proportional to the folid con¬
tents of all that is below it. Suppofe it a conoidal
fpindle, formed by the revolution of the curve A a e
(fig. 4.) round the axis CE. We muft have ACa : a c%
— AEB fob : « E Z' fol. This condition requires the
logarithmic curve for A a e, of which C c is the axis.
Thefe are the chief general rules which can be fafely
deduced from our cleared notions of the cohefion of bo¬
dies. In order to make any practical ufe of them, it is
proper to have fome meafures of the cohefion of fuch bo¬
dies as are commonly employed in our mechanics, and
other ftrudlures where they are expofed to this kind of
ftrain. Thefe muft be deduced folely from experiment.
The cohe- Therefore they muft be confidered as no more than ge-
tahde neral values, or as the averages of many particular trials.
onVauous ^he irregularities are very great, becaufe none of the
circumftan- fubftances are conftant in their texture and firmnefs.
ces. Metals differ by a thoufand ciieumftances unknown to
us, according to their purity, to the ht at with which
they were melted, to the moulds in which they were
56 ]
S T R
Fig- 3-
Fig. 4.
39
caft, and the treatment they have afterwards received, Strength of
by forging, wire-drawing, tempering, &c. ^Materials.
It is a very curious and inexplicable faft, that by for-
ging a metal, or by frequently drawing it through a
fmooth hole in a fteel plate, its cohefion is greatly in-
creafed- This operation undoubtedly deranges the na¬
tural fituation of the particles. They 31-e fqueezed
clofer together in one diredlion 5 but it is not in the di-
redlion in which they refill the fradlure. In this direc¬
tion they are rather leparated to a greater diftance. The
general denfity, however, is augmented in all of them
except lead, which grows rather rarer by wire-drawing :
but its cohefion may be more than tripled by this opera¬
tion. Gold, filver, and brafs, have their cohefion nearly
tripled ; copper and iron have it more than doubled. In
this operation they alfo grow much harder. It is proper
to heat them to rednefs after drawing a little. This is
called nea/ing or annealing. It foftens the metal again,
and renders it fufceplible of another drawing without the
rifk of cracking in the operation.
We do not pretend to give any explanation of this re¬
markable and very important fadt, which has fomething
refembling it in woods and other fibrous bodies, as will
be mentioned afterwards.
The varieties in the cohefion of ftones and other mi¬
nerals, and of vegetable and animal fubftances, are hard¬
ly fufceptible of any defeription or clafiification.
40
We ihall take for the meafure of cohefion the num- Cohefion
ber of pounds avoirdupois which are juft fufficient to tear
afunder a rod or bundle of one inch fquare. From thisoi different
it will be eafy to compute the ftrength correfponding to metals,
any other dimenfion.
iy?, Metals.
Gold, caft,
Silver, caft,
fJapan,
| Barbary,
Copper,caft, Hungary,
| Anglefea,
(Sweden,
Iron, caft,
1 "Ordinary,
{
lbs.
f
, , stinan,
ron, ar, an^
_Horfe-nails,
Steel, bar, { t<,m'er>
Malacca,
Banea,
Tin, caft, ^ Block,
| Englilh block,
l g^in,
Lead, caft,
20,000
24,000
40,000
43,ooo
19,500
22,000
31,000
34,000
37,000
^ 42,000
1 59>000
68,000
75>00°
Ruffian, 84,000
71,000 (a)
1 20,000
J 50,000
3,100
Regulus of antimony,
Zinc,
Bifmuth,
3.600
3,8o°
5,200
6,500
860
1,000
2.600
2,900
It
(a) This was an experiment by Mufchenbroek, to examine the vulgar notion that iron forged from old horfe
nails was ftronger than all others,’and ftiows its falfity.
S T R
C 757 1
S T R
41
Tenacity
of metals
tncreafed
by mix¬
tures.
Strength of It is very remarkable that almoft all the mixtures of
Materials., are m0re tenacious than the metals themfelves.
The change of tenacity depends much on the proportion
of the ingredients, and the proportion which produces
the moft tenacious mixture is different in the different
metals. We have felefted the following from the ex¬
periments of Mufchenbroek. The proportion of ingre¬
dients here feledted is that which produces the greateft
ftrength.
Two parts of gold with one of {liver 28,000
Five parts of gold writh one of copper 50,000
Five parts of filver with one of copper 48,500
Four parts of lilver with one of tin - 41,000
Six parts of copper with one of tin - 41,000
Five parts of Japan copper with one of Ban-
ca tin - - - 57,00a
Six parts of Chili copper with one of Ma¬
lacca tin - - - 60,000
Six parts of Swedifli copper with one of Ma¬
lacca tin - - - 64,000
Brafs confifts of copper and zinc in an un¬
known proportion y its ftrength is 51,000,
Three parts of block tin with one part of
lead - - - 10,200
Eight parts of block tin with one part of
zinc - - 10,000
Four parts of Malacca tin with one part of
regulus.of antimony - - 12,000
Eight parts of lead with one of zinc 4*5°°
Four parts of tin with one of lead and one
of zinc - 13,000
Thefe numbers are of confiderable ufe in the arts.
The mixtures of copper and tin are particularly intereft-
ing in the fabric of great guns. We fee that, by mixing
copper whofe greateft ftrength does not exceed 37,000,
with tin which does not exceed 6000, we produce a me¬
tal whofe tenacity is almoft double, at the fame time that
it is harder and more eafily wrought. It is, however,
more fufible, which is a great inconvenience. We alfo
fee that a very fmall addition of zinc almoft doubles the
tenacity of tin, and increafes the tenacity of lead five
times j and a fmall addition of lead doubles the tenacity
of tin., Thefe are economical mixtures. This is a very
valuable information to the plumbers for augmenting
the ftrength of water pipes.
By having recourfe to thefe tables, the engineer can
proportion the thicknefs of his pipes (of whatever metal)
to the preffures to which they are expofed.
2c7, Woods.
We may premife to this part of the table the followr-
ing general ohfervations.
l! The wood immediately furrounding the pith or
heart of the tree is the weakeft, and its inferiority is fo
much more remarkable as the tree i- older. In this af¬
fection, however we fpeak with fome hefitation. Muf-.
chenbroek’s detail of experiments i« decidedlv in fhe af¬
firmative. Mr Buffon, on the other hand, fays, that his
experience has taught him that the heart of a found tree
is the ftrongcft 5 but he gives no in^ances. We are
certain, from many obfervations of our own, on very
larpe oaks and firs, that the heart is-much weaker than
the exterior parts.
Ten acity or
ftrength of
wood.
2. The wood next the bark, commonly called the Strength of
white or Idea, is alfo weaker than the reft 5 and the ,Mat^na s‘,
wood gradually increafes in-ftrength as we recede from
the centre to the blea.
3. The wood is ftronger in the middle of the trunk
than at the fpringing of the branches or at the root; and
the w ood of the brandies is weaker than that of the
trunk.
4. The wood of the north fide of all trees which
grow in our European climates is the weakeft, and that
of the fouth-eaft fide is the ftrongeft ; and the difference
is moft remarkable in hedge-row trees, and fueh as grow
fingly. The heart of a tree is never in its centre, but
always nearer to the north fide, and the annual coats of
wood are thinner on that fide. lA conformity with
this, it is a general opinion of carpenters that timber is
ftronger whofe annual plates are thicker. The trachea
or air-veffels are weaker than the fimple ligneous fibres^
Thefe air-veffels are the fame in diameter and nupiber of
rows in trees of the fame fpeeies, and they make the vi-
fible feparation between the annual plates. Therefore
when thefe are thicker, they contain a greater propor¬
tion of the fimple ligneous fibres.
5. All woods are more tenacious while green, and
lofe very confiderably by drying after the trees are fel¬
led.
The only author who has put it in our power to
judge of the propriety of his experiments is Mufchen¬
broek. He has defcribed his method of trial minutely j
and it feems unexceptionable. The woods were all
formed into flips fit for his apparatus, and part of the flip
was cut away to a parallelopiped of ^-th of an inch
fquare, and therefore -Extl* of a fquare inch in feftion.
The abfoluteftrengths of a (quare inch were as follows:
lib.
20,100
18.500
i75300
13,900
13,200
12,500.
12.500
12,000
11,800
10,000
lib.
Pomegranate,
Lemon,
Tamarind,
Fir, ' -
Walnut,
Pitch pine,
Ouinee,
Cyprefs,
Poplar,
Cedar,
Locuft tree,
Jujeb,
Beech, oak,
Orange,
Alder,
Elm,
Mulberry,
Willow,
Afh, ' -
Plum,
Elder,
Mr Mufchenbroek has given a very minute detail of
the experiments on the afti and the walnut, hating the
weights which were required to tear afunder flips taken
from the four fidt s of the tree, and on each fide, in a re¬
gular progreffion from the centre to the circumference.
The numbers of this table correfponding to thefe two
timbers may therefore be confidered as the average of
more than 50 trials made of each y and he fays that all
the others were made with the fame care. We pannot
therefore fee any reafon for not confiding in the refults ;
vet thev are confiderably higher than thofe given by
fome other writers. Mr Pilot favs, on the authority of
hi- own experiments, and of thofe of Mr Parent, that
60 pounds will juft tear afunder a fquare line of found
oak, and that it will bear qo with fafety. This gives
8640 for the utmoft firength of a fquare inch, which is
much inferior to Mufchenbroek’s valuation.
We may add to thefe^
ivory,
43
o *7 co Abfoiute
0 2 CO ftrength °f
different .
5® kinds of
8,330 wood,
8,13°
7>65°
6,000
4,880
S T R
Strength of
Materials.
44
and of
other fub-
ftances.
45
No fub-
ftance to
be ftrained
in architec¬
ture above
one half its
ftrength.
-Ivory,
Bone,
Horn,
Whalebone,
Tooth of fea-calf,
[
16,270
5»25°
8,750
7»500
4,°75
* c
The reader will furely obferve, that thefe number:,
exprefs fomething more than the utmoft cohefion ^ for
the weights are fuch as will very quickly, that is, in a
minute or two, tear the rods alunder. It may be faid
in general, that two thirds of thefe weights will fenfibly
impair the ftrength after a confiderable while, and that
one-half is the utmoll that can remain fufpended at them
without rilk for ever } and it is this lalt allotment that
the engineer fliould reckon upon in his conlfiuctions.
There is, however, confiderable difference in this refpeft.
Woods of a very ftraight fibre, fuch as fir, will be lefs
impaired by any load which is not fufficient to break
them immediately.
According to Mr Emerfon, the load which may be
fafely fufpended to an inch fquare is as follows :
Iron, - - - " 76,400
Brafs, - - - 35>6o°
Hempen rope, - - 19,600
Ivory, - I5’7°0
Oak, box, yew, plum-tree, - - 7,850
Elm, alb, beech, - - 6,070
Walnut, plum, - - - 5>3^°
Red fir, holly, elder, plane, crab, - Si000
Cherry, hazel, - 4>7^°
Alder, afp, birch, willow, - - 4>29°
Lead, - - * * 43°
Freeftone, - - - * 9I4
He gives us a pradlical rule, that a cylinder whofe di¬
ameter is d inches, loaded to one-fourth of its abfolute
ftrength, will carry as follows :
Iron,
Good rope,
Oak,
Fir,
The rank which the different woods hold in this lift
of Mr Emerfon’s is very different from what we find in
Mufchenbroek’s. But precife meafures muft not be ex-
pefted in this matter. It is wonderful that in a matter of
fuch unqueftionable importance the public has not ena¬
bled fome perfons of judgment to make proper trials.
They are beyond the abilities of private perfons.
II. Bodies may be crushed.
It is of im- It is of equal, perhaps greater, importance to know
portance to the ftrain which may be laid on folid bodies without
1-7^ danger of cruftiing them. Pillars and polls of all kinds
bodies. are expofed to this ftrain in its fimpleft form ; and there
are cafes where the ftrain is enormous, viz. where it
arifes from the oblique polition of the parts •, as in the
ftuts, braces, and truffes, which occur very frequently
in our great works.
It is therefore moft defirable to have fome general
knowledge of the principle which determines the ftrength
of bodies in opposition to this kind of ftrain. But un¬
fortunately we are much more at a lofs in this than in
the laft cafe. The mechanifm of nature is much more
135" 1
22
14
9J
Cwt.
8 ] S T R
complicated in the prefent cafe. It muft be in fome cir-Strength of
cuitous way that compreffion can have any tendency to Matenals.
tear afunder the parts of a folid body, and it is very dif- _ 'r~'J
ficult to trace the Heps.
If we fuppofe the particles infuperably hard and in
contact, and difpofed in lines which are in the direction
of the external preffures, it does not appear how any
preffure can difunite the particles ; but this is a gratui¬
tous fuppolition. There are infinite odds againft this
precife arrangement of the lines of particles; and the
compreftibility of all kinds of matter in fome degree
Ihows that the particles are in a fituation equivalent to
diftance. This being the cafe, and the particles, with
their intervals, or what is equivalent to intervals, being
in fituations that are oblique with refpedt to the preffures,
it muft follow, that by fqueezing them together in one
diredtion, they are made to bulge out or feparate in other
diredtions. This may proceed fo far that fome may be
thus puftied laterally beyond their limits of cohefion.
The moment that this happens the refiftance to compref¬
fion is diminiflied, and the body will now be cruftied to¬
gether. We may form fome notion of this by fuppofing
a number of fpherules, like fmall ftiot, flicking together
by means of a cement. Comprefling this in fome par¬
ticular diredtion caufes the fpherules to adt among each
other like fo many wedges, each tending to penetrate
through betw'een the three which lie below it: and this
is the fimpleft, and perhaps the only diftindt, notion we
can have of the matter. We have reafon to think that
the conftitution of very homogeneous bodies, fuch as glafs,
is not very different from this. The particles are cer¬
tainly arranged fymmetrically in the angles of fome re¬
gular folids. It is only fuch an arrangement that is con-
fiftent with tranfparency, and with the free paffage of
light in every diredlion.
If this be the conftitution of bodies, it appears Pr°-xhefr^
bable that tbeltrength, or the refiftance which they are ftrength
capable of making to an attempt to crufh them to pieces, or power
is proportional to the area of the fedtion whofe plane is °f refift-
perpendicular to the external force j for each particle a
being fimilarly and equally adled on and refifted, theforce.
whole refiftance muft be as their number j that is, as
the extent of the fedlion.
Accordingly this principle is affumed by the few wri¬
ters who have confidered this fubjedt ; but we confefs
that it appears to us very doubtful. Suppofe a number
of brittle or friable balls lying on a table uniformly ar¬
ranged, but not cohering nor in contadf, and that a
board is laid over them and loaded with a weight ) we
have no hefitation in faying, that the weight neceffary
to crulh the whole colledlion is proportional to their num¬
ber or to the area of the fedlion. But when they are
in contadf (and ftill more if they cohere), we imagine
that the cafe is materially altered. Any individual ball
is cruflied only in confequence of its being bulged out¬
wards in the diredlion perpendicular to the preffure em¬
ployed. If this could be prevented by a hoop put
round the ball like an equator, we cannot fee how any
force can crufti it. Any thing therefore which makes
this bulging outwards more difficult, makes a greater
force neceffary. Now this eftedt will be produced by
the mere contadl of the balls before the preffure is ap¬
plied } for the central ball cannot fwell outward lateral¬
ly without puffiing away the balls on all fides of it.
This is prevented by the fridtion on the table and upper
bojfrd,
STB.
C 75
Sffength of board, 'which is at leafl equal to one third of the pref-
Materials pure> Thus any interior ball becomes ftronger by the
UJ~V mere vicinity of the others ; and if we farther fuppofe
them to cohere laterally, we think that its ftrength will
be ftill more increafed.
The analogy between thefe balls and the cohering
particles of a triable body is very perfect. We flrould
therefore expert that the ftrength by which it refills be¬
ing crulhed will increafe in a greater ratio than that of
the feftion, or the fquare of the diameter of fimilar fec-
tions $ and that a fquare inch of any matter will bear a
greater weight in proportion as it makes a part of a
greater fection. Accordingly this appears in many ex¬
periments, as will be noticed afterwards. Mufchenbroek,
Euler, and fome others, have fuppofed the ftrength of
columns to be as the biquadrates of their diameters.
But Euler deduced this from formulae which occurred
to him in the courle of his algebraic analyfis *, and he
boldly adopts it as a principle, without looking for its
foundation in the phyfical aflumptions rvhich he had
made in the beginning of his inveftigation. But fome
of his original affumptions were as paradoxical, or at
leaft as gratuitous, as thefe refults : and thofe, in parti¬
cular, from which this proportion of the ftrength of co¬
lumns was deduced, were almoft foreign to the cafe •,
and therefore the inference was of no value. Yet it was
received as a principle by Mufchenbroek and by the aca¬
demicians of St Peterftmrgh. We make thefe very few
obfervations, becaufe the fubjed! is of great practical
importance ; and it is a great obftacle to improvements
when deference to a great name, joined to incapacity or
indolence, caufes authors to adopt his carelefs reveries as
principles from which they are afterwards to draw im¬
portant conlequences. It muft be acknowledged that
we have not as yet eftablithed the redation between the
dimenfions and the ftrength of a pillar on folid mechani¬
cal principles. Experience plainly contradidls the ge¬
neral opinion, that the ftrength is proportional to the
area of the fedlion ; but it is ftill more inconfiftent with
the opinion, that it is in the quadruplicate ratio of the
diameters of fimilar feftions. It would feem that the
ratio depends much on the internal ftrufture of the bo-
penment^" ^ *’ an<^ exPeriment feems the only method for afeer-
taining its general laws.
If we fuppofe the body to be of a fibrous texture,
having the fibres fituated in the diredtion of the preflure,
and (lightly adhering to each other by fome kind of ce¬
ment, fuch a body will fail only by the bending of the
fibres, by which they will break the cement and be de¬
tached from each other. Something like this mav be
fuppofed in wooden pillars. In fuch cafes, too, it would
appear that the refiftance muft be as the number of equal¬
ly refilling fibres, and as their mutual fupport, jointly ;
and, therefore, as fome fundfion of the area of the fec-
tion. The fame thing muft happen if the fibres are na¬
turally crooked or undulated, as is obferved in many
woods, &c. provided we funpofe fiame fimilarity in their
form. Similarity of fome kind muft always be fuppofed,
otherwife we need never aim at any general inferences.
In al' cafes therefore we can hardly ’efufe admitting
that the ftrength in oppofition to compreffion is propor¬
tional to a fundlion of the area of the fedlion.
As the whole length of a evlinder or prifm is equally
■proffer), it does not appear *hat the ftrength of a pd’ar
is at all affedled by its length. If indeed it be fuppofed
48
Co be af-
certasned
59 ] STB
to bend under the preffure, the cafe is greatly changed,Strength ofr
becaufe it is then expofed to a tranfverfe drain j and ,M'ltcria^',
this increafes with the length of the pillar. But this
will be confidered -with due attention under the next
clafs of (trains.
Few experiments have been made on this fpecies of
ftrength and (train. Mr Petit fays, that his experiments
and thofe of Mr Parent, (trow that the force necclt'ary for
cradling a body is nearly equal to that which will tear it
afunder. He fays that it requires fomething more than
60 pounds on every fquare line to cruth a piece of found
oak. But the rule is by no means general : Glafs, for
infiance, will carry a hundred times as much as oak in
this way, that is, refting on it ; but will not fufpend
above four or five times as much. Oak will fufpend a
great deal more than fir ; but fir will carry twice as
much as a pillar. Woods of a foft texture, although
confiding of very tenacious fibres, are more eafily cruih-
ed by their load. This foftnefs of texture is chietly ow¬
ing to their fibres not being ftraight but undulated, and
there being confiderable vacuities between them, fo that
they are eafily bent laterally and crufiied. When a poft
is overftrained by its load, it is obferved to fwell fenfibly*
in diameter. Increafing the load caufes longitudinal
cracks or (hivers to appear, and it prefently after gives
way. This is called crippling.
In all cafes where the fibres lie oblique to the drain
the ftrength is greatly diminfthed, becaufe the parts can
then be made to Hide on each other, when the cohefion
of the cementing matter is overcome.
Mufchenbroek has given fome experiments on this
fubjeft $ but they are cafes of long pillars, and therefore
do not belong to this place. They will be confidered
afterwards.
The only experiments of which we have feen any de¬
tail (and it is ufelefs to infert mere affertions) are thofe
of Mr Gauthey, in the 4th volume of Rozier’s Journal
de Physique. This engineer expofed to great preffures
fmall rectangular parallelepipeds, cut from a great va¬
riety of (tones, and noted the weights which crufhed
them. The following table exhibits the medium refults
of many trials on two very uniform kinds of freeftone,
one of them among the hardeft and the other among the
fofteft ufed in building. 4^
Column I ft expreffes the length AB of the feCtion in Experi-
French lines or I2ths of an inch , column 2d expreffes n??r,ts ^o!-'
the breadth BC 5 column 3d is the area of the feCtion^
in fquare lines •, column 4th is the number of ounces re-on free-
quired to crufh the piece ; column 9th is the weight ftone*
which was then borne by each fquare line of the lec¬
tion ; and column 6th is the round numbers to which
Mr Gauthey imagines that thofe in column 5th ap¬
proximate.
Hard Stone.
AB BC ABxBC Weight
88 64 736
8 12 96 2625
8 16 128 4496
Soft Stone.
9 16 144 560
9 18 162 848
18 18 324 2928
18 24. 432 5296
Force
11 5
27-3
35-i
3-9
5-3
9
12.2
12
24
36
4-
4*5
9
12
Little
S T R
[ 760 ]
S T R
'Strength of Little can be deduced from thcfe experiments: The
Mote-rials, jft an(] compared with the 5th and 6th, •hould tur*
  nith fimilar refults; for the lit and 5th are refpeftively
-half of the 3d and 6th : but the 3d is three times ftronger
(that is, a line of the 3d) than the firft, whereas the 6th
is only twice as ftrong as-the 5th. .
It is evident, however, that the ftrength increaies
much faifer than the area of the fe&ion, and that a
-fquare line can carry more and more weight, according
ns it makes a part of a larger and larger fed .on In
the ft riesof experiments on the foft ftone, the individual
ftrength of a fquare line feems to mcreafe nearly in the
proportion of the feftion of which it makes a part.
Mr Gauthey deduces, from the whole ot his numer¬
ous experiments, that a pillar of hard ftone of Givry,
•whole fedlion is a fquare foot, will bear with perfect fafety
664.•'O: pounds and that its extreme ftrength is 871 ,coo,
and the fmalleft ftrength obferved in any of his experi¬
ments was 460,000. The foft bed of Givry ftone had
for its fmalleft ftrength 187,000, for its greatest 311,000,
and for its fafe load 249,000. Good brick will carry
with fafety 3 20,000-, chalk will carry only 9000. The
boldeft piece of arehitefture in this refpeft which he has
feen is a pillar in the church of All-Saints at Angers. It
is 24 feet long and 1 1 inches fquare, and is loaded with
60,000, which is not one-feventh of what isneceffary for
erulhing it.
We may obferve here by the way, that Mr Gauthey s
meafure of the fufpending ftrength of ftone is vaftly Imall
in proportion to its power of fupporting a load laid above
'it. * He finds that a prifm of the hard bed of Givry, of
a foot feflion, is torn afunder by 4600 pounds-, and if
it be firmly fixed horizontally in a wall, it will be broken
by a weight of 36,000 fufpended a foot from the Avail. If
it reft on two props at a foot diftance, it will be broken
by 206,000 laid on its middle. Thefe experiments a-
gree fo ill with each other, that little ufe can be made
of them. The fubje<ft is of great importance, and ivell
deferves the attention of the patriotic philofopher.
A fet of good experiments would be very valuable, be-
caufe it is againft this kind of ftrain that we muft guard
much want-by jucftcious conftruftion in the molt delicate and diffi-
ecl- cult problems Avhich come through the hands of the ci¬
vil and military engineer, ihe conftruetion of ftone
arches, and the conftruftion of great wooden bridges,
and particularly the conftru&ion of the frames of car¬
pentry called centres in the eredtion of ftone bridges,
are the molt difficult jobs that occur. In the centres on
which the arches of -the bridge of Orleans-were built
fome of the pieces of oak were carrying upwards of two
tons on every fquare inch of their fcantling. All who
faw it faid that it was not able to carry the fourth part
of the intended load. But the engineer undorftood the
principles of his art, and ran the rilk : and the refult
completely juftified his confidence ; for the centre did
not complain in any part, only it Avas found too fupple *,
fo that it went out of ffiape Avhile the haunches only of
the arch were laid on it. The engineer correfted this
by loading it at the crown, and thus kept it completely
in ffiape during the progrefs of the Avork.
In the Memoirs (old) of the Academy of Peterffiurgh
for 1778, there is a differtation by Euler on this fubjedl,
but particularly limited to the ftrain on columns, in
Avhich the bending is taken into the account. Mr Fufs
Ims treated the fame fubjeft with relation to carpentry
5°.
not fatis-
fadtory.
51
Good ex¬
periments
in a fubfequent Volume. But there is little in thefe pa- Strength of
pers befides a dry mathematical difquilition, proceeding ■trials-
on alfumptions Avhich (to fpeak favourably) are extreme- "
ly gratuitous. The moft important confequence of the
compreffion is wholly overlooked, as avc (hall prefently
fee. Our knoAvledge of the mechanifm of cobelion is
as yet far too impertedt to entitle us to a confident ap¬
plication of mathematics. Experiments thould be mul¬
tiplied. _ 52
The only Avay we can hope to make thefe experiments How they
ufefui is to pay a careful attention to the munner in are to be
which the fraclure is produced. By difeovering the ge-ufe'
neral refemblances in this particular, avc advance a ftep
in our poAver of introducing mathematical meafurement.
Thus, Avhen a cubical piece ot chalk is UoAvly crirtiied
betAveen the chaps of a vice, avc fee it uniformly fplit in
a furface oblique to the preffure, and the tAvo parts then
Hide along the furface of fradlure. i his ffiould lead us
to examine mathematically what relation there is be¬
tAveen this furface of fradture and the necefiary force;
then avc Ihould endeavour to determine experimentally
the pofition of this furface. Having dilcovertd fome
general Hav or refemblance in this circumftance, Ave
Ihould try Avhat mathematical hypothefis will agree with
this. Having found one, avc may then apply our limpleit
notions of eohefion, and compare the reiult of our com¬
putations Avith experiment. We are authorifed to fay,
that a feries of experiments has been made in this Avay,
and that their refults have been very uniform, and there¬
fore fatisfadlory, and that they will foon be laid before
the public as the foundations of fuccefsful pradiice in the
conftrudtion of arches.
III. A Body may be broken across.
53
The moft ufual, and the greateft ftrain, to Avhich ma-jt ;s
terials are expofed, is that which tends to break ihemportance
tranfverfely. It is feldom, however, that this is done int0^n<rw^
a manner perfecfly fimple; for when a beam projedlsTjj^™"
horizontally from a Avail, and a weight is fufpended trom bo(iy
its extremity, the beam is commonly broken near the trantverfe-
avall, and the intermediate part has performed the func- M
tions of a lever. It fometimes, though rarely, happens
that the pin in the joint of a pair of pincers or fcillarsis
cut through by the ftrain ; and this is almoft the only
cafe of a fixnple tranfverfe fradlure. Being fo rare, Ave
may content ourfclves with faying, that in this cafe the
ftrength of the piece is proportional to the area of the
fedlion. ^ _ 54
Experiments Avere made for difeovering the refiftances Expen-
made by bodies to this kind of ftrain in the followingmtnts
manner': Two iron bars Avere difpofed horizontally atnjad^?a
an inch diftance ; a third hung perpendicularly between ^
them, being fupported by a pin made of-the fubftance to
be examined. This-pin Avas made of a prifmatic form,
fo as to fit exadtly the holes in the three bars, Avhich
were made very exact, and of the fame fize and fliape.
A feale was fufpended at the lower end of the perpen¬
dicular bar, and loaded till it tore out that part of the
pin which filled the middle hole. This weight Avas evi¬
dently the meafure of the lateral oohefion of Iavo fedtions.
The fide-bars were made to grafp the middle bar pretty
ftrongly betAveen them, that there might be no diftance
impofed betAveen the oppofite preffures. 1 his Avould
have . combined the energy of a lever Avith the purely
tranfverfe preffure. For the fame reafon it w-as necef-
farv
A
S T 11
[
*'6i
StVellgth o!
Materials.
ss
Their re¬
sult.
S«
The
flrength
■of a lever-
fig- 5-
r
iary that the internal parts of the holes fliould be no
fmaller than the edges. Great irregularities occurred
in our firft experiments from this caufe, becaufe the pins
were fomewhat tighter within than at the edges ; but
when this was corrected they were extremely regular.
We employed three fets of holes, viz-, a circle, a fquare
(which was occafronally made a reftangle whofe length
-was twice its breadth), and an equilateral triangle. We
found in all our experiments the ftrength exactly pro¬
portional to the area of the feflion, and quite independ¬
ent of its figure or pofition, and we found it confiderably
above the direct cohefion } that i“, it took Connderably
more than twice the force to tear out this middle piece
than to tear the pin afunder by a diredl pull. A piece
of fine freeftone required 205 pounds to pull it direilly
afunder, and 575 to break it ih this way. The differ¬
ence was very conflant in any one fubftance, but varied
from four-thirds to fix-thirds in different kinds of matter,
being fmalleif in bodies of a fibrous texture. But indeed
we could not make the trial on any bodies of confider-
able eohefion, becaufe they required fuch forces as our
apparatus could not fupport. Chalk, clay baked in the
fun, baked fugar, brick, and freeftone, Were the ftrongeft
that we could examine.
But the more common cafe, where the energy of a
lever intervenes, demands a minute examination.
liet D ABC (fig. 5.) be a vertical feftion of a prif-
matic folid (that is, of equal fize throughout), project¬
ing horizontally from a wall in which it is firmly fix¬
ed : and let a weight P be hung on it at B, or let any
power P aft at B in a direction perpendicular to
AB. Suppofe the body of infuperable ftrength in every
part except in the vertical feCtion DA, perpendicular to
its length. It muff break in this feCtion only. Let the
cohefion be uniform over the whole of this feCtion ; that
is, let each of the adjoining particles of the two parts
cohere with an equal force f.
There are two ways in which it may break. The part
ABCD may fimply fiide down along the furface of frac¬
ture, provided that the power aCting at B is equal to the
accumulated force which is exerted by every particle of
the feCtion in the direction AD.
But fuppofe this effectually prevented by fomething
tliat fupports the point A. The aClion at P tends to make
the body turn round A (or round a horizontal line paf-
fing through A at right angles to AB) as round a joint.
This it cannot do without feparating at the line DA.
In this cafe the adjoining particles at D or at E will be
faparated horizontally. But their coliefion refills this
reparation. In order, therefore, that the fraCture may
happen, the energy or momentum of the power P, ac¬
ting by means of the lever AB, mult be fuperior to the
accumulated energies of the particles. The energy of
Cach depends not only on its cohefive force, but alfo on
its fituation ; for the fuppofed infuperable firmnefs of
the reft of the body makes it a lever turning round the
fulcrum A, and the cohefion of each particle, fuch as
D or E, aCls by means of tire arm DA Or EA. 1 he
energy of each particle will therefore be had by multi¬
plying the force exerted by it in the inftarit of fraCture
by the arm of the lever by which it aCts.
Let us therefore firfl fuppofe, that in the inflant of
fraCture every particle is exerting an equal force /i 1 he
energy of D will bey'x DA, and that of E will bey'x
EA, and that of the whole will be the lum of all thefe
V@l. XIX. Part iL
] S T R
produCls. Let the depth DA of the feCtion be called Strength of
and let any undetermined part of it E A be called .r, and
then the fpace occupied by any particle will be X.
The cohefion of this fpace may be reprefented by f x^,
and that of the whole by f d. The energy by which
each element x of the line DA, or r/, refifts the frac¬
ture, will be f x X-, and the Whole accumulated energies
Will be /X
'jf*K X‘
This we know to be fy,\ d*, oC
f d X id. it is the fame therefore as if the cohefion
^fd of the whole feCtion had been aCting at the point G*
which is the middle of DA.
The reader who is not familiarly acquainted with this
fluxionary calculus may arrive at the fame conclufion ift
another -way. Suppofe the beam, inflead of projecting
horizontally from a wall, to be hanging from the ceiling,
in which it is firmly fixed. Let us confider how the
equal cohefion of every part operates in hindering the
lower part from feparating from the upper by opening
round the joint A. The equal cohefion operates jult as
equal gravity would do, but in the oppofite direction.
Now we know, by the moll elementary mechanics, that
the effeCt of this will be the fame as if the whole weight
were concentrated in the centre of gravity G of the line
DA, and that this point G is in the middle of DA.
Now the number of fibres being as the length d of the
line, and the cohefion of each fibre being = /] the co¬
hefion of tire whole line is fxd otfd.
The accumulated energy therefore of the cohefion in
the inftant of fraCture is fdx \ d. Now this mufl be
equal or juft inferior to the energy of the power employ¬
ed to break it. Let the length AB be called /; then
P X / is the corresponding energy of the power. L his
gives us f d\d—p i for the equation of equilibrium cor-
refponding to the vertical feCtion ADCB.
Suppofe now that the fraCture is not permitted at
DA, but at another feCtion c>« more remote from B.
The body being prifmatic, all the vertical feClions are
equal ; and therefore f d-§ d is the fame as before. But
the energy of the power is by this means increaftd, be¬
ing now — P X B iuftead of P X BA : Hence we fee
that when the prifmatic body is not infuperably lining
in all its parts, but equally ftrong throughout, it mult
break clofe at the wall, where the ftrain or energy of
the power is great eft. We fee, too, that a power which
is juft able to break it at the wall is unable to break it
anywhere elle $ alfo an abfolute cohefion fd, which can
withftand the power p in the i'eCtion DA, will not with-
ftand it in the feCtion 5<«, and will withftand more in
the feCtion d' a*.
This teaches us to diftinguilh between abfolute ami
relative ftrength. The relative ftrength of a feCtion has
a reference to the ftrain actually exerted on that feCtion.
This relative ftrength is properly meafured by the power
which is juft able to balance or overcome it,, -when
applied at its proper place. Now fince we had f did
±zp /, we have pzzf—j— for the meafure of the ftrengtlt
of the feCtion DA, in relation to the power applied at
B.
If the folid is a reClangular beam, whofe breadth is b%
it is plain that all the vertical feCtions are equal, and
that AG or \dh tire fame in all. Therefore the equa-
5 D tion
S T R
[
Sirengtli oftlon exprefling the equilibrium between the momentum
Materials. u£ tjK. external force and the accumulated momenta of
cohefion will be p l—f dby^\d.
The produft db evidently expreffes the area of the
fecHon of fraflure, which we may call r, and we may
exprefs the equilibrium thus, p l~f s \ d, and 2/: d~
fs \ p.
Now fs is a proper expreflion of the abfolute cohe¬
fion of the fe&ion of fraaure, and ju is a proper meafure
of its ftrength in relation to a power applied at B. We
may therefore fay, that twice the length of a reft angular
beam is to the depth as the abfolute cohefion to the rela¬
tive ftrength.
Since the aflion of equable cohefion is fimilar to the
add ion'of equal gravity, it follows, that whatever is the
figure of the feftion, the relative ftrength will be the
fcait as if the abfolute cohefion of all the fibres were
acting at the centre of gravity of the fedlion. Let g
be the diftance between the centre of gravity of the fec-
tion and the axis of frafture, we lhall have p Ipzf sg,
and l \ g—fs : p. It will be very ufeful to recollett this
analogy in words : “ The length of a prifmatic beam of
any flmpe is to the height of the centre of gravity above
the lower fide, as the abfolute cohefion to thefrength re¬
lative to this length.'1'1
Becaufe the relative ftrength of a reflangular beam
0XffJ_ it f0ll0VvS> that the relative ftrengths
/ 2 /
of different beams are proportional to the abfolute cohe¬
fion of the particles, to the breadth, and to the fquare of
the depth direftly, and to the length inverfely •, alfo in
prifms whole feiftions are fimilar, the ftrengths are as the
cubes of the diameters.
Such are the more general refults of the mechanifm
of this tranfverfe drain, in the hypothefis that all the
hypothefis particles are exerting equal forces in the inftant of frac-
hefioiT; C° ture. We are indebted for this dodlrine to the cele¬
brated Galileo •, and it was one of the firft fpecimens of
the application of mathematics to the fcience of nature.
We have not included in the preceding inveftigation
that aftion of the external force by which the folid is
drawn fide wife, or tends to Hide along the furface of frac¬
ture. We have fuppofed a particle E to be pulled only
in the direction E e, perpendicular to the feftion of frac¬
ture, by the aftion of the crooked lever BAE. But it
is alfo pulled in the direction EA ; and its reaction is
in forue direftion t E, compounded of sf by which it
refills being pulled outwards j and e e by which it refifts
being pulled downwards. We are but imperfeflly ac¬
quainted with the force i e, and only know that their
accumulated fum is equal to the force p ; but in all im¬
portant cafes which occur in practice, it is unnecefiary to
attend to this force •, becaufe it is fo fmall in compari-
fon of the forces in the diredfion Ee, as we eafily conclude
from the ufual fmallnefs of AD in comparifon”of AB.
The hypothefis of equal eohefion, exerted by all the
particles in the inftant of fra&ure, is not conformable to
for we know, that when a force is applied tranf-
57'; ‘
Afrertain-
ed on the
5S
but that
hypothefis
not on-
formable to naurs
nature.
2 1 S T R
are proportional to the diftances from A. We fliall fup-Strength of
pofe this to be really the cafe. Now recolleft tire ge- Materials/
neral law which we formerly faid was obferved in all y-w
moderate extenfions, viz., that the attra&ive forces ex¬
erted by the dilated particles were proportional to their
dilatations. Suppofe now that the beam is fo much bent
that the particles at D are exerting their utmoft force,
and that this fibre is juft ready to break or actually
breaks'; it is plain that a total fradture muft immedi¬
ately enfue ; becaufe the force which was fuperior to
the full cohefion of the particle at D, and a certain por¬
tion of the cohefion of all the reft, will be more than fu¬
perior to the full cohefion of the particle next within
D, and a fmaller portion of the cohefion of the remain¬
der.
Now let F reprefent, as before, the full force of the
exterior fibre D, which is exerted by it in the inftant of
its breaking, and then the force exerted at the fame in¬
ftant by the fibre E will be had by this analogy, AD :
/*
AE, or d : x—f: J—-, and the force really exerted by
the fibre E is /x
The force exerted by a fibre whofe thicknefs is x is
therefore
f xx
but this force refifts the ftrain by adling
by means of the lever E A or x. Its energy or momen-
f X* X
J , and the accumulated momen¬
tum is therefore
ta of all the fibres in the line AE will bcfx fum of
This, when x is taken equal to d, will exprefs the
This,
X* X
~ir
momentum of the whole fibres in the line AD.
therefore, is /-:L^—, or f\ d\ ox f dy.\d. Now/aT
expreffes the abfolute cohefion of the whole line AD.
The accumulated momentum is therefore the fame as if
the abfolute cohefion of the whole line were exerted at
one-third of AD from A. ^
From thefe premifes it follows that the equation ex-The
prefling the equilibrium of the ftrain and cohefion is p /ftrength
—f d X j d; and hence we deduce the analogy, “ As
thrice the length is to the depth, fo is the abfolute cohefon
to the relativeJlrengthft
This equation and this proportion will equally apply
to redlangular beams whofe breadth is b ; for we lhail
then have p l~f b dx\d.
We alfo fee that the relative ftrength is proportional
to the abfolute cohefion of the particles, to the breadth,
and to the fquare of the depth diredlly, and to the length,
inverfely : for p is the meafure of the force with which
fbd^d fbd1 _ ..
3 —   In this re-
it is refifted, and pz
verfely at B, the beam is bent downwards, becoming
convex on the upper fide ; that fide is therefore on the
ftretch. The particles at D are farther removed from
each other than thofe at E, and are therefore aftually
exerting greater cohefive forces. We cannot fay with
certainty and precifion in what proportion each fibre is
extended. It feems moft probable that the extenfions
1 Si
fpe£l therefore this hypothefis agrees with the Galilean 5
but it afligns to every beam a fmaller proportion of the
abfolute cohefion of the fe/lion of fracture, in the pro¬
portion of three to two. In the Galilean hypothefis
this feftion has a momentum equal to one-half ol its ab¬
folute ftrength, but in the other hypothefis it is only one-
third. In beams of a different form the proportion may
be different.
As this is a moft important propofition, and the foun¬
dation
S T 11
t 763 3
S T ft
60
The fame
propofition
prefented
in another
point of
•friew.
Fig. 6’
Strength of dation of many praftlcal maxims, we are anxious to have
Materials. dearly comprehended, and its evidence perceived by
w"’’”v ' all. Our better informed readers will therefore indulge
us while we endeavour to prefent it in another point of
view, where it will be better feen by thofe who are not
familiarly acquainted with the fluxionary calculus.
Fig. 6. A is a perfpeflive view of a three Aided
beam projecting horizontally from a wall, and loaded
with a weight at B juft fufficient to break it. DABC
is a vertical plane through its higheft point D, in the
direftion of its length, rr D a is another vertical feClion
perpendicular to AB. The piece being fuppofed of in-
fuperable ftrength everywhere except in the feftion
a D a, and the cohefion being alfo fuppofed infuperable
along the line a A a, it can break nowhere but in this
feftion, and by turning round « A « as round a hinge.
Make D d equal to AD, and let D d reprefent the ab-
folute cohefion of the fibre at D, which abfolute cohe¬
fion we exprelfed by the fyrnbol f. Let a plane a d a
be made to pafs through a a and d, and let d a' a1 be
another crofs feftion. It is plain that the prifmatic fo¬
lk! contained between the two feClions <2 D a and a'da'
will reprefent the full cohefion of the whole feftion of
fraCture *, for we may conceive this prifm as made up of
lines fucli as F/, equal and parallel to D r/, reprefent-
sng the abfiflute cohefion of each particle fuch as F.
The pyramidal folid dD aa, cut off by the plane da a,
will reprefent the cohefions a&ually exerted by the dif¬
ferent fibres in the inftant of fradfture. For take any
point E in the furface of fracture, and draw E e paral¬
lel to AB, meeting the plane a d « in <?, and let e AE
be a vertical plane. It is evident that D d is to E e as
AD to AE ; and therefore (fince the forces exerted by
the different fibres are as their extenfion, and their ex-
tenfion as their diflances from the axis of fraCture) E e
will reprefent the force actually exerted by the fibre in
E, while D is exerting its full f^ce D d. In like
manner, the plane FF//expreffes the cohefion exerted
by all the fibres in the line FF, and fo on the through
the whole furface. Therefore the pyramid da a p ex¬
preffes the accumulated exertion of the whole furface of
fradture.
Farther, fuppofe the beam to be held perpendicular
to the horizon with the end B uppermoff, and that the
weight of the prifm contained between the two fedtions
uT) a and a' da' (now horizontal) is juft able to over¬
tome the full coheflon of the fetf ion of frafture. The
weight of the pyramid did) a a will alfo be juft able to
overcome the cohefions aBualhj exerted by the different
fibres in the inftant of fra&ure, becaufe the weight of
each fibre, fuch as E <?, is juft fuperior to the cohefion
a&ually exerted at E.
Let 0 be the centre of gravity of the pyramidal fo¬
lid. and draw 0 O perpendicular to the plane aE a.
The whole weight of the folid dD a a may be conceiv¬
ed as accumulated in the point 0, and as a&ing on the
point O, and it will have the fame tendency to feparate
the two cohering furfaces as when each fibre is hanging
by its refpe&ive point. For this reafon the point O
mav be called the centre of aBual effort of the unequal
forces of cohefion. ^ lie momentum therefore^ or ener¬
gy by which the cohering furfaces are feparated, will
be properlv meafured by the weight of the folid dD a a
multiplied'by OA; and this produft is equal to the
produ£l of the weight p multiplied by BA, or by .■
Thus fuppofe that the cohefion along the line AD only Strength^?
is confidered. The whole cohefion will be reprefented L '' ^n‘
by a triangle AD d. D d reprefents./, and AD is </,
and AD is x. Therefore AD d is '.fd. The centre
of gravity 0 of the triangle AD d is in the interie&ion
of a line drawn from A to the middle of D with a
line drawn from d to the middle of AD ; and therefore
the line 0 O will make AO—y of AD. Therefore the
a&ual momentum of cohefion is^X I dx^d, —fxdX
y </, zzf d Xj d, or equal to the abfolute cohefion acting
by means of the lever -. If the fe&ion of fra&ure is
3 . .
a re&angle, as in a common joift, whofe breadth a a
is -r b, it is plain that all the vertical lines will be
reprefented by triangles like AD d; and the whole ac¬
tual cohefion will be reprefented by a wedge whole
bafes are vertical planes, and which is equal to half of
the parallelepiped AD X D ^> and will therefore
be ~~fbd; and the diftance AO of its centre of
gravity from the horizontal line A A' will be y of AD.
The momentum of cohefion of a joift will therefore be
i fb dx \ dy or f b d\ d, as we have determined in the
other way.
The beam reprefented in the figure is a triangular
prifm. The pyramid Dtf «r/ is y of the prifm aaDdu’a'.
If we make s reprefent the furface of the triangle « D a,
the pyramid is 4 of/' j. The diftance AO of its centre
of gravity from the horizontal line A A' is 4 of AD, or
4 d. Therefore the momentum of a&ual cohefion is
yfsX^d, —fs 4 d; that is, it is the fame as if the
full cohefion of all the fibres were accumulated at a
point I whofe diftanee from A is 4U1 of AD or d; or
(that we may fee its value in every point of view) it is
4th of the momentum of the full cohefion of all the fi¬
bres when accumulated at the point D, or a&ing at the
diftance t/~AD.
This is a very convenient way of conceiving the mo¬
mentum of a&ual cohefion, by comparing it with the
momentum of abfolute cohefion applied at the diftanco
AD from the axis of fra&ure. The momentum of the
abfolute cohefion applied at D is to the momentum of
a&ual cohefion in the inftant of fra&ure as AD to AI.
Therefore the length of A I, or its proportion to AD,
is a fort of index of the ftrength of the beam. We ftiall
call it the Index, and exprefs it by the fymbol /.
Its value is eafily obtained. The produ& of the ab¬
folute cohefion by AI muft be equal to that of the ac¬
tual cohefion by AO. Therefore lay, “ as the prifma¬
tic folid a aD d a' a' is to the pyramidal folid a aD dy
fo is AO to AL” We are affifled in this determina¬
tion by a very convenient circumftance. In this hypo-
thefis of the a&ual cohefions being as the diflances of
the fibres from A, the point O is the centre of ofcilla-
tion or percuflion of the furface D a « turning round
the axis a a: for the momentum of enhefion of the line
FF is FF xE/xEArrFF X EA*, becaufe F/is equal
to EA. Now AO, by the nature of the centre of gra¬
vity, is equal to the fum of all thefe momenta divided
bv the pyramid a aD d; that is, by the fum of all the
FF X F f; that is, by the fum of all the FFx EA.
Therefore AO= ^ '* J“B the
value of the diflance of the centre of percufiion of the
triangle a aD from A : (Sec Rotation). Moreover,
5 D t ■ i?
S T R
[
S T R
Strength of if G be the centre of gravity of the triangle a D a, we
Materials. ]iave £)A to GA as the abfolute cohefxon to the
furn of the cohefions aftually exerted in the in Rant of
fracture j for, by the nature of this centre of gravity,
fum of FFx EA i.i r,™ mr
AG is equal to r—— ■■■ L.11 > an(i the fum 01 11 X
How the
relative
ftrength
fum of FF
AG is equal to the fum of FF X EA. But the fum of
all the lines FF is the triangle a D a, and the fum of all
the FFxEA is the fum of all the redangles FF//;
that is, the pyramid dT) aa. Iherefore a prifm whole
bafe is the triangle a D 0, and whofe height is AG, is
equal to the pyramid, or will exprefs the fum of the ac¬
tual eohefions ■, and a prifm, whofe bafe is the fame tri¬
angle, and whofe height is D r/ or D a, exprefles the
abfolute cohefion. 1 herefove DA is to GA as the ab¬
folute cohelion to the fum of the affual cohefions.
Therefore we have DA : GArrOA : I A.
Therefore, whatever be the form of the beam, that
is, whatever be the figure of its fe&ion, find the centre
of ofcillation O, and the centre of gravity G of this
feftion. Call their difiances from the axis of fra&ure 0
764 1
at D, E, See. are as the ordinates D d', E e\ Sec. of any Strength of
curve line A e* d'. We are fuppofed to know the form <Materials,
of this curvc/and that of the folid which is bounded by luJ
the vertical plane through AD, and by the lurface
which paffes through this curve A d d' perpendicularly
to the length of the beam. We know the place of the
centre of gravity of this curve furface or folid, and can
draw a line through it parallel to AB, and cutting the
furface of fraffure in fome point O. This point is alfo
the centre of effort of all the cohefions aftually exerted ^
and the product of AO and of the folid which expreffes
the aftual cohefions will give the momentum of cohefion
°g
and g. Then AI or and the momentum of co¬
hefion is/r X —7» where s is the area of frafture.
d
This index is eafily determined in all the cafes which
generally occur in pra£fice. In a rectangular beam AI
is -\d of AD; in a cylinder (circular or elliptic) AI is
/■jths of AD, See. &c.
In this hypothefis, that the cohefion aftually exerted
by each fibre is as its extenfion, and that the extenfions
of the fibres are as their diftances from A (fig. 5.),
it is plain that the forces exerted by the fibres D, E,
Sec. will be reprefented by the ordinates Dd, Ee, See.
to a ftraight line A d. And we learn from the princi¬
ples of Rotation that the centre of percuflion O is in
the ordinate which pafies through the centre of gravity
of the triangle AD d, or (if we confider the whole fac¬
tion having breadth as well as depth) through the cen¬
tre of gravity of the folid bounded by the planes DA,
d A; and we found that this point O was the centre of
effort of the cohefions aElucilly exerted in the inftant of
fraClure, and that I was the centre of an equal momen¬
tum, which would be produced if all the fibres were ac¬
cumulated there and exerted their full cohefion.
This confideration enables us to determine, with equal
facility and neatnefs, the ftrength of a beam in any hy¬
pothefis of forces. The above hypothefis was introdu¬
ced with a cautious limitation to moderate ftrains, which
produced no permanent change of form, or no fett as
the artifts call it: and this fuffices for all purpofes of
praiftice, feeing that it would be imprudent to expofe
materials to more violent ftrains. But when we com¬
pare this theory with experiments in which the pieces
are really broken, eonfiderable deviations may be ex¬
pelled, becaufe it is very probable that in the vicinity
of rupture the forces are no longer proportional to the
extenfions.
That no doubt may remain as to the juftnefs and
may be de_ completenefs of the theory, we muft (how how the rela-
equivalent to the former/s -A. Or we may find an
index AI, by making AI a fourth proportional to the
full cohefion of the furface of fradlure, to the accumula¬
ted adlual cohefions, and to AO 5 and then f s x l
(rrAI) will be the momentum of cohefion; and we
(hall ftill have I for the point in which all the fibres
may be fuppofed to exert their full cohefion / and to
produce a momentum of cohefion equal to the real mo¬
mentum of the cohefions actually exerted, and the rtla-
• -ii fs l fsg0
tive ftrength of the beam will ftill be p——j- or ——
Thus, if the forces be as the fquares of the extenfions
(ftill fuppofed to be as the diftances from A), the curve
Add' will be a common parabola, having AB for its
axis and AD for the tangent at its vertex, il he area
AD d' will be -^-d ADxDd; and in the cafe of a
rectangular beam, AO will be ^ths AD, and AI will
be ^th of AD.
We may obfetve here in general, that if the forces
aftually exerted in the inftant of fradlure be as any
power q of the diftance from A, the index AI will be
AD
for a rectangular beam, and the momentum of
y-ft2
termined tive Itrength may be determined in any other hypothe-
by any o- fis. Therefore fuppofe that it has been eftablifhed by
ther hypo- experiment on any kind of folid matter, that the forces
actually exerted in the inftant of fraCture by the fibres
3
cohefion will always be f ceteris paribus') as the breadth
and as the fquare of the depth ; nay, this will be the
cafe -whenever the aCtion of the fibres D and E is ex-
prefled by any Jimilar finBions of d and x. This is evi¬
dent to every reader acquainted with the fluxionary cal¬
culus.
As far as we can judge from experience, no fimple
algebraic power of the diftance will exprefs the aCtual
cohefions of the fibres. No curve which has either A D
or AB for its tangent willfuit. The obfervations which
we made in the beginning ftiow, that although the curve
of fig. 2. muft be fenfibly ftraighl in the vicinity of the
points of interfeClion with the axis, in order to agree
with our obfervations which ftiow the moderate exten¬
fions to be as the extending forces, the curve muf b'e
concave towards the axis in all its attractive branches,
becaufe it cuts it again. Therefore the curve A d d’
of fig. 5. muft make a finite angle with AD or AB,
and it muft, in all probability, be alfo concave towards
AD in the neighbourhood of d’. It may however
be convex in fome part of the intermediate arch. We
have made experiments on the extenfions of different
bodies, and find great diverfities in this refpeft : But
in all, the moderate extenfions were as the forces, and
this with great accuracy till the body took a fett, and
remained longer than formerly when the extending force
was removed.
We muft: now remark, that this corre&ion of the Ga¬
lilean hypothefis of equal forces was fuggefted by thfe
bending.
S T R [ 7S5 i
Strength ofbending which is obferved in all bodies which are llrain- forces.
Materials. ecj traniverfely. Becaufe they are bent, the fibres on
the convex fide have been extended. We cannot fay in
what proportion this obtains in the different fibres. Our
moft diftin£t notions of the internal equilibrium between
the particles render it highly probable that their exten-
fion is proportional to their diilance from that fibre
Avhich retains its former dimenfions. But by whatever
law this is regulated, we fee plainly that the adtions of
the ft retched fibres muft follow the proportions of fome
fundlion of this diftance, and that therefore the relative
ffrength of a beam is in all cafes fufceptible of mathe-
matical determination.
Bernoulli’s We alfo fee an intimate connedlion between the ftrain
problem of an(j the curvature. This fuggefted to the celebrated
the ela ic james Bernoulli the problem of the Elastic Curve,
i. e. the curve into which an extenfible rigid body will
be bent by a tranfverfe ftrain. His folution in the Acia
Lipjice 1694 and 1695, a ver7 beautiful fpecimen of
mathematical difcuffxon ; and we recommend it to the
perufal of the curious reader. He will find it very per-
fpicuoufty treated in the firft volume of his works, pub-
lifhed after his death, where the wide fteps which he
had taken in his inveftigation are explained fo as to be
eafily-comprehended. His nephew Daniel Bernoulli
has given an elegant abridgment in the Peterfburg
Memoirs for 1729. The problem is too intricate to be
fully difeuffed in a work like ours j but it is alfo too in¬
timately connected with our prefent fubjedl to be entire¬
ly omitted. We muff content ourfelves with ihow-ing
the leading mechanical properties of this curve, from
which the mathematician may deduce all its geometri¬
cal properties*
Tts leading When a bar of uniform depth and breadth, and of a
mechanical given length, is bent into an arch of a circle, the ex-
property tenfion of the outer fibres is proportional to the curva¬
ture j for, becaufe the curves formed by the inner and
outer fides of the beam are fimilar, the circumferences
are as the radii, and the radius of the inner circle is to the
difference of the radii as the length of the inner circum¬
ference is to the difference of the circumferences. The
difference of the radii is the depth of the beam, the dif¬
ference of the circumferences is the extenfion of the
outer fibres, and the inner circumference is fuppofed to
be the primitive length of the beam. Now the fecond
and third quantities of the above analogy, viz. the depth
and length of the beam, are conftant quantities, as is al¬
fo their produft. Therefore the product of the inner ra¬
dius and the extenfion of the outer fibre is alfo a con¬
ftant quantity, and the whole extenfion of the outer fibre
is inverfely as the radius of curvature, or is direflly as
the curvature of the beam.
The mathematical reader will readily fee, that into
■whatever curve the elaftic bar is bent, the whole exten¬
fion of the outer fibre is equal to the length of a fimilar
curve, having the fame proportion to the thicknefs of
the beam that the length of the beam has to the radius
of curvature.
Now let ADCB (fig. 7*) fuc^ a r°di °f unj"
form breadth and thicknefs, firmly fixed in a verti¬
cal pofition, and bent into a curve AEFB by a weight
W fufpended at B, and of fuch magnitude that the ex¬
tremity B has its tangent perpendicular to the aflion of
the weight, or parallel to the horizon. Suppofe too
that the extenfions are proportional to the extending
deferibed.
Fig. 7.
S T Ft
From any two points E and F draw the hori- Strength of
zontal ordinates EG, FH. It is evident that the exte- .Mateiials.^
rior fibres of the fedtions E e and Ff are ftretched by
forces which are in the proportion of EG to FH (thefe
being the long arms of the levers, and the equal thick-
neffes E e, Yf being the Ihort arms). Therefore (by
the hypothefis) their extenfions are in the fame propor¬
tion. But beeaufe the extenfions are proportional to
fome fimilar fundions of the diftanee from the axes of
frafture E and F, the extenfion of any fibre in the fec-
tion Ee is to the contemporaneous extenfion of the fimi-
larly fituated fibre in the feftion as the extenfion of
the exterior fibre in the fedtion E ^ is to the extenfion of
the exterior fibre in the fedlion F f: therefore the whole
extenfion of E e is to the whole extenfion of Fy as EG
to FH, and EG is to EH as the curvature in E to the
curvature in F.
Here let it be remarked, that this proportionality of
the curvature to the extenlion of the fibres is not limited
to the hypothefis of the proportionality of the extenfions
to the extending forces. It follows from the exteniion
in the different fedtions being as fome fimiiar fundtion
of the diftance from the axis of fradlure j an affumption
which cannot be refufed.
This then is the fundamental property of the elaftic
curve, from which its equation, or relation between the
abfeiffa and ordinate, may be deduced in the ufual forms,
and all its other geometrical properties. Thefe arc
foreign to our purpofe *, and we ftrall notice only fueh
properties as have an immediate relation to the ftrain
and ftrength of the different parts of a flexible body, and
which in particular ferve to explain fome difficulties in
the valuable experiments of M. Buffon on the Strength
of Beams. ^
We obferve, in the firft place, that the elaftic curve it is not a
cannot be a circle, but is gradually more incurvated as circle,
it recedes from the point of application B of the {train¬
ing forces. At B it has no curvature ; and if the bar
were extended beyond B there would be no curvature
there. In like manner, Avhen a beam is fupported at
the ends and loaded in the middle, the curvature is
greateft in the middle 5 but at the props, or beyond
them, if the beam extend farther, there is no curvature.
Therefore Avhen a beam projecting 20 feet from a Avail
is bent to a- certain curvature at the wall by a weight
fufpended at the end, and a beam of the fame fize pro¬
jecting 20 feet is bent to the very fame curvature at the
wall by a greater weight at 10 feet diftance, the figure
and the mechanical ftate of the beam in the vicinity of
the wall is different in thefe two cafes, though the cur¬
vature at the very Avail is the fame in both. In the firii .
cafe every part of the beam is incurvated ; in the fecond,
all beyond the 10 feet is without curvature. In the firft:
experiment the curvature at the diltance of five feet
from the wall is three-fourths of the curvature at the
Avail •, in the fecond, the curvature at the fame place
is but one half of that at the wall. This muft iveaken
the long beam in this whole interval of five feet, becaufe
the greater curvature is the refult of a greater extenfion
of the fibres.
In the next place, we may remark, that there is a
certain determinate curvature for every beam which has a cer-
cannot be exceeded Avithout breaking it; for there is tain deter-
a certain feparation of two adjoining particles thatiraiiate cur~
puts.au end to their cohefion, A fibre can thereforevature-
be
S T R
t 7^ 1
S T R
Strength otbe extended only a certain proportion of its length, depth invcrfely, and the defleflion is as the fqtiare ofStrcngil ot
Materials Tlie ult;mate extenfion of the outer fibres mutt bear the length divided by the depth; for the ultimate cur..
length, and
^ a certain determinate proportion to its
this proportion is the fame with that of the thicknefs
(or what we have hitherto called the depth) to the
radius of ultimate curvature, which is therefore deter-
<56 minate.
And when ^ beam of uniform breadth and depth is therefore
br"'dthandmoft ineurvated where the drain is greateft, and will
depth is break in the mod incurvated part. But by changing
moft incur- its form, fo as to make the ftrength of its different lec-
vated tions in the ratio of the drain, it is evident that the cur-
where the
ftrain is
greatelt
vature may be the fame throughout, or may be made to
vary according to any law. 1 his is a remark worthy
of the attention of the watchmaker. The mod delicate
problem in practical mechanics is fo to taper the balance-
fpring of a watch that its wide and narrow vibrations
may be ifochronous. Hooke’s principle ut tenfiofic vis
Is not diffident when we take the inertia and motion of
the fpring itfelf into the account. The figure into
•which it bends and unbends has alfo an inlluenee. Our
readers will take notice that the artid aims at an accu¬
racy which will not admit an error of yg-jffg-th, and
that Harrifon and Arnold have aftually attained it in
feveral indances. The taper of a fpring is at prefeM a
nodrum in the hands of each artid, and he is careful not
to impart his fecret.
Again, fince the depth of the beam is thus propor¬
tional to the radius of ultimate curvature, this ultimate
or breaking curvature is inverfely as the depth. It may
To what
the curva
be exprefftd by
“When a weight is hung on the end of a prifmatic
beam, the curvature is nearly as the weight and the
portional™* direflly, and as the breadth and the cube of the
b d%
depth inverfely •, for the ftrength v* — f
3/’
Let
fuppofe that this produces the ultimate curvature —.
Now let the beam be loaded with a fmaller weight tu,
and let the curvature produced be C, we have this ana-
bdi i 3 /w
It is evident
•«s
that, this is alfo true of a beam fupported at the ends and
loaded between the props; and we fee how to deter¬
mine the curvature in its different parts, whether
arifing from the load, or from its own weight, or from
both.
When a beam is thus loaded at the end or middle,
the loaded point is pulled down, and the fpace through
iQefleiffion. uffiich ^ K drawn may be called the DEFLECTION. This
may be confidered as the fubtenfe of the angle of con¬
tact, or as the verfed fine of the. areh into which the
beam is bent, and is therefore as the curvature when
the length of the arches is given (the flexure being mo-
-•derate), and as the fquare of the length of the arch
when the- purvature is given. The deflection therefore
is as the curvature and as the fquare of the length of
• the arch jointly ; that is, as X /\ or as M
The
. fbd^ * fbd*
deflection from the primitive fliape is therefore as the
bending weight and the tube of the length direCtly, and
■as the breadth and cube of the depth inverfely.
In beams juft ready to break, the curvature is as the
vature at the breaking part is the fame whatever is the ^
length ; and in this cafe the deflexion is as the fquare thetheo-
of the length. rem> reiult.
We have been the more particular in our confideration *rom
of this fubject, becaufe the refulting theorems afford us^^j^
the fineft methods of examining the laws of corpufcular f,nsl} n:e_
aCtion, that is, for difeovering the variation of the force thedeof ex*
of cohefion by a change of diftanee. It is true it is not^knng
the atomical law, or Hylarchic PRINCIPLE as it may^®
juftly be called, which is thus made acceffible, but the^^
fpecific law of the particles of the fubftance or kind of
matter under examination. But even this is a very great
point j and coincidences in this refpeft among the dif¬
ferent kinds of matter are of great moment. We may
thus learn the nature of the corpufcular aCtion of diffe¬
rent fubftances, and perhaps approach to a difeovery of
the mechanifm of chemical affinities. For that chemi¬
cal aftions are infenlible cafes, of local motion is unde¬
niable, and local motion is the province of mechanical
difeuffion •, nay, we fee that thefe hidden changes are
produced by mechanical forces in many important cafes,
for we fee them promoted or prevented by means purely
mechanical. The converfion of bodies into elaftic va¬
pour by heat can at all times be prevented by a fnjjiaent
external preflure. A ftrong folution of Glauber’s fait
will congeal in an inftanl by agitation, giving out its
latent heat \ and it will remain fluid forever, and retain
its latent heat in a clofe veflel which it completely fills*
Even xvater will by fuch treatment freeze in an inffant
by agitation, or remain fluid for ever by confinement.
We know that heat is produced or extricated by fric¬
tion, that certain compounds of gold or fflver with faline
matters explode with irrefiftible violence by thefmalleft
prt'ffure or agitation. Such facts fhould roufe the ma¬
thematical philofopher, and excite him to follow out the
conjedtures of the illuftrious Newton, encouraged by the
ingenious attempts of Bofcovich ^ and the proper begin¬
ning of this ftudy is to attend to the laws of attradl ion and
repulfion exerted by the particles of cohering bodies, dif-
coverable by experiments made on tlieir adlual exten-
fions and compreffions. The experiments of Ample ex-
tenfions and compreflions are quite infufficient, becaufe
the total ftretching of a wire is fo fmall a quantity, that
the miftake of the icooth part of an inch occafions an
irregularity which deranges any progreffion fo as to
make it ufelefs. But by the bending of bodies, a diffen-
fion of -r^o-tb of an inch may be eafily magnified in the
defleftion of the fpring ten thoufand times. We know
that the inveftigation is intricate and difficult, but not
beyond the reach of our prefent mathematical attain¬
ments ; and it will give very fine opportunities of em¬
ploying all the addrefs of analyfis. In the 17th century
and the beginning of the 18th this was a fufficient ex¬
citement to the firft geniufes of Europe. The cycloid,
the catenaria, the elaftic curve, the velaria, the cauftics,
were reckoned an abundant recompenfe for much fludy j
and James Bernoulli requefled, as an honourable monu*
ment, that the logarithmic fpiral might be infcribtd ort
his tombftone. The reward for the ftudy to which we
now prefume to incite the mathematicians is the almoft
unlimited extenfion of natural fcience, important in
every particular branch. To go no further than our
prefent fubjedf, a great deal of important praftical know-
ledg%
S T R
[ 7^7 1
S T R
7°
Bernoulli
i calls in
queftion
t)iis law,
S'trenstli of]edge refpe&Ing the ftrength of bodies is derived from
Materials. fingle obfervation, that in the moderate extenfions
which happen before the parts are overftrained the forces
are nearly in the proportion of the extenlions or fepara-
tions of the particles. To return to our fubjedt.
James Bernoulli, in his fecond differtation on the elaf-
tic curve, calls in queftion this law, and accommodates
his inveftigalion to any hypothefis concerning the rela¬
tion of the forces and extenfions. He relates feme ex¬
periments of lute firings where the relation was confi-
derably different. Strings of three feet long,
Stretched by 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 pds.
Were lengthened 9, 17, 23, 27, 30 lines.
But this is a moll exceptionable form of the experiment.
The firings were twilled, and the mechanifm of the
extenfions is here exceedingly complicated, combined
with compreffions and with tranfverfe twills, &c. We
made experiments on fine flips of the gum caoutchouc,
and on the juice of the berries of the white bryony, of
which a fingle grain will draw to a thread of two feet
long, and again return into a perfectly round fphere.
We meafured the diameter of the thread by a micro-
fcope with a micrometer, and thus could tell in every
Hate of extenfion the proportional number of particles in
the fedlions. We found, that through the whole range
in which the diflance of the particles was changed in
the proportion of 13 to I, the extenfions did not fenjtbly
deviate from the proportion of the forces. The fame
thing was obferved in the caoutchouc as long as it per¬
fectly recovered its firlt dimenfions. And it is on the
authority of thefe experiments that we prefume to an¬
nounce this as a law of nature.
Dr Robert Hooke was undoubtedly the firft who at¬
tended to this fubjeft, and affumed this as a law of na¬
ture. Mariotte indeed was the firlt who exprefsly ufed
it for determining the llrength of beams : this he did
about the 1679, correcting the fimple theory of Galileo.
Leibnitz indeed, in his diflertation in the Acla Erudi-
torum 1684 de Ref. ftentia Solidorum, introduces this con-
lideration, and wilfiesto be confidered as the difeoverer;
and he is always acknowledged as fuch by the Bernoullis
and others who adhered to his peculiar doClrines. But
Marriotte had publilhed the doCtrine in the moll exprefs
terms long before ^ and Bulfinger, in the Comment. Pe-
tropol. 1729, completely vindicates his claim. But
Hooke rvas unquellionably the difeoverer of this law.
It made the foundation of liis theory of fprings, announ¬
ced to the Royal Society about the year 1661, and read
in 1666. On this occafion he mentions many things on
the llrength of bodies as quite familiar to his thoughts,
which are immediate deductions from this principle ;
and among thefe all the fads which John Bernoulli fo
vauntingly adduces in fupport of Leibnitz’s finical dog¬
mas about the force of bodies in motion } a doCtrine
which Hooke might have claimed as his own, had he
not perceived its frivolous inanity.
But even with this firlt corre’aion of Marriotte, the
mechanifm of tranfverfe llrain is not fully nor jultly ex-
  The force afting in the direftion BP (fig. 5.),
not proper- and bending the body ABCD, not onlv 11 retches the
3y explain fibres on the fide oppofite to the axis of fracture, but
the mecha- COmpreffes the fide AB, which becomes concave by the
, llrain. Indeed it cannot do the one without doing the
lbain,CI 6 other : For in order to ftretch the fibres at D, there
,-t1
which was
firlt alTu-
med by
Dr Hooke.
^ 72
Though
corrected
hy Mari- , . ,
otte, it doesPlalned*
mull be fome fulcrum, fome fupport, on which the vir- Strength ot
tual lever BAD may prefs, that it may tearafunder the Matyia ^
ilretched fibres. This fulcrum mult fultain both the
preflure arifingfrom the cohelion of the diilended fibres,
and alfo the aClion of the external force, which imme¬
diately tends to caufe the prominent part of the beam to
(lide along the feCtion DA. Let BAD (fig. 5.) be
conliderta as a crooked lever, of which A is the ful¬
crum. Let an external force be applied at B in the di¬
rection BP, and let a force equal to the accumulated
cohefion of AD be applied at O in the direction oppo¬
fite to AB, that is, perpendicular to AO 5 and let thefe
two forces be fuppofed to balance each other by the in¬
tervention of the lever. In the firlt place, the force at
O mult be to the force at B as AB to AO: Therefore,
if we make AK equal and oppolite to AO, and AL
equal and oppolite to AB, the common principles of
mechanics inform us that the fulcrum A is affeCted in
the fame manner as if the two forces AK and AL were
immediately applied to it, the force AK being equal t«
the weight P, and AL equal to the accumulated cohe¬
lion actually exerted in the inllant of fracture. The ful¬
crum is therefore really prelfed in the direction AM, the
diagonal of the parallelogram, and it mult refill in the
direction and with the force MA ; and this power of re¬
finance, this fupport, mutt be furnilhed by the repul-
live forces exerted by thofe particles only which are in a
itate of aClual compreflion. The force AK, which is
equal to the external force P, mult be refilled in the di¬
rection KA by the lateral cohelion of the whole parti¬
cles between D and A (the particle D is not only drawn
forward but downward). This prevents the part CD AB
from Hiding down along the feCtion DA. -3
This is fully verified by experiment. If we attempt as is fully
to break a long flip of cork, or any fuch very comprefli- verified by
ble body, we always obferve it to bulge out on the con-^®”"
cave fide before it cracks on the other fide. If it is a
body of fibrous or foliated texture, it feldom fails fplin-
tering off on the concave fide ; and in many cafes this
fplintering is very deep, even reaching half way through
the piece. In hard and granulated bodies, Inch as a
piece of freeltone, chalk, dry clay, fugar, and the like,
we generally fee a eonliderable fplinter or Ihiver fly off
from the hollow fide. If the fracture be llowly made
bv a force at B gradually augmented, the formation of
the fplinter is very diltinCtly feen. It forms a triangu¬
lar piece like a\b, which generally breaks in the mid¬
dle. We doubt not but that attentive obfervation would
fliow that the direction of the crack on each fide of I is
not very different from the direction AM and its corre-
fpendent on the other fide. This is by no means a cir-
cumltance of idle curiofity, but intimately connected
with the mechanifm of cohefion. ^
Let us fee what confequences refult from this Hate of Confequeir-
the cafe refpeCting the Itrength of bodies. Let DaKCC6®
(fig. 8.) reprefent a vertical lection of a prifm of com-
preliible materials, fuch as a piece of timber. Suppofe()f the cafe,
it loaded with a weight P hung at its extremity. Sup-Fi^. 8.
pofe it of fuch a conllitution that all the fibres in AD
are in a Hate of dilatation, while thofe in AA are in a
Hate of compreffion. In the inltant of fraCture the par¬
ticles at D and E are withheld by forces Dr/, Ee, and
the particles at A and E repel, refill, or fupport, with
forces A^, Eg.
Some line, fuch as de Ai'b, will limit all thefe ordi¬
nates,
cSftrEfigtli of
Materials.
7S
An impor¬
tant confe-
quence of
the com-
prcffibility
of body
fully pro¬
ved.
S T R [ 768
nates, winch reprefent the forces actually exerted in the
inllant of fratture. If the forces be as the extenfions
and corapreffions, as we have great reafon to^ believe,
de A and Ae ^ will be two ftraight lines. ^ They will
form 011c ilraight line d A if the foices which refill a
Certain dilatation are equal to the forces which refill an
Cqual compreflion. But this is quite accidental, and is
not ftri&ly true in any body; In moll bodies' which
have any confiderable firmnefs, the compreflions made
by any external force are not to great as the dilatations
which the fame force would produce ; that is, the repul-
fions which are excited by any fuppofed degree of coffl-
prelfion are greater than the attfa&ions excited by the
lame degree of dilatation. Hence it will generally fol¬
low, that the angle d AD is lefs than the angle $ A A,
and the ordinates D d, E e, &c. are lefs than the corre-
Iponding ordinates A E e, &c.
But whatever be the nature of the line d A 2, we are
certain of this, that the whole area AD rfis equal to the
Whole area A A 2 : for as the force at B is gradually in-
treafed, and the parts between A and D are more ex¬
tended, and greater eohefive forces are excited, there is
always fuch a degree of repulfive forces excited in the
particles between A and A that the one fet precifely
balances the other. The force at B, afting perpendi¬
cularly to AB, has no tendency to puth tile whole piece
clofer on the part next the wall or to pull it away.
The fum of the attractive and repulfive forces actually
excited muft therefore be equal. Thefe fums are repre-
i’ented by the two triangular areas, which are therefore
equal.
The greater we ftippofe the repulfive forces corre-
fponding to any degree of compreflion, in comparifon
with the attractive forces correfponding to the fame de¬
gree of extenfion, the fmaller will A A be in compari¬
fon of AD. In a piece of cork or fponge, A A may
chance to be equal to AD, or even to exceed it ; but
in a piece of marble, A A will perhaps be very frnall in
comparifon of AD.
Now it is evident that the repulfive forces excited
betwreen A and A have no {hare in preventing the frac¬
ture. They rather contribute to it, by furnifhing a ful¬
crum to the lever, by vvhofe energy the cohefioh of the
particles in AD is overcome. Hence we fee an impor¬
tant confequence of the compreffibility of the body. Its
power of refilling this tranfverfe ftrain is diminifhed by
it, and fo much the more diminifiied as the fluff is more
compreffible.
This is fully verified by fome very curious experiments
rhade by Du Hamel. He took 16 bars of willow 2 feet
long and 4 an inch fquare, and fupportihg them by props
under the ends, he broke them by weights hung on the
middle. He. broke 4 «f them by weights of 40, 41, 47,
and 52 pounds: the mean is 45. He then cut four of
them -yd through on the upper fide, and filled up the
cut with a thin piece of harder -wood ffuck in pretty
tight. Thefe were broken by 48, 54, 50, and 52 pounds }
the mean of which is 51. H e cut other four 4 through,
and they were broken by 47, 49, 50, 46 ; the mean of
which is 48. The remaining four were cut Ads and
their mean ftrength was 42.
Another fet of his experiments is ftill more remark-
iible.
Six battens of willow 36 inches long and 14 fquare
were broken by 525 pounds at a medium.
] S T R
Six bars were cut -jd through, and the cut filled with Strength of
a wedge of hard wood ftuck in with a little force : thefe Material
broke with 551. s——y—*
Six bars were cut half through, and the cut was filled
in the fame manner : they broke with 542.
Six bars were cut |ths through : thefe broke with 530.
A batten cut 4:ths through, and loaded till nearly
broken, was unloaded, and the wedge taken out of the
cut. A thicker wedge was put in tight, fo as to make
the batten ftraight again by filling up the fpace left by
the compreflion of the wood ; this batten broke with
377 pounds.
From this it is plain that more than -yds of the thick-
nefs (perhaps nearly ^ths) contributed nothing to the
ftrength.
The point A is the centre of fraclure in this cafe 5
and in order to eftimate the ftrength ol the piece, we
may fuppofe that the crooked lever virtually concerned
in the ftrain is DAB. We muft find the point I, which
is the centre of effort of all the attractive forces, or that
point where the full cohefion of AD muft be'applied, fo
as to have a momentum equal to the accumulated mo¬
menta of all the variable forces. We muft in like man¬
ner find the centre of effort f of the repulfive or fup-
porting forces exerted by the fibres lying between A
and A.
It is plain, and the remark is important, that this laft
centre of effort is the real fulcrum of the lever, although
A is the point where there is neither extenfion nor con*
tra&ion ; for the lever is fupported in the fame manner
as if the repulfions of the whole line A A were exerted
at that point. Therefore let S reprefent the furface of
fraffure from A to D, and f reprefent the abfolute cobe-
fion of a fibre at D in the inftant ofifrafture. We ftiall
have/S X I 4 or /: Iff-z'rr/S :p ; that is, the
length AB is tpffhe diffance between the two centres
of effort I and /, as the abfolute cohefion of the fedfion
between A and D is to the relative ftrength of the fec-
tion.
It would be perhaps more accurate to make AI and
Ai equal to the diftances of A from the horizontal lines
paffing through the centres of gravity of the triangles
d AD and § A A. It is only in this conftrudfion that the
points I and i are the centres of real effort of the accu¬
mulated attraftions and repulfions. But Tand z, deter*
mined as We have done, are the points where the full*
equal, affions may be all applied, fo as to produce the
fame momenta. The final refults are the iame in both
cafes. The attentive and duly informed reader will fee
that Mr Bui finger, in a very elaborate differtation on the
ftrength of beams in the Co foment, Petropo/itan. 1729*
has committed feveral miftakes in his eftimation of the
aions of the fibres. We mention this becaufe his rea-
fonings are quoted and appealed to as authorities by
Mufchenbroek and other authors of note. I he fubjedl
has been confidered by many authors on the continent.
We recommend to the reader’s perufal the very minute
difeufiions in the Memoirs of the Academy of Paris for
1702 by Varignon, the Memoirs for 1708 by Parent,
and particularly that of Coulomb in the Alem. par les
Spavans Etrangers, tom. vii.
It is evident from what has been faid above, that if
S and r reprefent the furfiices of the feftions above and
below A, and if G and g are the diftances of their cen¬
tres of gravity from A, and O and 0 the diftances of tl.eir
centres
S T R
Ctfen^th ouc'entrcs o£ ofcillation, and D and d tlieir whole depths,
Materials. /'S’G’O fs.P.O
w—-v—~ the momentum ot coheuon will be w-— = —■
* Da-
— P1'..
If (as is moft likely) the forces are proportional to
the extenfions and compreffions, the diltances AI and
-O o
Ai, which are refpe&ively = —jj- and are re-
fpeftively — y DA, and f A A *, and when taken toge¬
ther are — y D A. If, moreover, the extenfions are
equal to the comprefllons in the inftant of fracture, and
the body is a rectangular prifm like a common joift or
beam, then DA and A A are alfo equal ; and there¬
fore the momentum of cohefion isfbx id X f </, —
' r ^
d.  —fbd X i d = p/. Hence wre obtain this
6
analogy, “ Six times the length is to the depth as
the abfolute cohefion of the feCtion is to its relative
-5 ftrength.”
Tilts confe- Thus we fee that the compreflibility of bodies has a
quence far- very great influence on their power of withftanding a
ther ex- tranfverfe (train. We fee that in this molt favourable fup-
plainc . p0{jti0n 0f equal dilatations and compreflions, the itrengih
is reduced to one half of the value of what it would have
been had the body been incompreflible. This is by no
means obvious *, for it does not readily appear how com¬
preflibility, which does not diminilh the cohefion of a
fingle fibre, fliould impair the ftrength of the whole. The
reafon, however, is fufficiently convincing when pointed
out. In the inftant of fraCture a fmaller portion of the
feCtion is actually exerting cohefive forces, while a part
of it is only fevving as a fulcrum to the lever, by whofe
means the drain on the feftion is produced. We fee too
that this diminution of ftrength does not fo much depend
on the fenfible compreflibility, as on its proportion to the
dilatability by equal forces. When this proportion is
fmall, A A is fmall in comparifon of AD, and a greater
portion of the whole fibre is exerting attractive forces.
The experiments already mentioned, of Du Hamel de
Mqnceau, on battens of willow, ftiow that its comprefli¬
bility is nearly equal to its dilatability. But the cafe is
not very different in tempered fteel. I he famous Har-
rifon, in the delicate experiments which he made while
"occupied in making his longitude watch, difeovered that
a rod of tempered fteel was nearly as much diminilhed
in its length as it was augmented by the fame external
force. But it is not by any means certain that this is
the proportion of dilatation and compreflion which ob¬
tains in the very inftant of fradure. We rather imagine
that it is not. The forces are nearly as the dilatations
till very near breaking ; but we think that they dimi-
ni(h when the body is juft going to break. But it feems
certain that the forces which refill compreflion increafe
fafter than the compreflions, even before fraCture. We
know inconteftably that the ultimate refiftances to com¬
preflion are infuperable by any force which we can em¬
ploy. The repulfive forces therefore (in their whole ex¬
tent) increafe fafter than the compreflions, and are ex-
prefled by an aflymptotic branch of the Bofcovician
curve formerly explained. It is therefore probable, ef-
pecially in the more Ample fubftances, that they increafe
fafter, even in fuch compreflions as frequently obtain in
the breaking of hard bodies. We are difpofed to think
that this is always the cafe in fuch bodies as do not fly
off in fplinters on the concave fide j but this muft be
Vol. XIX. Part II.
769 ] S T R
underftood with the exception of the permanent changes Stren^th^ or
which may be made by compreflion, when the bodies are ^ .
crippled by it. This always increafes the compreflion
itfelf, and caufes the neutral point to fliift ftill more to¬
wards D. The effect of this is fometimes very great
and fatal.
Experiment alone can help us to difeover the propor¬
tion between the dilatability and compreflibility of bo¬
dies. The drain now under confideraiion feems the bell
calculated for this refearcb. Thus if we find that a
piece of wood an inch fquare requires 12,000 pounds to
tear it afunder by a direft pull, and that 200 pounds
will break it tranfverfely by aiding 10 inches from the
fedtion of fradlure, we muft conclude that the neutral
point A is in the middle of the depth, and that the at¬
tractive and repulfive forces are equal. Any notions
that we can form of the conftitution of fuch fibrous bo¬
dies as timber, make us imagine that the fenjible com¬
preflions, including what arifes from the bending up of
the comprefled fibres, is much greater than the real cor-
pufcular extenfions. One may get a general conviction
of this unexpected propofition by reflecting on what
rauft happen during the fraCture. An undulated fibre
can only be drawn ftraight, and then the corpufcular
extenfion begins j but it may be bent up by compref-
fion to any degree, the corpufcular compreflion being-
little affeCted all the while. This obfervation is very im¬
portant , and though the forces of corpufcular repulfion
may be almoft infuperable by any compreflion that we.
can employ, a fenfible compreflion may be produced by
forces not enormous, fufficientto cripple the beam. Of
this we (hall fee very important inftances afterwards. 77
It deferves to be noticed, that although the relative ^7.lJK)j
ftrength of a prifmatic folid is extremely different in the lengths ot-
three hypothefes now confidered, yet the proportional different
ftrengths of different pieces follow the fame ratio j pieces i'ol-
namely, the direCt ratio of the breadth, the direCt ratio^ovv t'10
of the fquare of the depth, and the inverfe ratio of the'^”c
length. In the firft hypothefis (of equal forces) the
ftrength ef a reCtangular beam was^ ^
2/
in the fecond
(of attractive forces proportioned to the extenfions) it
was^—7- : and in the third (equal attractions and re-
3 ^
pulfions proportional to the extenfions and compreflions)
fbd* 1, fbd% x. r
it was , or more generally  y, where wrexprel-
fes the unknown proportion between the attractions and
repulfions correfponding to an equal extenfion and com¬
preflion.
Hence we derive a piece of ufeful information, which The
is confirmed by unexceptionable experience, that the hrtngih °f
ftrength of a piece depends chiefly on its depth, that
on that dimenfion which is in the direction of the (train, "
A bar of timber of one inch in breadth and two inches depth,
in depth is four times as ftrong as a bar of only one inch
deep, and it is twice as ftrong as a bar two inches broad
and one deep 5 that is, a joift or lever is always (trongeft ^
when laid on its edge. . ^ And there-
There is therefore a choice in the manner in which fore a
the cohefion is oppofed to the (train.. The general aimch01ce in
muft be to put the centre of effort I as far from the ful-tlie ^nan*
crum or the neutral point A as poflible, fo as to give the
greateft energy or momentum to the cohefion. Thus ifcchefion is
a triangular bar projecting from a wall is loaded with a0PP°feci.t0
5 E weightt5i<i
S T R [77
Strength of weight at its extremity, it will bear thrice as much when
Materials. one 0f |iie fljes is uppermoft as when it is undermoft.
V“”'-v   The bar of fig. 6. would be three times as lining
if the fide AB were uppermoli and the edge DC under-
80 moll.
The ftrong- Hence it follows that the Urongeft joift that can be
elt joift has cuj ouj_ 0f a round tree is not the one which has the
notxne greatell quantity of timber in it, but fuch that the pro-
miandtyof du6i of its breadth by the fquare of its depth lhall be
timber. the greateli poliible. Let ABCD (fig. 9*) ‘ec“
Dg- 9. tion of this joift infcribed in the circle, AB being the
breadth and AD the depth. Since it is a rectangular
fe£lion, the diagonal BD is a diameter of the circle, and
BAD is a right-angled triangle. Let BD be called
a, and BA be called x; then AD is = a^/a1—A’1.
Now we mull have AB X AD*, or x X a1—or
a* x—.v3, a maximum. Its fluxion a1 x—3 x*x mull be
If therefore we
3
81
A hollow
o ] ST R
llrength of the fame quantity of matter in the form of a Strength of
folid cylinder isyf^X f BD ; lo that the llrength of the Materials,
ring is to that of the folid rod of equal weight as F xw
to ^ BD, or nearly as FC to BD. This will eafily ap-
fum of 0. r*
pear by recolledling that FO is rr — (fee Ro¬
tation), and that the
fm-FC-Ca fm • F 0
~~TFC " 2
m
momentum
, FC
of cohefion
for the inner circle, &c.
made = 0, or a* 3 a*, or a*
make DE=f DB, and draw EC perpendicular to
BD, it will cut the circumference in the point C,
which determines the depth BC and the breadth CD.
Becaufe BD : BC = CD : CE, we have the area of
the fedlion BC-CDzrBD'CE. Therefore the different
fedlions having the fame diagonal BD are proportional
to their heights CE. Therefore the feflion BCD A is
lefs than the fedlion Be D«, whofe four lides are equal.
The joifl fo lliaped, therefore, is both ftronger, lighter,
and cheaper.
The ftrength of ABCD is to that of « B e D as
tube ftrong-10,000 to 9 t 86, and the weight and expence as 10,000
er than a t0 10,607 j fo that ABCD is preferable to a B c D in
ibhd rod tjie pr0p0rti0n 0f 10,607 to 9x86, or nearly 115 to 100.
the'fkme^ From the fame principles it follows that a hollow tube
quantity of is llronger than a folid rod containing the fame quan-
matter, tity of matter. Let fig. 10. reprefent the feclion of a cy-
F'g' 10. Undric tube, of which AF and BE are the exterior and
interior diameters, and C the centre. Draw BD per¬
pendicular to BC, and join DC. Then, bepaufe BD1—
CD*—CB*, BD is the radius of a circle containing
the fame quantity of matter with the ring. If we efti-
mate the ftrength by the firft hypothefis, it is evident
that the ftrength of the tube will be to that of the
folid cylinder, whofe radius is BD, asBD*xAC to
BD* X BD ; that is, as AC to BD : for BD* expreffes
the cohefion of the riug of the circle, and AC and BD
are equal to the diftances of the centres of eftbrt (the
fame with the centres of gravity) of the ring and circle
from the axis of the fraflure.
The proportion of thefe ftrengths will be different
in the other hypothefes, and is not eafily expreffed by a
general formula; but in both it is ftiil more in favour
of the ring or hollow tube.
The following very fimple folution will be readily
underfloodby the intelligent reader. Let O be the centre
of ofcillation of the exterior circle, 0 the centre of ofcil-
lation of the inner circle, and u> the centre of ofcillation
of the ring included between them. Let M be the
quantity of furface of the exterior circle, m that of the
inner circle, and p that of the ring.
,xr , ' M-FO — m.F 0 cFC*-FEC1
We have Fiu — „ — i 1 
P 5 4FC
_ fp X Fu>
o 1
and the ftrength of the ring
and the
Emerfon has given a very inaccurate approximation
to this value in his Mechanics, qto. g2
This property of hollow tubes is accompanied alfoandmom
with greater ftiffnefs j and the fuperiority in ftrength ftuflf.
and ftiffnefs is fo much the greater as the furrounding
ftxell is thinner in proportion to its diameter. 83
Here we fee the admirable wifdom of the Author of tlie
nature in forming the bones of animal limbs hollow,
The bones of the arms and legs have to perform the forming the
office of levers, and are thus oppofed to very great tranf-bones, 8tc,-
verfe ftrains. By this form they become incomparably Ldlw-
ftronger and ftiffer, and give more room for the infertion
of mufcles, while they are lighter and therefore more
agile ; and the fame Wifdom has made ufe of this hol¬
low for other valuable purpofes of the animal economy.
In like manner the quills in the wings of birds acquire
by their thinnefs the very great ftrength which is necef-
fary, vvhile they are fo light as to give fufficient buoy¬
ancy to the animal in the rare medium in which it muft
live and fly about. The (talks of many plants, fuch as
all the graffes, and many reeds, are in like manner hol¬
low, and thus poffefs an extraordinary ftrength. Our
bed engineers now begin to imitate nature by making
many parts of their machines hollow, fuch as their axles
of caft iron, &c. j and the ingenious Mr Ramfden now
makes the axes and framings of his great aftronomical
inftruments in the fame manner.
In the fuppofttion of homogeneous texture, it is plain
that the fradlure happens as foon as the particles at D
are feparated beyond their utmoft limit of cohefion.
This is a determined quantity, and the piece bends till
this degree of extenfion is produced in the outermoft
fibre. It follow's, that the fmaller we fuppofe the di-
ftance between A ami D, the greater will be the curva¬
ture which the beam will acquire before it breaks.
Greater depth therefore makes a beam not only ftronger
but alfo ftiffer. But if-the parallel fibres can Aide on
each other, both the ftrength and the ftiffnefs will be
diminiftxed. Therefore if, inftead of one beam DaKC J’"
(fig. 8.) we fuppofe two, D A BC and AAKB, not coher- ^
ing, each of them will bend, and the extenfion of theftr0ng
fibres AB of the under beam will not hinder the com-compound
preffion of the adjoining fibres AB of the upper beam.
The two together therefore will not be more than twice 0
as (Irong as one of them (fuppofing DArrAA) inftead
of being four times as ftrong 5 and they will bend as much
as either of them alone would bend by half the load.
This may be prevented, if it were poffible to unite the
two beams all along the feam AB, fo that the one (hall
not Aide on the other. This may be done in fmall
works, by gluing them together with a cement as ftrong
as the natural lateral cohefion of the fibres. If this can¬
not be done (as it cannot in large works), the fiiding is
prevented by JOGGLING the beams together; that is,
bv cutting down feveral redlangular notches in the up¬
per fide of the lower beam, and making fimilar notches
in
2
S T It [ r
Strength of In t!ie under fide of the upper beam, and filling up the
Materials.^ fqUare fpaces with pieces of very hard wood firmly dri
^ ven in, as reprefented in fig. n. Some employ iron
lg' ‘ bolts by way of joggles. But when the joggle is much
harder than the wood into which it is driven, it is very
apt to work loofe, by widening the hole into which it is
lodged. The fame thing is fometimes done by fcarfing
Fig. 12. the one Upon the other, as reprefented in fig. 12.;
but this wafies more timber, and is not fn ftrong, be-
caufe the mutual hooks which this method forms on each
beam are very apt to tear each other up. By one or
other of thefe methods, or fomething iimilar, may a
compound beam be formed, of any depth, which will
be almoft as fliff and ftrong as an entire piece.
How On the other hand, we may combine ftrength with
ftrength pliablenefs, by compofing our beam of feveral thin planks
combined 011 edc^ °^ier> t^ey make a proper depth, and
with plia- leaving them at full liberty to Aide on each other. It
blenefs. is in this manner that coach-fprings are formed, as is re-
Fifr I3* prefented in fig. 13. In this affemblage there muft be
no joggles nor bolts of any kind put through the planks
or plates ; for this would hinder their mutual Aiding.
They muft be kept together by ftraps which furround
86 them, or by fomething equivalent.
Maxims of The preceding observations fhow the propriety of
tiorf^* ^ome max*ms conftrudlion, which the artifts have de¬
rived from long experience.
Thus, if a mortife is to be cut out of a piece which
is expofed to a crofs ftrain, it fhould be cut out from
that fide which becomes concave by the ftrain, as in
Fig. 14. and£g# but by no means as in fig. 15.
1i- If a piece is to be ftrengthened by the addition of
another, the added piece muft be joined to the fide
Fig. 16. and grows convex by the ftrain, as in fig. 16. and
I7* 17.
Before we go any farther, it will be convenient to re-
cal the reader’s attention to the analogy between the
ftrain on a beam projecting from a wall and loaded at
the extremity, and a beam fupported at both ends and
loaded in fome intermediate point. It is fufficient on
this occafion to read attentively what is delivered in the
article Roof, N° 19.—We learn there that the ftrain
fig. 17. on the middle point C (fig. 17. of the prefent article)
of a reClangular beam AB, fupported on props at A
and B, is the fame as if the part CA projected from a
wall, and were loaded with the half of the weight W
fufpendedat A. The momentum of the ftrain is there¬
fore 4W x t AB, =W x tAB = />.*: /, or 1-~. The
momentum of cohefion muft be equal to this in every
hypothefis.
Having now confidered in fufificient detail the circum-
ftances which affeCt the ftrength of any feftion of a folid
body that is ftrained tranfverfely, it is necefiary to take
notice of fome of the chief modifications of the ftrain it-
felf. We lhall confider only thofe that occur moft fre¬
quently in our conftruClions.
The ftrain depends on the external force, and alfo on
87 the lever by which it ads.
The itrain Js evidently of importance, that fince the ftrain is
0n in any feClion by means of the cohefion of the
»al force*, parts intervening between the fedion under confidera-
tion and the point of application of the external force,
the body muft be able in all thefe intervening parts to
propagate or excite the ftrain in the remote (edion. In
i ] S T R
every part it muft be able to refift the ftrain excited in StrengtT: of
that part. It ftiould therefore be equally Itrong j and ' ' ^
it is ufelefs to have any part ftronger, becaufe the piece
will neverthelefs break where it is not ftronger through¬
out j and it is ufelefs to make it ftrongtr (relatively to
its ftrain) in any part, for it will neverlhelek equally
fail in the part that is too weak.
Suppofe then, in the firft place, that the ftrain arifes
from a weight fufpended at one extremity, while the
other end is firmly fixed in a wall. Suppofing alfo the
crofs fedions to be all red angular, there are feveral
ways of ftiaping the beam fo that it fhall be equally
ftrong throughout. Thus it may be equally deep in
every part, the upper and under furfaces being horizon¬
tal planes. The condition will be fulfilled by making
all the horizontal fedions triangles, as in fig. 18. The ^‘2- lS*
two fides are vertical planes meeting in an edge at the
extremity L. Tor the equation exprefiing the balance
of ftrain and ftrength is p l—f b cl*. Therefore fince d*
is the fame throughout, and alfop, we muft havey b—l,
and b (the breadth AD of any fedion ABCD) muft be
proportional to / (or AL), which it evidently is.
Or, if the beam be of uniform breadth, we muft have
d1 everywhere proportional to /. '1 his will be obtained
by making the depths the ordinates of a common para¬
bola, of which L is the vertex and the length is the
axis. The upper or under fide may be a ftraight line,
as in fig. 19. or the middle line may be ftraight, and Fig. 19.
then both upper and under furfaces will be curved. It is
almoft indifferent what is the fiiape of the upper and
under furfaces, provided the diftances between them in
every part be as the ordinates of a common parabola.
Or, if the fedions are all fimilar, fuch as circles,
fquares, or any other fimilar polygons, we muft have d3
or b3 proportional to /, and the depths or breadths muft
be as the ordinates of a cubical parabola. gg
It is evident that thefe are alfo the proper forms for And on the
a lever moveable round a fulcrum, and aded on by aform°fthe
force at the extremity. The force comes in the placeA
of the weight fufpended in the cafes already confidered; a(qs>
and as fuch levers always are conneded with another
arm, we readily fee that both arms ftiould be faftiioned
in the fame manner. Thus in fig. 18. the piece of tim¬
ber may* be fuppofed a kind of fteelyard, moveable
round a horizontal axis OP, in the front of the wall,
and having the two weights P and cr in equilibrio. The
ftrain occafioned by each at the fedion in which the
axis OP is placed muft be the fame, and each arm 01.
and O a muft be equally ftrong in all its parts. The
longitudinal fedions of each arm muft be a triangle, a
common parabola, or a cubic parabola, according to the
conditions previoufly given.
And, moreover, all thefe forms are equally ftrong:
For any one of them is equally ftrong in all its parts,
and they are all fuppofed to have the fame fedion at the
front of the wall or at the fulcrum. They are not, how¬
ever, equally ftiff. The firft, reprefented in fig. 18. will
bend leaft upon the whole, and the one formed by the
cubic parabola will bend moft. But their curvature at
the very fulcrum will be the fame in all.
It is alfo plain, that if the lever is of the fecond or
third kind, that is, having the fulcrum at one extremi¬
ty, it muft ftill be of the fame Ihape ; for in abftrad:
mechanics it is indifferent which of the three points is
confidered as the axis of motion. In every lever the
5 E 2 two
S T R [ 77
strength of two forces at the extremities aa in one direflion, and
Materials. t]ie £orce in the middle a£b in the oppofite direction, and
' —v™— the great {train is always at that point. . I herefore a
lever fuel) as fig. 18. moveable round an axis pafiing ho¬
rizontally through A, and afting againft an obftaele at
OP, is equally able in all its parts to refift the {trains
exeited in thofe parts.
The fame principles and the fame conftruaion will
apply to beams, fueh as joitls, fupported at the ends L
and A (fig. 18 ), and loaded at fome intermediate part
OP. This will appear evident by merely inverting the
directions of the forces at thefe three points, or by re-
The ixter
nal ftrain-
ing forte
curring to the article Roofs, N° 19.
Hitherto we have fuppofed the external ftraining
force as afting only in one point of the beam. But it
...6 be uniformly diftributed all over the beam.. To
may be dif- maJ.e a beam in fucb circumftances equally ftrong in all
cver'the its Parts> llie ftiaPe muft be confiderably different from
beam. the former.
90 Thus fuppofe the beam to projeft from a wall.
To make a If it be of equal breadtli throughout, its fides being
beam ftrong vertical planes parallel to each other and to the length,
which pro- tbe vert;cai fe£lion in the dire&ion of its length muft be
lvull.tr°m ^ triangle infteadof a common parabola •, for the weight
uniformly diftributed over the part lying beyond any
feCtion, is as the length beyond that feCtion : and fince
it may all be conceived as colleCted at its centre of gra¬
vity, which is the middle of that length, the lever by
which this load aCts or ftrains the feCtion is alfo propor¬
tional to the fame length. The {train on the feCtion
(or momentum of the load) is as the fquare of that
length. The feCtion muft have ftrength in the lame
proportion. Its ftrength being as the breadth and the
fquare of the depth, and the breadth being conftant,
the fquare of the depth of any feCtion muft be as the
fquare of its diftance from the end, and the depth muft
be as that diftance ; and therefore the longitudinal ver¬
tical feCtion muft be a triangle.
But if all the tranfverfe feCtions are circles, fquares,
or any other fimilar figures, the ftrength of every fec-
tion, or the cube of the diameter, muft be as the Iquare
of the lengths beyond that feCtion, or the fquare of its
diftance from the end 5 and the fides of the beam muft
be a femicubical parabola.
If the upper and under furfaces are horizontal planes,
it is evident that the breadth muft be as the fquare of
the diftance from the end, and the horizontal feCtions
may be formed by arches of the common parabola, ha¬
ving the length for their tangent at the vertex.
By recurring to the analogy fo often quoted between
a projecting beam and a joift, we may determine the
proper form of joifts which are uniformly loaded through
5*
The ftrain
upon
their whole length.
This is a frequent and important cafe, being the of-
„ fice of joifts, rafters, &c. ; and there are fome circum-
l>eam fup- ftances which muft be particularly noticed, becaufe they
-ported at
both ends
Tia'. so.
are not fo obvious, and have been mifunderftood. When
a beam AB (fig. 20.) is fupported at the ends, and a
weight is laid on any point P, a ftrain is excited in
every part of the beam. The load on P caufes the
beam to prefs on A and B, and the props reaCt with
forces equal and oppofite to thefe preffures. The load
at P is to the preflures at A and B as AB to PB and
PA, and the pieffure at A is to that at B as PB to . • 1 * P « is
PA j the beam therefore is in the fame ftate, with re- 16 1 on *
2 ] S T R
fpeCI to ftrain in every part of it, as if it were refting Strength of
on a prop at P, and tvere loaded at the ends with Miltl~na^
Aveights equal to the two prefl'ures on the props : and
obferve, thefe preffures are fuch as will balance each
other, being inverfely as their diftances irom P. Let P
reprefent the weight or load at P. The preffure on the
1 PA
prop P muft be P X * This is therefore the re-
aCIion of the prop B, and is the weight which we may
fuppofe fufpended at B, when we conceive the beam^
refting on a prop at P, and carrying the balancing
weights at A and B.
The ftrain occafioned at any other point C, by the
load P at P, is the fame with the ftrain at C, by the
PA
weight P X -nr hanging at B, when the beam refts on
b AB
P, in the manner now fuppofed j and it is the fame if
the beam, inftead of being balanced on a prop at P,
had its part AP fixed in a Avail. This is evident. Now
avc have IhoAvn at length that the ftrain at C, by the
PA . PA
Aveight P X hanging at B, is P X X BC. We
defire it to be particularly remarked that the preffure at
A has no influence on the ftrain at C, arifing from the
aCtion of any load betAveen A and C j for it is indiffer¬
ent hoAV the part AP of the projecting beam PB is fup¬
ported. The Aveight at A juft performs the fame office
Avith the Avail in which we fuppofe the beam to be fixed.
We are thus particular, becaufe we have feen even per-
fons not unaccuftomed to difeuflions of this kind puzzled
in their conceptions of this ftrain.
Now let the load P be laid on fome point p between
C and B. The fame reafoning thows us that the point
is (with refpeCt to ftrain) in the fame ftate as if the
beam were fixed in a wall, embracing the party; B, and
a Aveight — P v ^ Avere hung on at A, and the ftrain
0 AB
atCis Px^xAC.
AB _ 91
In general, therefore, the ftrain on any point C, ari- A genera’
fing from a load P laid on another point P, is proper- Hro°j5ofi*
tional to the reClangle of the diftanees of P and C from
PA x CB
the ends neareft to each. It is Px  > or
p x P ^ ^ according as the load lies betAveen C
AB
and A or between C and B.
Cor. 1. The ftrains which a load on any point P oc-
cafions on the points C, c, lying °n the fame fide oi P,
are as the diftances of thele points from the end B.
In like manner the ftrains on E and e are as EA and
e A.
Cor. 2. The ftrain which a load occafions in the part
on which it refts is as the reClangle oi the parts on each
fide. Thus the ftrain occafioned at C by a load is to
that at D by the fame load as AC X CB to A.D X L)B.
It is therefore greateft in the middie. . 93 .
Let us now confider the ftrsun on any point C arifing The ftram
from a load uniformly diftributed along the beam. Let ]oafj
AP be reprefented by x, and Pjd by w, and the whole diftributed
Aveight on the beam by a. Then _ aloDS1 *'
beam.
1 AB’
Preffur©
S T R
Strength of
Materials, preffare on B by the weight on Vpz
Or
Pref. on B by whole wt. on AC =
Strain at C by the weight on AC =
Strain at C by the weight on BC =: a
AB X AB
xx
2 ABJ
BCJ x AC
Do. by whole wt. on AB
2 AB*
AC*xBC + BC*xAC
2 AB1
ACxBCx AC + CB _ ACxBC
2-Xgr- 2Ab *
94
committed
by authors
of reputa¬
tion.
Thus we fee that the ftrain is proportional to the re£l-
angle of the parts, in the fame manner as if the load a
had been laid diredlly on the point C, and is indeed equal
to one-half of the ilrain which would be produced at C
by the load a laid on there.
Miftakes in It was neceffary to be thus particular, becaufe we fee
this fubject Jn fome elementary treatifes of mechanics, publifhcd by
aut|i()rs 0p repUtation, miftakes which are very plaufible,
and miflead the learner. It is there faid, that the pref-
fure at B from a weight uniformly diffufed along AB
is the fame as if it were collected at its centre of gravity,
which would be the middle of AB ; and then the ftrain
at C is faid to be this preffure at B multiplied by RC.
But furely it is not difficult to fee the difference of thefe
ftrains. It is plain that the preffure of gravity down¬
wards on any point between the end A and the point C
has no tendency to diminiih the ftrain at L, ariftng from
the upward rea6lion of the prop B ; whereas the preffure
of gravity between C and B is almoft in diredf oppoft-
tion to it, and muft diminifh it. We may however avoid
the fluxionary calculus with fafety by the conftderation
of the centre of gravity, by fuppofing the weights of
AC and BC to be colleaed at their refpe&ive centres
of gravity ; and the refult of this computation will be
the lame as above ; and w;e may ufe either method, al¬
though the weight is not uniformly diftributed, pro¬
vided only that we know in what manner it is diftribu-
ted. _ . .
This inveftigation is evidently of importance in the
practice of the engineer and archite£t, informing them
what fupport is neceffary in the different parts of. their
conftruftions. We confidered fome caies of this kind in
the article Roofs.
  It is now eafy to form a j°iff» f() that it ftiall have the
joift which fame relative ftrength in all its parts,
may have j> qpQ make it equally able in all its parts to carry a
the fame .n wej rht on any point C taken at random, or
ftrength in uniformly diffufed over the whole length, the ftrength
all its parts, of the feftion at the point C muft be as ACxCB,
Therefore #
1. If the fides are parallel vertical planes, the fquare
of the depth (which is the only variable dimenfion) or
CD*, muft be a« AC X CB, and the depths muft be or¬
dinates of an ellipfe. #
2. If the tranfverfe feclions arefimilar, we muft make
CD? as ACxCB.
3. If the upper and under furfaces are parallel, the
breadth niuft be as AC X CB*
773 ] S T R
II. If the beam is necelfarily loaded at fome given Strength of
point C, and we would have the beam equally able in 'ai5'.
all its parts to rtfift the ftrain arifing from the weight
at C, we muft make the ftrength of every tranfverfe
fe£Hon between C and either end as its diftance from
that end. Therefore
»• 1. If the Tides are parallel vertical planes, we muft
make CD* : EF*=AC : AE.
2. If the feftions are fimilar, then CD3: EF3=: AC :
AE.
3. If the upper and under furfaces are parallel, then,
breadth at C : breadth at Err AC : AE. 56
The fame principles enable us to determine the ftrain The ftrain
and ftrength of fquare or circular plates, of different ex- ^
tent, but equal thieknefs. This may be comprehended ,q^e0r°
in this general propofition. circular
Similar plates of equal thieknefs fupported all round plates of
will carry the fame abfolute weight, uniformly diftri-d^etit^
buted, or refting on fimilar points, whatever is their ex-®*Lee”u^,u
tent.
To form a
of equal
.v. _ thicknefs,
Suppofe two fimilar oblong plates of equal thicknefs, may be de-
and let their lengths and breadths be L, /, and B, b. termined
Let their ftrength or momentum of cohefion be C, r, ^roni tl’®
and the ftrains from the weights W, w, be b, -r. ciples.
Suppofe the plates fupported at the ends only, and
refilling frafture tranfverfely. The ftrains, being as the
weights and lengths, are as WL and W, bat their co-
hefions are as the breadths *, and fince they are of equal
relative ftrength, we have WL : !ic/=:B : b, and WL b
—w l B and L : B : W £ ; bat fince they are of
fimilar ftiapes L : /=B : Z>, and therefore w—W.
The fame reafoning holds again when they are alfo-
fupported along the Tides, and therefore holds when they
are fupported all round (in which cafe the ftrength i*-
doubled).
And if the plates are of any other figure, fuch as
circles or ellipfes, we need only conceive fimilar re61 angles
inferibed in them. Thefe are fupported all around by
the continuity of the plates, and therefore will fuftain
equal weights ; and the fame may be faid of the feg-
ments which lie without them, becaufe the ftrengths of
any fimilar fegments are equal, their lengths being as
their breadths.
Therefore the thicknefs of the bottoms of veffels hold¬
ing heavy liquors or grains ftiould be as their diameters,
and as the fquare root of their depths jointly.
Alfo the weight which a fquare plate will bear is to
that which a bar of the fame matter and thicknefs will
bear as twice the length of the bar to its breadth. ^
There is yet another modification of the ftrain which The ftrain
tends to break a body tranfverfely, which is of very fre-tea beam
quent occurrence, and in fome cafes muft be very care-
fully attended-to, viz. the ftrain arifing from its ownwe;gktt
weight.
When a beam projefts from a wall, every fe£tion is
ftrained by the weight of all that proje6ts beyond it.
This may be confidered as all collefted at its centre of
gravity. Therefore the ftrain on any fe6tion is in the
joint ratio of the weight of what proje6ts beyond it,
and the diftance of its centre of gravity from the fec-
tion.
The determination of this ftrain and of the ftrength
neceffary for withftanding it muft be more complicated
than the former, becaufe the form of the piece which re-
fulls from lifts adjuftment of ftrain and ftrength influ-
S T R [
Strength of cnees tlic drain. The general principle rnuft evidently
Materials, |jiat ^ie ftrenglh or momentum of cohefion oi every
' feftion mull be as the. produft of the weight beyond it
multiplied by the diftance of its centre of gravity, ror
example : . _ -
Suppofe the beam DLA (fig. iT.-) to project fiom
the wall, and that its Tides are parallel vertical planes,
fo that the depth is the only variable dimenfion. Let
X.Rrrv and B y. The element b c C h zzy.x.
Let G be the centre of gravity of the part lying with¬
out B b, and g be its dillance from the extremity L.
Then X‘—g is the arm of the lever by which the drain
is excited in the fed!ion BA Let B£ ory be as iome
power of LB j that is, let y-Xm. Then the con-
tents of LB b is   . The momentum of gravity
772-{-1
round a horizontal axis at L is y x x=.x
. . »'”+*
whole momentum round the axis is —
772-f- 2
of the centre of gravity from L is had by dividing this
l'Vm ^ *
momentum by the whole weight which is ^ Tire
And the diftance of the centre
772-J- 2 ’
Therefore the drain
7*74 ] ' s T R
more able to withdand it than the greater j and there Strength of
fee ms to be bounds fet by nature to the fize of machines ^atemis;
con drafted of any given materials. Even when the
weight of the parts of the machine is not taken into thesmall bo-
account, we cannot enlarge them in the fame proport ion dies more
in all their parts. Thus a deam-engine cannot be doubled ab;e ^
and the
The didance
quotient or^ is
xy>m-\-i
772-j-2
of gravity from the feftion B is ^
+ 2—x X^d-1 _
772 ft- 2
772 rf- 2
99.
A conoid
equally
able in eve¬
ry fedtion
to bear
its own
weight.
IOO
The more
a beam
projects,
the lefs
able it is
to bear
its own
weight.
on the feftion B/> is had by multiplying ——by
l/l *4“ i. Tfl Z
^.m + I
The produft is   —==. This mud be as the
r 772 2 X ^ + 1
fquare of the depth, or as if. But y is as xm, and y* as
Alm. Therefore we have 77/-f-2=2772, and 772=2 *, that
is, the depth mud be as the fquare of the didance from
the extremity, and the curve L £ A is a parabola touch¬
ing the horizontal line in L.
It is eafy to fee that a conoid formed by the rotation
of this figure round DL will alfo be equally able in
every feftion to bear its own weight.
We need not profecute this farther. When the figure
of the piece is given, there is no difficulty in finding the
drain; and the circumdance of equal drength to refid
this drain is chiefly a matter of curiofity.
It is evident, from what has been already faid, that a
projefting beam becomes lefs able to bear its own weight,
as it projefts farther. Whatever may be the drengtli of
the feftion DA, the length may be fuch that it will break
by its own weight. If we fuppofe two beams Aand B
of the fame fubdance and fimilar diapes, that is, having
their lengths and diameters in the fame proportion; and
farther funpofe that the diorter can jud bear its own
weight; then the longer beam will not be able to do the
fame: For the drengths of the feftions are as the cubes
of the diameters, while the drains are as the biquadrates
of the diameters; becaufe the weights are as the cubes,
and the levers by which thefe weights aft in producing
the drain are as the lengths or as the diameters.
Thefe confiderations (how us, that in all cafes where
drain is affefted by the weight of the parts of the ma¬
chine or diufture of any kind, the fmaller bodies are
in all its parts, fo as to be dill efficient. The preffure on^
the pidon is quadrupled. If the lift cf the pump be alfoprot!uce(j
doubled in height while it is doubled in diameter, the by the
load will be increafed eight times, and will therefore weight of
exceed the power. The depth of lift therefore, mud re-^™^
main unchanged ; and in this cafe the machine will begreatbo_
of the fame relative drength as before, independent of dies,
its own weight. For the beam being doubled in all its
dimenfions, its momentum of cohefion is eight times
greater, which is again a balance for a quadruple load
afting by a double lever.—But if we now conlider the
inereafe of the weight of the machine itfelf, which mud
be fupported, and which mud be put in motion by the
intervention of its cohefion, we fee that the large ma¬
chine is weaker and lefs efficient than the fmall one.
There is a fimilar limit fet by nature to the fize of
plants and animals formed of the fame matter. The
cohefion of an herb could not fupport it if it were m-
creafed to the fize of a tree, nor could an oak fupport it¬
felf if 40 or 50 times bigger, nor could an animal of the
make of a long-legged fpider be increafed to the fize of
a man ; the articulations of its legs could not fupport it. I0J
Hence may be underdood the prodigious fuperiority Even fmall
of the fmall animals both in drength and agility.
man by falling twice his own height may break hL firm'for ftrength
ed bones. A moufe may fall 20 times its height without and agiiftyt
rifk; and even the tender mite or wood-loufe may fall
unhurt from the top of a deeple. But their greated
fuperiority is in refpeft of nimblenefs and agility. A
flea can leap above 500 times its own length, while the
drength of the human mufcles could not raife the trunk
from the ground on limbs of the fame condruftion.
The angular motions of fmall animals (in which con-
fids their nimblenefs or agility) mud be greater than
thofe of large animals, fuppofing the force of the muf-
cular fibre to be the fame in both. For fuppofing them
fimilar, the number of equal fibres will be as the fquare
of their linear dimenfions ; and the levers by which they
aft areas their linear dimenfions. The energy therefore of
the moving force is as the cube of thefe dimenfions. But
the momentum of inertia, or j'p is as the 4th power:
Therefore the angular velocity of the greater animals is
fmaller. The number of drokes which a fly makes with
its wings in a fecond is adonifldngly great ; yet, being
voluntary, they are the effefts of its agility.
We have hitherto confined our attention to the fim-
pled form in which this tranfverfe drain can be produ¬
ced. This was quite fufficient for fhowing us the me-
chanifm of nature by which the drain isrefided ; and a
very flight attention is fufficient for enabling us to re¬
duce to this every other way in which the drain can be
produced. We (hall not take up the reader’s time with
the application of the fame principles to other cafes of
this drain, but refer him to what has been faid in the
article Roofs. In that article we have diown the ana¬
logy between the drain on the feftion of a beam projec-
tine from a wall and loaded at the extremity, and the
drain
Materials
Fig- 22.
external
force.
s T R [ 775 ]
Strength offtrain on the fame feftion of a beam {imply reiting on of the column
fupports at the ends, and loaded at fome intermediate
point or points. The {train on the middle C of a beam
AB (fig. 22.) fo fupported, arifing from a weight laid
on there, is the fame with the {train which half that
weight hanging at B would produce on the fame fedtion
C if the other end of the beam tvere fixed in a Avail.
If therefore 1000 pounds hung on the end of a beam
projecting io feet from a Avail Avill juft break it at the
wall, it will require 4000 pounds on its middle to break
the fame beam refting on tAVo props 10 feet afunder.
We have alfo fhown in that article the additional ftrength
which will be given to this beam by extending both
103 ends beyond the props, and there framing it firmly into
Effedts of other pillars or fupports. We can hardly add any thing
the obliqui-10 %vhat has been faid in that article, except a feAV ob-
t-yofthe forvations on the effeCts of the obliquity of the external
force. We have hitherto fuppofed it to a£t in the di¬
rection BP (fig. 8.) perpendicular to the length of the
beam. Suppofe it to aCt in the direction BP', oblique
to BA. In the article Roof Ave fuppofed the {train to
be the fame as if the force p aCted at the diftance AB',
but ftill perpendicular to AB : fo it is. But the ftrength
of the feCtion AA is not the fame in both cafes j for by
the obliquity of the aCtion the piece DCKa is prefled
to the other. We are not fufficiently acquainted Avith
the corpufcular forces to fay precifely Avhat Aviil be the
effeCt of the preffure arifing from this obliquity ^ but Ave
can clearly fee, in general, that the point A, which in
the inftant of fraClure is neither ftretched nor compref-
fed, muft now be farther up, or nearer to D ; and there¬
fore the number of particles Avhich are exerting cohe-
five forces is fmaller, and therefore the ftrength is dimi-
nilhed. Therefore, Avhcn Ave endeavour to proportion
the ftrength of a beam to the ftrain arifing from an ex¬
ternal force aCting obliquely, xve make too liberal al-
loAvance by increafing this external force in the ratio of
AB to AB. We acknoAvledge our inability to affign
the proper correCtioa. But this circumflance is of very
great influence. In many machines, and many fram¬
ings of carpentry, this oblique aCtion of the {training
force is unavoidable j and the molt enormous {trains to
which materials are expofed are generally of this kind. -
In the frames fet up for carrying the ringftones of arch¬
es, it is hardly poflible to avoid them : for although the
judicious engineer difpofes his beams fo as to fuftam only
preflures in the diredion of their lengths, tending either
to crufti them or to tear them afunder, it frequently hap¬
pens that, by the fettling of the work, the pieces come
to check and bear on each other tranfverfely, tending
to break each other acrofs. This avc hav^e remarked
upon in the article Roofs, Avith refpeCt to a trufs by
Mr Price (fee Roofs, N° 40, 41, 45.). Now when a
erofs ftrain is thus combined with an enormous preflfure
in the direction of the length of the beam, it is in the
utmoft danger of fnapping fudderfly acrofs. 1 Ids is one
great caufe of the carrying aAvay of mafts, 1. hey are
comprefled in the direction of their length by the united
force of the ftirouds, and in this ftate the tranfverfe ac¬
tion of the wind foon completes the fracture.
When confidering the comprefling {trains to which
wi columns, materials are expofed, we deferred the dhcuflion of the
ftrain on columns, obferving that it was not, in the cafes
which ufually occur, a Ample cothpreflion, but ay as com¬
bined Avith a tranfverfe ftrain, arifing from the bending
S T R
When the column ACB (fig. 23.) reft-Strength^t'
ing on the ground at B, and loaded at top with a [''P ena s,
Aveight A, aCting in the vertical direction AB, is bent ^
into a curve ACB, fo that the tangent at C is perpen¬
dicular to the horizon, its condition fomewhat rtlenables
that of a beam firmly fixed betAvecn B and C, and
ftrongly pulled by the end A, fo as to bend it betAveen
C and A. Although we cannot conceive bow a force
aCting on a ftraight column AB in the direction AB
can bend it, we may fuppofe that the force aCted frit
in the horizontal diredion A b till it. Avas bent to this
degree, and that the rope Avas then gradually removed
from the direction AZ> to the direction AB, increafing
the force as much as is neceflfary for preferving the
fame quantity of flexure.
105
The firft author (avc believe) Avho eonfidered this im- Obferva-
portant fubjeCt Avith fcrupulous attention was the ce- tions on
lebrated Euler, who publiflied in the Berlin Memoirs Seiler stbe-
for 1757 his Theory of the Strength of Columns. The of
i°4
idie ftrain
general propofition eftabliflied by this theory is, that columns,
the ftrength of prifmatical columns is in the dircCt qua¬
druplicate ratio of their diameters, and the inverfe du¬
plicate ratio of their lengths. He profecuted this fub-
jeCt in the Peterft-mrgh Commentaries for 1778, confirm¬
ing bis former theory. We do not find that any other
author has beftoAved much attention on it, all feeming
to acquiefce in the determinations of Euler, and to con-
fider the fubjeCf as of very great difficulty, requiring the
application of the molt refined mathematics. Mufchen-
broek has compared the theory with experiment ; but
the comparifon has been very unfatisfadory, the differ¬
ence from the theory being fo enormous as to afford no
argument for its juflnefs. But the experiments do not
contradict it, for they are fo anomalous as to afford no
conclufion or general rule Avhatever.
To fay the truth, the theory can be confidered in no
other light than as a fpecimen of ingenious and very art¬
ful algebraic analyfis. Euler Avas unqueftionably the firft
analyft in Europe for refource and addrefs. He kneAV
this, and enjoyed his fuperiority, and Avithout feruple ad¬
mitted any phyfical affumptions Avhich gave him an op¬
portunity of difplaying his {kill. The inconfiftency of
his affumptions Avith the knoAvn laAvs of mechanifm gaA-e
him no concern 5 and Avhen his algebraic proceffes led
him to any conclufion Avhich Avould make his readers
ft are, being contrary to all our ufual notions, he frankly
owned the paradox, but Avent on in his analyfis, faying,
“ Sed analifsi tnagis jidendum.'1' Mr Robins lias given
fome very rifible inftances of this confidence in his ana¬
lyfis, or rather of his confidence in the indolent fubinif-
fion of his readers. Nay, fo fond Avas he of this kind
of amufement, that after having publiflied an untenable
Theory of Light and Colours, he publiflied feveral Me¬
moirs, explaining the aberration of the heavenly bodies,
and deducing fome very Avonderful confequences, fully
confirmed by experience, from the Newtonian prin¬
ciples, Avbich Avere opppfite and totally inconfiftent AYilh
his own theory, merely became the NeAvtonian theory
gave him “ occnjionem analpfeos promovendeeP We
are thus fevere in our obfervations, becaufq his theory
of the ftrength of columns is one of the flrongtft in¬
ftances of this Avanton kind of proceeding, and becaufe
his folloAvers in the Academy of St Peterfburgh, fuch
as Mr Fufs, Lexill, and others, adopt bis conclufions,
and merely echo his words. Since the death of Daniel
Bernoulli
Fig. 23.
S T It [7
Strength of Bernoulli no member of that academy has controverted
Materials. any thing advanced by their Profejjbr Jublinm geome-
v trice, to rvhom they had been indebted tor their places
and for all their knowledge, having been (molt of them)
his amanuenfes, employed by this wonderful man cur¬
ing his blindnefs to make his computations and cairy on
his algebraic inveftigations. We are not a little lurprif-
ed to fee Mr Emerfon, a considerable mathematician,
and a man of very independent fpirit, hultily adopting
the fame theory, of which we doubt not but otir readers
will eafily fee the fallity. #
Euler confiders the column A.CB as in a condition
precifely fimilar to that of an elaftic rod bent into the
curve by a cord AB connedling its extremitie.'.* In this
he is not miflaken.—But he then draws CD perpendi¬
cular to AB, and coniiders the ftrain on the fetfion C
as equal to the momentum or mechanical energy of the
weight A afting in the diredlion DB upon the lever
* e D, moveable round the fulcrum c, and tending to
tear afunder the particles which cohere along the fee-
tion <rC*. This is the fame principle (as Euler ad¬
mits) employed by James Bernoulli in his inveftigation
of the elaftic curve ACB. Euler confiders the ftrain
on the feftion ex as the fame w'ith what it would fu-
ftain if the fame power a£led in the horizontal direction
EE on a point E as far removed from C as the point D
E. We reafoned in the fame manner (as has been ob-
ferved) in the article Roofs, where the obliquity of ac¬
tion was inconfiderable. But in the prefent cafe, this
fubftitutioq leads to the greateft miftakes, and has ren¬
dered the whole of this theory falfe and ufelefs. Ic
Would be juft if the column were of materials which
are incompreflible. But it is evident, by what has been
faid above, that by the compreflion of the parts the real
fulcrum of the lever ftiifts away from the point c, fo
much the more as the compreflion is greater. In the
great compreflions of loaded columns, and the almoft
unmeafurable compreflions of the trufs beams in the
centres of bridges, and other cafes of chief importance,
the fulqrum is drifted far over towards fo that very
few fibres refift the fra&ure by their cohefion; and thefe
few have a very feeble energy or momentum, on account
of the fliort arm of the lever by which they aft. This is
a moft important confideration in carpentry, yet makes
no element of Euler’s theory. The confequence of this
is, that a very fmall degree of curvature is fufficient to
caufe the column or ftrutt to fnap in an inftant, as is
well known to every experienced carpenter. The expe¬
riment by .Mufchenbroek, which Euler makes ufe of in
order to obtain a meafure of ftrength in a particular in-
ftance, from which he might deduce all others by his
theorem, is an inconteftable proof of this. 1 he force
which broke the column is not the twentieth part of
what is necefiary for breaking it by afting at E in the
direftion EF. Euler takes no notice of this immenfe dif-
crepancy, becaufe it muft have caufod him to abandon the
fpeculation with which he was then amufing himfelf.
The limits of this work do not afford room to enter
106
This theo
inis tneo- . . r , ,
ry falfe and minutely upon the refutation or this theory *, but wre can
ufelefs. eafily ftiow its ufelefsnefs, by its total inconfiftency with
common obfervation. It refults legitimately from this
theory, that if CD have no magnitude, the weight A
canhaveno momentum, and the column cannotbebroken
—True,—-it cannot be broken in this way, fnapped by a
76 ] S T R
tranfverfe frafture, if it do not bend; but we know very Strengtbef
well that it can be crulhed or crippled, and we fee this [Material,
frequently happen. This circumftance or event does not *' J
enter into Euler’s inveftigation, and therefore the theory
is imperfeft at lead and ulelelt. Had this crippling been
introduced in the form of a phyfical aflumption, every
topic of reafoning employed in the procels muft have
been laid afide, as the intelligent reader will eafily fee.
But the theory is not only imperfeft, but falfe. The or¬
dinary reader will be convinced of this by another le¬
gitimate confequence of it. Fig. 24. is the fame Fig.
with fig. ic6. of Emerfoil's Mechanics, where this fub-
jeft is treated on Euler’s principles, and reprefents a
crooked piece of matter reding on the ground at F, and
loaded at A with a weight afting in the vertical direc¬
tion AF. It refults from Euler’s theory that the drains
at b, B, D, E, &c. are as be, BC, DI, EK, &c. There¬
fore the ftrains at G and H are nothing ; and this is af-
ferted by Emerfon and Euler as a ferious truth; and the
piece may be thinned ad infinitum in thefe two places,
or, even cut through, without any diminution of its
.ftrength. The abfurdity of this affertion ftrikes at firlt
hearing. Euler afferts the fame thing with refpeft to a
point of contrary flexure. Farther difcuiiion is (we ap¬
prehend) needlefs. _ I0y
This theory muft therefore be given up. Yet thefe yet Euier>
differtations of Euler in the Peterfburgh Commentaries differtationa
deferve a perufal, both as very ingenious fpecimens of dele>iv® 1
analyfis, and becaufe they contain maxims of prafticeperu a *
which are important. Although they give an erroneous
meafure of the comparative ftrength of columns, they
(how the immenfe importance of preventing all bend¬
ings, and point out with accuracy where the tendencies
to bend are greateft, and how this may be prevented by
very fmall forces, and what a prodigious acceflion of
force this gives the column. There is a valuable paper
in the fame volume by Fufs on the Strains on framed
'Carpentry, which may alfo be read with advantage.
It will now be alked, what {hall be fubftituted in place
of this erroneous theory ? what is the true proportion of
the ftrength of columns ? We acknowledge our inability l63
to give a fatisfaftory anfwer. Such can be obtained only Anewtheoi
by a previous knowledge of the proportion between the ry cannot
extenfions and compreflions produced by equal forces, See
by the knowledge of the abfolute compreflions produ-ofEulepr»S)
cible by a given force, and by a knowledge of the de- till many
gree of that derangement of parts which is termed crip- experiments
pling. Thefe circumftances are but imperfeftly knownbe IBade’
to us, and there lies before us a wide field of experi¬
mental inquiry. Fortunately the force requifite for crip-
ling a beam is prodigious, and a very fmall lateral fup-
port is fufficient to prevent that bending which puts the
beam in imminent danger. A judicious engineer will
always employ tranfverfe bridles, as they are called, to
ftay the middle of long beams, which are employed as
pillars, ftrutts, or trufs beams, and are expofed, by their
pofition, to enormous preffures in the direftion of their
lengths. Such flays may be obferved, difpofed with
great judgment and economy, in the centres employed
by Mr Perronet in the ereftion of his great ftone arches.
He was obliged to correft this omiffion made by his in¬
genious predeceffor in the beautiful centres of the bridge
of Orleans, which we have no hefitation in affirming to
be the fineft piece of carpentry in the world.
S T n
Strength of It only remains on this head to compare thefe theore-
Matenals. tjcaj deduftions with experiment.
Experiments on the tranfverfe ftrength of bodies are
eafily made, and accordingly are very numerous, efpe-
cially thofe made on timber, which is the cafe moft com¬
mon and mod interefting. But in this great number of
experiments there are very few from which we can draw
much pra6lical information. The experiments have in
general been made on fuch fmall fcantlings, that the
unavoidable natural inequalities bear too great a propor¬
tion to the ftrength of the whole piece. Accordingly,
when we compare the experiments of different authors,
ia9 we find them differ enormoufiy, and even the experi-
Table of ments by the fame author are very anomalous. The
‘5xPenmgdeComl^ete^ feries th31 we have yet feen is that detailed
by Bclklor! ky Belidor in his Science des Ingenieurs. They are con¬
tained in the following table. The pieces were found,
even-grained oak. The column b contains the breadths
of the pieces in inches ; the column d contains their
depths \ the column / contains their lengths ; columnp
contains the weights (in pounds) which broke them
when hung on their middles ; and m is the column of
averages or mediums.
f 777 1
S T Tt
The ends lying loofe.
The ends firmly fixed.
Loofe.
Loofe.,
Loofe*
Fixed*
Loofe*.
Loofe.,.
no
Corollaries
1 «!eiiuce<l
them.
By comparing Experiments iff and 3d, the flrength
appears proportional to the breadth.
Experiments 3d and 4th {hew the flrength propor¬
tional to the fquare of the depth.
Vol. XIX. Part IL
Experiments ift and 5th fhew the ftrength nearly in Strength of
the inverfe proportion of the lengths, but with a fenfible , \
deficiency in the longer pieces.
Experiments 5th and 7th (hew the ftrengths propor¬
tional to the breadths and the fquare of the depth.
Experiments ift and 7th fhew the fame thing, com¬
pounded with the inverfe proportion of the length ;
the deficiency relative to the length is not fo remark¬
able here.
Experiments ift and 2d, and experiments 5th and
6th fhew the increafe of ftrength, by faftening the ends,
to be in the proportion of 2 to 3. The theory gives the
proportion of 2 to 4. But a difference in the manner
of fixing may produce this deviation from the theory,
which only fuppofed them to be held down at places
beyond the props, as when a joift is held in the walls,
and alfo refts on tw'o pillars between the walls. (See
what is faid on this fubjefl in the article Roof, § 19O5
where note, that there is a miftakc, when it is faid that
a beam fupported at both ends and loaded in the middle,
will carry twice as much as if one end were fixed in
the wall and the weight fufpended at the other end.
The reafoning employed there fliows that it will carty
four times as much.
The chief fource of irregularity in fuch experiments
is the fibrous, or rather plated texture of timber. It
confifts of annual additions, whofe cohefion with each
other is vaftly iveaker than that of their own fibres. Let
fig. 25. reprefent the fe£lion of a tree, and ABCD, pig, 45,
abed the fe£lion of two battens that are to be cut out
of it for experiment, and let AD and adbe the depths,
and DC, dc the breadths. The batten ABCD will be
the ftrongeft, for the fame reafon that an affemblage of
planks fet edgewife will form a ftronger joift than planks
laid above each other like the plates of a coach-fpnng.
M. Buffon found by many trials that the ftrength of
ABCD was to that o£ a b c d (in oak) nearly as 8 to 7.
The authors of the different experiments were not care¬
ful that their battens had their plates all difpofed fimi-
larly with refpe£l to the ftrain. But even with this
precaution they would not have afforded fure grounds
of computation for large works ; for great beams oc¬
cupy much, if not the whole, of the feftion of the tree ;
and from this it has happened that their ftrength is lefs
than in proportion to that of a fmall lath or batten.
In fbort, we can truft no experiments but fuch as have
been made on large beams. Thefe muft be very rare,
for they are moft expenfive and laborious, and exceed
the abilities of moft of thofe who are difpofed to ftudy
this matter.
But we are not wholly without fuch authority. M.
Buffon and M. Du Hamel, two of the firft philofopherS
and mechanicians of the age, were direifled bv govern¬
ment to make experiments on this fabjeft, and were fup-
plied with ample funds and apparatus. The relation of
their experiments is to be found in the Memoirs of the
French Academy for 1740, 1741, 1742, 1768; as alfo
in Du Hamel’s valuable performances fur l' Exploitation
des Arbres, et fur la Confervation et le Tranfport dc
Bois. We earneftly recommend thefe diflertalions to
the perufal of our readers, as containing much ufeful in¬
formation relative to the ftrength of timber, and the
beft methods of employing it. We ftiall here give an.
abftract of M. Buffon’s experiments.-
.c F Hd
S T R
S T R „ [ 7?8 3
Strength of He relates a great number 'which he had profecuted
Materials. ^vvo years on finall battens. He found that the
^ ™"' odds of a Angle layer, or part of a layer, more or lefs,
Mr Buf- or even a different difpofition of them, had fuch in-
fcm’s expe- duence that he was obliged to abandon this method,
riments on an(] j-y reeourfe to the largeft beams that he
found oak was *-° break. The following table exhibits one
feries of experiments on bars of found oak, clear of knots,
and four inches fquare. This is a fpecimen of all the
reft.
Column i ft is the length of the bar in clear feet be¬
tween the fupports.
Column 2d is the weight of the bar (the 2d day after
it was felled) in pounds. Two bars were tried of each
length. Each of the firft three pairs confifted of two
cuts of the Anne tree. The one next the root was
always found the heavieft, ftiffeft, and ftrongeft. In¬
deed M. Buffon fays that this was invariably true,
that the heavieft was always the ftrongeft ; and he re¬
commends it as a certain (or fure) rule for the choice of
timber. He finds that this is always the cafe when the
timber has grown vigoroufly, forming very thick annual
layers. But he alio obferves that this is only during
the advances of the tree to maturity ; for the ftrength of
the different circles approaches gradually to equality
during the tree’s healthy growth, and then it decays in
thefe parts in a contrary order. Our tool-makers affert
the fame thing with refpeft to beech : yet a contrary
opinion is very prevalent-, and wood with a fine, that is,
a fmall grain, is frequently preferred. Perhaps no per-
fon has ever made the trial with fuch minutenefs as M.
Buffon, and we think that much deference is due to his
opinion.
. Column 3d is the number of pounds neceffary for
breaking the tr^e in the courfe of a few minutes.
Column 4th is the inches which it bent down before
breaking.
Column 5th is the time at which it broke.
The experiments on other fizes were made in the
fame way. A pair at h aft of each length and fize was
taken. The mean refults are contained in the following
table. The beams were all fquare, and their fizes in
inches are placed ai the head of the columns, and their
lengths in feet are in the firft column.
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
28
S312
455°
4025
3612
2987
II525
9787
8308
71 25
6075
53°°
435°
3700
322S
2975
2162
I775
18950
I5523
11250
9100
7475
6362
5562
4950
32200
26050
22350
I9475
16175
i3225
11000
9245
s375
8
A
47649
39750
32800
27750
23450
I9775
i6375
13200
11487
11525
10085
8964
8068
6^23
5763
5042
4482
4034
3667
3362
2881
Strength of
Materials.
M. BufFon had found by numerous trials that oak-
timber loft much of its ftrength in the courfe of dry¬
ing or feafoning and therefore, in order to fecure uni¬
formity, his trees were all felled in the fame feafon of
the year, were fquared the day after, and tried the third
day. Trying them in this green ftate, gave him an op¬
portunity of obferving a very curious and unaccountable
phenomenon. When the weights were laid brifldy on,
nearly fufficient to break the log, a very fenfible fmoke
was obferved to iffue from the two ends with a (harp
hifling noife. This continued all the while the tree was
bending and cracking. This (hows that the log is af-
fedled or drained through its whole length \ indeed
this muft be inferred from its bending through its whole
length. It alfo ftiovvs us the great effe&s of the com-
preflion. It is a pity M. Buffon did not take notice
whether this fmoke iffued from the upper or compreffed
half of the fedftion only, or whether it came from the
whole. II2
We muft now make feme obfervations on thefe expe- Obferva-
riments, in order *0 compare them with the
which we have endeavoured to eftablifti.
M. Buffon confiders the experiments with the 5-inch
bars as the ftandard of comparifon, having both extend¬
ed thefe to greater lengths, and having tried more pieces
of each length.
Our theory determines the relative ftrength of bars of
the fame fedtion to be inverfely as their lengths. But
(if we except the five experiments in the firft column)
we find a very great deviation from this rule. Thus
the 5-inch bar of 28 feet long fhould have half the
ftrength of that of 14 feet, or 2650 ; whereas it is but
1775. The bar of 14 feet ftiould have half the ftrength
of that of 7 feet, or 5762 -, whereas it is but 5300. In
like manner, the fourth of 1x525 is 2881 5 but the real
ftrength of the 28 feet bar is 1775. We have adde d a
column A, which exhibits the ftrength which each of
the 5 inch bars ought to have by the theory. This de¬
viation is molt diftindtly feen in fig. 26. where BK is Fig. 26.
thefeale of lengths, Boeing at the point 7 of the fcale,and
K at 28. The ordinate CB is —11525, and the other
7 CB
ordinates DE, GK, &c. are refpedtively —   
’ v j Length
The lines DF, GH, &c. are made =4350, 1775
exprefling the ftrengths given by experiment. The 10
feet bar and the 2x feet bar are remarkably anomalous.
But all are deficient, and the de tdl ha an evident pro-
greflion from the firft to the iaft. The fame thing may
theory tions on Mr
Buffon’s
1 ^
w
i
I
i
' ■
I (
i
I
S T R C 7
Strength ofbe iliown of the other columns, and even of the firft,
Materials, though it is very fmall in that column. It may alfco be
^ v obferved in the experiments of Belidor, and in all that
ive have feen. We-cannot doubt therefore of its being
a law of nature, depending on the true principles of co-
hefion, and the laws of mechanics.
But it is very puzzling, and we cannot pretend to
give a fatisfa&ory explanation of the difficulty. The
only effeft which we can conceive the length of a beam
to have, is to increafe the (train at the feftion of fra£ture
by employing the intervening beam as a lever. But we
do not diftinftlv fee what change this can produce in
the mode of a£tion of the fibres in this feftion, fo as
either to change their cohefion or the place of its centre
of effort : yet fomething of this kind mud happen.
We fee indeed fome circumftances which muff contri¬
bute to makeafmaller weight fufficient, in Mr Buffon’s
experiments, to break a long beam, than in the exadl in-
verfe proportion of its length.
In the firft place, the weight of the beam itfelf aug¬
ments the (train as much as if half of it were added in
form of a weight. Mr Buffon has given the weights of
everv beam on which he made experiments, which is
very nearly 74 pounds per cubic foot. But they are
much too fmall to account for the deviation from the
theory. The halt weights of the 5-inch beams of 7, 14,
and 28 feet length are only 45, 92, and 182 pounds 5
which makes the real (trains in the experiments 1 1 560,
5390, and 1956 m, which are far from having the pro¬
portions of 4, 2, and X.
Buffon fays that healthy trees are univerfally ftrongeft
at the root end •, therefore, when we ufe a longer beam,
its middle point, where it is broken in the experiment, is
in a weaker part of the tree. But the trials of the 4-inch
beams (how that the difference from this caufe is almoft
infen fible.
The length muft have fome mechanical influence
which the theory we have adopted has not yet explained.
It may not however be inadequate to the talk. The
very ingenious inveftigation of the elaftic curve by James
Bernoulli and other celebrated mathematicians is perhaps
as refined an application of mathematical analyfis as we
know. Yet in this inveftigation it was neceflary, in
order to avoid almoft infuperable difficulties, to take the
fimpleft poffible cafe, viz. where the thicknefs is exceed¬
ingly fmall in comparifon with the length. If the thick¬
nefs be confiderable, the quantities negleifted in the cal¬
culus are too great to permit the conclufion to be accu¬
rate, or very nearly fo. Without being able to define
the form into which an elaftic body of confiderable
thicknefs will be bent, we can fay with confidence, that
in an extreme, cafe, where the compreffion in the con¬
cave fide is very great, the curvature differs confider-
ably from the Bernoullian curve. But as our inveftiga
tion is incomplete and very long, we do not offer it to
Probable the reader. The following more familiar confiderations
that the will, we apprehend, render it highly probable that the
ftren^th ot re^at*ve ftrengtb of beams decreafes fafter than in the in¬
beams de verff ratio of their length. The curious obfervation by
creates faft- Mr Buffon of the vapour which iffued with a biffing
er than in noife from the ends of a beam of green oak, while it was
! breaking by the load on its middle, (hows that the whole
their length of the piece was affected : indeed it muft be,
fength. fince it is bent throughout. We have (hown above, that
a certain definite curvature of a beam of a given form is
9 ] S T R
always accompanied by rupture. Now fuppofe the beam Strength ot
A of 10 feet long, and the beam B of 20 feet long, ^..teiia s.^
bent to the fame degree, at the place of their fixture in
the wall •, the weight which hangs on A is nearly dou¬
ble of that which muft hang on B. The form of any
portion, fuppofe 5 feet, of thefe two beams, immediately
adjoining to the wall, is confiderably different. At the
diftance of 5 feet the curvature of A is 4 of its curva¬
ture at the wall. The curvature of B in the correfpond-
ing point is |ths of the fame curvature at the wall.
Through the whole of the intermediate 5 feet, therefore,
the curvature of B is greater than that of A. This mud
make it weaker throughout. It muft occafion the fibres
to Hide more on each other (that it may acquire //n's
greater curvature), and thus affeft their lateral union ;
and therefore thofe which are ftronger will not affift:
their weaker neighbours. To this we mull add, that in
the (horter beams the force with which the fibres are
preffed laterally on each other is double. This muft im¬
pede the mutual Aiding of the fibres which we mention¬
ed a little agoj nay, this lateral compreffion may change
the law of longitudinal cohefion (as will readily appear
to the reader who is acquainted with Bofcovich’s doc¬
trines), and increafe the ftrength of the very furface of
fradlure, in the fame way (however inexplicable) as it
does in metals when they are hammered or drawn into
wire.
The reader muft judge how far thefe remarks are
worthy of his attention. The engineer will carefully
keep in mind the important faft, that a beam of qua¬
druple length, inftead of having -Jth of the ftrength, has
only about •, and the philofopher (liould endeavour
to difcover the caufe of this diminution, that he may
give the artift a more accurate rule of computation. It^
Our ignorance of the law by which the cohefion of We cannot
the particles changes by a change of diftance, hinders us difcover the.
from difeovering the precife relation between the curva- jT®cl^re"
ture and the momentum of cohefion : and all we can do:'1 ‘ ’ ."
• i-i • . . , tween the
is to multiply experiments, upon which we may eftabhfti curvature
fome empirical rules for calculating the ftrength of folids. and the
Thofe from which we muft reafon at prefent are too few momentum
and too anomalous to be the foundation of fuch an em-0^ co^e^on*
pirical formula. We may, however, obferve, that Mr
Buffon’s experiments give us confiderable affiftance in
this particular : For if to each of the numbers of the co¬
lumn for the 5-inch beams, correfted by adding half the
weight of the beam, we add the conftant number 1245,
we (hall have a fet of numbers which are very nearly re¬
ciprocals of the lengths. Let 1245 be called <r, and let
the. weight which is known by experiment to be necef-
fary for breaking the 5 inch beam of the length a be
called P. We (hall have —i—c—p. Thus the
weight neceffary for breaking the 7-foot bar is 11560,
This added to 1245, and ^ ^urn multiplied by 7, gives
P + ^ X 0=89635. Let / be 1 8 *, then — 1245
=3725, —p, which differs not more than ^’o-th from
what experiment gives us. This rule holds equally well
in all the other lengths except the 10 and 24 foot beams,
which are very anomalous. Such a formula is abun¬
dantly exaft for praftice, and will anfwer through a
much greater variety of length, though it cannot be ad¬
mitted as a true one j becaufe, in a certain very great
5 F 2 length,
and the
fqu. re of
the depth
•ef the lec¬
tion.
S T R t
^tre-ngth oflength, the flrength will be nothing. For other fizes
Materials. t^e conitant number mull; change in the proportion of
1,1 IIV^ t/3, or perhaps of /?.
Be at;on The next comparifon which w'e have to make with
between the theory is the relation between the ftrength and the
the luength {qUare 0f the depth of the feftion. This is made by
comparing with each other the numbers in any horizon¬
tal line of the table. In making this companion we
find the numbers of the five-inch bars uniformly greater
than the reft. We imagine that there is fomething pe¬
culiar to thefe bars : They are in general heavier than
in the proportion of their fedlion, but not fo much fo as
to account for all their fuperiority. We imagine that
this fet of experiments, intended as a ftandard for the
reft, has been made at one time, and that the leafon has
had a confiderable influence. The ladft however is, that
if this column be kept out, or uniformly diminilhed
about one-fixteenth in their ftrength, the different fizes
will deviate very little from the ratio of the fquare of
the depth, as determined by theory. There is however
a fmall deficiency in the bigger beams.
We have been thus anxious in the examination of
thefe experiments, becaufe they are the only ones which
have been related in fufficient detail, and made on a
proper fcale for giving us data from which we can de¬
duce confidential maxims for pra£lice. They are fo
troublefome and expenftve that we have little hopes of
feeing their number greatly increafed ; yet furely our
navy board would do an unfpeakab*: fervice to the pub¬
lic by appropriating a fund for fuen experiments under
the management of fome man of fcience.
There remains another comparifon which is of chief
importance, namely, the proportion between the ABSO-
116
Preportion
between
theabfoluteLUTE c0HeSI0x and the RELATIVE STRENGTH. It may
h oil •'
cohefion
and the re
lative
ftreugth..
be gueffed, from the very nature of the thing, that this
muft be very uncertain. Experiments on the abfolute
ftrength muft be confined to very fmall pieces, by reafon
of the very great forces which are required for tearing
them afunder. The values therefore deduced from them
muft be fubjefl to great inequalities. Unfortunately we
have got no detail of any experiments •, all that we have
to depend on is two paflages of Mufchenbroek’s KJJ'ais
de P/iyJique ; in one of which he fays, that a piece of
found oak T^ths of an inch fquare is torn afunder by
1150 pounds •, and in the other, that an oak plank 12
inches broad and one thick will juft fufpend 189163
pounds. Thefe give for the cohefion of an inch fquare
T5,755 aT1d 1 pounds. Bouguer, in his Traite du
Navire, fays that it is very wrell known that a rod of
found oak one-fourth of an inch fquare will be torn
afunder by 1000 pounds. This gives 16000 for the
cohefion of a fquare inch. We fhall take this as a
round number, eafily ufed in our computations. Let us
compare this with M. Buffon’s trials of beams four inches
fquare.
fhe abfolute cohefion of this fedlion is 16,000 X
= 2s6,000. Did every fibre exert its whole force in
the inftant of fra£lure, the momentum of cohefion would
be tne fame as if it had all afted at the centre of gravity
of the fedlion at 2 inches from the axis of fra&ure, and
is therefore 512,000. The 4-inch beam, 7 feet long,
was broken by 5312 pounds hung on its middle. The
half of this, or 26 56 pounds, would have broken it, if
fufpended at its extremity, projefting 34 feet, or 42
inches from, a wall. The momentum of this ftrain is
4
O ] 1
therefore 2656X42, = 111552. Now this is in equi-Strength s{>
librio with the atftual momentum of cohefion, which is Materials,
therefore 111552, inftead of 512000. The ftrength is 'C***
therefore diminilhed in the proportion of 512000 to
111552, or very nearly of 4,59 to 1.
As we are quite uncertain as to the place of the cen¬
tre of effort, it is needlefs to confider the full cohefion as
acting at the centre of gravity, and producing the mo¬
mentum 512,000 •, and we may convert the whole into
a fimple multiplier m of the length, and fay, as m times
the length is to the depth, fo is the abfolute cohefon of the
feSion to the relative frength. Therefore let the abfo¬
lute cohefion of a fquare inch be called^ the breadth by
the depth d, and the length / (all in inches), the rela¬
tive ftrength, or the external force p, which balances
it, is
fbd*
9^87’
or in round numbers
fb d'
9l
for m~‘i
x4>59-
This great diminution of ffrength cannot be wholly
accounted for by the inequality of the cohefive forces
exerted in the inftant of fratlure ; for in this cafe we
know that the centre of effort is at -(d of the height in a
redftangular feftion (becaufe the forces really exerted are
as the extenfions of the fibres). The relative ftrength
f'b d*
would be-^——, and p would have been 8127 inftead
3/
of 2656.
We muft aferibe this diminution (which is three times
greater than that produced by the inequality of the co¬
hefive forces) to the compreflion of the under part of
the beam *, and we muft endeavour to explain in what
manner this compreflion produces an effect which feems
fo little explicable by fuch means.
As we have repeatedly obferved, it is a matter of
nearly univerfal experience that the forces adlually ex¬
erted by the particles of bodies, when ftretched or com-
prefled, are very nearly in the proportion of the diftan-
ces to which the particles are drawn from their natural
pofitions. Now, although we are certain that, in enor¬
mous comprefiions, the forces increafe fafter than in this
proportion, this makes no fenfible change in the prefent
queftion, becaufe the body is broken before the com-
preflions have gone fo far •, nay, we imagine that the
compreffed parts are crippled in moft cafes even before
the extended parts are torn afunder. Mufchenbroek af-
ferts this with great confidence with refpeft to oak, on
the authority of his own experiments. He fays, that al¬
though oak will fufpend half as much again as fir, it will
not fupport, as a pillar, two-thirds of the load which fir
will fupport in that form.
We imagine therefore that the mechanifm in the pre¬
fent cafe is nearly as follows :
Let the beam DCK A (fig. 27.) be loaded at its ex-pjg,
tremity with the weight P, aifting in the diredtion KP
perpendicular to DC. Let D A be the fedlion of frac¬
ture. Let DA be about one-third of D A. A will be
the particle or fibre which is neither extended nor com-
preffed. Make A 5 : D ^/rrD A : A A. The triangles
DA d, A A S, will reprefent the accumulated attradling
and repelling forces. Make AI and A z~-y DA and
4 A A. The point I will be that to which the full co¬
hefion D d orj^of the particles in AD muft be applied,
fo as to produce the fame momentum which the variable
forces at I, D, &c. really produce at their feveral points .
e£l
S T R [ 7
Strength of of application. In like manner, i is the centre of fimi-
Matenalt.^ iar e{fort of the repulfive forces excited by the compref-
fion between A and A, and it is the real fulcrum of a
bended lever I /K, by which the whole effedt is produ¬
ced. The effect is the fame as if the full cohefion of
the ftretched fibres in AD were accumulated in I, and
the full repulfion of all the compreffed fibres in A A
were accumulated in i. The forces which are balanced
in the operation are the weight P, adting by the arm
ii i, and the full cohefion of AD adting by the arm I i.
The forces exerted by the compreffed fibres between A
and A only ferve to give fupport to the lever, that it
mav exert its ftrain.
We imagine that this does not differ much from the
real procedure of nature. The pofition of the point A
may be different from what we have deduced from Mr
JBuffon’s experiments, compared with Mufchenbroek’s
value of the abfolute cohefion of a fquare inch. If this
laft ihould be only 12000, DA mull; be greater than
we have here made it, in the proportion of 12000 to
16000. For I i muff {till be made zz \ A A, fuppofing
the forces to be proportional to the extenfions and com-
preflions. There can be no doubt that a part only of
the cohefion of D A operates in refilling the fradlure in
all fubftances which have any comprefiibility •, and it is
confirmed by the experiments of Mr Du Hamel on wil¬
low, and the inferences are by no means confined to that
fpecies of timber. We fay therefore, that when the
beam is broken, the cohefion of AD alone is exerted,
and that each fibre exerts a force proportional to its ex-
ten'fion ; and the accumulated momentum is the fame as
if the full cohefion of AD were adting by the lever I i
—hd of D A.
It may be faid, that if only one-third of the cohefion
of oak be exerted, it may be cut two-thirds through
without weakening it. But this cannot be, becaufe the
cohefion of the whole is employed in preventing the la¬
teral Aide fo often mentioned. We have no experiments
to determine that it may not be cut through one-third
without lofs of its ftrength.
This mull not be confidered as a fubjecl of mere fpe-
culative curiofity. It is intimately connedted with all
the pradlical ufes which we can make of this knowledge 5
for it is almolt the only way that we can learn fhe com-
preffibility of timber. Experiments on the diredl cohe¬
fion are indeed difficult, and exceedingly expenfive if
we attempt them in large pieces. But experiments on
compreffion are almolt impradticable. The moll in-
firudlive experiments would be, firll to eltablifh, by a
great number of trials, the tranfverfe force of a moderate
batten •, and then to make a great number of trials of
the diminution of its ftrength, by cutting it through on
the concave fide. This would very nearly give us the
proportion of the cohefion which really operates in refill¬
ing fradlures. Thus if it be found that one-hall of the
beam may be cut on the under fide without diminution
of its ftrength (taking care to drive in a fiice of harder
wood), we may conclude that the point A is at the
middle, or fomewhat above it.
Much lies before the curious mechanician, and we
are as yet very far from a fcientific knowledge ol the
ftrength of timber.
In the mean time, v/e may derive from thefe experi¬
ments of Buffon a very ufeful pradlical rule, without re¬
lying on any value of the abfolute cohefion oi oak. We
81 ] S T R
fee that the ftrength is nearly as the breadth, as the Strength of
fquare of the depth, and as the inverfe of the length. '-Iat^ak.,
It is moft convenient to meafure the breadth and depth j ^
of the beam in inches, and its length in feet. Since, a ufeful
then, a beam four inches fquare and feven feet between practical
the fupports is broken by 5312 pounds, we mull con- ^
elude that a batten one inch fquare and one foot between Vlr
the fupports will be broken by 581 pounds. Then the Buff0n’s
ftrength of any other beam of oak, or the weight which experi*.
will juft break it when hung on its middle, is 381 ments*
b d1
l
But we have feen that there is a very confiderable de¬
viation from the inverfe proportion of the lengths, and
we mull endeavour to accommodate our rule to this de¬
viation. We found, that by adding 1245 to each of
the ordinates or numbers in the column oi the five-inch
bars, we had a fet of numbers very nearly reciprocal of
the lengths j and if we make a fimilar addition to the
other columns in the proportion of the cubes of the fixes,
we have nearly the lame refult. The greateft error (ex¬
cept in the cafe of experiments which are very irregu¬
lar) does not exceed Tyth of the whole. Therefore,
for a radical number, add to the 53 12 the number 640,,
which is to 1245 very nearly as 4* to 5*. This gives
5952. The 64th of this is 93, which eorrefponds to a
bar of one inch fquare and feven feet long. Therefore
93 X 7 will be the reciprocal correfponding to a bar of
one foot. This is 651.
empirical corredtion, which is -7^—,
b 4
remains 641 for the ftrength of the bar. This gives uS
b d7t
for a general rule />—651 —  10 b d*.
Take from this the prefent
or 10, and there
Example. Required the weight neceffary to break an
oak beam eight inches fquare and 20 feet between the
8 8^
props, ycr 651 X—^ 10x8x8*. This is 11545,
whereas the experiment gives 11487. The error is very
fmall indeed. The rule is moft deficient in comparifon
with the five-inch bars, which we have already laid ap¬
pear ftronger than the reft.
The following procefs is eafily remembered by fuch
as are not algebraifts.
Multiply the breadth in inches twice by the depth,
and call this produdl f. Multiply fby 651, and divide
by the length in feet. From the quotient take 10 times
f. Tire remainder is the number of pounds which will'
break the beam.
We are nut fuffieiently fenfible of our principles to be
confident that the correction 10/'Ihould be in the pro¬
portion of the fe&ion, although we think it moft pro¬
bable. It is quite empirical, founded on Buffon’s expe¬
riments. Therefore the fafe way of ufing this rule is to
fuppofe the beam fquare, by increaling or diminiftiing
its breadth till equal to the depth. Then find the
ftrength by this rule, and diminilh or increafe it for the
change which has been made in its breadth. Thus,
there can be no doubt that the ftrength of the beam gi¬
ven as an example is double of that of a beam of the
fame depth and half the breadth.
The reader cannot but obferve that all this calcula¬
tion relates to the very greateil weight which a beam
will bear for a very few minutes. Mr Buffon uniformly
found
s T R [ 782 1 s T R
Strength of found that two-thirds of this weight fenfibly impaired
Matemls. jts ftrength, and frequently broke at the end of two
' or tjiret, months. One-half of this weight brought the
•beam to a certain bend, which did not increale after
the firft minute or two, and may be borne by the beam
for any length of time. But the beam contracted a
bend, of which it did not recover any confiderable por¬
tion. One-third feemed to have no permanent effect on
the beam 5 but it recovered its rectilineal ftiape com¬
pletely, even after having been loaded feveral months,
provided that the timber wasfeafoned when firft loaded j
that is to fay, one third of the weight which would
quickly break a feafoned beam, or one-fourth of what
would break one juft felled, may lie on it forever with¬
out giving the beam a fett.
We have no detail of experiments on the ftrength of
other kinds of timber : only Mr Buffon fays, that fir
has about -j-^-lIis of the flrength of oak 5 Mr Parent
makes it J|ths *, Emerfon, ^-ds, &c.
We have been thus minute in our examination of the
mechanifm of this tranfverfe ftrain, becaufe it is the
greateft to which the parts of our machines are expofed.
We with to imprefs on the minds of artifts the neceflity
of avoiding this as much as poflible. They are improv¬
ing in this refpeft, as may be feen by comparing the
centres on which ftone arches of great fpan are now
turned with thofe of former times. They were formerly
a load of mere joifts refting on a multitude of pofts,
which obftruCled the navigation, and were frequently
lofing their ftiape by fome of the pofts finking into the
ground. Now they are more generally trufies, where
the beams abutt on each other, and are relieved from
tranfverfe ftrains. But many performances of eminent
artifts are ftill very injudicioufly expofed to crofs ftrains.
We may inftance one which is confidered as a fine work,
viz. the bridge at Walton on Thames. Here every
beam of the great arch is a joift, and it hangs together
by framing. The fineft piece of carpentry that we have
feen is the centre employed in turning the arches of the
bridge at Orleans, defcribed by Perronet. In the whole
there is not one crofs ftrain. The beam, too, of Horn-
blower’s fteam-engine, defcribed in that article, is very
uS fcientifically conftrufled.
Strain pro- IV. The laft fpecies of ftrain which we are to exa-
duced by mine is that produced by twilling. This takes place in
twitting. ap aXjes which connefl the working parts of machines.
TheVefift- Although we cannot pretend to have a very diftindl
ance muft conception of that modification of the cohefion of a bo-
be proper- dy by which it refills this kind of ftrain, we can have
the mimt <-rn° <^nu^t that, when all the particles a£l alike, the re-
of particles. liftance ir,u^ ^ proportional to the number. There-
_ fore if we fuppofe the two parts ABCD, ABFE (fig.
^ 2 ' 28.), of the body EFCD to be of infuperable ftrength,
but cohering more weakly in the common furface AB,
and that one part ABCD is pulhed laterally in the di¬
rection AB, there can be no doubt that it will yield
only there, and that the refiftance will be proportional
to the fnrface.
In like manner, we can conceive a thin cylindrical
Fig- 29. tube, of which KAH (fig. 29.) is the feftion, as coher¬
ing more weakly in that feflion than anywhere elfe.
Suppofe it to be grafped in both hands, and the two
parts twilled round the axis in oppofite directions, as we
would twill the two joints of a flute, it is plain that it
will firft fail in this feCtion, which is the circumference
5
of a circle, and the particles of the two parts which are Strength of
contiguous to this circumference will be drawn from Materials,
each other laterally. The total refill ante will be as the '"“nr—
number of equally refilling particles, that is, as the cir¬
cumference (for the tube being fuppofed very thin,
there can be no fenfible difference between the dilata¬
tion of the external and internal particles). We can
now fuppofe another tube within this, and a third with¬
in the lecond, and fo on till we reach the centre. If
the particles of each ring exerted the lame force (by
fuffering the fame dilatation in the direction of the cir¬
cumference), the refiltance ot each ring of the ferftion
would be as its circumference and its breadth (fuppofed
indefinitely fmall,) and the whole refiftance would be as
the furface j and this would reprefent the refiftance of
a folid cylinder. But when a cylinder is twilled in this
manner by an external force applied to its circumference,
the external parts will fuffer a greater circular extenlion
than the internal 5 and it appears that this extenfion
(like the extenfion of a beam ftrained tranfverfely ) will
be proportional to the diitanee of the particles from the
axis. We cannot fay that this is demonltrable, but we
can alfign no proportion that is more probable. This
being the cafe, the forces fimultaneoufly exerted by each
particle will be as its diftance from the axis. There-,
fore the whole force exerted by each ring will be as the
fquare of its radius, and the accumulated force actually
exerted will be as the cube of the radius ; that is, the
accumulated force exerted by the whole cylinder, whofe
radius is C A, is to the accumulated force exerted at the
fame time by the partwhofe radius is CE,as C A3 to CE3.
The whole couefion now exerted is juft two-thirds of
w7hat it would be if all the particles were exerting the
fame attraclive forces which are juft now exerted by the
particles in the external circumference. This is plain
to any perfon in the leaft familiar with the fluxionar) cal¬
culus. But fuch as are not may eafily fee it in this way.
Let the rectangle AC cu be fet upright on the fur¬
face of the circle along the line C A, and revolve round
the axis C c. It will generate a cylinder whofe height
is C c or A a, and having the circle KAH for its bafe.
If the diagonal C a be fuppofed alfo to revolve, it is
plain that the triangle c C a will generate a cone of the
fame height, and having for its bate the circle deferibed
by the revolution of ca, and the point C for its apex.
The cylindrical furface generated by A a will exprefs
the whole cohefion exerted by the circumference AHK,
and the cylindrical furface generated by E f will repre¬
fent the cohefion exerted by the circumference ELM,
and the folid generated by the triangle C A a will re¬
prefent the cohefion exerted by the whole circle AHK,
and the cylinder generated by the reft angle AC c a will
reprefent the cohefion exerted by the fame furface if each
particle had fuffered the extenfion A «.
Now it is plain, in the firft place, that the folid gene¬
rated by the triangle e EC is to that generated by a AC
as EC3 t ) AC3. In the next place, the folid generated
by a AC is two-thirds of the cylinder, becaufe the cone
generated by c C « is one-third of it.
We may now fuppofe the cylinder twifted till the par¬
ticles in the external circumference lofe their cohefion.
There can be nn doubt that it will now be wrenched
afunder, all the inner circles yielding in fucceflion.
Thus we obtain one ufeful information, viz. that a body
of homogeneous texture refills a fimple twiji with two-
thirds
s T R [. 7s3
Strength of thirds of the force with which it refifts an attempt to
^at^ri , force one Part laterally from the other, or with one-third
i2o part of the force which will cut it afunder by a fquare-
With what edged tool. For to drive a fquare-edged tool through
force a bo- a piece of lead, for inftance, is the fame as forcing a
P;e“ °f ^ 1,:ad aS ,h!*f t'1? ‘r1 l««ally away from
texture re- ™e ^ Pieces on each fide ^ the tool. Experiments
lifts a fim- this kind do not feem difficult, and they would give
pie twift. us very ufeful information.
Th f21 When tW° cylinders AHK and BNO are wrenched
exerted in afunder» we mud conclude that the external particles of
breaking each are juft put beyond their limits of cohefion, are
twocylin- equally extended, and are exerting equal forces. Hence
<^rs are as it follows, that in the inftant of fradlure the fum total
dfthe diaeS °f the forces aaua% exerted are as the fquares of the
meters. diameters.
For drawing the diagonal C e, it is plain that E <?, =
A a, expreffes the diftenfion of the circumference ELM,
and that the folid generated by the triangle CE e ex-
preffes the cohefion exerted by the ftirface of the circle
ELM, when the particles in the circumference fuffer
the extenfion E e equal to A a. Now the folids gene¬
rated by C A a and CE e being refpe£Hvely two-thirds
of the correfponding cylinders, are as the fquares of the
diameters.
122
Relative _ Having thus afeertained the real ftrength of the fec-
ftrength of tion, and its relation to its abfolute lateral ftrength, let
tcTtheexn US exandne its ftrength relative to the external force
terna! force f111 P^°yed to ^rea^ This examination is very fimple
J
S T R
employed in fhe cafe under confideration. The draining force
to break it. mull a61 by fome lever, and the cohefion mull oppofe it
by aiding on fome other lever. The centre of the fec-
tion may be the neutral point, whofe pofition is not di¬
ll urbed.
Let F be the force exerted laterally by an exterior
particle. Let a be the radius of the cylinder, and x the
indeterminate diftance of any circumference, and x the
indefinitely fmall interval between the concentric arches;
that is, let x be the breadth of a ring and x its radius.
The forces being as the extenfions, and the extenfions
as the diftances from the axis, the cohefion a£tually ex¬
erted at any part of any ring will be f force
a
exerted by the whole ring (being as the circumference
X* X
or as the radius) will be f —The momentum of co-
a
hefion of a ring, being as the force multiplied by its le-
X^ X '
ver, will bey . The accumulated momentum will
a
be the fum or fluent ofJT ; that is, when xzza, it
a
will be iff—, —\f
Phe refifl-- Hence we learn that the ftrength of an axle, by which
wee of the it refifts being wrenched afunder bv a force aiding at a
‘xle is as given diftance from the axis, is as the cube of its dia-
6!,J“b">f meter.
But farther, fa* is —f a* X? n. Now fa* re¬
presents the full lateral cohefion of the feidton. The
momentum therefore is the fame as if the full lateral co¬
hefion were accumulated at a point diftant from, the axis
ts diame
er.
by one-fourth of the radius or one-eighth of the diameter Strength of
of the cylinder. Materials.^
Therefore let F be the number of pounds which mea- y
fares the lateral cohefion of a circular inch, d the dia¬
meter of the cylinder in inches, and / the length of the
lever by which the draining force p is fuppoled to aft,
d*
we (hall have F X 3- d*—p /, and Y—.~p.
We fee in general that the ftrength of an axle, by
which it refifts being wrenched afunder by twilling, is
as the cube of its diameter.
We fee alfo that the internal parts are not aiding fo
powerfully as the external. If a hole be bored out of
the axle of half its diameter, the ftrength is diminilhed
only one-eighth, while the quantity of matter is diminifti-
ed one-fourth. Therefore hollow axles are ftronger than
folid ones containing the fame quantity of matter. Thus 124
let the diameter be 5 and that of the hollow 4 : then Hollow
the diameter of another folid cylinder having the fameaxIeS more
quantity of matter with the tube is 3. The ftrength of^0^^11
the folid cylinder of the diameter 5 may be exprefled by "
53 or 125. Of this the internal part (of the diameter
4) exerts 64; therefore the ftrength of the tube is 125
—64, =61. But the ftrength of the folid axle of the
fame quantity of matter anddiameter 3 is 3 or 27, which
is not half of that of the tube. j
Engineers, therefore, have of late introduced this ira- and now
provement in their machines, and the axles of call iron generally
are all made hollow when their fize will admit it. They
have the additional advantage of being much ftiffer, and
of affording much better fixture for the flanches, which
are ufed for connefting them with the wheels or levers
by which they are turned and ftrained. The fuperio-
rity of ftrength of hollow tubes over folid cylinders is
much greater in this kind of ftrain than in the former or
tranfverfe. In this lalt cafe the ftrength of this tube
would be to that of the folid cylinder of equal weight as
61 to 3 2 and a half nearly,.
The apparatus which we mentioned on a former oc-
cafion for trying the lateral ftrength of a fquare inch of
folid matter, enabled us to try this theory of twift with
all defirable accuracy. The bar which hung down
from the pin in the former trials was now placed in a
horizontal pofition, and loaded with a weight at the ex- J2^
tremity. Thus it afted as a powerful lever, and enabled The ratio
us to wrencli afunder fpecimcns of the ftrongeft mate-of refiit-
rials. We found the refults perfectly conformable toance.to
the theory, in as far as it determined the proportional
ftrength of different fizes and foims : but we found thepje lateral*
ratio of the refiftance to twilling to the'fimple lateral re-refiftance
fiftance confiderably different; and it was fome time be-aPPears
fore we difeovered the eaufe. different.
We had here taken the fimpleft view that is pofiible
of the aftion of cohefion in refilling a twift. It is fre¬
quently exerted in a very different way. When, for in¬
ftance, an iron axle is joined to a wooden one by being
driven into one end of it, the extenfions of the different
circles of particles are in a very different proportion. A
little confideration will Ihovv that the particles in imme¬
diate contact with the iron axle are in a ftate of violent
extenfion ; fo are the particles of the exterior furface of
the wooden part, and the intermediate parts are lels
ftrained. It is almoft impoflible to afiign the exa6t pro¬
portion of the cohefive forces exerted in the different
parts.
127
But when
the experi
ment was
altered, it
Was exact¬
ly the
fame.
128
Experi¬
ments on
ry; but
thofe on
timber ir~
resrular.
S T Tl r
Strength of parts. Numbcrlefs cafes can be pointed out where parts
Materials. Qf ^ axie are in a ftate of compreffion, and where it is
™ J ftill more difficult to determine the ftate of the other
particles. We muft content ourfelves with the deduc¬
tions made from this fimple cafe, which is fortunately
the moil common. In the experiments juft now men¬
tioned the centre of the circle is by no means the neu¬
tral point, and it is very difficult to afcertain its place:
but when this confideration occurred to us, we eafily
freed the experiments from this uncertainty, by extend¬
ing the lever to both Tides, and by means of a pulley ap¬
plied equal force to each arm, a&ing in oppofite direc¬
tions. Tims the centre became the neutral point, and
tlie refiftance to twill was found to be tivo-thirds of the
fun pie lateral ftrength.
We beg leave to mention here that our fuccefs in thefe
, , experiments encouraged us to extend them much farther,
and ^vn!^’ We hoped by thefe means to difcover the abfolute co-
fatisfadto- hefion of many fubftances, which would have required
an enormous apparatus and a moft unmanageable force
to tear them afunder direflly. But we could reafon with
confidence from the refiftance to twift (which we could
eafily raeafure), provided that we could afcertain the
proportion of the direft and the lateral ftrengths. Our
experiments on chalk, finely prepared clay, and white
bees-wax (of one melting and one temperature), were
very confiftent and fatisfa&ory. But we have hitherto
found great irregularities in this proportion in bodies of
a fibrous texture like timber. Thefe are the moft im¬
portant cafes, and we ftill hope to be able to accompliffi
our project, and to give the public fome valuable infor¬
mation. This being our foie object, it was our duty to
mention the method which promifes fuccefs, and thus
excite others to the talk ; and it will be no mortifica¬
tion to us to be deprived of the honour of being the fir ft
who thus adds to the ftock of experimental knowledge.
When the matter of tne axle is of the moft fimple
texture, fuch as that of metals, we do not conceive that
the length of the axle has any influence on the frafturC.
It is otherwife if it be of a fibrous texture like timber:
the fibres are bent before breaking, being twilled into
fpirals like a cork-ferew. The length of the axle has
fomewhat of the influence of a lever in this cafe, and it
is eafier wrenched afunder if long. Accordingly we
have found it fo ; but we have not been able to reduce
1*19 this influence to calculation.
Concluding Our readers are requefted to accept of thefe endea-
remarks. voufs to communicate information on this important and
difficult iubjeft. We are duly fenfible of their imper¬
fection, but flatter ourfelves that we have in many in-
ftances pointed out the method which muft be purfued
for improving our knowledge on this fubjeft ; and we
have given the Euglifh reader a more copious lift of ex¬
periments on the ftrength of materials than he will meet
with in our language. Many ufeful deductions might
be made from thefe premifes refpeCting the manner of
difpofing and combining the ftrength of materials in our
ftruCtures. The belt form of joints, mortifies, tenons,
fearphs *, the rules for joggling, tabling, faying, fifhing,
Sec. praCtifed in the delicate art of maft-making, are all
Founded on this doCtrine : but the difeuffion of thefe
would be equivalent to writing a complete treatife of
«arpentry. We hope that this will be executed by fnme
intelligent mechanician, for there is nothing in our lan¬
guage on this fuhjeft but what is almoft contemptible j
Stroking.
784 ] ,s T
yet there is no mechanic art that is more fufceptible of Strength <sf
fcientific treatment. Such a treatife, if well executed, Material$
could not fail of being well received by the public in
this age of mechanical improvement.
STRENGTHENERS, or Corroborants,fuch me¬
dicines as are fuppofed to add to the firmnefs of the fo-
lids. See Materia Medica Index.
STRETCHING, in Navigation, is generally under-
ftood to imply the progreffion of a ffiip under a great
furface of fail, when clofe-hauled. The difference be¬
tween this term andJlanding, confifts apparently in the
quantity of fail •, which in the latter may be very mo¬
derate ; but ftretching generally fignifies excefs ; as, we
faw the enemy at daybreak ftretching to the fouthward
under a croud of fail, Sec. Falconer.
STRETTO, in Italian mufic, is fometimes ufed te
fignify that the meafure is to be flmrt and concife, and
confequently quick. In this fenfe it ftands oppoftd to
Largo.
STRIATED leaf, among botanifts, one that has a
number of longitudinal furrows on its furtace.
STRIKE, a meafure of capacity, containing four bu-
ftiels. Alfo an inftrument ufed in meafuring corn.
STRIX, the Owl ; a genus of birds belonging to thd
order of accipitres. See Ornithology Index.
The bubo, or great-eared owl inhabits inacceflible
rocks and defert places, and preys on hares and leather¬
ed game. Its appearance in cities was deemed an un¬
lucky omen *, Rome itfelf once underwent a luftration
becaufe one of them ftrayed into the capitol. The an¬
cients had them in the utmoft abhorrence ; and thought
them, like the fcreech-owls, the meffengers of death.
Pliny ftyles it bubo funebris, and nociis monjlrum.
Solaque culminibus ferali carmine bubo
Scene queri et longas in Jletum ducere voces. VlRGIL.
Perch'd on the roof, the bird of night complains,
In lengthen’d ftirieks and dire funereal ftrains.
STROBILUS, in Botany, a pericarp formed from
an amentum by the hardening of the feales.
STROKING, or rubbing gently with the hand, a
method which has been employed by fome perfons for
curing difeafes.
Mr Greatrakes or Greatrix, the famous Irilh ftrc>ker,
is faid to have performed many wonderful cures. He
gives the following account of his difeovery of this art,
and of the fuccefs with which he pradlifed it. “ About See Brief
1662 I had an impulfe (fays he), or a ftrange perfuafion Account of
in my own mind (of which I am not able to give any ^
rational account to another), which did very frequently
fuggeft to me, that there was beftowed on me the gift Lend. 166&
of curing the king’s evil *, which, for the extraordinari-4to.
nefs of it, I thought fit to conceal for fome time; but at
length I communicated this to my wife, and told her,
that I did verily believe that God had given me the
bleffing of curing the king’s evil ; for whether I were
in private or public, fleeping or waking, ftill I had the
fame impulfe. But her reply to me was, that flit con¬
ceived this was a ftrange imagination ; yet, to prove the
contrary, a few days after there was one William Ma¬
ther of Salterbridge in the parifli of Lffimore, who
brought his fon William to my houfe, defiring my wife
to cure him, who was a perfon ready to afford her cha¬
rity to her neighbours, according to her fmall Ikill in
chirurgery.
t
^ bd
S T K
stroking clilnirgery. On which my wife tbld me, there was one
li that had the king’s evil very grievoufly in the eyes,
cheek, and throat j whereupon I told' her, that Ihe
v Ihould now fee whether this was a bare fancy or imagi¬
nation, as Ihe thought it, or the dilates of God’s Spirit
on my heart. Then I laid my hands on the places af-
fefted, and prayed to God for Jefus fake to heal him j
and bid the parent two or three days afterwards to bring
the child to me again, which accordingly he did ; and I
then fawthe eye was almoft quite whole 5 and the node,
which was almoft as big as a pullet’s egg, was fuppu-
rated *, and the throat lirangely amended ; and, to be
brief (to . God’s glory I fpeak it) within a month dif-
charged itfelf quite, and was perfeftly healed, and fo
continues, God be praifed.”
Then there came to him one Margaret Mackftiane of
Ballinecly, in the parilh of Lifmore, who had been af¬
flicted with the evil above feven years, in a much more
violent degree j and foon after, his fame increafing, he
cured the fame difeafe in many other perfons for three
years. He did not meddle all this time with any other
diftemper ; till about the end of thefe three years, the
ague growing epidemical, he found, as formerly, that
there was bellowed on him the gift of curing that dif¬
eafe. He cured Colonel Phaire, of Cahirmony in the
county of Corke, of an ague, and afterwards many other
perfons of different diftempers, by ftroking ; fo that his
name was wonderfully cried up, as if feme divine per-
fon had been fent from above. January 1665-6, he
came over to England, at the requeft of the earl of Or¬
rery ; in order to cure the lady of the lord-vifcount
Conway, of Ragley in Warwicklhire, who had for many
years laboured under a moft violent headache. He
ftaid at Ragley three weeks or a month j and though
he failed in his endeavours to relieve that lady, he
cured vaft numbers of people in thofe parts and at Wor-
cefter.
Though we are no friends to the marvellous, nor be¬
lieve it poflible that either the king’s evil or ague can be
cured by ftroking or friflion of any kind, whether gentle
or fevere, we have no hefitation to acknowledge that
many cures might be performed by Mr Greatrakes.
Every reflefling perfon who reads the foregoing account
which he gives of himfeif will fee that he was an enthu-
fiaft, and believed bimfelf guided by a particular revela¬
tion $ and fuch is the credulity of mankind, that his pre-
tenfions were readily admitted, and men crowded with
eagernefs to be relieved of their difeafes. But it is well
known to phylicians, that in many cafes the imagination
has accompHlhed cures as wonderful as the force of me¬
dicine. It is owing chiefly to the influence of imagina¬
tion that we have fo many accounts from people of ve¬
racity of tflie wonderful effefls of quack medicines. We
are perfectly affured that thefe medicines, by their na¬
tural operation, can never produce the effedls aferibed
to them ; for there is no kind of proportion between
the medicine and the effect produced, and often no eon-
neflion between the medicine and the difeafe.
STROMATEUS, a genus of fifties belonging to the
order of apodes. See IGHTHYOLOGV lnde!x.
STROMBOLI, the moft northern of the Lipari
iflands. It is a volcano, which conftantly difeharges
much fire and fmoke. It rifes in a conical form above
the furface of the fea. On the eaft fide it has three or
four little craters ranged near each other* not at the
VOL. XIX. Part II.
r 7S5 3
S T R
fummit, but on the declivity, nearly at two-thirds of its Stromboh
height. But as the furface of the volcano is very rug- _ ^
ged and interfered with hollow ways, it may be natu- > .. '1 .
rally concluded, that at the time of fome great eruption*
the fummit and a part of this fide fell in, as mull have
happened alfo to Vefuvius $ conlequently, the common
chimney is at tliis day on the declivity, although al¬
ways in the centre of the whole bafe. It is inhabited
not with ftanding its fires-, but care is taken to avoid the
proximity of the crater, which is yet much to be feared.
“ I was affured (fays M. de Luc) by an Englifhman,
who, like me, had the curiofity to vifit thefe iiles, that
the.fine weather having invited him and his company
to land at Stromboli, they afeended a volcano, whofe
craters at that time threw out nothing 5 but that while
they were attentively viewing them, unapprehenfive of
any danger, they were fuddenly faluted by fuch a fu¬
rious difeharge, as to be obliged to retreat with preci¬
pitation, and not without one of the company being
wounded by a piece of fcoria.” Of all the volcanoes
recorded in hiftory, Stromboli feems to be the only one
that burns without ceafing. Etna and Vefuvius often *
remain quiet for many months, and even years, with¬
out the leaft appearance of fire ; b^t Sromboli is ever
at work, and for ages part has been looked upon as
the great lighthoufe of thefe feas. E. Long. 15. 45.
N. Lat. 30. o.
STROMBUS, a genus of Ihell-filh. See Concho-
LOGY Index.
STRONGOLI, a town of the kingdom of Naples,
with a bifhop’s fee. It is fituated on a rugged moun¬
tain, is about three miles from the fea, and feven north
from St Severino. It is fuppofed to be the ancient Pe-
telia, which made a eonfpicuous figure in the fecond
Punic war by its obftinate refiftance againft Hannibal.
Near its walls Marcellus the rival of Hannibal was flain
in a Ikirmrlh. E. Long. 17. 26. N. Lat. 39. 20.
STRONTITES, or Strontian Earth, fo called
from having been difeovered at Strontian in Argyle-
flnre in Scotland. See Chemistry Index.
STROPHE, in ancient poetry, a certain number of
verfes, including a perfedl fenfe, and making the firft
part of an ode. See Poetry, N° 130.
STRUMiE, fcrophulous tumours arifing on the neck
and throat, conftituting what is commonly called the
king's evil. See Medicine Index.
STRUMPFIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs fyngenefia. See Botany Index.
STRUTHIO, a genus of birds, belonging to the or¬
der of grallae. See ORNITHOLOGY Index.
STRUTHIOLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of tetrandiia. See Botany Index.
STRYCHNOS, a genus of plants belonging to the
clafs pentandria, and in the natural fyftem ranging un¬
der the 28th order, Luridce. See Botany Index.
STRYMON, in Ancient Geography, formerly Cotio-
%,us ; a river contlituting the ancient limits of Macedo¬
nia and Thrace ; rifing in Mount Scombrus (Ariftotlo).
Authors differ as to the modern name of this river.
STRYPE, John, was defeended from a German fa¬
mily, born at London, and educated at Cambridge. Pie
was vicar of Loiv Layton in Effex, and diftinguirtied
himfeif by his compilations of Lives and Memoirs ; in
which, as Dr Birch remarks, his fidelity and induftry
will always give a value to his writings, however defti-
5 G tut©
& T U [ 78<5 l S T U
Strypc, tute they may be of the graces of ftyle. He died in
Stuart- jyyj, after having enjoyed his vicarage near 68 years.
STUART, Dr Gilbert, was born at Edinburgh
in the year 1742. His father Mr George Stuart was
profeiTor of humanity in the univerfity, and a man of
confiderable eminence for his claffical tafte and litera¬
ture. For thefe aecompliihments he was probably in¬
debted in no fmall degree to his relation the celebrated
Ruddiman, with whom both he and his fon converfed
familiarly, though they afterwards united to injure his
fame.
Gilbert having finiflied his claflical and philofophical
Rudies in the grammar-fchool and univerfity, applied
himfelf to jurifprudence, without following, or probably
intending to follow, the profeffion of the law. For that
profeflion he has been reprefented as unqualified by in¬
dolence; by a paffion which at a very early period of
life he difplayed for general literature; or by boundlefs
diflipation:—and all thefe circumftances may have con¬
tributed to make him relinquifli purfuits in which he
could hope to fucceed only by patient perfeverance and
ftridt decorum of manners. That he did not wafte his
youth in idlenefs, is, however, evident from an Hiftori-
cal DiiTertation concerning the Antiquity of the Britifh
Conftitution, which he publilhed before he had com¬
pleted his twenty-fecond year, and which had fo much
merit as to induce the univerfity of Edinburgh to confer
upon the author, though fo young a man, the degree of
LL.D.
After a fludious interval of fome years, he produced
a valuable work, under the title of A View of Society
in Europe, in its Progrefsfrom Rudenefs to Refinement;
or, Inquiries concerning the Hiftory of Laws, Govern¬
ment, and Manners. He had read and meditated with
patience on the moft important monuments of the mid¬
dle ages; and in this volume (which fpeedily reached a
fecond edition) he aimed chiefly at the praife of origina¬
lity and invention, and difeovered an induftry that is fel-
dom connected with ability and difeernment. About
the time of the publication of the firft edition of this
performance, having turned his thoughts to an acade¬
mical life, he alked for the profefforfhip of public law
in the univerfity of Edinburgh. According to his own
account he had been promifed that place by the mini-
fter, but had the mortification to fee the profellbrfhip
beftowed on another, and all his hopes Mailed by the in¬
fluence of Dr Robertfon, whom he reprefented as under
obligations to him.
To the writer of this article, who was a ftranger to
thefe rival candidates for hiftorical fame, fhis part of
the ftory feems very incredible; as it is not eafy to
conceive how it ever could be in the power of Dr
Stuart to render to the learned Principal any effen-
tial fervice. It was believed indeed by many, who ob-
ferved that the illiberal jealoufy not unfrequent in
the world of letters, was probably the fource of this
uppofition; which entirely broke the intimacy of two
perfons Avho, before that time, were underftood to
be on the moft friendly footing with each other. In¬
gratitude,, however, is as likely to have been the vice of
Dr Stuart as of Dr Robertfon; for we have been told
^ Chalmen by a writer*, who, at leaft in one inftance, has com-
■in his life pletely proved what he affirms, that “ fuch was Gilbert
%.an.ddl~ Stuarljs laxity of principle as a man, that he confidered
ingratitude as one of the moft venial fins; fuch was his
conceit as a writer, that he regarded no one’s merits but Stuart;
his own; filch were his difappointments, both as a writer Stucco,
and a man, that he allowed his peeviffinefs to four into
malice, and indulged his malevolence till it fettled in
corruption.”
Soon after this difappointment, Dr Stuart went to
London, where he became from 1768 to 1774 one of
the writers of the Monthly Review. In 1772 Dr Adam,
redlor of the high-fehool at Edinburgh, publiffied a La¬
tin Grammar, which he intended as an improvement of
the famous Ruddiman’s. Stuart attacked him in a pam¬
phlet under the name of Bujhby, and treated him with
much feverity. In doing this, he was probably aftuated
more by fome perfonal diflike of Dr Adam than by re¬
gard for tire memory of his learned relation; for on
other occafions he fhowed fufficiently that he had no re¬
gard to Ruddiman’s honour as a grammarian, editor, or
critic.
In 1774 he returned to his native city, and began the
Edinburgh Magazine and Review, in which he difcufled
the liberty and conftitution of England, and diftinguilh-
ed himfelf by an inquiry into the character of John Knox:
the reformer, whofe principles he reprobated in the
fevereft terms. About this time he revifed and publiffi¬
ed Sullivan’s Lectures on the Conftitution of England.
Soon after he turned his thoughts to the hiftory of Scot¬
land, and publilhed Obfervations concerning its Public
Law and Conftitutional Hiftory; in which he examined
with a critical care the preliminary book to Dr Robert-
fon’s Hiftory. His next work was The Hiftory of the
Reformation; a book which deferves praife for the eafy
dignity of the narrative, and for ftrhft impartiality. His-
laft great work, The Hiftory of Scotland from the Efta-
blilhment of the Reformation to the Death cf Queen
Mary, which appeared in 1782, has been very gene-
ally read and admired. His purpofe was to vindicate
the charadler of the injured queen, andexpofethe weak-
nefs of the arguments by which Dr Robertfon had en¬
deavoured to prove her guilty; but though the ftyle of
this work is his own, it contains very little matter which
was not furniffied by Goodall and Tytler; and it is with,
the arms which thefe two writers put into his hands that
Dr Stuart attacked his great antagonift.
In 1782 he once more vifited London, and engaged
in the Political Herald and Engliffi Review; but the
jaundice and dropfy increafing on him, he returned by
fea to his native country, where he died in the houfe of
his father on the 13th of Auguft 1786.
In his perfon Dr Stuart was about the middle fize and
juftly proportioned. His counte.nance was model! and
expreffive, fometimes glowing with fentiments of friend-
ffiip, of which he was truly fufceptible, and at others,
darting that fatire atid indignation at folly and vice which-
appear in fome of his writings. He was a boon com¬
panion ; and, with a conftitution that might have flood
the ffiock of ages, he fell a premature martyr to intem¬
perance. His talents were certainly great, and his wri¬
tings are ufeful; but he feems to have been influenced
more by paffion than prejudice, and in his charaffer
there was not much to be imitated.
STUCCO, in building, a compofition of white mar¬
ble pulverifed, and mixed with plafter of lime; and thfe
whole being lifted and wrought up with water, is to be
ufed like common plafter: this is called by Pliny war-
moratum opus, and albarium opus..
S T u
Stucco. ^ A patent was granted to Mr B. Higgins for invent-
* ing a new kind of ftucco, or water cement, more firm
and durable than any heretofore. Its compolition, as
extra&ed from the fpecification figned by himfelf, is
as follows : “ Drift-fand, or quarry (a) fand, which
confifts chiefly of hard quartzofe fiat-faced grains with
fharp angles j vvhich is the freed;, or may be mod; eafily
freed by walking, from clay, falts, and calcareous, gyp-
feous, or other grains lefs hard and durable than quartz ;
which contains the fmalleft quantity of pyrites or heavy
metallic matter infeparable by wafiiing; and which buf¬
fers the fmalled diminution of its bulk in wadiing in the
following manner—is to be preferred before any other.
And where a coarfe and a fine fand of this kind, and
correfponding in the fize of their grains with the coarfe
and fine fands hereaftet defcribed, cannot be eafily
procured, let fuch fand of tke foregoing quality be cho-
fen as may be forted and cleanfed in the following man¬
ner :
“ Let the fand be lifted in dreaming clear water,
through a fieve which lhall give paffage to all fuch
grains as do not exceed one-fixteenth of an inch in dia¬
meter •, and let tke dream of water and the fifting be re¬
gulated fo that all the fand, which is much finer than
the Lynn-fand commonly ufed in the London glafs-
koufes, together with clay and every other matter Ipeci-
fically lighter than fand, may be walked away with the
ftream, whild the purer and coarfer fand, which paffes
through the fieve, fubfides in a convenient receptacle,
and whild the coarfe rubbilk and rubble remain on the
deve to be rejected.
“ Let the fand which thus fubfides in the receptacle
be wafiied in clean dreaming wrater through a finer
fieve, fo as to be further cleanfed and forted into two
t 787 3
S T U
parcels ; a coarfer, which will remain in the fieve which
is to give paffage to fuch grains of fand crrdy as are lefs
than one-thirtieth of an inch in diameter, and which is
to be faved apart under the name of coarfe fand; and a
finer, which will pafs through the lieve and fubfide
in the water, and which is to be faved apart under the
name offne fand.—‘Let the coarfe and the fine fand be
dried feparately, either in the fun or on a clean iron-
plate, fet on a convenient furface, in the manner of a
fand-heat (b).
“ Let lime be chofen (c) which is done-lime, which
heats the mod in flaking, and flakes the quickefl when
duly watered *, which is the frelhefl made and clofed
kept j which diffolves in diddled vinegar with the lead
effcrvefcence, and leaves the fmalled refidue infoluble,
and in this refidue the fmalled quantity of clay, gypfum'j
or martial matter.
u Let the lime chofen according to thefe important
rules be put in a brafs-wired fieve to the quantity of 14
pounds. Let the fieve be finer than either of the fore¬
going j the finer, the better it will be : let the lime be
daked (d) by plunging it in a butt filled with foft wa¬
ter, and railing it out quickly and fufifering it to heat
and fume, and by repeating this plunging and raifing
alternately, and agitating the lime, until it be made to
'pafs through the fieve into the water ; and let the part
of the lime which does not eafily pafs through the fieve
be rejected : and let fredi portions of the lime be thus
ufed, until as many (e) ounces of lime have paffed
through the fieve as there are quarts of water in the
butt. Let the water thus impregnated dartd in the butt
clofely covered (f) until it becomes clear; and through
wooden (g) cocks placed at different heights in the
butt, let the clear liquor be drawn off as fad (h) and
5 G 2 as
StuCto.
(a) “ This is commonly called pit-fajid.
(b) “ The fand ought to be dirred up continually until it is dried, mid is then to be taken off; for otherwife
the evaporation will be Very dow, and the fand which lies next the iron-plate, by being overheated, will be dif-
coloured.
(c) “ The preference given to ftone-lime is founded on the prefent pra&ice hi the burning of lime, and on the
clofer texture of it, which prevents it from being fo foon injured by expofure to the air as the more fpongy chalk-
lime is } not on the popular notion that done-lime lias fomething in it whereby it excels the bed chalk in the ce¬
menting properties. The gypfum contained in lime-done remains unaltered, or very little altered, in the lime,
'after the burning j but it is not to be expefled that clay or martial matter diould be found in their native date in
well-burned lime \ for they concrete or vitrify with a part of the calcareous earth, and conditute the hard grains
or lumps wkich remain undiffolved in weak acids, or are feparable from the daked lime by fifting it immediately
through a fieve.
(d) “ This method of impregnating the water with lime is not the only one which may be adopted. It is, how¬
ever, preferred before others, becaufe the water clears the fooner in confequence of its being warmed by the flaking
lime ; and the gypfeous part of the lime does not diffufe itfelf in the w'ater fo freely in this way as it does when the
lime is flaked to fine powder in the common method, and is then blended with the water j for the gypfeous part of
the lime flakes at fird into grains rather than into fine powder, and will remain on the fieve after the pure lime has
paffed through, long enough to admit of the intended feparation •, but when the lime is otherwife flaked, the gyp¬
feous grains have time to flake to a finer powder, and paffmg through the fieve, diffolve in the water along with
the lime. I have imagined that other advantages attended this method of preparing the lime-water, but I cannot
yet fpeak of them with precifion.
(e) “ If the water contains no more acidulous gas than is ufually found in river or rain water, a fdurlh part oa
this quantity of lime, or lefs, will be fufncient.
(f) “ The calcareous crud which forms on the dirface of the water ought not to be broken, for it affids in ex-
-cluding the air, and preventing the abforption of acidulous gas whereby the lime-water is fpoiled.
(g) “ Brafs cocks are apt to colour a part of the liquor. ...
(h) “ Lime-water cannot be kept many days unimpaired, in any veffels that are not perfeaiy air-tight. If
The liquor be drawn od" before it clears, it will contain whiting, which is injurious j and if it be not indantly
11 fed
Stucco.
S T U [ 788 ] S T U
as low as the lime fubfides, for ufe. This clear liquor
I call the cementing liquor (1). The freer the water is
from faline matter, the better will be the cementing li¬
quor made with it.
“ Let 56 pounds of the aforefaid ehofen lime be fla¬
ked, by gradually fprinkling on it, and efpecially on
the unflaked pieces, the cementing liquor, in a clofe
(K) clean place. Let the flaked part be immediately
(t.) fifted through the laft-mentioned fine brafs-wired
fieve: Let the lime which pafles be ufed inftantly, or
kept in air-tight veflels, and let the part of the lime
which does not pafs through the fieve be rejefted (m).—
This finer richer part of the lime which pafles through
the fieve I call purified lime.
u Let bone-afli be prepared in the ufual manner, by
grinding the whiteft burnt bones, but let it be fifted, to
be much finer than the bone-afli commonly fold for ma¬
king cupels.
“ The moft eligible materials for making my cement
being thus prepared, take 56 pounds of the coarfe fand
and 42 pounds of the fine fandj mix them on a. large
plank of hard wood placed horizontally ; then fpread
the fand fo that it may ftand to the height of fix inches,
with a flat furface on the plank j wet it with the ce¬
menting liquor; and let any fuperfluous quantity of the
liquor, which the fand in the condition deferibed cannot
retain, flow away off the plank. To the wetteft fand
add 14 pounds of the putrefied lime in feveral fuceeflive
portions, mixing and beating them up together in the
mean time with the inftruments generally ufed in mak¬
ing fine mortar: then add 14 pounds of the bone-afh in
fucceflive portions, mixing and beating all together.
The quicker and the more perfe£tly thefe materials are
mixed and beaten together, and the fooner the cement
thus formed is ufed, the better (n) it will be. This I
wall the water-cement coarfe-grained, which is to be ap¬
plied in building, pointing, plaflering, ftuccoing, or
other \tork, as mortar and ftucco now are; with this*"
difference chiefly, that as this cement is fhorter than
mortar or common ftucco, and dries fooner, it ought to
be worked expeditioufly in all calcs; and in ftuccoing,
it ought to be laid on by Aiding the trowel upwards on
it; that the materials ufed along with this cement in
building, or the ground on which it is to be laid in ftue-
coing, ought to be well wetted with the cementing li-
quor in the inftant of laying on the cement; and that
the cementing liquor is to be ufed when it is neceffary
to moiften the cement, or when a liquid.is required to
facilitate the floating of the cement.
“ When fuch cement is required to be of a finer tex¬
ture, take 98 pounds of the fine fand, wet it with the
cementing liquor, and mix it with the purified lime and
the bone-alh in the quantities and in the manner above
deferibed; with this dift'erence only, that 15 pounds of
lime, or (o) thereabouts, are to be ufed inftead of 14
pounds, if the greater part of the fand be as fine as
Lynn-fand. This I call water-cement fine-grained. It
is to be ufed in giving the laft coating, or the finiih to
any work intended to imitate the finer grained ftonesor
ftucco. But it may be applied to all the ufes of the
water-cement coarfe-grained, and in the fame man¬
Stucte.
ner.
“ When for any of the foregoing purpofes of point¬
ing, building, &e. fuch a cement is required much
cheaper and coarfer grained, then much coarfer clean
fand than the foregoing coarfe fand, or well-waftied fine
rubble, is to be provided. Of this coarfe fand or rubble
take 56 pounds, of the foregoing coarfe fand 28 pounds,
and of the fine fand 14 pounds; and after mixing thefe,
and wetting them with the cementing liquor in the fore¬
going manner, add 14 pounds, or feme what lefs, of
the (?) purified lime, and then 14 pounds or fomewhat
^ufed after it is drawn limpid from the butt into open veffels, it will grow turbid again, and depofit the lime
changed to whiting by the gas abforbed from the air. The calcareous matter which fubfides in the butt refembles
whiting the more nearly as the lime has been more fparingly employed; in the contrary circumftances, it ap¬
proaches to the nature of lime; and in the intermediate ftate, it is fit for the common compofition of the plafterers
for infide ftucco.
(1) “ At the time of writing this fpecification, I preferred this term before that of lime-water, on grounds which
I had not fufficiently examined.
(k) “The vapour which arifes in the flaking of lime contributes greatly to the flaking of thefe pieces which lie
in its way; and an unneceffary wTafte of tire liquor is prevented, by applying it to the lime heaped in a pit or in a
veflel, which may reftrain the iffue of the vapour, and direft it through the mafs. If more of the liquor be ufed
than is neceffary to flake the lime, it will create error in weighing the flaked powder, and will prevent a part of it
from pafling freely through the fieve. The liquid is therefore to be ufed fparingly, and the lime which hasefcaped
Us a&ion is to be fprinkled apart with frefli liquor.
(l) “ When the aggregation of the lumps of lime is thus broken, it is impaired much fooner than it is in the
former ftate, beeaufe the air more freely pervades it.
(m) “ Becaufe it confifts of heterogeneous matter or of ill-burnt lime; which laft will fliake and pafs through the
fieve, if the lime be not immediately fifted after the flaking, agreeable to the text.
(n) “ Thefe proportions are intended for a cement made with (harp fand, for incruftation in expofed fituations,
where it is neceffary to guard againft the effects of hot weather and rain. In general, half this quantity of bone-
afhes will be found fufficient; and although the incruftation in this latter cafe will not harden deeply fo foon, it
will be ultimately ftronger, provided the weather be favourable.
“ 1 he injuries which lime and mortar fuftain by expofure to the air, before the cement is finally placed in a qui-
efeent ftate, are great; and therefore our cement is the worfe for being long beaten, but the better as it is quickly
beaten until the mixture is effefted, and no longer.
(o) “ The quantity of bone-afhes is not to be increafed with that of the lime; but it is to be leffened as iM*
expofure and purpofes of the work will admit.
(p) “ Becaufe lefs lime is neceffary, as the land is coarfer.
S T u
Stucco. lefs of the bone-afh, mixing them together in the man-
•— V “ ‘ ner already defcribed. When my cement is required to
be white, white fand, white lime, and the whiteft bone-
alh are to be chofen. Gray fand, and gray bone-alh
formed of half-burnt bones, are to be chofen to make
the cement gray ; and any other colour of the cement
is obtained, either by choofing coloured fand, or by the
admixture of the neceffary quantity of coloured talc in
powder, or of coloured, vitreous, or metallic powders,
er other durable colouring ingredients commonly ufed
in paint.
“ To the end that fuch a water-cement as I have
defcribed may be made as ufeful as it is poffible in all
circumftances; and that no perfon may imagine that
my claim and right under thefe letters patent may be
eluded by divers variations, which may be made in the
foregoing procefs without producing any notable defeat
in the cement •, and to the end that the principles of
this art, as well as the art itfelf, of making my cement,
may be gathered from this fpecification and perpetuated
to the public; I (hall add the follow ing obfervations :
“ This my water-cement, whether!the coarfe or fine¬
grained, is applicable in forming artificial Hone, by ma¬
king alternate layers of the cement and of flint, hard
ftone, or brick, in moulds of the figure of the intended
Hone, and by expofing the mafles fo formed to the open
air to harden.
“ When fuch cement is required for water (r) fences,
two-thirds of the prefcribed quantity of bone-athes are
to be omitted ; and in the place thereof an equal mea-
fure of powdered terras is to be ufed ; and if the fand
employed be not of the coarfeft fort, more terras mull;
be added, fo that the terras fhall be by weight one-fixth
part of the weight of the fand.
“ When fuch a cement is required of the fineft grain
(s) or in a fluid form, fo that it may be applied with a
brufli, flint powder, or the powder of any quartofe 01
[ 789 1
S T U
hard earthy fubftance, may be ufed in the place of
fand but in a quantity fmaller, as the flint or other
powder is finer j fo that the flint-powder, or other fuch
powder, (hall not be more than fix times the weight of
the lime, nor lefs than four times its weight. The
greater the quantity of lime within thefe limits, the
more will the cement be liable to crack by quick drying,
and vice verfa.
“ Where fuch fand as I prefer cannot be convenient¬
ly procured, or where the fand cannot be conveniently
waflred and forted, that fand which mofl: refernbles the
mixture of coarfe and fine fand above prefcribtd, may
be ufed as I have direfted, provided due attention ife
paid to the quantity of the lime, which is to be greater
(t) as the quantity is finer, and vice verfa.
“ Where fand cannot be eafily procured, any durable
ftony body, or baked earth grofsly powdered (u), and
forted nearly to the fizes above prefcribed for fand, may
be ufed in the place of fand, meafure for meafure, but
not weight for weight, unlefs fuch grofs powder be as
heavy fpecifically as fand.
“ Sand may be cleanfed from every fofter, lighter,
and lefs durable matter, and from that part of the fand
which is too fine, by various methods preferable (x),
in certain circumftances, to that which I have de¬
fcribed.
“ Water may be found naturally free from fixable gas,
felenite, or clay *, fuch water may, without any notable
inconvenience, be ufed in the place of the cementing
liquor j and water approaching this ftate will not require
fo much lime as I have ordered to make the cementing
liquor ; and a cementing liquor fufficiently ufeful may
be made by various methods of mixing lime and water
in the defcribed proportions, or nearly fo.
“ When ftone-lime cannot be procured, chalk-lime,
or ftiell-lime, which beft refembles ftone-lime, in the
characters above written of lime, may be ufed in the
manner
Stuceo.
(q^) “ But they muft not be expofed to the rain until they are almoft as ftrong as frefti Portland ftone *, and
even then they ought to be fheltered from it as much as the circumftances will admit. Thefe Hones may be mad$
very hard and beautiful, with a fmall expence of bone-afh, by foaking them, after they have dried thoroughly and
hardened, in the lime liquor, and repeating this procefs twice or thrice, at diftant intervals of time. The like
effeft was experienced in incruftations.
(r) “ In my experiments, mortar made with terras-powder, in the ufual method, does not appear to form fo
ftrong a cement for water-fences as that made, according to the fpecification, with coarfe fand •, and I fee no more
xeafon for avoiding the ufe of fand in terras-mortar, than there would be for rejeCling ftone from the embankment.
The bone-afhes meant in this place are the dark gray or black fort. I am not yet fully fatisfied about the opera¬
tion of them in this inftance.
(s) “ The qualities and ufes of fuch fine calcareous cement are recommended chiefly for the purpofe of fmooth-
ing and finiihin[r the ftronger cruftaceous works, or for wafhing walls to a lively and uniform colour, for this
laft intention, the mixture muft be as thin as new cream, and laid on brifkly with a brufli, in dry weather •, gnd a
thick and durable coat is to be made by repeated wafhing ; but is not to be attempted by ufing a thicker liquor;
for the coat made with this laft is apt to leak, whilft the former endures the weather much longer than any other
thin calcareous covering that has been applied in this. vvay. Fine yellow-ochre is the cheapeft colouring ingredient,
for fuch waft), when it is required to imitate Bath-ftone, or the warm-white Hones.
(x) “ If fea-fand be well wafhed in frefti water, it is as good as any other round fand.
(u) “ The cement made with thefe and the proper quantities of purified lime and lime-water, are inferior to the
beft, as the grains of thefe powders are more perithaole and brittle than thole of fand. I hey will not therefore be
employed, unlefs for the fake of evafion, or for want of fand : in this latter cafe, the finer powder ought to be
wafhed away. . . ,
(x) “ This and the next paragraph is inferted with a view to evafions, as well as to luggeft the eafier and
cheaper methods which may be adopted in certain circumftances, by artifts who underftand the principles-which
I endeavoured to teach.
■%
S T U [ 700 ] S T U
Stucco manner defcribed, except that fourteen pounds and a
half of chalk-lime will be required in the place of four-
’tu ^ •v' teen pounds of ftone-lime. The proportion of lime which
I have prefcribed above may be increafed without incon¬
venience, when the cement or ftueco is to be applied
where it is not liable to dry quickly 5 and in the con¬
trary circumltance, this proportion may be diminidied j
and the defedt of lime in quantity or quality may be
very advantageoufly fupplied (y), by caufing a confi-
derable quantity of the cementing liquor to foak into
the work, in fucceffive portions, and at diftant intervals
of time, fo that the calcareous matter of the cementing
liquor, and the matter attrafted from the open air, may
fill and ftrengthen the work.
“ The powder of almoft every well-dried or burnt ani¬
mal fubllance may be ufed inftead of bone-afli; and feve-
ral earthy powders, efpecially the micaceous and the me¬
tallic ; and the elixated alhes of divers vegetables whofe
earth will not burn to lime j and the afhes of mineral
fuel, which are of the calcareous kind, but will not
burn to lime, will anfwer the ends of bone-alh in fome
degree.
“ The quantity of bone-alh defcribed may be leflened
without injuring the cement, in thofe circumftances efpe¬
cially which admit the quantity of lime to be leflened,
and in thofe wherein the cement is not liable to dry
quickly. And the art of remedying the defefts of lime
may be advantageoufly prailifed to fupply the deficiency
of bone afh, efpecially in building, and in making arti¬
ficial flone with this cement.”
STUD, in the manege, a colle&ion of breeding horfes
and mares.
STUDDING-sails, certain light fails extended, in
moderate and fteady breezes, beyond'the fkirts of the
principal fails, where they appear as wings upon the
yard-arms.
STUFF, in commerce, a general name for all kinds
of fabrics of gold, filver, filk, wool, hair, cotton, or
thread, manufactured on the loom •, of which number
are velvets, brocades, mohairs, fatins, taffetas, cloths,
ferges, &c.
STUKELY, Dr William, a celebrated antiqua¬
rian, defeended from an ancient family in Lincolnfliire,
• was born at Holbech in 1687, and educated in Bennet
college, Cambridge. While an under graduate, he often
indulged a ftrong propenfity to drawing and defigning j
but made phyfic his principal fiudy, and firlt began to
pra&ife at Bofton in his native country. In 1717 he
removed to London, where, on the recommendation of
Dr Mead, he was foon after eleCted a fellow of the
Royal Society 5 he was one of the firft tvho revived that
of the antiquarians in 1718, and was their fecretary for
many years during his refidence in town. In 1729 he took
holy orders by the encouragement of Archbifhop Wake j
and was foon after prefented by Lord-chancellor King
with the living of All-Saints in Stamford. In 1741 he
became one of the founders of the Egyptian fociety,
which brought him acquainted with the benevolent duke
of Montague, -one of the members ; who prevailed on
him to leave Stamford, and prefented him to the living
of St George the Martyr, Queen Square. He died of a Stukely
ftroke of the palfy in 1765. In his medical capacity, II.
his Diflertation on the Spleen was well received j and his Sturm*U5
Itinerarium Curiofum, the firft fruit of his juvenile ex-
curfions, was a good fpocimen of what was to be ex-
peCled from his riper age. His great learning, and pro¬
found refearches into the dark remains of antiquity, ena¬
bled him to publifli many elaborate and curious works :
his friends ufed to call him the arch-druid of his age.
His difeourfes, Palceographia Sacra, on the vege¬
table creation, befpeak him a botanift, philofopher, and
divine.
STUM, in the wine-trade, denotes the unfermented
juice of the grape after it has been feveral times racked
off and feparated from its fediment. The calks are for
this purpofe well matched or fumigated with brimftone
every time, to prevent the liquor from fermenting, as it
would otherwife readily do, and become wine. See
Must.
STUPIDITY. The Greek word fcu^orvn corre-
fponds molt with our Englilh word Jlupidity or foolijh*
iwfs, when ufed to exprefs that ftate of mind in which
the intellects are defective. The immediate caufes are
faid to be, a deficiency of vital heat, or a defeCt in the
brain. Stupid children fometimes become fprightly
youths 5 but if ftupidity continues to the age of puber¬
ty, it is hardly ever removed. If ftupidity follows up¬
on a violent paflion, an injury done to the head, or other
evident caufe, and if it continues long, it becomes in¬
curable. But the ftupidity which confifts in a lofs of
memory, and fucceeds a lethargy, fpontaneoully ceafes
when the lethargy is cured.
STUPOR, a numbnefs in any part of the body, whe¬
ther occafioned by ligatures obftruCHng the blood’s mo¬
tion, by the palfy, or the like.
STUPPA, or Stupe, in Medicine, is a piece of cloth
dipped in fome proper liquor, and applied to an affeCled
part.
STURDY, a diftemper to which cattle are fubjeCl,
called alfo the turning evil. See Farriery Index.
STURGEON. See Accipenser, Ichthyology
Index.
STURMIUS, John, a learned philologer and rhe¬
torician, was born at Sleida in Eifel near Cologne in
1507. He ftudied at firft in his native country with the
fons of Count de Manderfcheid, whofe receiver his fa¬
ther was. He afterwards purfued his ftudy at Liege in
the college of St Jerome, and then went to Louvain in
13 24. Five years he fpent there, three in learning and
two in teaching. He fet up a printing-prefs with Rudger
Refcius profeffor of the Greek tongue, and printed feve¬
ral Greek authors. He went to Paris in 1529, where
he was highly efteemed, and read public leftures on the
Greek and Latin writers, and on logic. He married
there, and kept a great number of boarders : but as he
liked what were called the new opinions, he was more
than once in danger •, and this undoubtedly was the rea-
fon why he removed to Strafburg in 1537’ order to
take poflfeflion of the place offered him by the magi-
ftrates. The year following he opened a fchool, which
became
(y) “ This pra&ice is noticed, as the remedy which may be ufed for the defers arifing from evafive meafures,
»ad at the method of giving fpongy incruftations containing bone-allies the greateft degree of hardnefs.”.
3
STY [ 79
became famous, and by his means obtained of Maximi¬
lian II. the title of an univerfity in 1566. He was very
well fldlled in polite literature, wrote Latin with great
purity, and was a good teacher. His talents were not con¬
fined to the fchool; for he was frequently intrufted with
deputations in Germany and foreign countries, and dif-
charged thefe employments with great honour and dili¬
gence. He thowed extreme charity to the refugees on
account of religion : He not only laboured to affift them
by his advice and recommendations ; but he even im-
poverifhed himfelf for them. He died in his 8 2d year,
after he had been for fome time blind. He publiftied
Jnany books ; the principal of which are, 1. Partitiones
Dialcclicce. 2. De Educatione Principum. 3. De No-
bi/itate Anglicana. 4. Lingua Latina refolvenda Ratio.
5. Excellent Notes on Ariftotle’s and Hermogenes’s
Rhetoric, &c.
He ought not to be confounded with John Stannins,
a native of Mechlin, and phyfician and profelfor of ma¬
thematics at Louvain, who alfo wrote feveral works.
STURNQS, the Starling 5 a genus of birds be¬
longing to the order of pafleres. See Ornithology
Index.
STYE, or Stythe, in the eye. See Crithe.
STYLE, a word of various fignifications, originally
deduced Ixoxnjlylos, a kind of bodkin wherewith the
ancients wrote on plates of lead, or on wax, &c. and
which is ftill ufed to write on ivory-leaves and paper
prepared for that purpofe, &c.
Style, in dialling, denotes the gnomon or cock of a
dial raifed on the plane thereof to project a Ihadow.
Style, in Botany. See Botany.
Style, in language, is the peculiar manner in which
a man expreffes his conceptions. It is a pifture of the
ideas which rife in his mind, and of the order in which
they are there produced.
The qualities of a good ftyle may be ranked under
two heads ; perfpicuity and ornament. It will readily
be admitted, that perfpicuity ought to be eflentially
connefted with every kind of writing •, and to attain it,
attention muft be paid, firft to fingle words and phrafes,
and then to the conftrudlion of fentences. When con-
fidered with refpedl to words and phrafes, it requires
thefe three qualities ; purity, propriety, and precifion.
When confidered with regard to fentences, it requires a
clear arrangement of the words and unity in the fenfe j
to which, if ftrength and harmony be added, the fiyle
will become ornamented.
One of the moft important dire&ions to be obferved
by him who wifiies to form a good ftyle, is to acquire
clear and precife ideas on the fubjefl concerning which
he is to write or fpeak. To this muft be added fre¬
quency of compofitionj and an acquaintance with the
ftyle of the bed authors. A fervile imitation, however,
of any author is carefully to be avoided ; for he who
copies, can hardly avoid copying faults as well as beau¬
ties. A ftyle cannot be proper unlefs it be adapted to
the fubjeft, and likewife to the capacity of our hearers,
if we are to fpeak in public. A fimple, clear, and una¬
dorned ftyle, fuch as that of Swift, is fitteft for intricate
difquilition ; a ftyle elegant as Addifon’s, or impetuous
like Johnfon’s, is moft proper for fixing the attention on
truths, which, though known, are too much negledted.
VVe muft not be inattentive to the ornaments of ftyle, if
we wilh that our labours fhould be read and admired
1 ] STY
but he is a contemptible writer, who looks not beyond
the drefs of language, who lays not the chief ftrefs upon
his matter, and who does not regard ornament as a fe-
condary and inferior recommendation. For further ob-
fervations on the different kinds of ftyle, fee Oratory,
N099, &c.
Style, in Jurifprudence, the particular form or man¬
ner of proceeding in each court of jurifdidtion, agreeable
to the rules and orders eftabliftied therein : thus we fay,
the ftyle of the court of Rome, of chancery, of parlia¬
ment, of the privy-council, &c.
Style, in Mafic, denotes a peculiar manner of fing-
ing, playing, or compofing; being properly the manner
that each perfon has of playing, tinging, or teaching ;
which is very different both in refpeft of different ge-
niufes, of countries, nations, and of the different matters,
places, times, fubje&s, paflions, expreflions, &c. Thus
we fay, the ftyle of Paleftrina, of Lully, of Corelli, of
Handel, &c. j the ftyle of the Italians, French, Spa¬
niards, &c.
Old StTLE, the Julian method of computing time, as
the
Neiu SlTLE is the Gregorian method of computation.
See Kalendar.
S IYLEPHORUS CHORDATtrs^a genus of fifties be¬
longing to the order of apodes. See Ichthyology In¬
dex, and Tranfa&ions of the Linnaean Society, vol. i.
SIYLEF, a fmall dangerous kind of poniard which,
may be concealed in the hand, chiefly ufed in treacher¬
ous affaftinations. JLhe blade is ufually triangular, and
fo fmall that the wound it makes is almoft impercep¬
tible.
STYLITES, Pillar Saints, in ecclefiaftical hr-
ftory, an appellation given to a kind of folitaries, who
flood motionlefs upon the tops of pillars, raifed for this
exercife of their patience, and remained there for feveral
years, amidft the admiration and applaufe of the ftupiel-
populace. Of thefe we find feveral mentioned in an¬
cient writers, and even as low as the twelfth century,
when they were totally fuppreffed.
The founder of the order was St Simeon Stylites, a-
famous anchoret in the fifth century, who firft took up
his abode on a column fix cubits high ; then on a fe-
cond of twelve cubits, a third of twenty-two, a fourth-
of thirty-fix, and on another of forty cubits, where he
thus paffed thirty-feven years of his life. The tops of
thefe columns were only three feet in diameter, and
were defended by a rail that reached almoft to the gir¬
dle, fome what refembling a pulpit. There was no ly¬
ing down in it.. The faquirs, or devout people of the
Eaft, imitate this extraordinary kind of life to this day
STYLOCERALOIDES, ‘
STYLO-Glossus,
St TLO-Hijoidceus,
STTLO-Pharyngceus,
STYLOIDES,
STYLOSANTHES, a genus of plants belonging
to the diade/phia clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 3 2d order, Papilionacea. See Botany
Index.
STYPTIC, in Pharmacy, a medicine which by its
aftringency flops htemorrhagies, &c. See Materia
Medic a Index.
STYRAX, the Storax-tree, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs decandria, and in the natural fyftem
ranging.
~| The names of differ-
I ent mufcles in the hu-
man body. See Table
j of the Mufcles under
J Anatomy.
Tranfac-
tiotis of the
Royal So¬
ciety of
Edinburgh,
val. ii.
Baron
Riefbeck's
Travels
through
Germany,
voi. 1.
S U A [79
ranging under the 18th order, Bicot'tics, See Botany
and Materia Medica Index.
STYX, in Fabulous HiJlonj, a celebrated river of
hell, round which it flows nine times. 1 he gods held-
the waters of the Styx in fuch veneration, that to fwear
by them was reckoned an oath altogether inviolable.
If any of the gods had perjured themfelves, Jupiter
obliged them to drink the waters of the Styx, which
lulled them for one whole year into a fenfelefs ftupidity,
for the nine following years they were deprived of the
ambrofia and the ne£tar of the gods, and after the
expiration of the years of their punifhment, they were
reftored to the affembly of the deities, and to all their
original privileges. It is faid that this veneration tvas
ihown to the Styx, becaufe it received its name from the
nymph Styx, who with her three daughters affifted
Jupiter in his war againft the Titans.
Styx was a river which it was neceflary for departed
fliades to pafs before they Could -enter the infernal re¬
gions ; and it was the office of Charon to ferry them
over in a boat which was kept for that purpofe. The
ghofts of thofe who had not been honoured with the
rites of fepulture were obliged to wander an hundred
years before Charon could admit them into his boat to
convey them before the judges of Hades. What could
have given rife to this fable of Charon and his boat, it
is not very material to inquire. Mythological writers
have faid, that the Greeks learned it from the Egyp¬
tians, which is indeed probable enough •, that the Egyp¬
tians framed both this, and fome other fables relating to
the dead, from certain cuftoms peculiar to their country 5
that in particular there was, not far from Memphis, a
famous burying-place, to which the dead bodies w^ere
conveyed in a boat acrofs the lake Acherufia j and that
Charon was a boatman who had long officiated in that
fervice. The learned Dr Blackwell fays, in his life of
Homer, that, in the old Egyptian language, Charoni
fignified “ ferryman.”
SUABIA, a circle of Germany, bounded on the
north by the circle of Franconia and that of the Lower
Rhine *, on the weft by the circle of the Lower Rhine
and Alface 5 on the fouth by Switzerland 5 and on the
eaft by the circle of Bavaria. Of all the circles of the
empire, Suabia is the moft divided $ it contains four ec-
cleliaftic and thirteen lay principalities, nineteen inde¬
pendent prelacies and abbeys, twenty-fix earldoms and
lordlhips, and thirty-one free cities. The prime direc¬
tors of the circle, as they are termed, were formerly the
bilhopof Conftanceandthedukeof Wirtemberg. But this
circle hasfuffered limilar changes with neighbouring ftates.
The mixture of the various forms of govornment and
religious fefts ; the oppreffion exercifed by the great on
the poor j the game conftantly played by the emperor,
who poffeffes many pieces of detached country in Suabia,
which depend not on the circle, and can, in confequence
of his privileges as archduke of Auftria, extend his pof-
feflions in it by various ways *, are circumftances (fays
Baron Riefbeck) which give the cultivation of the coun¬
try, and the charafler of the inhabitants, a moft extra¬
ordinary caft. In feveral of the poft towns where you
flop, you fee the higheft degree of cultivation in the
midft of the moft lavage wildnefs; a great degree of
knowledge and polifli of manners, mixed wdth the grof-
feft ignorance and fuperftition ; traces of liberty, under
the deepeft oppreffion $ national pride, together with
Subduple
Ratio.
2 ] SUB
the contempt and negleft of the native country j in Suabra
Ihort, all the focial qualities in ftriking contraft and op-
pofition to each other. Thofe parts of Suabia which
belong to the great potentates, fuch as Wlrtemberg, ^
Auftria, and Baden, are certainly the moft improved.
The whole of Suabia may comprehend about nine hun¬
dred German fquare miles, and two millions of people.
More than half of thefe are fubje61s of the three above-
mentioned princes, though they are not proprietors of
near one ’halt of the lands.
SUARES, Francis, a Jefuit, W'as born in Granada
in Spain, in January 1548. He was a profeffor of theo¬
logy at Alcala, Salamanca, Rome, and Coimbra in
Portugal. He died at Lilbon in 1617 with the great-
eft refignation j “ I never thought (faid he) that it was
fo eafy to die.” His memory was aftoniffiing, he could
repeat the whole of his voluminous works by heart*
His writings fill 23 folio volumes, and are moftly on
theological and moral fubjefts. His Treatife of Laws
has been reprinted in this country. His Defence of the
Catholic Faith againft the Errors of England was writ¬
ten at the requeft of Pope Paul V. This book was
publicly burnt at London by order of James I. When
Suares heard it, he is faid to have exclaimed, “ O that
I too could feal with my blood the truths which I have
defended with my pen!”
SUBAH, the general name of the viceroyfliips, or
greater governments, into which the Mogul empire was
divided, confifting of feveral provinces. The jurifdic-
tion of a fubahdar, the fame as fubahfhip, fubaedaree, or
nizamut.
SUBAHDAR, the viceroy, lord-lieutenant, or go¬
vernor, holding a fubah ; the fame as nabob or nazim.
Alfo the black commander of a company of feapoys.
SUBALTERN, a fubordinate officer, or one who
difcharges his poft under the command and iubjeft to
the diredfion of another $ fuch are lieutenants, fub-
lieutenants, cornets, and enfigns, who ferve under the
captain.
SUBCLAVIAN, in Anatomy, is applied to any
thing under the armpit or fhoulder, whether artery*
nerve, vein, or mufcle.
SUBDEACON, an inferior minifter, W’ho anciently
attended at the altar, prepared the facred veflels, deli¬
vered them to the deacons in time of divine fervice, at¬
tended the doors of the church during communion-fer-
vice, went on the biffiop’s embaffies with his letters or
mefiages to foreign churches, and was invefted with the
firft of the holy orders. They were fo fubordinate to
the fuperior rulers of the church, that, by a canon of
the council of Laodicea, they were forbidden to fit in
the prefence of a deacon without his leave. According
to the canons, a perfon muft be twenty-two years of
age to be promoted to the order of fubdeacon. See
Deacon.
SUBDOMINANT, in Mujic, a name given by M.
Rameau to the fourth note of the tone, which of confe¬
quence is^ the fame interval from the tonic when def-
cending as the dominant in rifing. This denomination
arifes from the affinity which this author finds by inver-
fion between the minor mode of the fubdominant and
the major mode of the tonic.
SUBDUPLE ratio, is when any number or quan¬
tity is contained in another twice. Thus 3 is faid to be
fubduple of 6, as 6 is duple of 3. See Ratio.
SUBDUPLICATE,
SUB C 793 ] SUB
5i**xk»pU- SUBDUPLICATE ratio of any two quantities,
Ci|[a is the ratio of their fquare roots.
'-Suborna- SUBEH, the fpecific name of the CoRK-TREE. See
tion. Q^UERCUS, BoTANY Index.
l- v SUBJECT, a perfon under the rule and dominion of
a fovereigrt prince or date.
Subject is alfo ufed for the matter of an art or fci-
ence, or that which it confiders, or whereon it is em¬
ployed : thus the human body is the lubject of medi¬
cine.
SUBINFEUDATION, was where theinferior lords,
in imitation of their fuperiors, began to carve out and
grant to others minuter eftates than their own, to be held
of themfelves 5 and were i’o proceeding downwards m
infinitum, till the fuperior lords obi’erved, that by this
method of fubinfeudation they loft all their feodal pro¬
fits, of wardihips, marriages, and efeheats, which fell
into the hands of thefe mefne or middle lords, who were
Mtaeijf the immediate fuperiors of the terre-tenant, or him who
Comment, occupied the land. This occafioned the ftat. ofWeftm.
"ml. 11. ^ or implores, 18 Edw. I. to be made-, which
directs, that, upon all lales or feoffments of lands, the
feoffee fhall hold the fame, not of his immediate feoffer,
but of the chief lord of the fee of whom fueh feofter
hirrifelf held it. And from hence it is held, that all
manors exifting at this day muft have e.xifted by imme¬
morial prefeription ; or at leaft ever fince the 18 Edw. I.
when the ilatute of quia emptores was made.
SUBITO, in the Italian mufic, is ufed to fignify that
-a thing is to be performed quickly and haftily : thus we
sneet with volti fuhito, turn over the leaf quickly.
SUBJUNCTIVE, \w Grammar. See Grammar.
SUBLIMATE, a chemical preparation, confining
«f quickfilver united with muriatic acid. See Mer¬
cury, Chemistry Index.
SUBLIMATION, in Chemiftnj, the condenfingand
collecting, in a folid form, by means of veffels aptly con-
ftrncted, the fumes of bodies raifed from them by the
application of a proper heat.
SUBLIME, or Sublimity. See the article Gran¬
deur and Sublimity.
SUBLINGUAL artery. See Anatomy.
SUBLINGUAL Glands, in Anatomy, two glands under
th e tongue, placed one on each fide thereof.
SUBMULTIPLE, in Geometry, &c. A fubmul-
tiple number, or quantity, is that which is contained a
•ertain number of times in another, and which, there¬
fore, repeated a certain number of times, becomes ex-
«£tiy equal thereto. Thus 3 is a fubmultiple of 21.
In which lenfe a fubmultiple coincides with an aliquot
part.
SUB MULTIPLE Ratio, is that between the quantity
#ontained and the quantity containing. Thus the ratio
of 3 to 21 is fubmultiple. In both cafes fubmultiple is
the reverfe of multiple : 21, e. gr. being a multiple of
3, and the ratio of 21 to 3 a multiple rati».
SUBORDINARIES. See Heraldry, Chap. III.
Sea. II.
SUBORDINATION, a relative term, expreffing
-an inferiority betwixt one perfon and another.
SUBORNATION, in Law, a fecret, underhand,
preparing, inftruaing, or bringing in a falfe witnefs ; and
from hence fubornation of perjury is the preparing or
corrupt alluring to perjury. I he punifhment for this
'#rime was formerly death, then banilhment or cutting
Voir. XIX. Part IL
out the tongue, afterwards forfeitures of goods; and it rs Suhorna-
now a fine and imprifonraent, and never more 10 be re- t‘"'1
ceived as evidence. The ftatute 2 Geo. II. c. 25. fu-
peradded a power for the court to order the offender to rum.
be font to the houfe of corre&ion for a term not ex- —-y—
eecding feven years, or be tranlported for the fame pe¬
riod.
SUBPOENA, in Law, a writ whereby common
perfons are called into chancery, in fueh cafes where the
common law hath provided an ordinary remedy j and
the name of it proceeds from the words therein, which
charge the party called to appear at the day and place
affirmed, fub poena centum librarum, &e. The fub-
ptena is the leading procefs in the courts of equity j and
by ftatute, when a bill is filed againft any perfon, pro-
cels of fubposna lhall be taken out to oblige the defen¬
dant to appear and antwer the bill, &c.
SUBPOENA ad tcjlificanduni, a writ or procefs to bring
in witneffes to give their teitimony. If a witnefs on
being ferved with this procefs does not appear, the court
will iffue an attachment againft him ^ or a party, plain¬
tiff or defendant, injured by his non-attendance, may
maintain an adion againft the witnels. See B/ackJI,
Com. vol. viii. p. 369.
SUBPOENA, in Equity, a procefs in equity, calling on
a defendant to appear and anfwer to the complainant’s
bill. See ftatute 5th Geo. 11. c. 25. which enads,
that where the parly cannot be found to be ferved with
a fubpoena, and abfeonds (as is believed) to avoid being
ferved, a day lhall be appointed him to appear to the
bill of the plaintiff; which is to be inferted in the Lon¬
don Gazette, read in the parilh church where the defen¬
dant lail lived, and fixed up at the Royal Exchange :
and if the defendant doth not appear upon that day, the
bill fhall be taken pro confejfo,
SURREPTI TIOUS, a term applied to a letter, li¬
cence, patent, or other ad, fraudulently obtained of a
fuperior, by concealing feme truth which, had it been
known, would have prevented the eonctflion or grant.
SUBROGATION, or Surrogation, in the civil
law, the ad of fubitituting a perfen in the place, and
intitling him to the rights, of another. In its general
fenfe, fubrogation implies a fucceflion of any kind, whe¬
ther of a perfon to a perfon, or of a perfen to a thing.
There are two kinds of lubrogation : the one conven¬
tional, the other legal. Conventional fubrogation is %
contrad whereby a creditor transfers his debt, with all
appurtenances thereof, to the profit of a third perfon.
Legal fubrogation is that which the law makes in favour
of a perfon who difeharges an antecedent creditor in
which cafe there is a legal tranUation of all rights of the
ancient creditor to the perfon of the new one.
SUBSCRIPTION, in general, fignifies the fignature
put at the bottom of a letter, writing, or inftrument.
In commerce, it is ufed for the fhare or intereft which
particular perfons take in a public flock or a trading
company, by writing their names, and the (hares they
require, in the backs or regifter thereof.
Subscription to articles of faith is required of the
clergy of every eftablifhed church, and of feme churches
not eltablifhed. Whether fuch fubfeription ferves any
good purpofe, in a religious or theological view, is a very-
doubtful queftion. It may be nect ffary in an eftablifh-
ment, as a tell of loyalty to the prince, and of attachment
to the conftitution, civil and eqclefiaftical, but it cannot
13 produce
SUB [ 794 ] SUC
Subi'crip- produce uniformity of opinion. As all language is more
tion or ambiguous, it becomes difficult, if not impoflible,
9 II , to determine in what fenfe the words of long eftabliffied
.,U‘K.xd.e . cree(jg are j.0 interpreted; and we believe that the
clergy of the churches of England and Scotland feldom
confider themfelves as fettered by the Thirty-nine Arti¬
cles, or the Confeffion of Faith, when compofing inftruc-
tions either for their refpedlive pariffies or for the public
at large. See Independents.
Subscription, in the commerce of books, fignifies an
engagement to take a certain number of copies of a
book, intended to be printed, and a reciprocal obligation
of the bookfeller or publither, to deliver the laid copies,
on certain terms. Thefe fubferiptions, which had their
rife in England about the middle of the 17th century,
were lately very frequent in France and Holland, and
are now very common among ourfelves.
SUBSEQUENT, fomething that comes after an¬
other, particularly with regard to the order of time.
SUBSIDY, in Law, fignifies an aid or tax granted
to the king by parliament, for the neceffary occalions of
the kingdom ; and is to be levied on every fubjeft of
ability, according to the rate or value of his lands or
goods: but this word, in fome of our ftatutes, is con¬
founded with that of cuftoms. See Tax.
SUBSTANCE, the fubjefls to which we fuppofe
.qualities belong. Thus gold is the fubftance which
thequalitiesof ductility, yellownefs, denfity, &c. belong.
See Metaphysics, N° 145.
SUBSTANTIAL, in the fchools, fomething belong¬
ing to the nature of fubftance.
SUBSTANTIVE, in Grammar. See Grammar.
SUBSTITUTE, a perfon who officiates for another
in his abfence.
SUBSTITUTION, in the Civil Law, a difpofition
of a teftament, whereby the teftator fubftitutes one heir
for another, who has only the ufufruft, and not the pro¬
perty of the thing, left him.
SUBSTR ACTION, or Subtraction, in Arithme¬
tic, the fecond rule, or rather operation, in arithmetic,
whereby we deduft a lefs number from a greater, to
learn their precife difference. See Arithmetic and
Algebra.
SUBTANGENT of a curve, the line that deter¬
mines the interfe&ion of a tangent with the axis; or that
determines the point wherein the tangent cuts the axis
prolonged.
SUBTENSE, formed from fib “ under,” and tendo
“ I ftretch,” in Geometry, a right line which is oppofite
to an angle, and drawn between the two extremities of
the arc which meafures that angle.
SUBTERRANEOUS, whatever is under ground:
thus naturalifts fpeak of fubterraneous fires, fubterraneous
damps, &e.
Subterraneous Cavern. See Ouarries.
SUBTILE, in Phyfics, an appellation given to what¬
ever is extremely fmall, fine, and delicate; fuch as the
animal fpirits, the effluvia of odorous bodies, &c. are
fuppofed to be.
SUBULARI A,Rough-leaved Alysson, ox Awl-
wort, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs tetrady-
namia, and in the natural order ranging under the 39th
order, Siliyuofce. See Botany Index.
SUBULAIED, fomething ftiaped like an awl.
Ji
SUCCEDANEUM, in Pharmacy, denotes a drug Succeda-
fubftituled in the place of another. neum,
SUCCESSION, in Metaphyfics, the idea which we ^ucc^on,J
get by refiedting on the ideas that follow one another in
our mind; and from the fucceffion of ideas we get th®
idea of time. See Metaphysics, N° 93. and 209.
Succession, in Law. See Descent.
Succession to the Crown. See Hereditart
Right.—From the days of Egbert, the firlt lole monarch
of England, even to the prefent, the four cardinal ma¬
xims mentioned in that article have ever been held con-
ftitutional canons of fucceffion. It is true, as Sir Wil¬
liam Blaekftone obferves, this fucceffion, through fraud
or force, or fometimes through neceffity, when in hoftile
times the crown defeended on a minor or the like, has
been very frequently fulpended; but has generally at laft
returned back into the old hereditary channel, though
fometimes a very confiderable period has intervened.
And even in thofe inftances where this fucceffion has
been violated, the crown has ever been looked upon as
hereditary in the wearer of it. Of which the ufurpers
themfelves were fo fenfible, that they for the moft part
endeavoured to vamp up fome feeble flmw of a title by
defeent, in order toamufe the people, while they gained
the pofl'effion of the kingdom. And, when poffeffioa
was once gained, they confidered it as the purchafe or
acquifition of a new eftate of inheritance, and tranfmit-
ted, or endeavoured to tranfmit it, to their own pofterity
by a kind of hereditary right of ufurpation. (See
Blackft. Com. vol. i. 197—217.). From the hiftorical
view there given, it appears that the title to the crown
is at prefent hereditary, though not quite fo abfolutely
hereditary as formerly: and the common flock or ancef-
tor, from whom the defeent mull be derived, is alfo dif¬
ferent. Formerly the common flock was King Egbert;
then William the Conqueror; afterwards,in James I.’s
time, the two common flocks united ; and fo continued
till the vacancy of the throne in 1688: now it is the
Princefs Sophia, in whom the inheritance was veiled by
the new king and parliament. Formerly, the defeent
was abfolute, and the crown went to the heir without any
reftridlion: but now, upon the new fettlement, the inhe¬
ritance is conditional: being limited to fuch heirs only,
of the body of the Princefs Sophia, as are Proteftant
members of the church of England, and are married to
none but Proteftants.
And in this due medium confifts the true conftitu-
tional notion of the right of fucceffion to the imperial
crown of thefe kingdoms. The extremes between which
it fleers are each of them equally deftrudlive of thofe
ends for which focieties were formed and kept on foot.
Where the magiftrate, upon every fucceffion, is eledled
by the people, and may by the exprefs provifion of the
laws be depofed (if not punilhed) by his fubjedls, this
may found like the perfedlion of liberty, and look well
enough when delineated on paper; but in practice will
be ever productive of tumult, contention, and anarchy.
And, on the other hand, divine indefeafible hereditary
right, when coupled with the dodlrine of unlimited paf-
five obedience, is furely of all conftitutions the molt tho¬
roughly flavilh and dreadful. But when fuch an here¬
ditary right as our laws have created and veiled in the
royal flock, is clofely interwoven with thofe liberties
which are equally the inheritance of the fubjeCt; this
unios
sue [ 795 ] SUE
Suecefllon union will form a confiitution, in theory tire moft beauti-
II ful of any, in practice the molt approved, and, we truft,
, ^.uc .,ing- -n the niofl permanent.
In France the fuecettion to the monarchy was limited
to heirs male (fee Salic) \ but in Navarre the crown
was inherited by the heir of line, whether male or fe¬
male. The cafe Hands thus : Philip the fourth, king
of France, furnamed the Fair, in the year I 28 ? efpoufed
Jane queen of Navarre in her own right ; and as king
confort of this latter kingdom added the title of Navarre
to his former one of France. Louis X. fon and heir of
Philip and Jane (furnamed Hutm or the Roi/letous), fuc-
ceeded to both crowns. By Margaret his firft wife, wh«
had been crowned queen of Navarre, he left one daugh¬
ter, Joan or jane. His fecond wife Clementina was
pregnant at the time of his deceafe, and uras delivered of
a poithumous fon, whom mutt of the French annalills
recognize as John I. of France, though he lived no
longer than three weeks. On his death the kingdom of
France paffed to Philip V. (furnamed the Long), and
that of Navarre (to which the Salic law could by no
conttrudlion extend) to Joanna the only child and heir
of Louis and Margaret. From Joanna, in lineal fuccef-
fion, the kingdom of Navarre pafled to Jane d’Al-
bret, mother of Henry IV. of France, and wufe of An¬
thony of Vendofme, who as king confort wore the crown
of Navarre. On the acceffion of Henry to the kingdom
of France, the twm monarchies were united, and the four
fucceeding princes affumed the joint title.
SUCCINIC acid, an acid extradfed from amber by
fublimation in a gentle heat, and which rifes in a concrete
form into the neck of the fubliming veffel. See Che¬
mistry Index.
SUCCINUM, AmBEJI, in Mineralogy, a fpecies of
bitumen elaffed under the inflammable fubftances. See
Mineralogy Index.
SUCCORY. See Cichorium, Botany Index.
SUCCOIH, \x\ Ancient Geography, a town which
lay between the brook Jabbok and the river Jordan,
where Jacob fixed his tents. There was another Suc-
eoth, where the Ifraelites firft encamped after their de¬
parture from Ramefes towards the Red fea. Succoth
lignifies tents.
SUCCUBUS, a term ufed by fome writers for a dae¬
mon who affumes the ftiape of a woman, and as fuch lies
with a man \ in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to incubus,
which was a daemon in form of a man. that lies with a
woman. But the truth is, the fuccubus is only a fpecies
ef the nightmare. See Medicine, N° 329.
SUCCUL A, in Mechanics, an axis or cylinder, with
Haves in it to move it round ; but without any tympa¬
num or peritrochium.
SUCCULENT plants, amongbotanifts, fuch whofe
leaves are thick and full of juice.
SUCKER. See Cyclopterus, Ichthyology In¬
dex.
SUCKERS, in Gardening, the fame with OFFSETS.
SUCKING fish. See Echeneis, Ichthyology
Index.
SUCKLING, Sir John, an Englilh poet and dra¬
matic writer, was the fon of Sir John Suckling, comp¬
troller of the houfehold to King Charles 1. and born at
Witham in Effex in 1613. He difeovered an uncom¬
mon propenfity to the acquiring of languages, infomuch
that he is reported to have fpoken Latin at five years of
age, and to have written it at nine. When he grew Suckling
up, he travelled 5 but leems to have aftedled nothing ^ ^ |j .^
more than the character of a courtier and fine gentle- ,
man ; which he fo far attained, that he was allowed to
have the peculiar happinefs of making every thing he
did become him. In his travels he made a campaign
under the great Guftavus Adolphus •, and his loyalty,
if not his valour, appeared in the beginning of our civil
wars •, for, after his return to England, he railed a troop
of horfe for the king’s fervice entirely at his own charge j
and mounted them fo completely and richly, that they
are laid to have colt him i2,oool. This troop, with
Sir John at its head, behaved fo ill in the engagement
with the Scots, upon the Englilh borders, in 1639, as to
occafion the famous lampoon compofed by Sir John.
Mennis j “ Sir John he got him an ambling nag,” &c.
This ballad, which was fet to a brilk tune, was much
fung by the parliamentarians, and continues to be lung
to this day. This difaftrous expedition, and the ridicule
that attended it, was fuppofed to have haftened his death j
being feized by a fever, of which he died, at 28 years of
age. He was a fprightly wit, and an eafy verfifier, but
no great poet. His works, confifting of a few poems,
letters, and plays, have neverthelefs gone through feve-
ral editions.
SUCTION, the afl of fucking or drawing up a fluid,
as air, water, milk, or the like, by means of the mouth
and lungs; or, in a fimilar manner, by artificial means.
See Pneumatics and Hydrodynamics.
SUDATORY, a name given by the ancient Ro¬
mans to their hot or Iweating rooms j fometimes alfo
called Laconica.
SUDEROE. See FERRO-IJlands.
SUDORIFIC, an appellation given to any medicine
that caufes or promotes fweat.
SUESSIONES, a branch of the Remi, a people of
Gallia Belgica, (Pliny) ; called fometimes Suejfones, in
the lower age Suejfi; fituated between the Remi to the
eaft, the Nervii to the north, the Veromandui to the
weft, and the Meldae to the fouth, in the trafl now call¬
ed le Soi/J'onois.—Sue/Jiones, SueJJbnes, and SueJJ'once, the
name of their city in the lower age ; thought to have
been formerly called Noviodunutn (Cael'ar), is now call¬
ed Soiffons.
SUET, Sevum, or Sebum, in Anatomy, the folid fat
found in feveral animals, as Iheep, oxen, &c. but not in
the human fpecies. See the article Fat.—It is of the
fevum that tallow is made.
SUETONI US Tranquillus, Caius, a famous La¬
tin hiftorian, was born at Rome, and became fecretary
to the emperor Adrian, about the 118th year of the
Chriftian era ; but that poll was taken from him three
years after, when feveral perfons fell under that prince’s
difpleafure for not fhowing the emprefs Sabina all the
refpeft Ihe deferved. During his difgrace he computed
many works, which are loft. Thofe now extant are his
Hiftory of the XII firft Emperors, and a part of his
treatife of the llluftrious Grammarians and Rhetoricians.
Pliny the Younger was his intimate friend, and per-
fuaded him to publilh his books. His Hiftory of the
XII Roman Emperors has been mucli commended by
moft of our polite fcholars. He reprefents, in a conti¬
nued feries of curious and interefting particulars, without
any digreflions or refle&ions, the actions of the emperors,
without omitting their vices, which he expofes with all
5 H 2 their
S U E
[ 796 ]
SUE
Suez.
Suetonius their deformity, and tvitli the fame freedom mentions
the good qualities of the very fame perfons} but the
horrid dilTolutenefs and obfeene actions he relates ot I i-
berius, Caligula, Nero, &c. have made fome lay, that
he wrote the lives of the emperors with the famelicen-
tioufnefs with which they lived. I he edition of this
hiftory procured by Gnevius at Utrecht in 1672, with
the excellent Commentaries of Torrentius and Cafaubon,
and the notes of fome other learned critics, is much ef-
teemed. Burman alfo publilhed an edition in 2 vols.
4to, with notes.
SUEVI, the Catti or Chatti of Csefar (Strabo), placed
on the Rhine: the reafon of Casfar’s calling them thus
does not appear, though confiderably diftant from the
proper Suevi or Alemanni.
SuEVl, (Tacitus), a common name of the people fitua-
ted between the Elbe and the Vilfula, didinguifhed
©therwlfe by particular namesj as in Ptolemy, Suevt
Angelin Suevi Sennnnes.
SUEVUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Ger¬
many, thought to be the fame with the Viadrus or Oder,
emptying itfelf at three mouths into the Baltic, the mid-
dlemolf of which is called Swine or Swene; which laid
comes nearer the name Suevus.
SUEZ, a fmail fea-port town, fituated near the nor¬
thern extremity of the Red fea, and about 30 hours jour¬
ney eaft from Cairo. The country around it is a Tandy
plain, without the fmalleft fpot of verdure. The only
water which can be drunk is brought from El-Naba, or
the fpring, at the diftance of three hours journey •, and
it is fo brackifh, that without a mixture of rum it is in-
fupportable to Europeans. The town itfelf is a collec¬
tion of miferable ruins, the khans being the only folid
buildings', yet from March till June, the feafon when
the Jidda and Yambo fleet arrives, the town becomes
crowded 5 but after its departure nobody remains ex¬
cept the governor, who is a Mamlouk, 12 or 14 per-
fons •who form his houfehold, and the garrifon. The
fortrefs is a defencelefs heap of ruins, which the Arabs
conlider as a citadel, becaufe it contains fix brafs four-
pounders, and two Greek gunners, who turn their heads
afide when they fire. The harbour is a w7retched quay,
where the fmalleft boats are unable to-reach the ftiore,
except at the higheft tides. There, however, the mer-
chandife is embarked, to convey it over the banks of
fand to the veffels which anchor in the road. This road,
fituated a league from the town, is feparated from it by
a Ihore which is left dry at low wrater; it has no works
for its defence, fo that the veffels which M. Volney tells
us he has feen there, to the number of 28 at a time,
might be attacked without oppofition *, for the fliips
themfelves are incapable of refiflance, none having any
other artillery than four rufty fwivels.
Suez has always been, notwithftanding its local difad-
vantages, a place of great trade, on account of its geo¬
graphical fituation. It was by the gulf of Suez that the
commodities of India wrere formerly conveved to Eu¬
rope, till the difeovery of the paffage by the Cape of
Good Hope converted that trade into a new channel.
As the iflhraus of Suez, which feparates the Red fea
from the Mediterranean, is not more than 57 miles, it
has been frequently propofed to join thefe two Teas to¬
gether by a canal. As there are no mountains nor re¬
markable inequalities of furface, this plan would at firfi:
■-view appear eafy to be executed.
5
frolney’s
Travels,
«fal. i.
But though the dif¬
ference of levels would not prevent a jariftion, the great Sue#-,
difficulty arifes from the nature of the correfponding v—
coalts of the Mediterranean and the Red fea, which aie
of a low and Tandy foil, where the waters form lakes,
Ihoals, and moraffes, fo that veffels cannot approach
within a confiderable diflance. It will therefore be
found fcarcely poffible to dig a permanent canal amid
thefe fliifting lands: not to mention, that the ffiore b
deftitute of harbours, which muft be entirely the work
of art. The country befides has not a drop of freffi wa¬
ter, and, to fupply the inhabitants, it mult be brought as
far as from the Nile.
The beft and only method therefore of effefling this
jun&ion, is that which has been already fuccelsfully
prattifed at different times; which is, by making th«
river itfelf the medium of communication, for which the
ground is perfectly well calculated; for Mount Mokat-
tum fuddenly terminating in the latitude of Cairo, forms
only a low and femicircular mound, round which is a
continued plain from the banks of the Nile as far as the
point of the Red fea. The ancients, who early under-
ftood the advantage to be derived from this fituation,
adopted the idea of joining the two feas by a canal con¬
nected with the river. Strabo * obferves, that this was * Lib. jrS€-
firft executed under Sefofhis, who reigned about the
time of the Trojan war; and this work was fo confide¬
rable as to occafion it to be remarked, “ that it was icq
cubits (or 170 feet) wide, and deep enough for large
veffels.'” After the Greeks conquered the country, it
was reftored by the Ptolemies, and again renewed by
Trajan. In ffiort, even the Arabs themfelves followed
thefe examples. “■ In the time of Omar ebn-el-Kattab
(fays the hiftorian El Makin), the cities of Mecca and
Medinafufftring from famine, the caliph ordered Amrou
governor of Egypt to cut a canal from the Nile to Kol-
zoum, that the contributions of corn and barley appoint¬
ed for Arabia might be conveyed that way.”
This canal is the fame which runs at prefent to Cairo,
and lofes itfe.lf in the country to the north-taft of Ber-
ket-el-Hadj, or the Lake of the Pilgrims.
The place on the weft coaft of the gulf of Suez,
where the children of Ifrael are fuppoied to have enter¬
ed it, is called Badea, about fix miles to the north of
Cape Korondel, on the other fide of the gulf, as we are
informed in a letter from the ingenious Edward Wort-
ley Montague, F. R. S. to Dr Watfon, containing an
account of his journey from Cairo to the Written Moun¬
tains in the defert of Sinai. Oppofite to Badea is a
ftrong current which fets to the oppofite fhore, about
fouth-eaft, with a whirlpool called Birque Fharacne, the
well or poo! of Pharaoh, being the place wfficre his hoft
is faid to have been deftroyed, We are told by the
fame gentleman, that the Egyptian ftiore from Suez to
Badea is fo rocky and fteep, that there was no entering
upon the gulf but at one of thefc two places.
The Britilh nation, we believe, never attempted to
carry on commerce with any of the ports of the Red fea
beyond Jidda, till, on the fuggeftion of Mr Bruce, in
1776, fome Britifti merchants at Bengal equipped two
or three veffels for Suez, laden with piece-goods of Ben¬
gal and coaft manufa&ures. The command of the vef¬
fels was committed to Captain Greig, a meritorious fea-
man; and the management of the goods xvas entrufted
to Mr Straw, a gentleman diftinguiffied for his mercan¬
tile knowledge. The fale turned out to advantage; but
fuch
S U F [ 797 1 SVG
Sh*2 fuch great expences were incurred in making prefents
to the bey of Cairo and Suez, as to cunfume the whole
‘■ Pr°fits gained by the fale of the cargo. The great pur-
pofe of the expedition was, however, accompliihed, as a
firman was obtained from the government of Cairo to
trade by the way of Suez. In confequence of this, three
{hips went to Suez the following year, and as many in
1778. The opening of this trade alarmed the jealoufy
©f the Eaft India Company •, they applied to our go¬
vernment, and orders were given to relinquifla this pro-
mifing commerce. Thefe orders reached Egypt fooner
than Bengal, and the confequence was fatal to the un¬
fortunate adventurers whovifited Suez that year (1779).
Bv a plan concerted between the bey?-, a large body of
Bedouin Arabs attacked the caravan paffing from Suez
to Cairo with goods valued at 12 lacks of rupees. 'The
goods were plundered, the Europeans were /tripped and
left naked in the defert, expofed to the burning rays of
the fun, without a drop of water to quench their thirft,
or food to fupport life. Molt, of them died, and fome
of their bodies were afterwards found mangled and dif-
figured by wolves. We have been favoured with a par¬
ticular account of the iu/Ferings of our countrymen by a
oorrefpondent, which, we-are ferry, we have not room
to infert. Thofe who yrii'h to obtain a more full ac¬
count may confult the Annual Regifter for 1781 or
1782.
SUFFETUL A, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in the dominions of Carthage •, probably fo call¬
ed from SufFetes, the title of the magildrates of that
city. It is now called Spait/a, in the kingdom of Tunis,
and has many elegant remains of antiquity. There are
three temples in a great meafure entire ; one of them of
the Compofite order, the other two Corinthian. “ A
beautiful and perfect capital of the Compofite order
(fays Mr Bruce), the only perfect one that now exills,
is defigned in all its parts in a very large fize ; and with
the detail of the reft of the ruin, is a precious monument
of what that order was, now in the colle&ion of the
king.” The town itfelf (he fays) is fituated in the moft
beautiful fpot in Barbary, furrounded by great numbers
of juniper-trees, and watered by a plea/ant ftream, which
finks under the earth at that place,, without appearing
any more.
SUFFOCATION, the privation of tie fundion of
respiration or breathing. See the articles Drowning,
Hanging, &c.
SUFFOLK, a county of England. Its name is con-
traded from Southfolk, fo called from its fituation in re¬
gard to Norfolk. It is bounded on the weft by Cam-
bridge-fhire ; on the fouth by Eflex, from which it im¬
parted by the river Stour •, on the eaft by the German
ocean ; and on the north by Norfolk, feparated from it
&ou?h's b'V the Leffer Oufe and the Waveney. From weft to
fdition »f eaft it is 52 miles in length, about 20 at a medium im
ICamden's breadth, and 196 in circumference. It contains 22
Britannia, hundreds, 29 market-towns, 57^ parifhes, upwards of
34,000 houfes, and 210,431 inhabitant*. The whole
is divided into two parts, viz. the Liberty of St Ed¬
mund, and the Geldable ; the former of which contains,
the weft parts of the county, and the other the eaft ;
and there is a grand jury for each at the aftizes. The
air is reckoned as wholefome and pleafaht as any in the
kingdom, jior is it otherwife upon the fea coaft, which
14 dry and Tandy, and free from fait marfties The foil,
except to the weft and upon the fea-coaft, is very rich, Suffolk
being a compound of clay and marie. Towards the lea . ^
there are large heaths and tracls of land ; but thefe pro- ^
duce hemp, rye, and peaie, and feed great Hocks of
/beep. About Newmarket the toil is much the lame ;
but in high Suffolk or the woodlands, oe/ides wood,
there are very rich paltures, where abuodance of cattle
are fed. in other parts of the county, as aoout -Bury,
there is plenty of corn. As this county is noted lor the
richnefs of its paitures, fo is it for butter and check-, ef-
pecially the former, which is faid to be remarkably guod ;
fo that being packed up in firkins, it is fold for ail ufes
botii by fea and land, and conveyed to many parts of
England, efpecially to London. The inland parts of
the county are well fupplied with wood for fuel, and
thofe upon the ft a coaft with coals from Newcaftle.
The manufactures of the county are chiefly woollen and
linen cloth. It lies in tSie dioctfeot Norwich, has two
archdeacons, viz. of Sedbury and Suffolk ; gives title of
earl to a branch of the Howards ; fends two members
to parliament for the county, and two for each of the fol¬
lowing places, Ipfwich, Dunwich, Orford, Aldborough,
Sudbury, Eye, and St Edmund’s-Bury. The county is
extremely well watered by the following rivers, which
either traverfe its borders, or run acrofs into the German
ocean, viz., the Leffer Oufe, the Waveney, the Blithe,
the Deben, the Orwell or Gipping, and the Stour.
SUFFRAGAN, an appellation given to Ample bit
/hops with regard to arch bi/hops, on whom they depend,
and to whom appeals lie from the bi/hops courts.
Suffragan is likewife the appellation given to a biftiop,
who is occafionally appointed to re fide in a town or viL
lage, and aflift the diocefan.
SUFFRAGE, denotes a vote given in an affembly, ,
where fomething is deliberated on, or where a perfon is
elecled, to an office or benefice.
SUFFRUTEX, among botanifts, denotes an under-
ffirub, or the loweft kind of woody plants, as lavender.
SUGAR, a folid fweet fubftance obtained from the
juice of the fugar-cane ; or, according to chemifts, an
eflential fait, capable of cryftallization, of a fweet and
agreeable flavour, and contained in a greater or lefs-
quantity in almoft every fpeeies -of vegetables, but moft
abundant in the fugar-cane. .
As the fugar-cane is the principal produftion of the Value «f 7
Weft Indies, and the gnat fouice of their riches; as itft'gar.
is fo important in a,commercial view, from the employ¬
ment which it gives to feamen, and the wealth which it
opens for merchants ; and. befides now is become a ne-
ceffary of life—it may juftly be efteemed one of the moft.
valuable plants in the world. The quantity confurned
in Europe is eftimated at nine millions fterling, and the
demand would probably be greater if it could be fold at
a reduced price.- Since fugar then is reckoned fo pre¬
cious a commodity, it muft be an objetft of defire to all
pejfons of curiofity and refeareh, to. obtain fome. general
knowledge of. the hiftory and nature of the plant by
which, it is produced, as w-ell as to underfland the pro-
cefs by which,the juice is extracted and refined. We
will therefore firft inquire in what countries it originally
flouriffied, and when it was brought into general ufc,
and became an article of commerce.
From the few remains of the Grecian atid Roman au¬
thors which have furvived the ravages of time, welcan
find no proofs that the juice of the fugar-cane was known-
5UC [ 79
at "a very early period. I here can be no doubt, bow-
3 1
S U G
was proba¬
bly known
to the an
3
Account
•of it by
Greek and
Roman au¬
thors.
ever, that in thofe countries where it was indigenous its
value was not long concealed. It is not improbable
that it was known to the ancient Jews; for there is
fome reafon to fuppofe, that the Hebrew word Hip,
cientJews. w]jJch occurs frequently in the Old I eftament, and is
by our tranflators rendered fume times calamus, and
fometimes fweet cane, does in fa£l mean the lugai-cane.
The firft pa Urge in which we have obferved it men¬
tioned is Exod. xxx 23. where Mofes is commanded to
make an ointment with myrrh, cinnamon, kene, and
caffia. Now the kend does not appear to have been a
native of Egypt, nor of Judea ; for in Jeremiah vi. 20.
it is mentioned as coming from a far country. “Jo
what purpofe cometh there to me incenfe from Sheba,
and the fweet cane from a far country ?” This is not
true of the calamus aromaticus, which grows fpontane-
oufly in the Levant, as well as in many parts of Eu¬
rope. If the cinnamon mentioned in the paffage of
Exodus quoted above was true cinnamon, it mult have
come from theEaftlndies, the only country in the world
from which cinnamon is obtained. There is no difficulty
therefore in fuppofing that the fugar-cane was exported
from the fame country. If,any credit be due to ety¬
mology, it confirms the opinion that kene denotes the
fugar cane; for the Latin word canna and the Engliffi
word cane are evidently derived from it. It is alfo a
curious fad!, that fachar or Jheher*, in Hebrew fignifies
inebriation, Trom which the Greek word e-aoe^atg, “ fu-
gar,” is undoubtedly to be traced.
The fugar-cane was firft made known to-the weftern
parts of the world by the conquefts of Alexander the
Great. Strabo f relates that Nearchus his admiral found
it in the Eaft Indies in the year before Chrift 325. It
is evidently alluded to in a fragment of Theophraftus,
preferved in Photius. Varro, who lived A. C. 68, de-
$ Lib. xvii. feribes it in a fragment quoted by Ifidorus J as a fluid
oap- 3- preffed from reeds of a large fize, which was fweeter
DiZfcl1011 tlian honey §. Diofcorides, about the year 35 before
Ixxv. Ca^' Chrift, fays, “ that there is a kind of honey called fac-
charon, which is found in India and Arabia Felix. It
has the appearance of fait, and is brittle when chewed.
If diflblved in water, it is beneficial to the bowels and
ftomaeh, is ufeful in difeafes of the bladder and kidneys,
and, when fprinkled on the eye, removes thofe fub*
fiances that obfeure the fight.” This is the firft account
we have of its medical qualities. Galen often preferibed
it as a medicine. Lucan relates, that an oriental nation
in alliance with Pompey ufed the juice of the cane as a
common drink.
■pit?.
f Lib. xv.
Quique bibunt tenera dulces ab arundine fuccos.
Lib. iii. 237.
Pliny fays it was produced in Arabia and India, but
that the beft came from the latter country. It is alfo
mentioned by Arrian, in bis Periplus of the Red fea, by
the name of (tac/iar) as an article of commerce
*fwm India to.the Red fea. /Elian*, Tertullianand
na J^^exan(^er Aphrodifaeus mention it as a fpecies of ho-
I Lib. ii. ney procured from canes (a).
Prob. 75.
That the fugar-cane is an indigenous plant in fome Sugar,
parts of the Eaft Indies, we have the llrongeit reafon to s——>
believe : for Thunberp found it in Japan, and has ac-T 4
cordingly mentioned it as a native ot that country in his0f the
F/ora Japonic a, publiftied in 1784. Ulbeck alfo found Indies,
it in China in 1751. It may indeed have been tranf-
planted from fome other country ; but as it does not ap¬
pear from hiftury that the inhabitants of Japan or China
ever carried on any commerce with remote nations, it
could only be conveyed from fome neighbouring coun¬
try. Marco Polo, a noble Venetian, who travelled in¬
to the eaft about the year 1250, found fugar in abun-
danet in Bengal. Vafco de Gama, who doubled the
Cape of Good Hope in 1497, relates, that a confider-
able trade in fugar was then carried on in the kingdom
of Calicut. On the authority of Diofcorides and Pliny,
too, we fhould be difpofed to admit, that it is a native
of Arabia, did we not find, on confulting Niebuhr’s
Travels, that that botanift has omitted it when enume¬
rating the moft valuable plants of that country. If it
be a fpontaneous produdlion of Arabia, it muft ftill flou-
rifti in its native foil. Mr Bruce found it in Upper
Egypt. If we may believe the relation of Giovan
Lioni, a confiderable trade was carried on in fugar in
Nubia in 1 ^oo : it abounded alfo at Thebes, on the
Nile, and in the northern parts of Africa, about the
fame period. ^
There is reafon to believe that the fugar-cane was in-Introdrced
troduced into Europe during the crufades; expeditionsint0 Lurope
which, however romantic in their plan, and unfuccefsful
in their execution, were certainly productive of many cmfofes,
advantages to the nations of Europe. Albertus Aquen-
fis, a monkiftr writer, obferves, that the Chriftian fol-
diers in the Holy Land frequently derived refreftiment
and fupport during a fcarcity of provifions by fucking
the canes. This plant fiourithed alfo in the Morea, and
in the iflands of Rhodes and Malta ; from which it was
tranfported into Sicily. The date of this tranfadlion it
is not eafy to afeertain ; but we are fure that fugar was
cultivated in that ifland previous to the year 1166; for
Lafitau the Jefuit, who wrote a hiftory of the Portu-
guefe difeoveries, mentions a donation made that year to
the monaftery of St Bennet, by William the Second,
king of Sicily, of a mill for grinding fugar-canes, with
all its rights, members, and appurtenances.'
From Sicily, where the fugar-cane ftill flourilhes on
the fides of Mfiunt Hybla, it was conveyed to Spain,
Madeira, the Canary and Cape de Verd iflands, foon *
after they were difeovered in the 13th century. g
An opinion has prevailed, that the fugar-cane is notSuppoted
a native of the weftern continent, or its adjacent iflands by f°me
the Weft Indies, but was conveyed thither by the Spa-
niards or Portuguefe foon after the difeovery of America merica ^
by Columbus. From the teftimony of Peter Martyr, in the Welt
the third book of his firft decade, compofed during Co-Indies,
lumbus’s fecond voyage, which commenced in 1493 and
ended in 1495, it appears, that the fugar-cane was
known at that time in Hifpaniola. It may be faid, that
it was brought thither by Columbus ; but for this afler-
tion we have found no diref! evidence; and though we
had
(a) For a more minute account of the hiftory of fugar in the early and middle ages, a paper of the Mancheftef
Tranfaftions, in vol. iv. by Dr Falconer, may be confulted.
This opi-
fiion op-
pofed by
^abat.
S U G [ 799
Sugar, had direct evidence, this would not prove that the fugar-
v * cane was not an indigenous plant of the Weft Indies.
There are authors of learning who, after inveftigating
this fubjeft with attention, do not hefitate to maintain,
that it is a native both of the iilands and of the conti¬
nent of America.
P. Labat has fupported this opinion with much ap-
*Tom. iii. pearance of truth * ; and, in particular, he appeals to
c. xv. the teftimony of Thomas Gage, art Englilhman, who
vilited New Spain in 1625. Gage enumerates fugar-
canes among the provifions with which the Charaibes of
Guadaloupe fupplied his fhip. “ Now (fays Labat) it
is a fa61 that the Spaniards had never cultivated an inch
of ground in the fmaller Antilles. Their Ihips com¬
monly touched at thofe iflands indeed for wood and wa¬
ter •, and they left fwine in the view of fupplying with
frelh provihons fuch of their countrymen as might call
there in future $ but it would be abfurd in the higheft
degree to fuppofe, that they would plant fugar-canes,
and at the fame time put hogs alhore to deftroy them.
“ Neither had the Spaniards any motive for bellow¬
ing this plant on iilands which they conlidered as of no
kind of importance, except for the purpofe that has been
mentioned ; and to fuppofe that the Charaibes might
have cultivated, after their departure, a produdlion of
which they knew nothing, betrays a total ignorance of
g the Indian difpofition and charafter.
From tcfti- 44 -^u*; (continues Labat) we have furer teftimony,
felony. and fuch as proves, beyond all contradiction, that the
fugar-cane is the natural production of America. For,
befides the evidence of Francis Ximenes, who, in a
Treatife on American Plants, printed at Mexico, afferts,
that the fugar-cane grows without cultivation, and to
an extraordinary fize, on the banks of the river Plate,
we are affured by Jean de Lery, a Protellant miniiler,
who was chaplain in 1556 to the Dutch garritbn in the
fort of Coligny, on the river Janeiro, that he himfelf
found fugar-canes in great abundance in many places on
the banks of that river, and in fituations never vilited by
the Portuguefe. Father Hennepen and other voyagers
bear teftimony in like manner to the growth of the cane
near the mouth of the Mifliffippi; and Jean de Laet to
its fpontaneous production in the ifland of St Vincent.
It is not for the plant itfelf, therefore, but for the fecret
of making fugar from it, that the Weft Indies are in¬
debted to the Spaniards and Portuguefe j and thefe to
the nations of the eall.”
Such is the reafoning of Labat, which the learned
Lafitau has pronounced incontrovertible 5 and it is
greatly llrengthened by recent difcoveries, the fugar-
eane having been found in many of the illands of the
]
S U G
Pacific ocean by our late illuftrious navigator Captain Sugar.
Cook. v
The fugar-cane, or faccharum officinarum of botanifts, pefcrfptjon
is a jointed reed, commonly meafuring (the flag part not 0f the t'u.
included) from three feet and a half to feven feet in gar canet
height, but fometimes riling to 12 feet When ripe it
is ol a fine ftraw colour inclining to yellow, producing
leaves or blades, the edges of which are finely and
lharply ferrated, and terminating in an arrow decorated
with a panicle. The joints in one ftalk are from 40 to
60 in number, and the ftalks rifing from one root are
fometimes very numerous. The young Ihoot afcends
from the earth like the point of an arrow j the lhaft of
which foon breaks, and the two firft leaves, which had
been inclofed within a quadruple Iheath of feminal leaves,
rife to a confiderable height (b). ic,
As the cane is a rank fucculent plant, it mull require Soil moft
a ftrong deep foil to bring it to perfeClion, perhaps in-favourable
deed no foil can be too ricli for this purpofe. The foilt0 ltst,
which experience has found to be moft favourable to the*
cultivation of it in the Weft Indies is the dark gray
loam of St Chriftopher’s, which is lo light and porous as
to be penetrable by the llighteft application of the hoe.
The under ftratum is gravel from 8 to j 2 inches deep.
Canes planted in particular fpots in this ifland have been
known to yield 8000 pounds of Mufcovado fugar from
a Angle acre. The average produce of the ifland for a
feries of years has been 16,000 hoglheads of 16 cwt.
which is one-half only of the whole cane-land, or 8500
acres. When annually cut, it gives nearly two hogs¬
heads of 16 cwt. per acre for the whole of the land in
ripe canes.
Next to the afliy loam of St Chriftopher’s is the foil
which in Jamaica is called brick-mould; not as refem-
bling a brick in colour, but as containing fuch a due
mixture of clay and fand as is fuppofed to render it well
adapted for the ufe of the kiln. It is a deep, warm, and
mellow, hazel earth, eafily worked ; and though its fur-
face foon grows dry after rain, the under ftratum retains
a confiderable degree of moifture in the drieft weather j
with this advantage too, that even in the wetteft feafoa
it feldom requires trenching. Plant canes, by which is
meant canes of the firft growth, have been known in
very fine feafons to yield two tons and a half of fugar
per acre. After this may be reckoned the black mould
of feveral varieties. The beft is the deep black earth of Ed'vuard's
Barbadoes, Antigua, and fome other of the windrvard Hi/iory of
iflands ; but there is a fpecies of this mould in Jamaica Wejl
that is but little, if any thing inferior to it, which
abounds with limeftone and flint on a fubftratum of'° ' I,‘
foapy marie. Black mould on clay is more common ;
but
(b) “ A field of canes, when {landing, in the month of November, when it is in arrow or full bloffom (fays Mr
Beckford in his defcriptive Account of the Ifland of Jamaica), is one of the moft beautiful productions that the
pen or pencil can poftibly defcribe. It in common rifes from three to eight feet or more in height ; a difference
of growth that very ftrongly marks the difference of foil or the varieties of culture. It is when ripe of a bright
and golden yellow •, and where obvious to the fun, is in many parts very beautifullv ftreaked with red: the top is
of a darkifh green ; but the more dry it becomes, from either an excefs of ripenefs or a continuance of drought, of
a ruffet yellow, with long and narrow leaves depending j from the centre of which fhoots up an arrow like a filver
wand from two to fix feet in height; and from the fummit of which grows out a plume of white feathers, which
are delicately fringed with a lilac dye j and indeed is, in its appearance, not much unlike the tuft that adorns this*
particular and elegant tree,”
S«gar.
£*rrper fea-
ibu for
|jianting it
ta
6Tetbod of
Ranting
S U G [ §00
but as tbe mould is generally (hallow, and the clay ftift
and retentive of water, this laft fort of land requires
great labour, both in ploughing and trenching, to ren¬
der it profitable. When manured and properly pulve¬
rized, it becomes very productive. It is unneceflary to
attempt a minute defoription of all the other foils which
are found in thefe iflands. There is, howeVer, a pecu¬
liar fort of land on the north fide of Jamaica, chiefly m
■the parith of Trelawney, that cannot be paffedover un¬
noticed, not only on account of its fcarcity but its value ■,
few foils producing finer fugars, or fuch as an fiver fo
well in the pan ; an exprefiion fignilying a greater re¬
turn of refined fugar than common. I he land alluded
to is generally ot a red colour ^ tne (hades of which,
however, vary conhderably from a deep chocolate to a
rich fcarlet ; in fotne places it approaches to a bright
yellow, but it is everywhere remarkable, when firft
turned up, for a glofly or (liming furface, and if wetted
(tains the fingers like paint.
As in every climate there is a fea fern more favourable
for vegetation than others, it is of great importance that
plants for feed be committed to the ground at the com¬
mencement of this feafon. As the cane requires a great
deal of moifture to bring it to maturity, the propereft
feafon for planting it is in tbe months of September and
-October, when the autumnal rains commence, that it
may be fufficiently luxuriant to (hade the ground before
the dry weather (ets in. I hus the root is kept mold,
and the crop is ripe for the mill in the beginning of the
enfuing year. Canes planted in the month of Novem¬
ber, or later in the feafon, lofe the advantage of the au¬
tumnal rains ; and it often happens that dry weather in
the beginning of the enfuing year retards their vegeta¬
tion until the vernal or May rains fet in, when they
fprout both at the roots and the joints ; fo that by the
time they are cut the field is loaded with unripe fuckers
in (lead of fugar-canes. A January plant, however, com¬
monly turns out well ; but canes planted very late in the
fpring, though they have the benefit of the May rains,
feldom anfwer expe&ation ; for they generally come in
unfeafonably, and throw the enfuing crops out of regular
rotation. Thev are therefore frequently cut before they
are ripe •, or if the aut umnal feafon fets in early, are cut
in wet weather, which has probably occafioned them to
fpring afrefh ; in either caft the effefl is the fame : The
juice is unconcnfted, and all the fap being in motion,
the root is deprived of its natural nourifluTienf, to the
great injury of the ratoon. 1'he chief objection to a
fall plant is this, that the canes become rank and top-
heavy, at a period when violent rains and high winds
are expelled, and are therefore frequently lodged be¬
fore they are fit to be cut.
The fugar cane is propagated bv the top-fhoots, which
are cut from the tops of the old canes. The ufual me¬
thod of planting in the Weft Indies is this : The quan¬
tity of land intended to be planted, being cleared of
1
S U G
Su«(<r.
weeds and other incumbrances, is firic divided into feve-
ral plats of certain dimtnfions, commonly from 15 to
20 acres each ; the (paces between each plat or divifion
are left wide enough for roads, (or the conveniency of
carting, and are called intervals. Each plat is then
fubdivided, by means of a line and wooden pegs, into
ftnall fquares of about three feet and a half. Sometimes
indeed the fquares are a foot larger; but this circum-
ftance makes but little difference. The negroes are
then placed in a row in the firft line, one to a (quart,
and directed to dig out with their hoes the ftveral
fquarcs, commonly to the depth of five or fix inches.
The mould which is dug up being formed into a bank
at the lower fide, the excavation or cane-hole feldom
exceeds 15 inches in width at the bottom, and two feet
and a half at the top. The negroes then fall back to
the next line, and proceed as before. Thus the ftveral
fquares between each line are formed into a trench of
much the fame dimenfions with that which is made by
the plough. An able negro will dig from ICO to 120
of thefe holes for his day’s work of ten hours; but if the
land has been previoufiy ploughed and lain fallow, the
fame negro will dig nearly double the number in the
fame time (c).
The cane-holes or trench being now completed, whe¬
ther by the plough or by the hoe, and the cuttings fe-
lefled for planting, which are commonly the tops of the
canes that have been ground for fugar (each cutting
containing five or fix gems), two of them are fufficient
for a cane hole of the dimenfions deferibed. J htfe, be¬
ing placed longitudinally in the bottom of the hole, are
covered with mould about two inches deep j the reft of
the bank being intended for future ufe. In 12 or 14 ^
days the young fprouts begin to appear ; and as foon 83ancl c;eatg,
they rife a few7 inches above the ground, they are, oringit.
ought to be, carefully cleared of weeds, and furnilhed
with an addition of mould from the banks. J his is
m
Hi/ii
the I
Indi
rol.i
ufually performed by the hand. At the end of four or
five months the banks are w holly levelled, and the (pace®
between the rows carefully hoe ploughed. Frequent
cleanings, while the canes are young, ate indeed fo effen-
tially neceffary, that no other merit in an overfeer can
compenfate for the w'ant. of attention in this particular.
A careful manager will remove at the fame time all the
lateral (hoots or fuckers that fpring up after the canes
begin to. joint, as they feldcm come to maturity, and
draw nourifhment from the original plants.
“ In the cultivation of other lands, in Jamaica efpe- The i.lotij
ciallv (Tays Mr Edwards, the elegant hiftorian of the omTt
Weft Indies, whofe fuperior excellence has induced us
VV I IIU W J U JJv 2 1 Wi V AV. I iV-V 4.C4C7 J l IV* VIV. VVi VfO
frequently to refer to him in the courfe of this article),
the plough has been introduced of late years, and in
feme few cafes to great advantage \ but it is not. every
foil or fituation that will admit the ufe of the plough j
fome lands being much too ftony, and others too deep ;
and I am forry I have occafion to remark, that a prac¬
tice-
Can',
tted
cord
the;
thei
Mar
enip
(c) As the negroes work at this bufinefs very unequally, according to their different degrees of bodily ftrrr gth*
it is fometimes the pra&ice to put two negroes to a fingle fquare j but if tbe land has not had the previous affift-
ance «f the plough, it commonly requires the labour of 50 able negroes for 13 days to hole 20 acres. In Jamaica,
fome gentlemen, to eafe their own (laves, have this laborious part of the planting-bufinefs performed by job-work*
Tbe ufual price for holing and planting is 61. currencv per acre (equal to 4I. 7s* fterling). The toft of fallings
- find clearing heavy wood-land is commonly a* much more*
Edwards's
Hi/lory of
the Weft
Indies,
vol. ii.
15
Canes na¬
med ac¬
cording to
the age of
their roots.
16
Manures
employed.
S U G [ 801 ] S U G
tjce commonly prevails in Jamaica, on properties where levied from gullies and other wafte places, and thrown Sugar,
this auxiliary is ufed, which would exhauft the fineft into the cattle-pens. j
lands in the world. It is that of ploughing, then crofs- The fugar-cane is liable to be deftroyed by monkeys, xhe f^ear-
ploughing, round-ridging, and harrovving the fame lands rats, and infects. The upland plantations fulfer greatly cane de-
from year to year, or at lead every other year, without from monkeys j thefe ci'eatures, which now abound inftroyed by
affording manure : accordingly it is found that this me- the mountainous parts of St Chriftopher’s, w'ere firft monkeys,
thod is utterly deftruftive of the ratoon or fecond growth, brought thither by the French, when they poffcffed half
and altogether ruinous. It is indeed aftonifhing that that ifland; they come down from the rocks in lilent
any planter of common reading or obfervation thould parties by night, and having polled centinels to give the
be pallive under fo pernicious a fyflem. Some gentle- . alarm if any thing approaches, they dellroy incredible
men, however, of late manage better : their practice is quantities of the cane, by their gambols as well as their
to break up Itiff and clayey land, by one or two plough- greedinefs. It is in vain to fet traps for thefe creatures,
ings, early in the fpring, and give it a fummer’s fallow, however baited j and the only wTay to protect the plan-
In the autumn following, being then mellow and more tation, and deftroy them, is to fet a numerous watch,
ealily worked, it is holed and planted by manual labour well armed with fowling-pieces, arid fumilhed with dogs,
after the old method, which has been already deferibed. I he negroes will perform this fervice cheerfully, for
But in truth, the only advantageous fyftem of plough- they are very fond of monkeys as food. The celebrated Grainger's
ing in the \\ eft Indies is to confine it to the fimple ope- Father Labat fays, they are very delicious, but the ^ifory °f
ration of holing, which may certainly be performed with white inhabitants of St Kiel’s never eat them. the Sl‘Sar~
much greater facility and difpatoh by the plough than The low-land plantations fuffer as much by rats as™?;^s
by the hoe j and the relief which, in the cafe of ftiff thofe on the mountains do from monkeys } but the rats, rats,
and dry foils, is thus given to the negroes, exceeds all no more than the monkeys, are natives of the place j
eftimation, in the mind of a humane and provident own- they came with the (hipping from Europe, and breed in
er. On this fubjedl I fpeak from pradlical knowledge. the ground under loofe rocks and bullies : the field ne-
At a plantation of my own, the greateft part of the groes eat them greedily,and they are faid to be publicly
land which is annually planted is neatly and fufficiently fold in the markets at Jamaica. To free the plantations
laid into cane-holes, by the labour of one able man, from thefe vermin, the breed of wild cats ftiould be en-
three boys, and eight oxen, wfith the common fingle- couraged, and fnakes fuffered to multiply unmolefted ,
wheeled plough. The ploughftiare indeed is fomewhat they may alfo be poifoned with arfenic, and the rafped
wider than ulual *, but this is the only difference, and root pf the caffava made into pellets, and plentifully
the method of ploughing is the fimpleft poflible. By fcattered over the grounds. This practice, however, is
returning the plough back along the furrow, the turf is dangerous; for as the rats when thus poifoned become
alternately thrown to the right and to the left, forming exceeding thirfty, they run in droves to the neighbour-
a trench feven inches deep, about two feet and a half ing ftrea-ms, which they poifon as they drink, and the
wide at the top, and one foot wide at the bottom. A cattle grazing on the banks of thefe polluted Waters
fpace of 18 or 20 inches is left between each trench, on have frequently perilhed by drinking after them' : It is
which the mould being thrown by the fliare, the banks fafer therefore to make the pellets of flour, kneaded with
are properly formed, and the holing is complete. Thus the juice of the nigh*(hade, the feent of which v. ill
the land is not exhaufted by being too much expofed drive them away though they will not eat it. There is
to the fun j and in this manner a field of 20 acres an Eaft Indian animal called mungoes, which bears a
is holed wkh one plough, and with great eafe, in 13 natural antipathy to rats j if this animal was introduced
days. The plants are afterwards placed in the trench into our fugar ifiands, it would probably extirpate the
as in the common method, where raarmal labour alone whole race of thefe noxious vermin. The formica om-
is employed. nivora of Linnaeus, the carnivorous ant, which is called
In moft -parts of the Weft Indies it is ufual to hole in Jamaica the raffle's ant, would foon clear a ftmar
and plant a certain proportion of the eane-land, com- plantation of rats. ' r
monly one-third, in annual rotation. Canes of the firft: The fugar-cane is alfo fbbjefl to a difeafe which no arid ini
year’s growth are called plant canes, as has been alrea- forefight can obviate, and for which-human wifdom has te<^s-
dy obferved. The fprouts that fpring from tire roots of hitherto in vain attempted to find a remedy. This dlfi-
the canes that have been pfevioufly cut for fugar are eafe is called the blajl, and is oecafioned by a fpecie*
called ratoons ; the firft yearly, returns -from their -roots of aphis. When this happens, the fine, broad, <n-een
are called frjl ratoons ; the fecond year’s growth fecond blades become fiekly,dry , and withered ; foon after tht y
ratoons. appear ftained in fpots 5 and if tbefe fiprits are-carefully
Mr Edwards informs us, that the manure generally examined, they will be found to contain innumerable •
ufed is a compoft formed, i ft, Of the vegetable allies eggs of an infect like a bug, which are foon quickened
drawn from the fires of the boiling and ftill houfes. and cover the plants with the vermin : the juice of the
sdly, Feculencies difeharged from the ftill houfe, mixed canes thus affedted becomes four, and no future (hoot
up with rubbifh of buildings, white-lime, &c. 3dly, iffues from the joints. Ants alfo concur with the bugs
Jtefufe, or field-trafti (i. e.), the decayed leaves and items to fpoil the plantation, and againft thefe evils it is hard
of the canes 5 fo called in.contradiftindlion-to cane-trafh, to find a remedy.
deferred for fuel. 4thly, Dung, obtained from the The crops of fugar-eanes do not ripen precifely at the Time at
horfe and mule {tables, and from moveable pens, or (mail fame period in all the colonies. In the Danift), Spanifti which the
inclofures made by pofts and rails, occafionally ihifted and Dutch feltlements, they begin in January, and con-croP r^Peus ;
upon the lands intended to be planted, and into which tinue till Oftober. This method does not imply any
the cattle are turned at night. Jthly, Good mould, col- fixed feafon for the maturity of the fugar-cane. " The
Vol. XIX. Part II. 5 I plant.
Sugar.
Jiaynai's
Hi/lory of
the Enji
and Wefl
Indies,
vol. iv.
ax
a feafon of
feftivity.
Edwards,
vol. iv.
p. 2 2<J.
12
The canes
when cut
are fent to
the mill.
S U G [
plant, however, like others, mufl: have its progrefs; and
' it hath been juftly obferved to be in dower in the months
of November and December. It mult neceffarily follow,
from the cuftofn thefe nations have adopted of continu¬
ing to gather their crops for 10 months without inter¬
million, that they cut fome canes which are not ripe
enough, and others that are too ripe, and then the fruit
hath not the requilite qualities. The time of gathering
them Ihould be at a fixed feafon, and probably the
months of March and April are the fitted for it 5 be-
caufe all the fweet fruits are ripe at that time, while the
four ones do not arrive at a date of maturity till the
months of July and Augud.
The .Englith cut their canes in March and April ;
but they are not induced to do this on account of their
ripenefs. The drought that prevails in their itknds ren¬
ders the rains which fall in September neceffary to their
planting *, and as the canes are J 8 months in growing,
this period always brings them to the precife point of
maturity (d).
“ The time of crop in the fugar itlands (fays Mr Ed-
wards) is the feafon of gladnefs and fedivity to man and
bead. So palatable, falutary, and nourithing, is the
juice of the cane, that every individual of the animal
creation, drinking freely of it, derives health and vigour
from its ufe. The meagre and fickly among the negroes
■ exhibit a furprifing alteration in a few weeks after the
mill is fet in aftion. The labouring horfes, oxen, and
mules, though almod condantly at work during this fea¬
fon, yet, being indulged with plenty of the green tops
of this noble plant, and fome of the fcummings from the
boiling-houfe, improve more than at any other period of
the year. Even the pigs and poultry fatten on the, re-
fufe. In fhort, on a well regulated plantation, under a
humane and benevolent director, there is fuck an ap¬
pearance during crop-time of plenty and bufy cheer-
fulnefs, as to foften, in a great meafure, the hardfln'ps
of flavery, and induce a fpeftator to hope, when the
miferies of life are reprefented as infupportable, that
they are fometimes exaggerated through the medium of
fancy.”
The plants being cut, the branches at the top are
given to the cattle for food j the top-(hoot, which is full
of eyes, is preferved for planting. The canes are cut in¬
to pieces about a yard long, tied up in bundles, and
carried in carts to the mill, where they are bruifed, and
the juice is extrafted from them. The mill confifts
principally of three upright iron-plated rollers or cylin¬
ders, from 30 to 40 inches in length, and from 20 to
25 inches in diameter j and the middle one, to which
the moving power is applied, turns the other two by
means of cogs. Between-thefe rollers, the canes (being
previoufly cut fhort, and tied into bundles) are twice
comprelled ; for having paffed through the firlt and fe-
cond rollers, they are turned round the middle one by
Sugar.
23
802 ] S U G
a circular piece of frame-work or fcreen, called in Ja¬
maica the Dumb-retunier, and forced back through the ^
fecond and third $ an operation which fqueezes them"
completely dry, and fometimes even reduces them to
powder. The cane juice is received in a leaden bed,
and thence conveyed into a vefiel called the receiver.
The refufe, or macerated rind of the cane (which is call¬
ed cane-trajhym contradillincfion to jieid-trafh'), ferves
for fuel to boil the liquor.
The juice as it flows from the mill, taken at a nie-'rjie jiucc
dium, contains eight parts of pure water, one part ofextr^died
fugar, and one part confiding of coarfe oil and mucila- from them,
ginous gum, with a portion of effential oil.
As this juice has a drong difpofition to fermentation,
it muff be boiled as foon as poflible. There are fome pUrjfy_
water-mills that w ill grind with great eafe canes fuffi- ing it are,
cient for 30 hogfheads of fugar in a week. It is necef¬
fary to have boiling veflels, or clarifiers, that will cor-
refpond in dimenfrons to the quantity of juice flowing
from the receiver. Thefe clarifiers are commonly three
in number, and are fometimes capable of containing
1000 gallons each j but it is more ufeful to fee them of
300 or 400 gallons each. Befides the clarifiers which
are ufed for the fird boiling, there are generally four
coppers or boilers. The clarifiers are placed in the
middle or at one end of the boiling-houfe. If at one
end, the boiler called the teache is placed at the other,
and feveral boilers (generally three) are ranged between
them. The teache is ordinarily from 70 to 100 gallons,
and the boilers between the clarifiers and teache dimi-
nifh in fize from the fird to'the lad. Where the clari¬
fiers are in the middle, there is ufually a fet of three
boilers on each fide, which conditute in effedt a double
boiling-houfe. On very large edates this arrangement
is found ufeful and neceffary. The objection to fo great
a number is the expence of fuel j to obviate wdiich, in
fome degree, the three boilers on each fide of the clari¬
fiers are commonly hung to one fire.
The juice runs from the receiver along a wooden gut-
ter lined with lead into the boiling-houfe, where it is fier,
received into one of the clarifiers. When the clarifier
is filled, a fire is lighted, and a quantity of Bridol quick¬
lime in powder, which is called temper, is poured into
the veffel. The ufe of the lime is to unite with the fu-
perabundant acid, which, for the fuccefs of the procefs,
it is neceffary to get rid of. The quantity fufficient to
feparate the acid mud vary according to the drength of
the quicklime and the quality of the liquor. Some
planters allow a pint of lime to every 100 gallons of li¬
quor j but Mr Edwards thinks that little more than half
the quantity is a better medium proportion, and even
then, that it ought to be diffolved in boiling water, that
as little of it as poflible may be precipitated. The heat
is differed gradually to increafe till it approaches within
a few degrees of the heat of boiling water, that the im¬
purities
(d) l he account given in the text concerning the time when the fugar-canes are. coljefted, we have taken from
the Abbe RaynaPs Hidory of the Trade and Settlements of the Ead and Wed Indies; but Mr Cazaudobferves,
that in February, March, and April, all the canes, whatever be their age, are as ripe as the nature of the foil ever Philofoph.
allows them to be. He lays farther, that the drynefs of the weather, and not the age of the canes, which increafes
from January to April, is the caufe that in January 400 gallons of juice commonly yield 48 gallons of fugar andV0‘ X1S*
molaffes, one with another; in February from 56 to 64 ; in March from 64 to 72 ; in April fometimes 80; after
wl^ich period the fugar ferments, and even burns, when the refiner is not very expert at his bufinefs.
S tr G [ 803 ] S U G
Sugar, purities may be thoroughly feparated. But if the liquor
'_l were fuffered to boil with violence, the impurities would
again incorporate with it. It is known to be fufficiently
heated when the fcum begins to rife in blitters, which
break into white froth, and appear generally in about
40 minutes. The fire is then fuddenly extinguifhed by
means of a damper, which excludes the external air, and
the liquor is allowed to remain about an hour undifturb-
ed, during which period the impurities are collefted in
fcum on the furface. The juice is then drained off ei¬
ther by a fyphon or a cock j the fcum being of a tena¬
cious gummy nature, does not flow out with the liquor,
but remains behind in the clarifier. The liquid juice is
conveyed from the clarifier by a gutter into the evapo¬
rating boiler, commonly termed the grand copper ; and
if it has been obtained from good canes it generally ap-
2(j pears tranfparent.
and four In the evaporating boiler, which fliould be large
coppers. enough to receive the contents of the clarifier, the liquor
is allowed to boil; and as the fcum rifes it is taken off.
The fcumming and evaporation are continued till the
liquor becomes finer and thicker, and fo far diminifhed
in bulk that it may be eafily contained in the fecond
copper. When put into the fecond copper, it is’ nearly
of the colour of Madeira wine ; the boiling and fcum¬
ming are continued, and if the impurities be confider-
able, a quantity of lime-water is added. This procefs is
carried on till the liquor be fufficiently diminilhed in
quantity to be contained in the third copper. After
being purified a third time, it is put into the fourth cop¬
per, which is called the teache, where it is boiled and
evaporated till it is judged fufficiently pure to be re¬
moved from the fire. In judging of the purity of the
liquor, many of the negroes (fays Mr Edwards) guefs
folely by the eye (which by long habit they do with
great accuracy), judging by the appearance of the grain
on the back of the ladle : but the praftice moft in ufe is
to judge by what is called the touch ; i. e. taking up
with the thumb a fmall portion of the hot liquor from
the ladle ; and, as the heat diminilhes, drawing with
the fore-finger the liquid into a thread. This thread
will fuddenly break, and fhrink from the thumb to the
fufpended finger, in different lengths, according as the
liquor is more or lefs boiled. The proper boiling height
for ftrong mufcovado fugar is generally determined by
a thread of a quarter of an inch long. It is evident,
that certainty in this experiment can be attained only
by long habit, and that no verbal precepts will furniffi
/ any degree of fldll in a matter depending wholly on con-
^ ftant practice.
After being The juice being thus purified by paffing through the
clarified it clarifier and four coppers, it is poured into coolers,
is cooled, ndjJeh are ufually fix in number. The removal from
andfreed ’ teache to the cooler is called Jlriking. The cooler
from its is a (hallow wooden veffel feven feet long, from five to
melafles. fix wide, about 11 inches deep, and capable of contain¬
ing a hogffiead of fugar. As the liquor cools, the fu¬
gar grains, that is, collects into an irregular mafs of im¬
perfect cryftals, feparating itfelf from the melaffes. It
is then removed from the cooler, and conveyed to the
curing-houfe, where the melaffes drain from it. For
receiving them there is a large eiftern, the (loping fides
of which are lined with boards. Directly above the ci-
ftern a frame of joift-work without boarding is placed,
®n which empty hogflieads without heads are ranged.
The bottoms of thefe hogffieads are pierced with 8 or | Sugar. ^
10 holes, in each of which the (talk of a plantain leaf 1 »
is fixed fo as to proje£t fix or eight inches below the
joifts, and rife a little above the top of the hogfhead.
The hogtheads being filled with the contents of the
cooler, confiding of fugar and melaffes, the melaffes be¬
ing liquid, drain through the fpongy dalk, and drop in¬
to the cidern. After the meiaffes are drained oft, the
fugar becomes pretty dry and fair, and is then called
mufcovado or ra w fugar.
We have defcribed the procefs for extracting fugaf,
which is generally adopted in the Britilh Wed India
iftands, according to the lated improvements *, and have
been anxious to prefent it to our readers in the iimpleft
and moft perfpicuous form, that it might be intelligible
to every perfon j and have therefore avoided to mention
the obfervations and propofed amendments of thofe who
have written on this fubject. Had we done fo, we
(hould have fwelled the prefent article to too great a
fize, without accomplilhing the purpofe which we have
in view j for our intention is not to inftrucff the plant¬
ers, but to give a diftindt account of the moft approved
methods which the planters have generally adopted.
But though we judge it ufelefs to trouble our readers
with all the little varieties in the procefs which different
perfons employ, we flatter ourfelves it will not be dif-
agreeable to learn by what methods the French make 2g
their fugar purer and whiter than ours. A quantity of Method of
fugar from the cooler is put into conical pans or earthen purifying
pots, called by the French formes, having a fmall per-
foration at the apex, which is kept clofed. Each cone,
reverfed on its apex, is fupported in another earthen
veffel. The fyrup is ftirred together, and then left to
cryftallize. At the end of 15 or 16 hours, the hole in
the point of each cone is opened, that the impure fyrup
may run out. The bafe of the fugar loaves is then \.?l-chaptal's
ken out, and white pulverized fugar fubftituted in its Chemi/lry,
(lead •, which being well preffed down, the whole is co-va1, ll1,
vered with clay moiftened with water. This water fil¬
ters through the mafs, carrying the fyrup with it which
was mixed with the fugar, but which by this manage¬
ment flows into a pot fubftituted in the place of the firft.
This fecond fluid is called fine fyrup. Care is taken to
moiften and keep the clay to a proper degree of foftnefs
as it becomes dry. The fugar loaves are afterwards ta¬
ken out, and dried in a (love for eight or ten days j af¬
ter which they are pulverized, packed, and exported to
Europe, where they are dill farther purified. The rea-
fon affigned why this procefs is not univerfally adopt¬
ed in the Britiffi fugar iflands is this, that the water
which dilutes and carries away the melaffes diffolves and
carries with it fo much of the fugar, that the difference
in quality does not pay for the difference in quantity.
The French planters probably think other wife, upwards
of 400 of the plantations of St Domingo having the ne-
ceffary apparatus for claying and a&ually carrying on
the fyftem. 29
The art of refining fugar was firft made known to the The art of
Europeans by a Venetian, who is faid to have received refin.ing fll“
100,000 crowns for the invention. This difcovery wasf
made before the new world was explored ; but whether VenePai,.
it was an invention of the perfon who firft communica¬
ted it, or whether it was conveyed from China, where
it had been known for a confiderable time before, can¬
not now perhaps be accurately afcertained. We findmb
5 I 2 mention..
s U G [ 804 ] S U G
Sugar, tnentlon made of the refining of fifigar in Britain till the
year 1699, though it probably was praftifed feveral
Qr^hiof years before. For in the Portuguefe ifland of St Tho-
Commeicc. mas in 1624 there were 74 fugar ingenios, each having
upwards of 200 (laves. The quantity of raw fugar im¬
ported into England in 1778 amounted to 1,403,995
cwts. j the quantity imported into Scotland in the fame
year was 117,285 cwts. j the whole quantity imported
into Great Britain in 1787 y'as 1,926,741 cwts.
tn refining The fugar which undergoes the operation of refining
it is mixed in Europe is either raw fugar, fometimes called mufco-
with lime- V(lljQ or Ca[f6nador which is raw fugar in a purer (late,
butiork’s^ f1uc raw 'ugar generally contains a certain quantity of
blood, and melaffes as well as earthy and feculent fubftanees. The
expofed to caflbnado, by the operation of earthing, is freed from
■ heat. Its melafies. As the intention of refining thefe fugars is
to give them a higher degree of whitenefs and folidity,
it is neceffary for them to undergo other procefles.
The firft of thefe is called clarification. It confifts in
diffolving the fugar in a certain proportion of lime-wa¬
ter, adding a proper quantity of bullock’s blood, and
expofing it to heat in’order to remove the impurities
which dill remain. The h,Cat is increafed very gradual¬
ly till it approach that of boiling water. By the affift-
ance of the heat, the animal matter which was thrown
in coagulates, at the fame time that it attracts all the
fblid feculent and earthy matter, and raifes it to the fur-
fa<je in the appearance of a thick foam of a brownUh co¬
lour. As the feculencies are never entirely removed by
a firft proceB, a fecond is neceffary. The folution is
therefore cooled to a certain degree by adding fome
water j then a frefh quantity of blood, but lefs confider-
able than at firft, is poured in. The fire is renewed,
and care is taken to increafe the heat gently as before.
The animal fubftance feizes on the impurities which re¬
main, colledls them on the furface, and they are then
fkimmed off. The fame operation is repeated a third
and even a fourth time, but no addition is made to the
liquor except water. If the different proceffes have
been properly conduced, the folution will be freed from
every impurity, and appear tranfparent. It is then con¬
veyed by a gutter into an oblong bafket about 16 inches
deep, lined with a woollen cloth ; and after filtering
through this cloth, it is received in a ciftern or copper
31 which is placed below.
Then freed The folution being thus clarified, it undergoes a fe-
from its re-cond general operation called evaporation. Fire is ap-
maining plied to the copper into which the folution was received,
by'evapo- an<^ ^ie *s boiled till it has acquired the proper
ration/ degree of confifteney. A judgment is formed of this
by taking up a fmall portion of the liquid and drawing
it into a thread. When, after this trial, it is found fuf-
ficiently vifeous, the fire is extinguifhed, and the liquid
is poured into coolers. It is then ftirred violently by
an inftrument called an oar, from the refemblance it
bears to the oar of a boat. This is done in order to di-
minifh the vifeofity, and promote what is called the^ra-
nulation, that is, the forming of it into grains or imper-
fe£l cryftals. When the liquid is properly mixed and
cooled, it is then poured into moulds of the form of a
fugar loaf. Thefe moulds are ranged in rows. The
imall ends, which are loweft, are placed in pots ; and
they have each of them apertures flopped up with linen
•for filtering the fyrup, which runs from the moulds into
the pots. The liquor is then taken out flowly in ladle¬
fuls from the coolers, and poured into the moulds. Sugar.
When the moulds are filled, and the contents ftill in a ' v—^
fluid ftate, it is neceffary to ftir them, that no part may Afterwards
adhere to the moulds, and that the fmall cryftals which poured into
are juft formed may be equally diffufed through the moulds,
whole mafs. When the fugar is completely cryflalli-w^ere. ^
zed, the lindn is taken away from the apertures in
moulds, and the fyrup, or that part which did not cry-fromit>
ftallize, defeends into the pots in which the moulds are
placed. After this purgation the moulds are removed
and fixed in other pots, and a ftratum of fine white clay
diluted with water is laid on the upper part of the loaf.
The water defending through the fugar by its own
weight, mixes with the fyrup which (till remains in the
body of the loaf, and wadies it away. When the clay
dries, it is taken off, and another covering of moift clay
put in its place ; and if it be not then fumciently wafti- ^
ed, a third covering of clay is applied. After theLaftly ex-
loaves have ftood fome days in the moulds, and have ac-pofed to a
quired a eonfiderable degree of firmnefs and folidity, cei,ta'^e“
they are taken out, and carried to a ftove, where they
are gradually heated to the 50° of Reaumur (64° of
Fahrenheit), in order to diflipate any moifture which
may be ftill confined in them. After remaining in the
ftove eight days, they are taken out 5 and after cutting
off all difcolouring fpecks, and the head if ftill wet, they
are wrapped in blue paper, and are ready for fale. The
feveral lyrups colleiled during the different parts of the
procefs, treated in the fame manner which we have juft
deferibed, afford fugars of inferior quality 5 and the laft
portion, which no longer affords any fugar, is fold by
the name of melaffes. ^
The beauty of refined fugar, when formed into loaves, in what
confifts in whitenefs, joined to a fmallnefs of grain 5 in the beauty
being dry, hard, and fome what tranfparent. The pro-°^^lSar
cefs which we have deferibed above refers to fugar once ^ow t-ar’_
refined} but fome more labour is neceffary to produce ther refia-
double refined fugar. The principal difference in theed.
operation is this, the latter is clarified by white of eggs
inftead of blood, and frefh water in place of lime-
water. £5
Sugar-candy, is the true effenee of the cane formed How m-
into large cryftals by a (low procefs. When the fyrup gar-can<ty
is well clarified, it is boiled a little, but not fo much as*5 mac*e*
is done for the proof mentioned in the procefs for mak¬
ing common fugar. It is then placed in old moulds, ha¬
ving their lower ends flopped with linen, and croffed at
little diftances with fmall twigs to retain the fugar as.it
cryftallizes. The moulds are then laid in a cool place.
In proportion as the fyrup cools, cryftals are formed. In
about nine or ten days the moulds are carried to the
ftove, and placed in a pot } but the linen is not-remo-
ved entirely, fo that the fyrup falls down flowly in
drops. „ When the fyrup has dropped away, and the
cryftals of the fugar-candy are become dry, the moulds
are taken from the ftove and broken in pieces, to difen- ,
gage the fugar, which adheres ftrongly to the fides of
the mould. If the fyrup has been coloured with co¬
chineal, the cryftals take a flight taint of red 5 if in¬
digo has been mixed, they affume a bluifti colour. If it
be delired to have the candy perfumed, the effence of
flowers or amber may be dropped into the moulds along
with the fyrup.
Having now given fotn.e account of the method
ufually employed for refining fugar, it will not be im-
' • *v ' proper
S U G
.v5
Chemical
•qualities
©t' fugar. .
37.
Its ufes in
medicine,
&.C.
Sugar. ^ proper to fay a few tilings concerning its nature and its
ufes.
Sugar is foluble in water, and in a fmall degree in al¬
cohol, When united with a fmall portion of water, it
becomes fulible $ from which quality the art of preferv-
ingis indebted for many of its preparations. It is phof-
phoric and combuftible ; when expofed to fire emitting
a blue flame if the combuflion be flow, and a white
flame if the combuflion be rapid. By diitillation it pro¬
duces a quantity of phlegm, acid, oil, gas, and char¬
coal. Bergman, in treating fugar with the nitrous acid,
obtained a new acid now known by the name of the
oxalic acid; but he has omitted to mention the principles
of which fugar is compofed. Lavoili'er, however, has
fupplied this omiffion and after many experiments has
afligned three principles in fugar, hydrogen, oxygen,
and carbone. If the juice expreficd from the fugar cane
be left to itfelf it paffes into the acetous fermentation ;
and during the decompofltion of the fugar, which is con¬
tinued for three or four months, a great quantity of glu¬
tinous matter is feparated. This matter when diltilled
gives a portion of ammoniac. If the juice be expofed
to the fpirituous fermentation, a wine is obtained ana¬
logous to cyder. If this wine, after being kept in bot¬
tles a-year, be diflUled, we obtain a portion of eau de
vie.
The ufes to which fugar are applied are indeed nume¬
rous and important: It can be made fo folid as in the
art of preferving to receive the moll agreeable colours
and the greateft variety of forms. It can be made fo
fluid as to mix with any foluble fubftance It preferves
the juice and fubftance of fruits in all countries and in
•all feafons. It affords a delicious feafoning to many
kinds of food. It is ufeful in pharmacy, for it unites
with medicines, and removes their difagreeable flavour:
it is the bafis of all fyrups. M. Macquer has flrown in
a very fatisfaflory manner how ufeful fugar would be if
employed in fermenting wines. Sugar has alio been
found a remedy for the feurvy, and a valuable article
of food in cafes of neceflity. M. Imbert de Lennes,
firft furgeon to the late duke of Orleans, publifhed the
following ftory in the Ga%ette de Sante\ which confirms
this affertion. A veffel laden with fugar bound from
the Weft Indies was becalmed in its paffage’ for feveral
days, during which the ftoek of provifions was exhauft-
ed. Some of the crew were dying of the feurvy, and
the reft were threatened with a ftill more terrible death.
In this emergency recourfe was had to the fugar. The
confequence was, the fymptoms of the feurvy went off,
the crew found it a wholefome and fubftantial aliment,
and returned in good health to France.
“ Sugar (fays Dr Rufti) affords the greateft quantity
of nouriftiment in a given quantity of matter of any fub-
0t ftance *n nature » courfe it mav be preferved in lefs
inent of room in our houfes, and may be confumed in lefs time,
any kind than more bulky and lefs nouriftiing aliment. It has
this peculiar advantage over moft kinds of aliment, that
it is not liable to have its nutritious qualities affe£led by
time or the weather 5 hence it is preferred by the In¬
dians in their excurfions from home. They mix a cer¬
tain quantity of maple fugar, with an equal quantity of
Indian corn, dried and powdered, in its milky ftate.
This mixture is packed in little balkets, which are fre¬
quently wetted in travelling, without injuring the fugar,
A few fpoonfuls of it mixed with half a pint of fpring
. J
Sugar.
3»
Affords the
greateft
of food.
[ 805 ] S U G
water afford them a pleafant and ftrengthenirrg meal.
From the degrees of ftrength and nouriihroent which j \r-~-
arc conveyed into animal bodies by a imall bulk of ^ -tinns t the
gar, it might probably be given to horfes with great American
advantage, when they are uled in places or under cir- Fkilofopbiv
cumftances which m..ke it difficult or expenlive to fup-t0,| Society,
port them with more bulky or weighty aliment. A
pound of fugar with grafs or hay has fupported the
ftrength and ipirib of a horfe during a whole day’s la¬
bour in one of the Weft India iflands. A larger quan¬
tity given alone has fattened hol ies and cattle, during
the war be tore 1 aft in Hifpaniola, for a period of feveial
months, in which the exportation of fugar, and the
importation of grain, were prevented by the want of
fllips:... ..." 39 .
“ The plentiful ufe of fugar in diet is one of the beft An ^cel-
preventives that has ever beeiTdifcoVered of the difeaits ^
which are produced by worms. Nature fee ms to have worxnig
implanted a love for this aliment in all children, as if it
were on purpofe to defend them from thole difeales. Dr
Ruth knew a gentleman in Philadelphia, who early
adopted this opinion, and who, by indulging a large fa¬
mily of children in the ufe of fugar, has preferved them
all from the difeafes ufually occafioned by worms. 40
“ Sir John Pringle has remarked, that the'plague has P1-0]31-
never been known in any country where fugar compofes ^ pfa^uo
a material part of the diet of the inhabitants. Dr Rulh and other
thinks it probable that the frequency of malignant fevers malignant
of all kinds has been leffened by this diet, and that itsfever5,
more general ufe would defend that clafs of people who
are moft fubjeft to malignant fevers from being fo often
affeifled by them.
“ In the numerous and frequent diforders of the
breaft, which occur in all countries whero the body is
expofed to a variable temperature of weather, fugar af¬
fords the bafis of many agreeable remedies. It is ufeful
in weakneffes, and acrid defluxions upon other parts of
the body. Many fa&s may be adduced in favour of
this affertion. Dr Rulh mentions only one, which, from
the venerable name of the perfon whole cafe fuimiffied it, 41
cannot fail of commanding attention and credit. Upon Has given
my inquiring of Dr Franklin, at the requeft of a friend rellet fVom.
(fays our refpeffable author), about a year before he^^e°f
died, whether he had found any relief from the pain of ° U *
the ftone from the blackberry jam, of which he took,
large quantities, he told me that he had, but that he
believed the medicinal part of the jam refided wholly in
the fugar •, and as a reafon for thinking fo, he added,
that he often found the fame relief by taking about half
a pint of a fyrup, prepared by boiling a little brown fu¬
gar in water, juft before he went to bed, that he did
from a dofe of opium. It has been fuppofed by feme of
the early phvficians of our country, that the fugar ob¬
tained from the maple-tree is more medicinal than that
obtained from the Weft India fugar-cane j but this opi¬
nion I believe is without foundation. It is preferable
in its qualities to the Weft India fugar only from its fu-
perior cleahlinefs.
“ Cafes may occur in which fugar may be required in
medicine, or in diet, by perfons who refufe to be benefit¬
ed, even indire&ly by the labour of Oaves. In fuch cafes 42
the innocent maple fugar will always be preferred. It Not hurt-
has been faid, that fugar injures the teeth ; but this opi- ^ui t0 £^e
nion now has fo few advocates, that it does not deferve
a ferious refutation.”
In
S U G [ 806 ] s
In the account which we have given above of the me- in their feveral branches,
thod of cultivating and manufacturing fugar, we have
had in our eye the plantations in the Weft Indies, where
Haves alone are employed 5 but we feel a peculiar plea-
fure in having it in our power to add a thort defcription
of the method ufed in the Eaft Indies, becaufe there fu-
nufadtured gar jg- manufactured by free men, on a plan which is
,Vl" much more economical than what is followed in the
Weft Indies. The account which we mean to give is
an extraCt from the report of the committee of Privy-
council for trade on the fubjeCt of the African flave-
trade, drawn up by Mr Botham. We ftiall give it in
the author’s own words.
“ Having been for two years in the Englifti and
French Weft India iflands, and fince conducted fugar
eftates in the Eaft Indies ; before the abolition of the
flave-trade was agitated in parliament, it may be defir-
able to know that fugar of a fuperior quality and infe
U G
Sugar.
43
Sugar ma¬
in the Eaft
Indies by
free men,
managed at
Batavia.
44
of 2, fupe- „ _
rior quality rior price to that in our iflands is produced in the Eaft'
and at a Indies *, that the culture of the cane, the manufafture
Iolver Gf the fugar and arrack, is, with thefe material ad-
Pn C vantages, carried on by free people. China, Bengal,
the coaft of Malabar, all produce quantities of fugar
and fpirits \ but as the moft confiderable growth of the
cane is carried on near Batavia, I ftiall explain the im¬
proved manner in which fugar eftates are there conduct¬
ed. The proprietor of the eftate is generally a wealthy
4* Dutchman, who has ereCted on it fubftantial mills,
How fugar boiling and curing houfes. He rents this eftate to a
eftates are Chinefe, who refides on it as a fuperintendant ; and this
renter (fuppofing the eftate to confift of 300 or more
acres) relets it to free men in parcels of 50 or 60- on
thefe conditions : ‘ That they ftiall plant it in canes,
and receive fo much per pecul of 1334- pounds for every
pecul of fugar that the canes fliall produce.”
When crop time comes on, the fuperintendant colle&s
a fufficient number of perfons from the adjacent towns
or villages, and takes off his crop as follows. To any
let of tradefmen who bring their carts and buffaloes he
agrees to give fuch a price per pecul to cut all his crop
of canes, carry them to the mill and grind them. A
fecond to boil them per pecul. A third to clay them
and bafket them for market per pecul. So that by
this method of conducting a fugar eftate the renter
knows to a certainty what the produce of it will coft
him per pecul. He has not any permanent or unne-
ceffary expence} for when the crop is taken off, the
tafkmen return to their feveral purfuits in the towns
and villages they came from $ and there only remain
the cane planters who are preparing the next year’s
crop. This, like all other complex arts, by being di¬
vided intb feveral branches, renders the labour cheaper
and the work more perfe6tly done.
Only clayed fugars are made at Batavia; thefe are
in quality equal to the beft fort from the Weft Indies,
and are fold fo low from the fugar eftates as eighteen
fhillings fterling per pecul of 1334^5. This is not
the felling price to the trader at Batavia, as the go¬
vernment there is arbitrary, and fugar fubjeft to duties
impofed at will. The Shabander exafls a dollar per
pecul on all fugar exported. The price of common
labour is from qd. to rod. per day. By the method
of carrying on the fugar eftates, the talkmen gain
confiderably more than this, not only from working ex¬
traordinary hours, but from being confidered artifts
They do not make Ipirits Sugar,
on the fugar eftates. The melaffes is fent for fale to
Batavia, where one diftillery may purchafe the pro¬
duce of an hundred eftates. Here is a vaft faving and
reduction of the price of fpirits $ not as in the Weft
Indies, a diftillery, for each eftate ; many centre in one,
and arrack is fold at Batavia from 21 to 25 rixdollars
per leaguer of 160 gallons j fay 8d. per gallon.” ^
The SUGAR MafLE, (the acer faccharinum of Lin- Defcription
naeus), as well as the fugar-cane, produces a great °f ft16 iugar
quantity of fugar. This tree grows in great numbers ma^e*
in the weftern counties of all the middle ftates of the
American union. Thbfe which grow in New York
and Pennfylvania yield the fugar in a greater quanti¬
ty than thofe which grow on the waters of the Ohio.~
Thefe trees are generally found mixed with the beech,
hemlock, white and water afh, the cucumber tree,
linden, afpen, butter nut, and wild cherry trees. They
fometimes appear in groves covering firfe or fix acres in
a body, but they are more commonly interfperfed with
fome or all of the foreft trees which have been men¬
tioned. From 30 to 50 trees are generally found upon Tranfac-
an acre of ground. They grow only in the richeft tions of the
foils, and frequently in ftony ground. Springs of the American
pureft water abound in their neighbourhood. They are, Phtiofopbi-
when fully grown, as tall as the white and black oaks,
and from two to three feet in diameter. They put
forth a beautiful white bloffom in the fpring before
they (how a Angle leaf. The colour of the bloffom
diftinguifties them from the acer rubrum, or the com¬
mon maple, which affords a bloffom of a red colour.
The wood of the fugar maple-tree is extremely inflam¬
mable, and is preferred upon that account by hunters
and furveyors for fire-wood. Its fmall branches are fo
much impregnated with fugar as to afford fupport to
the cattle, horfes, and fheep of the firft fettlers, during
the winter, before they are able to cultivate forage for
that purpofe. Its afhes afford a great quantity of pot-
afh, exceeded by few, or perhaps by none, of the trees
that grow in the woods of the United States. The
tree is fuppofed to arrive at its full growth in the woods
in twenty years. ^
It is not injured by tapping ; on the contrary, the The often-
oftener it is tapped, the more fyrup is obtained from it. er this tree
In this refpeft it follows a law of animal fecretion. A’s taPPe(l
Angle tree had not only furvived, but flourifhed after ob-
forty-two tappings in the fame number of years. The taine(j froia
effefts of a yearly difeharge of fap from the tree, in im- it.
proving and increaAng the fap, are demonftrated from
the fuperior excellence of thofe trees which have been
perforated in an hundred places, by a fmall wood-pecker
which feeds upon the fap. The trees, after having been
wounded in this way, diftil the remains of their juice on
the ground, and afterwards acquire a black colour. The
fap of thefe trees is much fweeter to the tafte than that
which is obtained from trees which have not been pre-
vioufly wounded, and it affords more fugar.
From twenty-three gallons and one quart of fap, pro-What quan-
cured in twenty-four hours from only two of thefe darkly °UaP
coloured trees, Arthur Noble, Efq. of the ftate of New-™*era(
York, obtained four pounds and thirteen ounces of goodtain qlian-
grained fugar. tity of fu-
A tree of an ordinary Aze yields in a good feafon from gar.
twenty to thirty gallons of fap, from which are made
from five to Ax pounds of fugar. To this there are fome¬
times
Sugar.
S U G [
times remarkable exceptions. Samuel Lowe, Efq. a
49
Tills quan¬
tity might
be increa-
the wood
in the
fpring
months.
juftice of peace in Montgomery county, in the ftate of
New York, informed Arthur Noble, Efq. that he had
made twenty pounds and one ounce of fugar between the
14th and 23d ot April, in the year 17895 from a iingle
tree that had been tapped for feveral fucceflive years be¬
fore.
From the influence which culture has upon foreft and
be increa- °ther treeS’ lt has been ruPP°red» that by tranfplanting
fedbycul- the %ar maple-tree into a garden, or by deftroying
ture. fuch other trees as (belter it from the rays of the fun, the
quantity of the fap might be increafed, and its quality
much improved. A farmer in Northampton county, in
the (late of Pennfylvania, planted a number of thefe
trees above twenty years ago in his meadow, from three
gallons of the fap of which he obtains every year a pound
of fugar. It was obferved formerly, that it required five
or fix gallons of the fap of the trees which grow in the
woods to produce the fame quantity of fugar.
Thei'apdi- The fap diilils from the wood of the tree. Trees
tills from which have been cut down in the winter for the fupport
of the domeftic animals of the new fettlers, yield a con-
fiderable quantity of fap as foon as their trunks and
limbs feel the rays of the fun in the fpring of the year.
It is in confequence of the fap of thefe trees being equal¬
ly diffufed through every part of them, that they live
three years after they are girdled, that is, after a circu¬
lar incifion is made through the bark into the fubftance
of the tree for the purpofe of deftroying it. It is re¬
markable that grafs thrives better under this tree in a
meadow, than in fituations expofed to the conftant ac¬
tion of the fun. The feafon for tapping the trees is in
Februaty, March, and April, according to the weather
which occurs in thefe months.
Warm days and frofty nights are moft favourable to
a plentiful difcharge of fap. The quantity obtained in
a day from a tree is from five gallons to a pint, accord¬
ing to the greater or lefs heat of the air. Mr Lowe
informed Arthur Noble, Efq. that he obtained near
three and twenty gallons of fap in one day (April 14.
1789) from the Angle tree which was before mention¬
ed. Such inftances of a profufion of fap in Angle trees
are however not very common.
   # There is always a fufpenfion of the difcharge of fap
fap is drain- in the night if a froft fucceed a warm day. The perfo-
ed from the ration in the tree is made with an axe or an auger. The
tree* latter is preferred from experience of its advantages.
The auger is introduced about three quarters of an inch,
and in £m afcendiag dire&ion (that the fap may not be
frozen in a flow current in the mornings or evenings),
and is afterwards deepened gradually to the extent of
5*
Is increafed
by warm
days and
frofty
nights.
5*
How the
807 ] S U G
two inches. A fpout is introduced about half an inch Sugar
into the hole made by this auger, and projEfts from „ . II .
three to twelve inches from the tree. The fpout is ge- Suglllatiou;
nerally made of the fumach or elder, which ufually
grows in the neighbourhood of the fugar trees. I he
tree is firft tapped on the fouth fide 5 when the difcharge
of its fap begins to leffen, an opening is made on the
north fide, from which an increafed difcharge takes
place. The fap flows from four to fix weeks, according
to the temperature of the weather. Troughs large e*
nough to contain three or four gallons, made of white
pine,- or white alh, or of dried water alh, afpen, linden,
poplar, or common maple, are placed under the fpout to
receive the fap, which is carried every day to a large
receiver, made of either of the trees before mentioned.
From this receiver it is conveyed, after being ftrained
to the boiler.
, We underftand that there are three modes of reducing Is reduced '
the fap to fugar 5 by evaporation, by freezing, and by t0 fu§ai' b>’
boiling j of which the latter is moft general, as being thrf
the moft expeditious. We are farther allured, that the
profit of the maple tree is not confined to its fugar. It
affords moft agreeable melafles, and an excellent vine,
gar. The fap which is fuitable for thefe purpofes is ob¬
tained after the fap which affords the fugar has ceafed to
flow, fo that the manufa&ories of thefe different pro-
du£ts of the maple tree, by fucceeding, do not interfere
with each other. The melaffes may be made to com-
pofe the bafis of a pleafant fummer beer. The fap of
the maple is moreover capable of affording a fpirit; but
we hope this precious juice will never be proftituted to
this ignoble purpofe. Should the ufe of fugar in die?t
become more general in this country (fays Dr Ruff) it
may tend to leffen the inclination or luppoled neceflity
for fpirits, for I have obferved a reliff for fugar in
diet to be feldom accompanied by a love for ftrong
drink. 6
There are feveral other vegetables raifed in our own Sugar4pro-
country which afford fugar j as beet-roots, Ikirrets, parf-cured from
neps, potatoes, celeri, red cabbage ftalks, the young manyother
ffoots of Indian wheat. The fugar is moft readily ob- veSeta^^es’
tained from thefe, by making a tindure of the fubjed
in redified fpirit of wine; which, when faturated by
heat, will depofit the fugar upon Handing in the cold.
Sugar of Milk. See Milk, Chemistry Index.
Acid of Sugar. See Chemistry Index.
SUGI ELATION, in Medicine, an extravafation of
blood in the coats of the eye, which at firft appears of a
reddiff colour, and afterwards livid or black. If the *
diforder is great, bleeding and purging are proper, as
are alfo difcutients. 1
END OF THE NINETEENTH VOLUME.
*
$
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of VOLUME XIX.
Part I.
Plate CCCCLXXVIII. to face
CCCCLXXIX.
CCCCLXXX.—CCCCLXXXIII.
CCCCLXXXIV.—CCCCXCV.
CCCCXCVI.
Part II.
CCCCXCVII.
CCCCXCVIII.
CCCCXCIX.
D.
DI.—DIV.
DV.
DVI.
DVIL & DVIII.
DIX.
DX.
DXI. & DXIL
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